PULSE INGREDIENTS FOR HEALTHY DIETS AND A SUSTAINABLE WORLD: PULSE FLOURS AS EGG REPLACERS FOR FUNCTIONAL, ECONOMICAL AND NUTRITIONAL ADVANTAGES

BY LINDA MALCOLMSON¹, PHD, MARGARET HUGHES¹, MA AND MAVIS MCRAE², MBA. ¹ Best Cooking Pulses, Inc, Portage La Prairie, Canada ² Red River College Culinary Research Program, Winnipeg, Canada

Photo: Red River College

DEMAND FOR EGG REPLACERS “Consumers perceive Pressure is growing on food manufacturers to find alternatives foods with a ‘free-from’ to eggs and egg products as ingredients. Recent outbreaks of avian claim to be healthier – influenza throughout the world have resulted in price volatility, with either for themselves or significant spikes in cost. The growth in demand for ‘free-from’ for the planet, with 84% of or allergen-free foods continues (Crane, 2016). Eighty-four consumers noting they percent of consumers consider them to be healthier, natural are buying ‘free-from’ and less processed (Mintel, 2015). Also on the rise is the foods because they demographic of vegans, who require egg-free food products. are more natural Furthermore, increased concern about the environmental and less processed.” footprint of food production is pushing food manufacturers to (MINTEL, 2015) look for functional, economical and nutritional egg replacers.

PULSE FLOURS AS EGG REPLACERS FOR FUNCTIONAL, ECONOMICAL AND NUTRITIONAL ADVANTAGES | bestcookingpulses.com 1 PULSE FLOURS AS EGG REPLACERS FOR FUNCTIONAL, ECONOMICAL AND NUTRITIONAL ADVANTAGES

WHAT DO EGGS PROVIDE?

The protein composition of eggs gives them the solubility, emulsification, foaming and gelation properties that are needed by formulators. Eggs are said to be ‘polyfunctional’ – in other words, they can contribute more than one functional property at the same time (Pomeranz, 1991; Yang and Baldwin, 1995). Depending on the functionality required, eggs can be used whole, or as white and yolk fractions.

PROTEIN AND FUNCTIONALITY 101: EGGS AND PULSES

Eggs contain 6% protein, of which 12% are globulins and 71% are albumins. Pulses are 23% protein, with 50-80% globulins and 15-25% albumins. Albumins are water soluble and undergo rapid denaturation with heating. In contrast, globulins are insoluble in water but are soluble in dilute salt solutions.

Protein solubility is the most critical property because other characteristics, including emulsification, foaming, and gelation, are dependent on it (Vaclavik and Christian, 2008). Solubility can be altered by freezing, heating, drying, and shearing (Vaclavik and Christian, 2008). Recent trials have

The solubility of protein will change in response to alterations in pH, temperature shown that a blend of and ionic strength. This applies equally to pulse proteins and egg proteins. BEST Whole Navy Bean An emulsifier is an ingredient that allows oil and water to form a stable mixture, without separating into two layers. For example, mayonnaise is a food emulsion Flour and water can that is stabilized by egg yolk. Egg yolk prevents oil and water from separating by be used to replace the creating an ‘interfacial film’ between them. It is the low-density lipoproteins in egg yolk that enable it to be used as an emulsifier. eggs in meringues Although these proteins are not found in pulses, recent research has shown that it and macarons. is possible to use pulse flour to make an egg-free mayonnaise. Thus, pulse flours appear to contain a protein that is capable of creating an interfacial film between It is thought that two immiscible liquids. the protein and The foaming properties of egg proteins are highly valued in the preparation of cakes and meringues. The protein must have high solubility in the liquid phase, as well carbohydrate in the as an ability to quickly form a film around the air bubbles (Kinsella, 1981). For foam navy bean flour stability, the interfacial film needs to be rigid so that it prevents the entrapped air from escaping. The protein also needs to have the ability to form strong chemical provide the foam bonds including hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions. To maintain its viscosity and rigidity, the protein must be able to resist denaturation (Kinsella, 1981). volume and stability,

Egg white has superb foaming properties due to the various proteins present. respectively. Ovalbumin (Smith and Back, 1965; Du et al, 2002), ovomucin (Yang and Baldwin, 1995; Omana et al, 2010), and globulins (MacDonnell et al, 1955) all play different roles in foam formation and stabilization.

Recent trials have shown that a blend of BEST Whole Navy Bean Flour and water can be used to replace the eggs in meringues and macarons. It is thought that the protein and carbohydrate in the navy bean flour provide the foam volume and stability, respectively.

Protein gelation involves the aggregation of protein molecules to form insoluble networks. The texturization of foods such as cakes and sauces is dependent on protein to form gel networks when the ingredients are heated (Kiosseoglou and Paraskevopoulou, 2003). In the case of egg whites, this process occurs via the rapid

bestcookingpulses.com 2 PULSE FLOURS AS EGG REPLACERS FOR FUNCTIONAL, ECONOMICAL AND NUTRITIONAL ADVANTAGES

denaturation of albumin in egg whites and the formation of gel when egg white is heated (Coultate, 2009). Egg yolk proteins can also form gels.

Pulse proteins have a similar ability to form protein gels (Boye et al, 2013). Recent trials have shown that BEST Whole Navy Bean Flour can be used to make egg-free cookies and muffins, as well as to replace starches in sauces.

It has also been shown that pulse flours can be used as binders in meat systems, replacing both the egg and breadcrumbs (Balakrishnan and Dudley, 2016).

COST OF EGGS AND EGG PRODUCTS

COMBINED REGIONAL LARGE EGG WEEKLY AVERAGE PRICES (CENTS PER DOZEN)

295.0

265.0

235.0

205.0

175.0

145.0

115.0

85.0 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC 2016 2015 3-YEAR AVERAGE

Source: USDA, AMS, LPG, Market News Source: http://egg-cite.com/news/single.aspx?contentID=6721

The chart above shows the volatility of egg prices in 2015, and in the first quarter of 2016, as well as the three-year average. According to the USDA, the price of eggs is generally rising. BEST Whole Navy Bean Flour as an egg replacer costs approximately one tenth the price of eggs.

AQUAFABA’S RISE

Aquafaba is a vegan egg replacer that has rapidly gained popularity in recent months (New York Times, 2016). Derived from the Latin words for ‘water’ and ‘bean’, aquafaba is the common name for the liquid that is created from beans and other pulses, including chickpeas, when they are cooked or canned.

Aquafaba is a unique mixture of protein, starch, and other carbohydrates that have migrated from the seeds to the water during the cooking process, imparting the functional properties of emulsification, foaming, and gelation. Top & Middle: Egg-free Rose Water Meringues and Chocolate Moca Macarons Aquafaba recipes have been developed for a wide variety of foods, including created by Chef Geoffroy Dextraze of meringue, mayonnaise, macarons, baked goods, and even cocktails like whiskey the Prairie Ink Café, McNally Robinson Booksellers, Winnipeg, Canada. sour, all made without the use of eggs (aquafaba.com). Photos: Geoffroy Dextrase

Bottom: Whipped Best Whole Navy Bean Flour and Water. Photo: Jennifer Evancio

bestcookingpulses.com 3 PULSE FLOURS AS EGG REPLACERS FOR FUNCTIONAL, ECONOMICAL AND NUTRITIONAL ADVANTAGES

PULSE FLOURS AS POWDERED AQUAFABA IN BAKING

A natural extension of using the liquid from cooked or canned pulses was to determine whether flours, milled from dried pulses, could be hydrated with water to duplicate the aquafaba functionality.

A research project funded by NSERC1 was recently undertaken at Red River College (Winnipeg, Canada) as part of their Culinary Research Program. The goal was to test the limits of raw pulse flours (not precooked or pregelatinized) as egg replacers. Several BEST Pulse Flours were tested in progressively more challenging recipes, which traditionally have relied on eggs for their functionality to impart structure and texture to the food.

Muffins and cookies were tested first, with promising results. Several different pulse flours and blends were tried before it was determined that BEST Whole Navy Bean Flour mixed with water was the best option for replacing eggs, since this flour had minimal impact on the flavour and texture of the end-product. For cookies, BEST Whole Navy Bean Flour was prehydrated with water. For muffins, the flour and water mixture was whipped together before being folded into the rest of the ingredients.

The texture, volume, and flavour of the muffins and cookies made using BEST Whole Navy Bean Flour and water mixture as an egg replacer were comparable to those of the control products containing eggs.

Chef Sean Audet and culinary student Alyssa Houston, pictured below, were also able to create egg-free, nut-free macarons. Simple modifications to a traditional macaron recipe were required for the BEST Whole Navy Bean Flour macarons including a longer whipping time, and elimination of curing before baking. The research team found the use of non-stick silicone baking mats created a better ‘foot‘ typical of traditional macarons. They also advised against refrigerating the Top: Muffins made using whole navy finished macarons, since this resulted in a brittle dome. Macaron domes could bean flour as an egg replacer. be kept at room temperature before and after filling. Middle: Cookies made using whole navy bean flour as an egg replacer.

Bottom: The BN Macaron. Photos: Red River College

Chef Sean Audet and culinary student Alyssa Houston of the 1Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada Red River College Culinary Research Program with BN Macaron domes. (www.nserc-crsng.gc.ca) Photo: Red River College

bestcookingpulses.com 4 PULSE FLOURS AS EGG REPLACERS FOR FUNCTIONAL, ECONOMICAL AND NUTRITIONAL ADVANTAGES

ALL PULSE FLOURS ARE NOT CREATED EQUAL ALLERGEN-FRIENDLY Peas, beans, chickpeas and lentils can be milled into whole, split or decorticated flours. Whole flours include the seed coat CRUMB BINDERS IN MEAT or hull, which provides increased water holding and oil binding Meatballs created using a novel, allergen-free capabilities, as well as higher levels of fiber, iron, calcium and other micronutrients. Split pulses are made from seeds where the ‘free-from’ binder made from pea and lentil flour seed coat or hull is removed and the cotyledon has been divided were presented this year at the annual meeting into two halves. Decorticated pulse flours also have the seed of the Research Chefs Association, held in Colorado. coat or hull removed, but the cotyledon remains in one piece. Subra Balakrishnan, corporate chef at Griffiths Foods Canada, showed that the protein contained in pulse THE FUNCTIONALITY OF PULSE FLOURS flours provided the emulsification properties that are IS AFFECTED BY: traditionally obtained from eggs. 1. The quality of the raw materials, in terms of both purity Balakrishnan used yellow split pea flour and lentil flour and the variety of the seed; to create a clean-label, natural (USDA), crumb-based 2. The method used to mill the flours, as well binder that was ‘non-allergen’ (not only egg-free but as any pre- and post-treatments; and also contained no wheat or soy), and which had 3. The particle size and distribution a yield comparable to that of traditional wheat and of the flours. soy-based systems.

Individual flours or blends His formula had the additional advantage of using of flours are often specifically a one-step process, with no pre-hydration required. chosen for optimum performance Besides eggs, breadcrumbs are typically used in a given application. in meat systems to provide yield, flavour and texture.

Photo: Canadian International Grains Institute Balakrishnan showed that pulse flours were able to provide these functions just as well. Delegates who sampled the novel meatballs alongside SUMMARY: ADVANTAGES OF WHOLE a traditional formula indicated that they could taste NAVY BEAN FLOUR AS AN EGG REPLACER no difference between the two products. A gochujang sauce, served with the meatballs, used • Easy to use and compact to store, with a two-year shelf life. whole navy bean flour as a replacement for traditional • Equivalent quality to eggs in terms of taste, texture and aroma starches, providing a desired fermented note. for the applications tested. • Excellent solubility, emulsification, foaming, and gelation properties. • Highly economical, with less price volatility than eggs. • More economical and sustainable than fractionated pea protein concentrates or isolates. • Clean label, with low allergenicity (nut-free, gluten-free, egg-free) and cholesterol free. • Well accepted in vegan/vegetarian products • Considered ‘natural’ by the CFIA, FDA and USDA. • Non-GMO, available organic or conventional Photo: RCA • Sustainably grown and milled in North America

Mavis McRae of Red River College Culinary Research Program and Corporate Chef Subra Balakrishnan of Griffiths Foods Canada at the 2016 Research Chefs Association Annual Meeting ‘The Future of Food’, held in Denver, Colorado.

bestcookingpulses.com 5 PULSE FLOURS AS EGG REPLACERS FOR FUNCTIONAL, ECONOMICAL AND NUTRITIONAL ADVANTAGES

REFERENCES

Balakrishnan S, Dudley, E. 2016. Allergen-Friendly MacDonnell LR, Feeney RE, Hanson HL, Cambell Crumb Based Meat Binders Using Pulse Flours. LA, Sugihara TF. 1955. The functional properties of Presented at The Future of Food: Research Chef the egg white proteins. Food Technology 9:49–53. Association Conference 2016, Denver, Colorado. McRae M. 2016. Egg Replacement with Bean Black J. 2016. Vegans Whip Up a Secret Weapon: Flours Culinary Research Project, Red River College Aquafaba. New York Times, May 9TH. Culinary Research Program report. The United Nations International Year

Boye J, Zare F, Pletch A. 2013. Pulse proteins: Omana DA, Wang J, Wu J. 2010 Ovomucin – of Pulses (IYP) 2016 coincides with Processing, characterization, functional properties a glycoprotein with promising potential. Trends the 80th anniversary of Best Cooking and applications in food and feed. Food Research in Food Science & Technology 21:455–463. Pulses, Inc. Farmers, processors, International 43:414-431. industry groups, health organizations, Pomeranz Y. 1991. Functional Properties of Food food researchers, and governments Chapman N. 2015. Global Opportunities in Pulses. Components. Academic Press, Cambridge, USA. Mintel Group Ltd. from countries around the world are Shane SM. 2016. Egg Industry News: USDA working together to promote the Coultate TP. 2009. Food: The Chemistry of Its Weekly Price and Inventory Report, March 28th nutritional, health and environmental Components. Cambridge: Royal Society of 2016. Published online at http://egg-cite.com. benefits of pulses. Chemistry. Smith MB, Back JF. 1965. Studies on ovalbumin. II. Crane M. 2016. 2016 Ingredient Trends to Watch The formation and properties of the s-ovalbumin, IYP initiatives include consumer for Food, Drinks, and Dietary Supplements: Egg Re- a more stable form of ovalbumin. Australian Journal education, media outreach, an placers. Published online at www.nutritionaloutlook. of Biological Science 18:365–377. international food product development com/food-beverage/2016-ingredient-trends-watch- competition ’Mission Impulsible’, food-drinks-and-dietary-supplements-egg-replacers. Vaclavik V, Christian EW. 2008. Essentials of Food Science, 3rd Ed. Springer-Verlag, New York. funding of clinical trial research towards Du L, Prokop A, Tanner R.D. 2002. Effect of dena- health claims, research in sustainability, Yang SC, Baldwin RE. 1995. Functional properties turation by preheating on the foam fractionation research conferences, and signature of eggs in foods. In Stadelman WJ, Cotterill OJ. behavior of ovalbumin. Journal of Colloid and events across the globe. Interface Science 248:487–492. (eds) Egg Science and Technology. 4th Ed. Food Products Press, Haworth Press, Binghamton. Kinsella JE. 1981. Functional properties of proteins: While the goals for IYP are to possible relationships between structure and func- educate consumers and increase the tion in foams. Food Chemistry 7:273–288. consumption of pulses, it is anticipated that the positive impact on health Kiosseoglou V, Paraskevopoulou A. 2005. Molecu- lar interactions in gels prepared with egg yolk and and the environment will continue its fractions. Food Hydrocolloids 19:527–532. for decades to come.

CONTACT BEST COOKING PULSES, INC.

Best Cooking Pulses is a Canadian, family-owned agri-foods company that has been active in the international pulse trade since 1936. BEST pulse ingredients, sustainably milled on the Canadian prairies from North American raw materials, include a range of whole pea (yellow and green), bean (black, pinto and navy), chickpea (Kabuli) and lentil (green and red) flours, split pea and decorticated lentil flours, proprietary pulse flour blends, pea fibers, pulse inclusions, yellow and green split peas, and whole pulses (peas, chickpeas and lentils).

All ingredients are non-GMO, available gluten-free (ELISA tested) and conventional, natural or certified organic (COS). Best Cooking Pulses is BRC GFSI (A), Canadian Grain Commission HACCP, Kosher Check, and WBEN certified, Halal approved, and www.bestcookingpulses.com Non-GMO Project Verified compliant and SEDEX compliant. TWITTER Partner with us to create tasty, nutritious, functional foods. @bestpulses FOR MORE INFORMATION OR SAMPLES OF SPECIALTY MILLED BEST PULSE FLOURS, FACEBOOK PEA FIBER, PULSE INCLUSIONS, AND WHOLE, SPLIT, OR DECORTICATED PULSES, facebook.com/BestCookingPulses CONTACT BEST COOKING PULSES AT 204.857.4451 OR INSTAGRAM EMAIL [email protected]. bestpulses

bestcookingpulses.com 6