Who Is a Layman? Historical and Philosophical Perspectives on the “Idiota”/“Laicus”

Inigo Bocken

Who is a Layman? Historical and Philosophical Perspectives on the “Idiota”/“Laicus”

The figure of the layman belongs undoubtedly or her life without external coercion and without to the paradigmatic expressions of Western dictation. It is the state to which every individual Modernity – it is the emancipation of the layman attributes the capacity of developing this freedom that is at stake in the most fundamental innova- in an equal manner, limited only by civil law. tions of society, as well as in those of intellectual It is in this respect that every modern construc- and scientific life since Early Modernity. In a tion of a state found its starting point and funda- way, it is even possible to describe Western ment in the paradigmatic figure of the layman.4 Modernity as the era of the layman. From a It is obvious that precisely this logic played a political perspective, it is liberal democracy that crucial role in the discussions since the sixties has determined our society since those days, and of the last century within the Catholic Church that is the expression of the awareness that no concerning the role of laypeople. Here too, the authority ever can be legitimated without consent concept of the layman became the symbol of an of its subordinate individuals – independently emancipatory movement. Inspired by the Second of education, class or origin. But in other spheres Vatican Council, the representatives of this too – in science or religion, to refer only to movement stressed the positive and even decisive these – the principle holds true that authority role of the laity in the Church.5 has to justify itself vis-à-vis every individual par- Although the meaning of the word “layman” ticipant.1 In modern science, the use of authority- in this discussion was reduced to the group of arguments is one of the mortal sins. In the case of religion too, no one has the 1 See C. Kintzler: “Laïcité et philosophie”, in: Archives right to exercise authority – as we can read e.g. de philosophie du droit 48 (2004), 43-56; M. Morineau: in John Locke’s Letter concerning Toleration – “Philosophie de laïcité”, in: Croire (October 2013), unless one joins a group voluntarily, a group retrieved from http://www.croire.com/Definitions/Vie- chretienne/Laicite/Philosophie-de-la-laicite (accessed within whose limits the authority of the profes- 28.02.2014); H. Pena-Ruiz: Dieu et Marianne: Philoso- 2 sional is valuable in an unlimited way. Besides phie de la laïcité, Paris: PUF, 2005; R. Imbach: Laien this, one is allowed to leave such a group at any in der Philosophie des Mittelalters, München: Beck, 1989; moment. Id.: Le défi laïque: Existe-t-il une philosophie des laïcs au Moyen Age?, Paris: Vrin, 2013. According to this logic of Modernity, in fields 2 See I. Bocken: John Locke: De brief over tolerantie, concerning truth, no one has the right – in pol- Budel: Damon, 2004, 56 ff. itics, science or religious discourse – to claim to 3 See B. Kranemann et al. (eds.): Religion und Laïcité in Frankreich: Entwicklungen, Herausforderungen und possess this truth for eternity. Perhaps the most Perspektiven, Würzburg: Echter, 2009. famous example in this context may be that of 4 See J. Maritain: Man and the State, Chicago, IL: Uni- the French laïcité, the fundament of French versity of Chicago Press, 1951. 3 5 See K. Rahner: Glaube im Alltag: Schriften zur Spiri- social structure until today. This model guaran- tualität und zum christlichen Lebensvollzug, Freiburg: tees the freedom of every individual to shape his Herder, 2006 (Sämtliche Werke; 23).

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non-clergy, this movement was determined by a words, the one who lacks the necessary capacities, comparatively emancipatory ideal: the liberation knowledge or expertise for certain tasks or chal- of the individual from “self-imposed immatu- lenges. Together with the emancipation of the rity”. Various contradictory answers were given individual and his or her autonomous rationality, to the question of how this emancipation should specialization forms a second layer that deter- be realized – Thomas Knieps wrote a marvelous mines modern society. And both layers seem to article on this discussion recently, and it is very develop relatively independently of each other. well known that these kind of discussions often Indeed, on some significant points they even had a dramatic character.6 On the one hand, it seem to collide. The emancipation of the Enlight- was the hierarchical church-model itself that was enment was confronted with the risk of turning questioned by several lay-movements (e.g. the into its opposite – insofar as new centers of “Wir sind Kirche” movement in Germany or the power, inaccessible to laypeople, were estab- “8 May movement” in The Netherlands). At the lished. very least, there were a number of frictions Even more than in other fields of human between societal lay organizations (ZdK, IPB) experiences and knowledge, it is precisely in the and the hierarchy. On the other hand, there was field of spirituality that this collision found its the idea of a “lay spirituality”, which seemed to expression in an almost explosive way. On the lead to a mere confirmation of the hierarchical one hand, every claim to spiritual specialism is a Church, as became clear in the movement of radical contradiction of the value-experience of Josemaria Escriva. modern society. In the name of tolerance, it is On both sides, the opposition between lay- nowadays impossible to claim any kind of people and clergy people seems to be presup- monopoly on spiritual knowledge. Every person posed, and in my opinion, this opposition con- or instance which even only has the smallest tains at the same time a simplification of the appearance of doing so is open to the suspicion complex cultural history of the concept of lay- of being either a clerical fundamentalist or an man. For also in the world “outside” the Church all-knowing guru. On the other hand, our society the meaning of the concept “layman” was any- seems to entrust knowledge and competence only thing but clear or unambiguous – as is made clear to specialists. The pattern of cultural expectation e.g. by Michel de Certeau in the first part of his in relation to spirituality appears to assume that famous La fable mystique. In this book, the this specialized mediation is excluded in the field French historian and philosopher shows the of spirituality; but in that case, “spirituality” increasing and crucial role of the layman for the seems to be identified with an aura of confused understanding of various spiritual movements in and undetermined inner feelings. The kind of Early Modernity.7 public and general criteria that are developed and Whereas in Modernity the figure of the lay- expressed by specialists contradict the very personal man was a metaphor for every kind of liberation and inner character of these intimate experiences from oppressive systems and powers in history, of the soul. there seemed to be a second, at first sight oppo- My intention in these introductory remarks site development – that of specialization. One of has been to show that the layman plays an the myths of Modernity asserted that it was pre- important but at the same time ambiguous role cisely this modern era, the era of Enlightenment, in modern society. It is not a coincidence that that was the first era in history able to develop the idea of lay spirituality makes its first appear- and liberate the potentialities and powers of the ance in the era in which the determination of individual. But in spite of all the emancipative the forms of religious life has become problematic, rhetoric, a lay person remains, in our late modern or at least a redefinition is required. From this view, the one who is not a specialist – in other perspective it will become clear that lay spirituality

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refers to a field which is far more comprehensive self – will be of interest for our discussion. For than the opposition between laypersons and clergy it is clear that for the followers of the Devotio can stake out. My thesis is that this antithesis is Moderna the concept of the layman/idiota is not far more the expression of a more comprehensive only a sociological category. Rather, idiota refers field, which influenced religious experience and to an ideal that we have to live for, since we want religious consciousness already in Early Moder- to follow the path of the Gospel. In other words: nity. I think it would be interesting to go back the faithful has to try to become a layman, some- to the earliest beginnings of the Modern Era – one who lives and realizes the imitatio Christi by the lay movement of the Devotio Moderna, which means of his concrete life.10 expanded mainly in the Netherlands (both north One of the main reasons for the success of the and south), as well as in Germany, in the four- Devotio Moderna was certainly the strong devel- teenth and fifteenth centuries, and which was opment of the cities in the Netherlands and explicitly a lay movement. Flanders in the fifteenth century. The movement can be seen as a kind of monastic life for the city dweller.11 The urban character of this reform 1. The Layman in the Devotio Moderna movement of Geert Groote had its implications for its attitude towards the hierarchical interpre- The Devotio Moderna, founded by Geert Groote tation of reality. And urban life always supposes (1340/1384) in Deventer, was primarily oriented social flexibility: the son of a vine grower from towards personal religious experience within daily Kues (Cusa) was able to become a cardinal of the life, which was at the center of its spiritual focus.8 Roman Church, a craftsman could become a Although Geert Groote was one of the important professor or a mystic. intellectuals of his time, he was never interested in a theoretical renewal of theology. His interest lay much more in the renewal of pious practices 6 See T. Knieps-Port le Roi: “Het ‘seculiere karakter’ van de leek: Lekenspiritualiteit in het spoor van Vati- – in the view of Geert Groote, theology had canum II”, in: T. Knieps-Port le Roi/A. Dillen become distant from these practices, alienated (eds.): (N)iets voor dummies: Over de spirituele compe- from the concrete praxis.9 tentie van de leek, Antwerpen: Halewijn, 2014. 7 See M. de Certeau: La fable mystique, Paris : Galli- Theology failed to offer support to concrete mard, 1984. The Jesuit de Certeau is very well aware of practical piety, including that of the unlearned. the important role of this paradigm. In his work in the In the numberless communities in the North and field of culture theory, he stresses the importance of “everyday life” experiences: see M. de Certeau: L’invention South of the Netherlands as well as in Germany, du quotidien, Paris: Gallimard, 1980; I. Bocken: “Helden the Brethren and Sisters of the Common Life des Alltags: Michel de Certeau und die Laienspiritua- lived the conviction that the individual practice lität”, in: U. Dickmann et al. (eds.): Geburt, Schwerte: Katholische Akademie, 2011, 12-20. of a life according to the Gospel, as a life in 8 See J. van Engen: Sisters and Brothers of the Common “imitation of Christ”, should ultimately be Life: The Devotio Moderna and the World of the Later understood as the ultimate form of theory. Middle Ages, Philadelphia, PA: University of Penn- sylvania Press, 2008. Following the path of the Gospel – this is 9 See I. Bocken: “The Language of the Layman: The something which fits better with the life of lay- Meaning of Imitatio Christi for a Theory of Spirituality”, people, the unlearned (illiterate) or the laypeople in: Studies in Spirituality 15 (2005), 217-249. (laicus, idiota) – these are much more able to do 10 See I. Bocken: “Visions of Reform: Lay Piety as a Form of Thinking in Nicholas of Cusa”, in: C.M. Bellito/ this than the learned theologians and philoso- D.Z. Flanagin (eds.): Reassessing Reform: A Historical phers, who are seduced by their knowledge to Investigation into Church Renewal, Washington, DC: focus on their own reflections and thoughts Catholic University of America Press, 2011, 214-232. 11 See B. Hamm: Bürgertum und Glaube: Konturen der instead of being oriented towards Christ. The städtischen Reformation, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & concept of idiota – related to the Greek idios – Ruprecht, 1996.

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In the view of the main spiritual authors of kind of contemplation is connected to a proper this movement, like Thomas a Kempis, the attitude towards daily events, needs and actions. divine hierarchy can never be exhausted by And Thomas a Kempis explains what this atti- human attempts to create order. It is in the prac- tude exactly means. As already becomes clear in tice of daily life that the inner reform has to take the opening sentences, the “Imitatio Christi” is a place. The Brethren and Sisters of the Common path from darkness into light.14 In his view, this Life had to find their own being image of God does not mean that one should detach oneself – imitatio Christi – by living their humble active from earthly things . They may perhaps be obsta- life, and to perform their reform towards Christ cles which hinder the divine light from shining in daily duties and work. Geert Groote and within the complex relational network of human Thomas a Kempis were very well aware of the and earthly interests, but it is possible to see them fact that the human being will never be able to as the necessary shadows that enable the divine leave the domain of human action, which is the light to shine on an earthly path. The practice field in which God’s action becomes apparent.12 of imitatio Christi not only finally enables one to Inspired by nominalist theology, the faithful had, see the divine light, but also opens up the pos- on this view, the task of discovering the active sibility of becoming a source of this light within power of God within the human order of action.13 concrete reality. We can see the divine light only The fact that Geert Groote and his followers to the extent that we live our life in such a way stressed the meaning of layperson for the path of that it becomes transparent. faith, had nothing to do with the question This path of the imitatio Christi is realized whether one is ordained or not – Master Geert with and within concrete life, in the simple tasks himself was a priest. It referred far more to the and activities of daily life. Everyone of the faith- necessity for all the faithful to realize the Gospel ful has to realize this harmony between light and in their own concrete life. Imitatio Christi means: darkness with his or her own life. There is no to express the life of Christ with your own con- fixed method for it. With every individual, this crete life. This means that every path is an indi- search starts over and over again.15 vidual path – it is impossible to articulate any Becoming a layman means: to start over and fixed objective order “from the outside”. This over again, every time – and not to understand position from the outside is exactly what Thomas oneself as a specialist of the vision of God. In the a Kempis is criticizing when he speaks about view of the Devotio Moderna, we are always lay- theologians and learned philosophers. For Thomas persons when it comes to this path of faith, even it is only possible to give hints, advises – admo- if we are a professor or cardinal. In the next sec- nitiones, helping the faithful to follow the path tion, I will shortly refer to an important contem- “from the inside”. We have to express the life of porary of the Devotio Moderna, Nicholas of Cusa, Christ not by means of knowledge and status, who wrote three dialogues with the layman and but by fulfilling daily tasks and work. intended these treatises as both a critical and a The Brethren and Sisters of the Common Life constructive dialogue with the Devotio Moderna. do not claim to see the order of reality and society from the outside, as spectators who are not involved in the event of creation – they are really 2. The Role of the Idiota in Cusa’s Work part of it, in the same way as they are living in the midst of urban life. Nicholas of Cusa (1401-1464) was one of the most They are not writing comprehensive treatises outstanding scholars of the fifteenth century. on the whole of reality from within their lonely At the same time, he played a crucial role in the cells, but attempt to see the divine order of real- political scene of Europe in that age. As the per- ity within the daily reality of urban life. This sonal legate of the pope, he travelled throughout

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Europe in order to realize the reforms of the artist discovers, in his practice of making, the Councils of Basel and Florence. During his stays measure which determines his act of making. In in the Netherlands, he got acquainted with the his own idea, he is confronted with a measure Devotio Moderna and was responsible for the which is not fully known by him. canonical dimensions of the various communities The unlearned idiota – layman – who speaks of Brethren and Sisters.16 At the same time, he with the learned philosopher is one who does not sympathized with the reform ideals of the move- allow to be guided by external (conceptual) knowl- ment. As such, he belonged to the extended circle edge, and therefore is able to see reality itself, of the Devotio Moderna – one can understand through his own eyes. This “seeing” is always him as a “critical friend” of the movement. and exclusively connected with doing, acting, as When Nicholas of Cusa wrote his dialogues Michel de Certeau remarked in his great essay with the layman (around 1440, exactly in the on the “gaze” (or “look”) of Nicholas of Cusa.19 period of the Devotio Moderna), he must cer- Concrete human actions become places where tainly have had in mind the important role of the divine light can become manifest through the layman within the Devotio Moderna. In his the creative acting of human beings. The real dialogues with the idiota, Cusanus presents the layman is the one who is able to start over and layman as a kind of phenomenologist who is over again, to reinvent things that are already observing his own occupations without being there (unlike God, who creates totally new hindered by learned judgments.17 The layman things). Accordingly, the real layman, idiota, is – a spoon-maker – discusses with the most someone who is able to act as if for the first time, famous philosopher of his time – perhaps Cusa- not in the sense of a theatrical illusion, but as if nus himself – and although he has never read it really was new. books, he has a deeper understanding of the divine order of reality. In one case, the layman reflects on what is going on while making a 12 See H. Obermann: Zwei Reformationen: Luther und Calvin, Munich: Siedler, 2002, 36-40. spoon. The spoon-maker claims to possess a 13 See: W. Göbel: Okzidentale Zeit: Die Subjektgeltung creative ability which does not need any real des Menschen im Praktischen nach der Entfaltungslogik object which his art imitates: “The spoon has no der Geschichte, Freiburg: Herder, 1996, p. 62 ff.; L. Dupré: Passage to Modernity: An Essay on the Her- other exemplar except our mind’s idea of the meneutics of Culture and Nature, New Haven, CT: Yale spoon … In my work I do not imitate the visible University Press, 1995. form of any natural object, for such forms of 14 See Thomas A Kempis: The Imitation of Christ, San Francisco, CA: Ignatius Press, 2005, 18 (I,1). spoons, dishes and jars are perfected by human 15 See K. Waaijman: Nuchtere mystiek: De navolging van artistry alone.”18 Christus, Kampen: Ten Have, 2006. The layman describes the process of the pro- 16 See N. Staubach: “Cusanus und die Devotio Mod- erna”, in: I. Bocken (ed.): Conflict and Reconciliation: duction of the spoon, whose exemplar is invented Perspectives on Nicholas of Cusa, Leiden: Brill 2004, by the mind and which is realized in wood. 29-51. However, the spoon is not realized in a perfect 17 There are three dialogues with the layman: Idiota de sapientia (The Layman on Wisdom), Idiota de mente way. The spoon-maker describes his experience (The Layman on Mind) and the Idiota de staticis experi- that the idea of the spoon which he has in mind mentis (The layman on Experiments Done with Weight- is never fully realized by the one he makes. This, Scales). See Nicholas of Cusa: Philosoph-theologische in fact, is the experience of every artist: the real Schriften, ed. and trans. W. and D. Dupré, Vienna: Herder, 1989, v. 2. An English translation can be found and concrete work of art is still not able to fully in J. Hopkins: Nicholas of Cusa on Wisdom and Knowl- and exhaustively express the artist’s idea. There edge, Minneapolis, MN: Banning, 1996. can still be alternative expressions, and although 18 Nicholas of Cusa: Idiota de mente, chapter 2, par. 62; translation by Jasper Hopkins. it is the artist’s own idea, he is able to understand 19 M. de Certeau: “Nicolas de Cues: Le secret d’un that it is still not the ultimate, divine idea. The regard”, in: Traverses 30-31 (1984), 70-85.

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The similarities to the logic of the Devotio within and concerning marriage. The central idea Moderna are obvious. Cusanus is sensitive to the in this focus is the experience of acting as if for experience that we are all laypeople when we deal the first time, and thereby to discover the divine with divine reality. At the same time, the layman light within practice. Against this background, is, in the view of Cusanus, someone who not lay spirituality is a way of seeing and acting. only finds divine secrets in the practice of life, In practice, we are all lay people. But it may not but also gives expression to these. Cusanus him- be obvious what it means to become a “real” lay self says that in earlier days he thought that truth person. This means developing an eye for the could be found in dark libraries, but now he fullness of meaning of the concrete and lived knows that she shouts in all streets and all places practice, and seeing its original creativity. As such, (Veritas enim clamat in plateis). Like Thomas a lay spirituality escapes the ecclesial dichotomy Kempis, Cusanus warns against trusting in between clergy and laity. In this sense, lay spiritu- human authorities and asks you to go along the ality is genuine Christian spirituality, finding its path yourself. He even asks the reader of his texts starting point in the experience of living reality. to accept nothing from him without having first thought it himself. Even more strongly than Thomas and the Devotio Moderna, Cusanus shows that intellectual activities too can demonstrate the divine light. More strongly than Thomas, Cusanus shows that even the highest abstract thinking belongs to practice, and follows its conditions. Inigo Bocken gained Masters degrees at the Cathlic University of Leuven in Phi- losophy and in Medieval Studies. In 1997 3. The Layperson as a Key for Modern he completed his PhD at the Faculty of Spirituality Philosophy at Radboud University in Nijmegen, The Netherlands, and two I hope to have shown that the figure of the lay- years later became a member of Faculty person is crucially significant at the end of the staff as research scholar at the Centre Middle Ages and the beginning of the Modern for Ethics. In 2004 he became a senior researcher and in 2011 the Academic Direc- Era. We are then at the threshold of the era in tor of the Titus Brandsma Institute in which we live. A philosopher like Nicholas of Nijmegen. His research focuses on the Cusa saw the proper spiritual quality of what it significance of religion in modernity, phi- is to be an idiota, or even to become an idiota. losophy and theology of the 15th century The idiota is the one who is able to do things as and foundations of spirituality. Among his if for the first time. The focus on this history of publications are: Martin Buber: De geschie- the idea of the layman can help us to find a more denis van het individu, Baarn: Ten Have, comprehensive perspective than that which is 2006; Spiegel und Porträt: Zur Bedeutung zweier zentralen Bilder im Denken des Nico- structured by the antithesis between clergy and laus Cusanus (co-edited with H. Schwätzer), laity. Also, the idea of idiota is a particular focus Maastricht: Shaker, 2007; Kann das Denken itself on human experiences, which can open up malen?: Philosophie und Malerei in der the spiritual qualities of these experiences. I hope Renaissance (co-authored with T. Borsche), that this perspective can help us to see experiences München: Fink, 2009.

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• Summary Who is a Layman? Historical and Philosophical Perspectives on the “Idiota”/“Laicus”

The figure of the “layman” certain tasks or challenges. In practice. Against this background, belongs to the most fundamental order to show how the figure lay spirituality is a way of seeing paradigms of modern culture of the layman has influenced and acting. This means develop- but is characterized by a paradox. modernity in an ambivalent way, ing an eye for the fullness of One the one side, the layman the author refers to the spiritual meaning of the concrete and stands for emancipation from tradition of the Devotio Moderna, lived practice, and seeing its any kind of external authority the Dutch religious reform move- original creativity. As such, lay and oppressive systems of power; ment in the 15th century and also spirituality escapes the ecclesial on the other side, the increasing to the “lay philosophy” of Nicho- dichotomy between clergy and significance of expertise in today’s las of Cusa of that same period. laity. In this sense, lay spirituality knowledge-based society renders The central idea in both approaches is genuine Christian spirituality, the layman the non-specialist, is the experience of acting as if finding its starting point in the the one who lacks the necessary for the first time, and thereby to experience of living reality. capacities and competences for discover the divine light within

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