The spatial restructuring of resource regulation. The gold mining enclave of Zaruma and Portovelo, Ecuador, 1860-1980 by Andrea Carrión A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Affairs in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Geography with Specialization in Political Economy Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario ! 2016 Andrea Carrión Abstract This dissertation explores the production of space and the spatial restructuring of resource regulation in the gold mining enclave of Portovelo and Zaruma, Ecuador, between 1860 and 1980. I use the theoretical tools of critical human geography, regulation theory, and political economy to analyze the spatiality of regulation over time in a dialectical manner. Methodologically, I develop an extended case study with explicit attention to scale as produced through material practices and their associated discourses and power relations. I argue that transnational mining companies, in responding to the international demand for raw materials, do not indiscriminately “penetrate” but, rather, negotiate the conditions for their deployment. Hence, there is an ongoing restructuring and rescaling of regulations that is a product of mediation between extractive capitalism and state formation in Ecuador. Key words: Spatial restructuring; resource regulation; mining enclave; company town; historical geography; local/global; Ecuador. ii A Gilbert, Daniela y Martín, el amor de mi vida iii Acknowledgements This dissertation owes much to the curiosity, the lessons learned, and the challenges I faced while working as a public official, human rights advocate, researcher, teacher, and student. First, I would like to thank my co-supervisors, Jill Wigle and Derek Smith, who provided insightful feedback on my ideas, allocated invaluable time in revising and editing thesis drafts, and coached me towards fulfilling the doctoral process. The questions and detailed commentaries of Dominique Marshall made me appreciate her thoroughness and the value of historical analysis. Emilie Cameron broadened the horizons of my research through helpful leads to bibliographic references. Throughout the examination processes, Anthony Bebbington strained my contribution to knowledge in a way that was meaningful to me. Cristina Rojas and Laura Macdonald fostered a stimulating community of scholars committed to Latin America studies. Nathalie Pressburger, Donna Coghill, Cheryl Murphy, and Erin Johnston offered invaluable guidance to navigating administrative issues and accommodating my requests at Carleton University. There are many people whose writings opened up new perspectives or provided outstanding insights. I would like to acknowledge my intellectual debt to the Ecuadorianists who helped me appreciate the rigour of doing historical, ethnographic, and multi-scalar research. My dissertation was first inspired by the methodological approach and captivating analysis of Steve Striffler. His book, In the Shadows of State and Capital. The United Fruit Company, Popular Struggle iv and Agrarian Restructuring in Ecuador, 1900-1995, was a basic reading throughout the research and writing process. Marc Becker’s generosity helped me to move beyond my comfort zone and to find new documentary sources during the research process. Martha Romero provided invaluable advice on municipal politics and everyday life in the mining district. While the public officials, historians, archivists, and chroniclers who assisted me are too numerous to mention, Lorena Carrión deserves special acknowledgement for making available Zaruma’s municipal archives. My dissertation would have been much longer in the making were it not for the pressure to resume work and meet the obligations of the doctoral scholarship. While carrying out my graduate studies, I received a grant from the Secretaría Nacional de Educación Superior, Ciencia y Tecnología (SENESCYT, National Secretariat of Higher Education, Science, and Technology) and the institutional sponsorship of the Instituto de Altos Estudios Nacionales (IAEN, National Institute for Higher Studies). At the Centro Nacional de Estrategia para el Derecho al Territorio (CENEDET, National Strategic Center for Right to Territory of IAEN), conversations with Lisset Coba, Thomas Purcell, and David Harvey served as a catalyst for ideas at a time when I was compiling the first draft of the dissertation. Mary Ellen Fieweger´s careful copy-editing made the manuscript more readable and accurate. Some sections were presented at international conferences, and an earlier version of section 7.2 appeared in the v Extractive Industries and Society Journal. Many thanks for the comments made by conference participants and anonymous referees. At a personal level, there are some people who made a difference throughout my doctoral studies: Paola Ortiz, Matthew Hawkins, Alejandro Hernández, Daniel Tubb, Ana Cuesta, José Bustamante, Pablo Heidrich, Cornelio Delgado, Grace Jaramillo, Katty Mora, and Hilda Sisalema provided ongoing companionship and thought-provoking conversations as we shared homewarming meals while coping with the Canadian weather. Ryan Katz- Rosene, Gary Martin, and Luc Struckman introduced me to graduate student life in the Department of Geography. Analía Minteguiaga gave me the opportunity to display my ongoing commitment with academia in Ecuador. Thanks to Adrián López and María Elena Acosta for backing me at work during the revision process. Katiuska King, Nury Bermudez, and Doris Sanchez stimulated lively dialogues in the final stages of the doctorate. Ulises Unda and Roy Siguenza ignited enthusiasm after the invitation to participate at the artistic residence in Portovelo and Zaruma. John Tweedy and Beret Strong opened their memories and personal archives for me, thanks again to both. I am particularly grateful to the Jaramillo family for making me feel at home during my stay at Zaruma. My yoga and meditation instructors helped release emotions and survive the rhythm of academia. None of these friends and colleagues bears any responsibility for the shortcomings of the present manuscript. vi My family has supported me in multiple ways as I obsessed about parenting, working, and fitting into academia. My father, Diego Carrión, and my mother, Henriette Hurtado, have always manifested confidence in my projects. My siblings, Carolina and Manuel, have been examples for me, displaying the courage to follow their dreams. My in-laws, Mónica Fierro and Gilberto González, dealt with all the paperwork required while living abroad and were understanding when studies forced me to skip family gatherings. Gilbert, Daniela, and Martín, my reasons for living, are complicit in this process through our conversations, their patience after my sleepless nights, and their energy while traveling the world. They have my enormous respect and bottomless affection. vii Table of Contents Abstract .................................................................................................................. ii! Acknowledgements ............................................................................................... iv! Table of Contents ............................................................................................... viii! List of Figures ....................................................................................................... xi! List of Photos ....................................................................................................... xii! List of Acronyms .................................................................................................. xii! 1.! Introduction ................................................................................................... 1! 1.1.! Theoretical and methodological underpinnings ............................................. 5! 1.2.! The Zaruma and Portovelo gold mining district ........................................... 14! 1.3.! Structure of the dissertation ......................................................................... 20! 2.! Conceptual framework ................................................................................ 25! 2.1.! The production of space .............................................................................. 26! 2.2.! The political economy of the gold mining enclave ....................................... 33! 2.3.! The spatial restructuring of resource regulation .......................................... 39! 2.3.1.! Institutional forms in the production of space .................................... 42! 2.3.2.! Agency in the spatial restructuring of regulation ............................... 44! 2.3.3.! A multi-scalar understanding of regulatory processes ...................... 46! 2.3.4.! The institutional fix of state space ..................................................... 48! 2.3.5.! The mobility and mutation of regulations .......................................... 51! 3.! Methodological framework ......................................................................... 53! 3.1.! Extended case study ................................................................................... 55! 3.2.! Genealogical approach ................................................................................ 59! 3.3.! Research methods ...................................................................................... 61! 3.3.1.! Literature review and periodization ................................................... 62! 3.3.2.! Semi-structured interviews