No. 8, October 2016

Western Pacific Coral Reef Fisheries: Management and Research in the US Pacific Islands

Joshua DeMello, Martha Maciasz, Jordan Kurokawa and Marlowe Sabater (Editors)I Acknowledgments

The Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council would like to acknowledge and thank all of the researchers and contractors who have worked on these Coral Reef Ecosystem Program (CREP) projects. Without their assistance and commitment, the CREP and coral reef ecosystem fishery management in the Western Pacific Region would lack the necessary data and information for the Council to make sound decisions.

We would also like to acknowledge the continued support from the NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program and the funding provided through NOAA Award Numbers NA97FC0190, NA03NMF4410040, NA05NMF4410349, NA04NMF4410168, NA05NMF4411066, NA06NMF4410115, NA07NMF4410114, NA08NMF4410467, NA09NMF4410038 and NA10NMF4410061.

© 2016, Western Pacific Regional Fishing Management Council. All rights reserved. Published in the United States by the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council. ISBN 978-1-937863-98-2 Contents

PART 1: MANAGEMENT 1 Introduction 1 A New Way of Managing Fisheries 1 The Nation’s First Ecosystem Fishery Management Plan 2 Protections Preempted 5 Understanding Coral Reef Ecosystems 5 PART 2: RESEARCH AND HISTORICAL DATA ON CORAL 6 REEF FISHERIES Review of Archaeological and Historical Data Concerning Reef Fishing in the 6 U.S. Flag Islands of Micronesia: Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands Review of Archaeological and Historical Data Concerning Reef Fishing 8 in Hawai‘i and Samoa Reconstruction of Coral Reef and Bottom Fisheries Catches for U.S. 8 Flag Island Areas of the Western Pacific, 1950 to 2002 Coral Reef Fishery Ecosystem Assessment in American Samoa 9 Hawai‘i Coral Reef Dealer Study 9 Non-commercial Coral Reef Fishery Assessments for the Western 10 Pacific Region Review of Status of Coral Reefs Around American Flag Pacific Islands 11 and Assessment of Need, Value, and Feasibility of Establishing a Coral Reef Fishery Management Plan for the Western Pacific Region An Assessment of the Status of the Coral Reef Resources, and their Patterns of 11 Use, in the US Pacific Islands PART 3: PART 3: RESEARCH AND INFORMATION ON CORAL REEF 14 ASSOCIATED SPECIES Main Hawaiian Island Lobsters: Commercial Catch and Dealer 14 Analysis, 1984 to 2004 Feeding Interactions of the Introduced Blue-Line Snapper with 16 Important Native Fishery Species in Hawaiian Benthic Habitats Ecological Impacts of Carijoa riisei on Black Coral Habitat 16 Reproductive Characteristics of the Hawai‘i Black Coral Species 17 Antipathes griggi with Implications for Future Management Mapping and Assessing Critical Habitats for the Wrasse 17 (Cheilinus undulatus) Characterizing Kona Crab (Ranina ranina) Fishery in the Main 18 Hawaiian Islands Assessment of Non-fishery Impacts on the Catch and Effort of the 18 Kona Crab Fishery in Hawai‘i Habitat Usage and Movement Behavior of Five Ubiquitous 18 Mesopredators in Palmyra Atoll PART 4: RESEARCH ON THE CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEM 19 In Situ Acoustic Recording of Hawai‘i Deep-Reef Slopes and Seamounts 19 Current Surveys between Potential Marine Managed Areas in 20 American Samoa An Approach for Assessing Essential Fish Habitat for Coral Reef 20 Species in Hawai‘i PART 5: CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEM REPORTS PREPARED FOR THE 22 WESTERN PACIFIC REGIONAL FISHERY MANAGEMENT COUNCIL (1995 to 2016)

I OBJECTIVES OF THE CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEM FMP

Objective 1 To foster sustainable use of multi-species resources in an ecologically and culturally sensitive manner and based on sound science and the principles of ecosystem-based resource management. Objective 2 To engage and build capacity within island communities and local government agencies to assist in monitoring coral reef ecosystem resources to provide scientific, culturally relevant, community-based management measures for sustainable coral reef ecosystem fisheries. Objective 3 To promote scientific fishery and ecological data, as necessary, through integrated data collection and permitting systems, as well as research and monitoring programs to make informed management decisions about coral reef ecosystems in the exclusive economic zone. Objective 4 To provide a flexible and responsive management system for coral reef resources that can rapidly adapt to changes in resource abundance, new scientific information and changes in fishing patterns among user groups or by area. Objective 5 To minimize adverse human impacts on coral reef ecosystem resources and habitats by establishing new and improving existing marine protected areas, managing fishing pressure, controlling wasteful harvest practices, reducing other anthro­ pogenic stressors directly affecting coral reef resources and allowing the recovery of naturally balanced reef systems. Objective 6 To provide for sustainable participation by fishing communities in coral reef fisheries and, to the extent practicable, through outreach and education on coral reef ecosystem fishery practices (modern and traditional), resources (stock status, identification, etc.) and management (e.g., regulations). Objective 7 To encourage and promote improved surveillance and enforcement to support the Council’s management measures.

II PART 1: MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION

CORAL REEFS ARE ONE OF THE MOST PROMINENT ECOSYSTEMS in the Pacific Islands and the basis of the inshore reef fisheries in most locations. It is little wonder then that the native Hawaiian language contains more than two dozen names for coral. Coral reefs in the US Pacific Islands that extend beyond state and territorial waters out into federal waters are the manage­ ment responsibility of the Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council (Council), one of eight councils created by Congress through the Fishery Conservation and Management Act of 1976, now com­monly known as the Magnuson- Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (MSA). The Council’s jurisdiction includes waters seaward of state waters around Hawai‘i, American Samoa, Guam, the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) and eight US Pacific island possessions. Collectively known as the Pacific Remote Island Areas (PRIAs), these possessions include Howland, Baker and Jarvis Islands; Johnston, Midway, Palmyra and Wake Atolls; and Kingman Reef.

1 A New Way of Managing Fisheries habitats so as to increase fishery the Western Pacific Region due to the The early fishery management plans products for the benefit of society. bycatch and ecosystem harm of this (FMPs) developed by the Council for At the North Pacific Rim Fisher­ practice. The United Nations would crusta­ceans (1983), deep-water precious men’s Conference on Marine Debris place a moratorium on drift net fish­ing coral (1983), bottomfish (1986) and held Oct. 13 to 16, 1987, in Kailua- two years later and, in 1992, ban the pelagic (1987) fisheries in the Western Kona, Hawai‘i, the Council announced use of large drift nets in international Pacific Region were species based. that it would be changing from a species- waters. When the Coun­cil began looking based fisheries management approach to And, in 1991, the Council created a at developing an FMP for coral reef an ecosystem-based approach. longline fishing exclusion zone around fisheries, it considered a new ecosystem- In reality, the Council had from the NWHI to protect endangered based approach. Several factors contri­ its inception managed with the Hawaiian monk seals. The contiguous buted to the decision. ecosystem in mind, a reflection of area of the Council’s NWHI Protect­ its distinctive island perspective. ed Species Zone extended 50 nautical Comprised of a dozen local members miles around the islands and atolls from the US Pacific Islands plus the and included corridors to connect National Marine Fisheries Service areas where the 50-nm-radius circles (NMFS) Pacific Islands Regional did not intersect. The Council’s Administrator and other, non-voting direct­ed efforts at ecosystem-based federal members, the Council had management, however, began in earnest in its early FMPs included measures with the development of its Coral Reef that established a series of marine Ecosystem FMP (CRE-FMP). protected areas that safeguarded The Nation’s First Ecosystem In 1984, Jeffrey Polovina at the ecosystems. Fishery Management Plan National Marine Fisheries Service In 1983, it classified the deep-water In the mid-1990s, the Council con­ (NMFS) South­west Fisheries Science precious coral WesPac Bed, between ducted two studies to determine the Center’s Honolulu Laboratory had Nihoa and Necker Islands in the management needs for coral resources introduced ECOPATH, the first NWHI, as a refugia. The objectives in the federal waters of the region. The simplified and versatile ecosystem-based of the refugia were to a) preserve the first study published in 1995 reviewed model. He originally applied the model coral bed as a natural area for purposes the status of coral reefs around the to a coral reef ecosystem at French of research; b) to establish a control American-flagged Pacific Islands to Frigate Shoals in the Northwestern area that could be used in the future to assess the need, value and feasibility Hawaiian Islands (NWHI). measure environmental impacts of coral of establishing the CRE-FMP. The In 1986, the National Marine Fish­ harvesting, and c) to establish possible second study, which was conducted eries Service (NMFS) held the first reproductive reserve for enhancement with funding from NOAA and the work­shop on ecosystem approach to of recruitment into adjacent years. National Fish and Wildlife Foundation fisheries management. Council mem­ In 1986, NWHI spiny lobster and published in 1997, assessed the ber Rufo Lujan of Guam and Council were protected through establishment patterns of use of coral reef resources in Executive Director Kitty Simonds of a refugia encompassing 0 to 20 the US Pacific Islands. participated in the workshop, where nautical miles around Laysan Island Around this same time, two Simonds was a moderator. and a lobster fishery conservation national policies were instituted that In September 1987, NMFS releas­ zone comprised of waters landward of had bearing on the developing CRE- ed its Program Development Plan for 10 fathoms in the remaining NWHI FMP. First, Congress reauthorized Eco­systems Monitoring and Fisheries islands and atolls. of the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Management, laying the groundwork Also in 1986, potential destructive Conservation and Management Act to move fisheries management from fishing techniques such as explosives, (MSA), known as the Sustainable a focus on species or species complex poisons, trawl nets and bottom-set Fisheries Act (SFA) of 1996. The towards one that also incorporated gillnets were banned throughout the SFA was a landmark in the history of biological, oceanographic and eco­ entire 1.4 million square nautical miles the nation’s management of fisheries nomic factors. The aim was to main­tain of the Western Pacific Region. In 1987, as it required the Regional Fishery the quality of habitats that support the Council prohibited drift gillnet fish­ Management Councils to designate fisheries, restore the productive capa­ ing throughout the federal waters of essential fish habitat (EFH) for fed­ city of habitats and create and develop erally managed species in their FMPs.

2 3 Uhu or parrotfish

Second, on June 11, 1998, President area closures, marking of gear and harvested and special permit for non- Clinton issued Executive Order 13089 vessels, areas for special management, harvested taxa); 2) allowable fishing on Coral Reef Pro­tection, establishing species/size restrictions, reporting gear with conditions for trap and net; the US Coral Reef Task Force. systems, bag limits, catch restrictions, 3) establishment of marine protected In 1998, the Council continued permits and state and federal coordi­ area (MPA), including no-take 0 to development of the CRE-FMP, nation in monitoring and enforcement 50 fathoms around Laysan, French conducting a series of public meet­ were also decided upon. Frigate Shoals and half of Midway ings on the proposed plan and The Council and its advisory bodies, and 0 to 10 fathoms elsewhere in incorporating the comments into a including the a newly formed CRE the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands draft CRE-FMP. The original draft Plan Team, reviewed the early drafts (NWHI); low-use special permit plan included such objectives as and proposed the plan’s goal: “to zones at Wake, Johnston, half of prevent destructive fishing methods ensure that coral reef resources in the Midway, Jarvis, Howland, Baker, to coral reef ecosystems; protect US Western Pacific EEZ are effectively Kingman Reef and Palmyra; and coral reef habitat areas of particular managed to achieve a sustainable balance no anchoring at Guam’s Southern concern; establish fishing regulations of economic productivity, ecological Banks; 4) establishment of framework in the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) integrity, and social acceptability.” actions to designate mooring zones for anchoring, require vessel insurance complementary to existing state/ Work continued in late 1998 and territorial regulations concerning and require vessel monitoring system throughout 1999 with drafting of (VMS); 5) establishment of non- coral reefs; establish a permitting and the environmental impact statement reporting requirement for collection regulatory actions, such as formal Plan (EIS) and holding public scoping Team coordination process, facilitate of non-food resources; require federal meetings around the Western Paci­ certification of marine tourism guides consistent state-federal management fic Region to gather addition­al and create social, economic and operating within habitats areas of information for the plan. particular concern; and require per­ political incentives for sustainable use; mits and plan reviews for research At its 102nd meeting in March 6) SFA requirements on fishing sectors, within habitats areas of particular 2000, the Council agreed to the communities, overfishing definitions, concern. Ideas of a framework preliminary preferred management bycatch and EFH; and 7) ban the take plan with provisions considered for measures: 1) permit and reporting of hard coral and live rock. appropriate gear restrictions, time/ requirements (general permit for

4 Protections Preempted of 2000. Then, on Dec. 4, 2000, the Funding for the Council’s CREP has Then on May 26, 2000, work on the President through Executive Order been provided through a cooperative CRE-FMP was thrown a curve ball 13178 designated the NWHI Coral agreement with the NOAA Coral when, with the announcement by Reef Ecosystem Reserve (CRER), Reef Conservation Program (CRCP), President Clinton of his intention to essentially overlaying the NWHI established by Congress through the provide “strong and lasting protection Protected Species Zone established by Coral Reef Conservation Act of 2000. for the coral reef ecosystem of the the Council in 1991. The executive The CRCP Grant Program funds Northwestern Hawaiian Islands.” order directed the Secretary of Com­ “projects to improve or amend coral He directed the Secretaries of the merce to initiate the process to desig­ reef fishery management plans” to the Department of the Interior and nate the Reserve as a national marine regional fishery management councils. Commerce, working cooperatively sanctuary. On January 18, 2001, Projects initiated by the CREP have with the State of Hawai‘i and the process and establishment of the focused on gathering information on consulting with the Council, to Reserve was finalized by issuance of the coral reef fishery ecosystems and develop recommendations within Executive Order 13196. stocks for the purpose of amending 90 days for a new, coordinated The CRE-FMP was transmitted the CRE-FMP. In 2009, the CRE- management regime to increase to the Secretary of Commerce in the FMP and the four other species-based protection of the ecosystem and fall of 2001. A notice of availability FMPs for the Western Pacific Region provide for sustainable use. The of the EIS was published on May were restructured into placed-based Departments were also directed to 10, 2002. On June 14, 2002, NMFS Fishery Ecosystem Plans (FEPs). conduct “visioning” sessions, which issued a record of decision that partially The CRE-FMP components are now would provide opportunities for approved the CRE-FMP, disapproving found in the American Samoa Archipe­ public hearing comment to help shape the portion of the FMP that would have lago FEP, Hawai‘i Archipelago FEP, the final recommendations. During applied in the EEZ of the NWHI. The Mariana Archipelago FEP (covering July and August of 2000 seven public CRE-FMP’s final rule was published both Guam and the CNMI) and the visioning sessions were conducted. two years later on Feb. 24, 2004, with PRIAs FEP. At the first one, held in Washington, an effective date of March 25, 2004. Research projects for the numerous DC on July 21, 2000, the Council Seven years after the process began coral reef fishery ecosystem stocks was prevented from presenting on the CRE-FMP and its accompanying under the Council’s jurisdiction the draft CRE-FMP by the White regulations were in place. continue, even in the face of contin­ House’s Council on Environmental Understanding Coral Reef Ecosystems ually declining funds. Key priorities Quality because the plan was not are stock assessments, traditional eco­ finalized. The other six visioning Now that the CRE-FMP was imple­ mented, the Council needed a way logical knowledge, life history and sessions were held in Hawai‘i between habitat mapping. July 24 and August 1, with displays to continue to collect information to created jointly by the Council, the ensure that the plan held true to its This monograph provides a selec­ US Fish and Wildlife Service and the adaptive management purpose and tion of summaries and complete State of Hawai’i. responded to the dynamic changes bibli­ography of the projects funded in the region’s coral reef ecosystem under the Council’s coral reef grant Meanwhile, the Council continued fisheries. The Council, therefore, categorized in three parts. The entir­ work on the CRE-FMP. After multi­ developed a Coral Reef Ecosystem ety of these reports can be found on ple reviews between the Council and Program (CREP) to improve the the Council’s website at http://www. NMFS, staff from the North Pacific existing data-poor situation of wpcouncil.org/fishery-plans-policies- Fishery Management Council assisted these fisheries and to ensure proper reports/grey literature/. with reorganization and revision of management of coral reef fishery the CRE-FMP and the EIS in the fall ecosystems in the region.

5 PART 2: RESEARCH AND HISTORICAL DATA ON CORAL REEF FISHERIES

CORAL REEFS COVER LESS THAN 1 PERCENT of the entire Earth but are home to a quarter of its marine species.1 Most of the coral reefs are found in the Pacific Ocean, which is also home to the majority of United States’ coral reef jurisdiction. In the US Pacific, 90 percent of the coral reefs are found in remote areas, away from fishing com­ munities.2 With all that coral reef area, little was known about the coral reef fisheries as they had not been the focus of research in the past. This section provides summaries of some of the research that was done under the CREP to gather what was or is known about coral reef ecosystems and fisheries in the Council’s jurisdiction, from a historical perspective, in order to better understand coral reef ecosystems and fisheries today.

Review of Archaeological and Beginning in the 20th century, the and fishing. Some families con­­tinue Historical Data Concerning Reef historical trajectories of Guam and the to supplement their diet by fish­ Fishing in the US Flag Islands of Northern Mariana Islands diverged ing and farming or by bartering for Micronesia: Guam and the Northern radically. Guam’s government passed or purchasing local fish and garden Mariana Islands from Spain to the United States, while produce. in the Northern Mariana Islands, the An additional section of the by Judith R Amesbury and Germans took over from the Spanish. back­ground information reviews Rosalind L. Hunter-Anderson The Americans expelled the 100 or so methodological problems with Carolinians from Guam, whereupon using the archaeological and paleo- they moved to the Northern Mariana environmental records when suggest­ Islands and continued to live as before ing past cultural practices. It is argued on the beach and pursuing an oceanic that the main value of pollen and way of life. In 1914, the Japanese other microscopic studies of paleo- replaced the Germans in the Northern sediments cored from wetlands are as Mariana Islands. By the 1930s, they indicators of past environmental con­ had developed the islands for sugarcane ditions. Such information can be used production and export to Japan. Com­ in models, which specify the dynamic mercial deep-water fishing was also Summary contexts to which human groups undertaken by the Japanese, some for were adapting through time in the Archival and archaeological studies local consumption and more for export. Mariana Archipelago. It is suggested with information on prehistoric and Documentation is poor regarding the that there is great potential in the historic populations and cultures in use of marine resources at this time, study of historical documents, archae­ Guam and the Northern Mariana but inshore fishing by throwing net and ological data and oral histories to Islands are summarized by major time spears may have supplemented some yield environmental information and units: Prehistoric Period (c. 1500 BC– families’ diets. A lack of native-owned to reveal past cultural responses to AD 1521), Spanish Period (1521–1898) seagoing boats probably restricted environmental­ changes. and 20th Century. In pre­historic times, access to pelagic fish. the Mariana Archipelago supported Twenty-eight archaeological reports Overall the 20th century picture an aboriginal culture whose present- con­cerning 15 areas of Guam and for Guam and the Northern Mariana day descendants are called Chamorro 18 archaeological reports concerning Islands is one of declining use of (Chamoru). The late prehis­toric cul­ 15 areas of Saipan, Tinian and Rota inshore marine resources as an impor­ ture, termed the Latte Phase (AD are reviewed for fish remains, fishing tant dietary component and markedly 1000–1521) by archaeologists, was gear, turtle remains and invertebrate higher population densities after World based on horticulture, fishing and remains from the Prehistoric Period. War II. Wage economies replaced collecting. Settlements were dispersed Fish remains belonging to 24 families subsistence economies, most mark­ and of different sizes, and people used were identified from the Guam sites, edly before the war in the Northern sailing canoes for inter-island travel while fish remains from 35 families Mariana Islands and after the war in and deep-sea fishing. During the were identified from the Northern Guam. Land shortages for farming and Spanish Period, animal introductions Mariana Island sites. The larger high population densities due to high possibly encouraged the Chamorro to number of families represented in rates of immigration have precluded become less dependent upon seafood the Northern Mariana Island sites a return to subsistence agriculture for animal protein. may be due to the greater range of

1 US Geological Service Pacific Coral Reefs Website (http://coralreefs.wr.usgs.gov/) 2 WPRFMC. 2001. Final Fishery Management Plan for Coral Reef Ecosystems of the Western Pacific Region, Vol. 1. Honolulu, Hawai‘i.

6 Latte Phase is thought to be related to the relative sea level decline that took place within the last 3,000 to 4,000 years. A decrease in the abundance of the limpets Patelloida chamorrorum and Patellaflexuosa after the Pre-Latte Phase has been variously attributed to human har­ vest­ing and to a combination of human harvesting and relative sea level decline. Corresponding to the decrease in limpets at Achugao, Saipan, is a decrease in chiton plates. Sea urchin spines have been found to decline in numbers after the Pre- Latte Phase at sites in Guam, Saipan, Tinian and Rota. Either a change in the environment or human harvesting pressure could have caused a decline in sea urchins. A third possibility with regard to the sea urchin spines is that Photo: Marlowe Sabater a change in the culture meant that sea habitats in those islands, or it may which took place early and through urchin spines were no longer needed instead be due to the quality of the most of the sequence, was not evident as tools for manufacturing shell beads. reference collections used to identify in the late prehistoric deposits of the Writers of the Spanish Period left the fishbone. More of the Northern area investigated by the Rota Air­ detailed descriptions of several reef fish Mariana Islands archaeological port Project, but the researchers were and inshore fisheries including those fishbone collections were analyzed unable to determine whether this was a for flying fishes (family Exocoetidae), by the University of Otago, New change in fishing behavior or a change mafiahak (juvenile rabbitfishes, Siganus Zealand. Fishing gear recovered from in patterns of midden deposition. spp.), ti‘ao (juvenile goatfishes, family archaeological excavations includes Turtle remains are infrequently Mullidae), atulai (bigeye scad, Selar numerous shell hooks and gorges, reported from archaeological excava­ crumenophthalmus), parrotfishes points and shanks of two-piece or tions. Only seven of the Guam reports (family Scaridae) and hachu­man composite hooks, stone and shell and seven of the Northern Mariana (Decapterus sp., ‘opelu in Hawai‘i). weights and bone needles, which Islands reports mention presence, The only one of these fisheries that may have been used in making and number or weight of turtle bone. declined­ markedly during the Spanish repairing nets. The three archaeological sites that Period was the hachuman fishery. No clear trends with regard to yielded the greatest quantity of turtle It was practiced only in Rota by the fishing during the Prehistoric Period bone (Pagat, Guam; Unai Chulu, second half of the 1800s. have been discovered. At Pagat, Guam, Tinian; and Mochong, Rota) all show The Spanish Period writers docu­ Pre-Latte deposits had a higher density a decrease in abundance (number or mented a change in the use of turtle. of fish remains, although the Latte weight) from the lower layers to the During the 16th and 17th centuries, deposits yielded a greater quantity. upper layers. Whether this represents tortoise shell was an important valu­ The areal extent of the Pre-Latte a decrease in the harvesting of turtles able to the Chamorro. But by the late depo­sits was much smaller than that of during the Prehistoric Period is not 18th century, turtles and tortoise shell the Latte deposits. It was concluded known; the number of sites is too few had diminished in importance. that there were no major changes in to reach a conclusion. density or diversity of fish remains The invertebrates were only men­ Four kinds of invertebrates have from Pre-Latte versus Latte deposits tioned by the Spanish Period writers; been found to decrease in abun­ in central Tinian, but that conclusion there are no detailed descriptions of dance during the Prehistoric Period was reached after comparison of fish their use. During the 19th century, sea in certain loca­tions of Guam, Saipan, remains from less than one cubic cucumbers were apparently ex­ported to Tinian and Rota. The arc clam meter of Pre-Latte deposits with those China but not eaten by the islanders. Anadara antiquata is preferentially from just over one-half cubic meter Governor de la Corte estimated that associated with mangroves, and the of Latte deposits. In Rota, big game thousands of pounds per year could decrease in abundance after the Pre- fishing for marlin and mahimahi, be harvested.

7 Recordkeeping during the 20th of important inshore food fishes over of fishery resource explanations century has been uneven. The pre-war a 13-year period from 1985 to 1998. and to chart at least some changes naval governors of Guam reported The WPacFIN data for Guam show in these over time using a combi­ almost nothing about fisheries; an increase in commercial landings of nation of extant archaeological and post-war governors reported more. reef fishes within the last few years, historical information. An investiga­ However, it is only within the last 25 but the data cannot be interpreted as a tion of long-term changes in inshore years that the Division of Aquatic and turn-around in the decrease in CPUE resources in Hawai‘i will require Wildlife Resources (DAWR) of the reported by DAWR. The data are new fieldwork, a re-examination of Government of Guam’s Department collected from different types of surveys existing archaeological collections or of Agriculture and NMFS’s Western and different fishermen. Two recent application of a new analytic method Pacific Fishery Information Network reports pertaining to the CNMI call for whose utility is not yet established in (WPacFIN) have compiled accurate improved data collection and additional the Pacific. None of these goals can be data on reef fisheries. research to guide biologists in making achieved with the scant archaeological fishery management decisions. and historical information available In the Commonwealth of the for the pre-1950 period in American North­ern Mariana Islands (CNMI), Review of Archaeological and Samoa. The post-1950 fisheries data the pre-war records pertain to the Historical Data Concerning Reef for both Hawai‘i and American Samoa Japanese tuna fishery based in Saipan. Fishing in Hawai‘i and Samoa are rich and detailed. They have This fishery employed mostly Japanese revealed important aspects of and and Okinawans. Fishing for hachuman by Thomas S. Dye and changes in exploitation patterns and with the poio (a stone chum­ming Thomas R. Graham the condition of inshore resources. device) continued on Rota into the late Summary 1960s. An interview with the son of the Reconstruction of Coral Reef and last fisherman on Rota to use the poio is The review of reef fishing in Hawai‘i Bottom Fisheries Catches for US flag included. Currently the CNMI Division and American Samoa assesses the Island Areas in the Western Pacific, of Fish and Wildlife works cooperatively potential of archaeological and histo­ 1950 to 2002 with the WPacFIN in collecting and rical data to provide information on dis­seminating fisheries data. patterns of resource use from coral by D. Zeller, S. Booth & D. Pauly reefs. Sources reviewed are listed in Summary It appears that the technological an extensive bibli­ography, and their changes in fishing since World War characteristics are summarized in a Fisheries play an important role in II and the indirect human impacts series of tables that are included as Pacific Island societies. While fisher­ on the reefs have contributed to appendices. This review indicates that ies for pelagic species such as tuna declines in the reef resources. The pre-1950 data in Hawai‘i is much and billfishes are generally of great Guam DAWR recently reported a 70 fuller and richer than in American commercial significance, near-shore percent decrease in catch per unit effort Samoa. In Hawai‘i, it should be fisheries targeting coral reef species, (CPUE) (kilograms per gear-hour) pos­sible to characterize patterns bottom species and species that are closely associated with coral reefs are of more fundamental importance, providing subsistence, recreational, cultural and food security functions. However, these fisheries, owing to their scattered nature, have often been underrepresented in accounts of catches in official statistics, due to difficulties in and cost of obtain­ ing reliable “hard data” covering whole countries. Thus, such catches often remain unaccounted or under- accounted in official statistics. Reconstructing historic catches in cases where time-series data are lacking requires assumptions and interpolations among often widely spaced data “anchor” points. These data points are usually based on local studies, fisheries-unrelated studies (e.g., human population,

8 diet or consump­tion studies) and unpublished grey litera­ture. Consequently, estimates derived from such alternative and irregular (in time, space and sampling design) sources may be associated with higher data uncertainties than “hard” time-series data. Nevertheless, such approaches are required, as the alter­native—i.e., continuing the established pattern of not reporting anything in situa­tions where “no time-series data” exist— is not useful in light of increasing demands for accountability of marine resource use and calls for sustainability and ecosystem-based approaches to management. Without attempting to fully account for all fisheries catches (even if based on extrapolations), one would not be able to obtain any mea­ sure of the likely formal and informal economic as well as cultural value of marine resources to Pacific Island communities. Coral Reef Fishery Ecosystem catch composition varied between The purpose of this project was Assessment in American Samoa disturbance and non-disturbance years, to assem­ble available information on by Domingo Ochavillo which suggests disturbances affect some catches for the coral reef and bottom species groups differently. The im­pacts fisheries of the US flag island areas of Summary of severe natural disturbances on coral reef fisheries has never been clearly the Western Pacific Region, specifically Factors that affect coral reef fishery American Samoa, Guam, the CNMI, ecosystems can be grouped into two shown and will be difficult to show due Hawai‘i and isolated islands and atolls categories: manmade and natural dis­ to their timing and the background under US jurisdiction for the 1950 to turbances. Presumably these factors variability of processes affecting natural 2002 period. The aim was to derive interact as well and their interactions populations. However, this does not estimates of total removal of marine probably compound their impacts. mean that they are not important fact­ resources over this time period, Sedi­mentation due to deforestation ors. In contrast, the impacts of these excluding large pelagic fisheries (e.g., and poor agricultural practices, along disturbances should be studied as they tunas and billfishes). Thus, the focus with negative impacts of storms and have implications on what can be said was on coral reef fisheries, including tropical cyclones, has been speculated of the status of exploited stocks. the bottom fisheries, as well as catches to cause a decline of coral reef fisheries Hawai‘i Coral Reef Dealer Study of coastal, reef-associated small pelagic due to hab­itat loss. Looking at the species such as scads and jacks. establish historical trends in CPUE by Nicole Milne and fish com­po­sition and correlating This document attempts to recon­ Summary these trends with known events as struct fish catches based on very a very general way of inferring their Hawai‘i coral reef fisheries have great limited data and thus required broad impacts on the fisheries was conducted sociocultural and economic importance interpolation of disparate data and to provide a quick assessment. Results to island residents and the local econo­ relied upon bold assumptions. The of the assessment show some tenuous my. Coral reef fish are consumed document does not consider other indications that CPUE declined in seasonally at cultural events and are factors that affect per capita catches some cyclone years and dur­ing the an important protein source for many of marine resources such as extensive year that a tsunami hit American local families. The coral reef fishery shoreline development and habitat Samoa. These correlations could not is defined by several common species alterations, environmental changes - be explained by natural processes such including akule, ‘opelu, parrotfish, due to typhoons and El Niño–South as recruitment variability nor similar surgeonfishes, goatfishes, jacks, uni­ Oscillation phenomena, changes changes in fish abundance since such cornfishes and others, all which are in life­style and diets, the shift in processes operate independently harvested using a wide variety of preferences for Western food sources especially amongst dispar­ate species methods including surround or and increased availability of cheaper groups. There was also evidence that fence nets, gillnets and hook-and- seafood imports from foreign sources.

9 line. Understanding the extent and importance of coral reef fish in local markets through a focus on coral reef fish dealers in the State of Hawai‘i informs ecosystem-based approaches to management and conservation strategies, including the economic impacts of regu­latory changes on the coral reef fish industry comprised of fishermen, dealers and end consumers. Interviews were con­ducted utilizing a semi-structured interview approach and the State of Hawai‘i’s Commercial Marine Dealer and Special Marine Product License databases. A total of 113 interviews from 98 primary fish dealers was conducted on Kaua‘i, O‘ahu, Maui and Hawai‘i Island. Results show that the significance of coral reef fish varies considerably across islands with the largest markets for coral reef fish on O‘ahu and Maui. Annual relative contribution of estimated commercial and non-commercial landings of coral reef species in Smaller stores that purchase directly the Guam shore-based fishery. from fishermen have developed close relationships, while larger grocery uish between commercial and non- important method for catching coral chains require coral reef fish purchasing commercial catch at the species level, reef species in the boat-based fisheries. to go through distributors. Dealers data manipulations and estimating Bigeye scad (Selar crumenophthalmus), reported an overwhelming preference algorithms were required. jacks and surgeon­­­fish are the top com­ po­nents of the catch in all regions. for hook-caught coral reef fish, citing To determine the optimal concerns about product appearance assessment methods, interviews were In Hawai‘i, the availability of and quality, but they were dependent conducted with NOAA Pacific Islands weight data is too sparse to support upon the price and availability of Fisheries Science Center staff and weight-based analyses so only number hooked fish. The study also showed the HMRFS program director and of fish can be assessed. Bait fish species an ethnic preference for coral reef fish program docu­mentation was reviewed. are caught in the highest numbers. and a possible relationship between Diagnostic analyses were performed Sampling and survey design limit ethnicity and economic well-being. to assess the quality of the data and the accuracy of the analysis of the Cer­tain ethnic groups’ preference for quantify the level of estima­ting and non-commercial sector. Incomplete coral reef fish may be tied to their “pooling” associated with the catch sampling frames of non-commercial longevity in the islands, as those with data. Inter­views were conducted with fishing activity in all regions may longer stays show more of a preference local fisheries specialists to aid in introduce error and bias into the for pelagic and bottomfish species. interpreting the results. For American estimation procedure. Large changes Non-commercial Coral Reef Samoa and Hawai‘i, estimated catch in estimated catch across time suggest Fishery Assessments for the data were analyzed directly; however, that sampling of pulse fisheries or Western Pacific Region for Guam and the CNMI, an algo­ rarely encountered methods can cause rithm was developed and applied to large variances. by Rebecca Walker, Lauren Ballou estimate the non-commercial landings. and Bryan Wolfford In Guam and the CNMI, because The results show that most shore- the per­cent of catch kept versus sold (i.e., Summary based fishing is non-commercial disposition) is available by method/gear Non-commercial coral reef fisheries in American Samoa, Guam and type but not at a species level, estimates of the Western Pacific Region were the CNMI. Non-commercial fish­ of species level non-commercial catch assessed using data from the creel ing accounts for a much smaller are subject to additional error and uncer­ survey programs of American Samoa, proportion of the boat-based tainty. In American Samoa, the same Guam and the CNMI and data versus shore-based coral reef fishery holds true for the shore-based survey; from the Hawai‘i Marine Recrea­ catch. The shore-based fishing gear however, the boat-based survey does tional Fishing Survey (HMRFS) in associated with the most catch in all capture disposition of the catch at the Hawai‘i. Because creel surveys were regions is some form of hook and species level. not originally designed to disting­ line. Bottom­fish fishing is the most

10 In the creel survey programs of the renewable resource, although efforts The relatively good condition West­ern Pacific Region, estimation are under­way to investigate the of most reefs in federal waters is in of catch occurs during the sampling potential for aquaculture production stark contrast to many of the reefs in of CPUE, the data expansion process of live rock. Fishery Management nearshore state or territorial waters, (combining CPUE with estimated Councils in Florida and the Gulf which appear to have been degraded effort) and the development of the of Mexico have recently passed by a combination of natural and non-commercial algorithm. These management plans that will limit anthropogenic effects, including habitat three estimation com­ponents introduce and eventually ban (in 1997) the potential error and uncertainty, which collection of live rock in the EEZs of can be multiplicative. Based on the those waters. These non-representative nature of sampling actions may be expected to cause live frames and feedback from local fish­ rock collectors in that industry to ery specialists, the results must be look elsewhere for resources. interpreted with caution due to these Reef resources in most areas of the limitations. Coun­cil have not been adequately Review of Status of Coral Reefs mapped or inven­toried. There is a need Around American Flag Pacific Islands for baseline information specific to these degradation and overfishing. In general, and Assessment of Need, Value, and areas to provide information necessary nearshore reefs that are close to human Feasibility of Establishing a Coral Reef for their conservation and management. population centers tend to be more Fishery Management Plan for the An Assessment of the Status heavily used and in worse condition Western Pacific Region of the Coral Reef Resources, and than those in more remote areas. by Cynthia L. Hunter their Patterns of Use, in the US The coral reef fisheries of the US Pacific Islands Summary Pacific Islands tend to be dominated Concern has been raised over the by Alison Green by reef fishes (60 to 90 percent of catch), and the total “nominal” reef potential need for a Coral Reef Summary Fish­ery Management Plan for the fish production is estimated to be Western Pacific Region. On a global The coral reef resources in the US 1,000 tons. Most of the catch comes basis, coral reefs are valuable eco­ Pacific Islands cover an estimated from Hawai‘i (700 tons), followed 2 no­­mic resources, although many area of 15,852km , most of which by American Samoa (176 tons), 2 reefs ecosystems have been degraded (10,762 km ) is located in the EEZ. CNMI (84 tons) and Guam (39 because of human-caused damage or The vast majority of the coral reef area tons). Minor catches have also been overexploitation. The overall area of in the EEZ is located in Hawai‘i, with recorded in the Other US Pacific coral reef habitat in the Western Pacific smaller areas present in the other parts Islands. Invertebrates comprise most Regional Fishery Manage­ment Council of the region. of the remainder of the catch (10 to 2 40 percent), although the taxa that region is estimated at 15,852 km , Coral reef condition and utilization 2 are important vary among islands. the majority of which (10,762 km ) is patterns vary throughout the region. For example, mollusks, echinoderms, under the Council’s fisheries manage­ The majority of the reefs in the EEZ and crustaceans are locally important ment jurisdiction (generally 3-200 nm (88 percent by area) appear to be in in American Samoa, CNMI and from shore). Major resource uses for good condition, largely because they are Hawai‘i respectively. most of the region are limited to areas remote from major human population close to shore (< 3 nm) and population centers. Similarly, these reefs appear Corals and live rock comprise only centers. The general condition of to be unfished or only lightly used, an inci­dental part of the catch (mostly reefs in the region varies from poor to because of their remoteness, and in precious corals), since stony coral and excellent, again related to proximity some cases, their protected status. live rock collecting is illegal in states to population centers and regions of Exceptions include the more accessible throughout the region. Algal harvesting coastal development. offshore banks in Hawai‘i, Guam is also believed to be an important Precious coral, lobster, bottom and CNMI (Penguin, Galvez and component of the fishery in some fish and pelagic fisheries are currently Esmeralda respectively) and the banks locations (especially Hawai‘i), but the managed within the Council’s region. surrounding the island of Farallon de size of the harvest is unknown. The Present and future potential uses of Medinilla in CNMI, which are heavily majority of the coral reef fisheries in the coral reef resources not currently fished. However, much of the fishing US Pacific Islands occur in nearshore managed within the region may in these areas is for bottomfish, with waters (80 to 100 percent), with only include the collection of live corals an unknown component of reef species a small component (<20 percent) and “live rock” for the aquarium included in the catch. occurring in the EEZ. The following trade. Live rock is an essentially non- is an overview of the results of the

11 assessment for each location. For the weight (1,570,285 pounds) and 10.5 over the last few years. The actual total purposes of this report, coral reefs were percent of the value ($3,392,645) of the for coral reef fisheries is probably higher defined as “substratum adjacent to coast­ total mean annual commercial catch. than this for two reasons. First, this lines (or on shoals) from depths of 1 Less than 12 percent of all inshore estimate does not include the shoreline to100 meters that is primarily composed fishes were caught in federal waters artisanal catch, which is assumed to of hard-bottom.” This definition led (32,018 pounds and $65,402). In con­ be substantial. Second, the coral reef to problems of overlap between coral trast, approximately half (51 percent harvest will include an unknown pro­ reef fisheries and other fisheries. The by weight) of the State’s reported com­ portion of the shallow-water bottom­ main problem was the overlap with the mercial landings of Kona crab were fish catch, because of overlap between bottomfish fishery, which is generally taken on Penguin Bank between 1990 the two fisheries. However, the mean considered to include two components and 1995 (14,191pounds and $57,436). annual harvest of the bottom­fish fishery that can be separated on the basis of However, the commercial crab landings in American Samoa is small (23,754 depth and species complex: the shallow- on Penguin Bank are only a minor pounds with a local market value of water (<150 meters) emperor based component of the total fisheries catch $45,722) and unlikely to con­tribute a bottomfish fishery and the deep-water for the State (<1 percent by weight). substantial amount to this total. (150 to 250 meters) eteline snapper Recreational catch in Hawai‘i is un­ Most of the landings in known coral and grouper based bottomfish fishery. known, although it is assumed to be reef fisheries in American Samoa are Therefore, many of the species in the equal to or greater than the commercial reef fishes (215,897 pounds), mollusks shallow-water bottomfish fishery could catch for some important target species. (73,112 pounds) and echinoderms also be considered “reef species” as Most of the recreational fishing for (43,384 pounds). Small amounts of defined in this report. Conse­quently, reef species occurs in state waters close crustaceans (7,337 pounds) are also the shallow-water bottom­fish fishery to shore, although Penguin Bank is harvested. Recent fisheries statistics is also discussed in some locations believed to support a substantial, but show that the shoreline coral reef fish­ (mostly CNMI). undocumented, recreational fishery for ery appears to be in decline, possibly State of Hawai‘i deep-water snappers and groupers. because of habitat degradation.

By far the largest coral reef area in Territory of American Samoa All of the coral reef fisheries in federal waters is located in Hawai‘i American Samoa occur in near shore The coral reef resources of American (10,004 km2), of which most is situated territorial waters. However, since Samoa are limited in area (296 km2), in the (NWHI (9,124 km2). Surveys most of the bottomfishing occurs in and only a small portion is located of the NWHI show that they support federal waters, and some of the species within federal waters (25 km2). A recent healthy coral reefs with high stand­ in this fishery can be considered reef resource assessment showed that the ing stocks of many reef fishes. These fishes, then it is possible that a small near shore reefs in territorial waters resources receive little impact because proportion of the coral reef fishery also vary in condition throughout the of their protected status, remoteness occurs in federal waters. However, this archi­­pelago. Reefs on the main island and harsh seasonal weather conditions. catch is assumed to be minor, since no of Tutuila are in the worst condition However, some recreational fishing major commercial fisheries operate in because of a combination of natural and does occur by occasional visitors to federal waters in American Samoa. anthropogenic effects (hurricanes, coral the area, including federal government bleaching, pollution, sedimentation, Territory of Guam personnel and visitors to Midway Atoll. etc.), while the reefs on the more re­mote Data are not yet available for this fishery, The total coral reef area in federal and less populated islands tend to be in although it is assumed to be minor. waters in Guam is small relative to good condition. Virtually nothing is the other states and territories (110 The Main Hawaiian Islands (MHI) known of the condition of the reefs in km2). However, these reefs account also comprise a reasonably large area federal waters, because they are relatively for approximately 60 percent of the of coral reef in federal waters (880 inaccessible. coral reef area in Guam. All of the km2), almost all of which is located on However, it is assumed that they are reefs in the EEZ in Guam are offshore Penguin Bank off Moloka‘i. Little is in better condition than the near shore banks and shoals, which are relatively known about the condition of these reefs, because they are in deeper water inaccessible. As such, they are much reefs. In contrast, many of the reefs in and remote from most human activities. less heavily fished than the nearshore near shore waters in the MHI are resources, and only account for <20 known to have been badly degraded Recent fisheries statistics from Ameri­ percent of the 235 to 335,000 pounds as a result of overfishing, urbanization can Samoa show that coral reef fisheries of coral reef resources harvested annual­ly and development. have accounted for 62% percent of the in the Territory in recent years. Most of catch (339,730 pounds) and 70 percent Commercial fisheries catch statistics these harvested resources (>90 percent) of the value ($619,009) of the value of for Hawai‘i reveal that coral reef were finfish. the total mean landings in the Territory fisheries account for 10.2 percent of the

12 Virtually no information exists on in the local fisheries statistics. These increased. Furthermore, since much of the condition of the coral reef resour­ include limitations in geographic this fishery takes place on the extensive ces in federal waters in Guam, and a coverage (mostly limited to Saipan) and bank at Farallon de Medinilla, it is resource assessment of these reefs would the poor quality of some of the data. possible that a moderate fishery for “reef be useful. On the basis of anecdotal For example, some of the data cannot species” is taking place in the EEZ of information, it is appears that most be subdivided into strata that will allow the CNMI, which is currently classified of these reefs are in good condition for a detailed analysis of the catch by as part of the shallow-water bottomfish because of their isolation. The excep­ area, depth, and in some cases, taxa. In fishery. tion may be Galvez Bank, which has particular, coral reef fish are difficult to Virtually no information is available been reported to be overfished in recent separate from bottomfish in some of the on the inshore subsistence and years. In contrast, many of the reefs in existing databases. recreational catch of coral reef species in Guam’s territorial waters appear to have All of the recent statistics that are CNMI at present, since the data from been badly degraded by overfishing available for the coral reef fisheries in the inshore and offshore creel surveys and other human impacts (especially CNMI are for the commercial fisheries. have not been properly analyzed because sedimentation). Most of these fisheries take place in the of data quality problems. However, Commonwealth of the nearshore waters on the southern islands this catch is assumed to be substantial, Northern Mariana Islands of Saipan, Tinian, Aguijan and Rota. especially in the more heavily populated Data from the commercial purchase areas such as Saipan Lagoon. Coral reef CNMI accounts for the second survey show that at least 136,653 to species harvested in this fishery include largest coral reef area in the US Pacific 177,377 pounds of coral reef fish and reef fishes and invertebrates, as well as Islands (579 km2). At present, all coral 2,240 to 3,425 pounds of spiny lobster small quantities of marine algae. reef resources in CNMI are under were landed each year from 1992 to federal jurisdiction, 0 to 200 nautical Anecdotal information suggests that 1994. Commercial fisheries for trochus miles (nm) from shore, although the most of the reefs in the EEZ receive and sea cucumbers were also re-opened local government currently manages very little fishing pressure, since local for the first time in recent history, these resources. The majority of the fishermen do not like to venture far and a total of 268,068 sea cucumbers coral reef resources in CNMI (534 from shore. The exceptions are the (168,235 pounds live weight) were km2) are located 3 to 200 nm from banks that are relatively close to the harvested over an 18 month period from shore, most of which is accounted for by main islands (e.g., Esmeralda) and the 1995 to 1996. No harvest estimates are Farallon de Medinilla and submerged extensive bank at Farallon de Medinilla, available for the trochus fishery. shoals, reefs and banks (311 km2 and which are heavily fished. 204 km2 respectively). Very little is known of the coral reef Other Unincorporated fisheries in the northern islands, al­ Limited information suggests that U.S. Pacific Islands though the catch is believed to minor in most of the near shore reefs in CNMI most years. The exception was in 1995, The total coral reef area on these are in good condition, except in some when the near shore fringing reefs of re­mote islands and atolls is 620 km2, locations on the southern islands, where six of the northern islands (especially of which 112 km2 are currently under there are major population centers Anatahan and Sarigan) were fished Council jurisdiction. Little is known and there has been extensive coastal commercially for seven months of the about the status of most of these reefs, development and over fishing (especially year. During that time, these islands although the majority is assumed to be on Saipan). Some of the near shore yielded a harvest of 15, 335 kg of reef pristine because they are remote from reefs may have also suffered as a result fish and 380 spiny lobsters. human activities. The exceptions are of recent military (e.g., on Farallon reefs that are immediately adjacent to de Medinilla and Rota) and volcanic An unknown proportion of the bot­ islands occupied by the military, where activities (e.g., on Pagan). Virtually tomfish landings in CNMI may also coastal construction and pollution and nothing is known of the condition of be classified as part of the coral reef contamination have affected coral the banks and shoals in the EEZ in fishery, based on species captured and reef health. CNMI, although most are assumed to depth fished. However, it is difficult be in good condition because of their to do so because much of the catch is The majority of these islands and isolation. unidentified (29 to 51 percent) and the atolls are unfished, because of their depth at which the fish were captured remoteness and protected status as Coral reef fisheries in CNMI appear is unknown. However, two of the National Wildlife Refuges. The main to be mostly limited to near shore reefs, commercial bottomfishing operations exceptions are Johnston and Wake, especially on the main islands of Saipan, have recently started targeting shallow- where fishing is a popular sport among Rota and Tinian. Unfortunately, it is water species (<100 meters deep) in the the resident work forces. difficult to assess the total harvest of northern islands, and the proportion these fisheries, because of shortcomings of “reef species” in the catch may have

13 PART 3: RESEARCH AND INFORMATION ON CORAL REEF ASSOCIATED SPECIES

THE COUNCIL’S LIST OF CRE-FMP management unit species includes hundreds of species from dozens of families across mul­tiple island areas and archipelagoes. While numerous papers have been published on life history and other information regarding some specific species, as a whole, the coral reef fishery still has a great deal of information gaps. The Council’s attempt at new and additional information on its CRE-FMP management unit species has led to discoveries of new species, diets of certain fish, where fish go and even preliminary insight on the status of these stocks. Part 2 of this monograph provides a synopsis of research that looked into acquiring new information on different coral reef fishery species in the Western Pacific Region. Included in this is black coral, a shallow-water precious coral that can be found at coral reef fishery depths. Information provided by these studies gives managers a greater understanding of the species and helps to inform stock assessments and annual catch limits.

Main Hawaiian Island Lobsters: assessment of the lobster resources of for correlations between reported Commercial Catch and Dealer Data the main Hawaiian Islands (MHI) landings and dealer sales, particularly Analysis, 1984 to 2004 and its associated commercial fishery. after changes in catch report forms and a concurrent education and by Kevin E. Kelly and Andrea Messer The study was conducted for outreach initiative imple­mented by several reasons. First, no one had Summary the Division of Aquatic Resour­ces in done a thor­ough analysis of the 2002. The State of Hawai‘i, through its commercial fishery data since 1968. Depart­ment of Land and Natural Second, the information would give During the years this study covers, Resources’ Division of Aquatic insight regarding the development the fishery as a whole reported rela­ Resour­ces, manages marine resources and evolution of the fishery. Third, tive­ly stable landings but exhibited for the people of Hawai‘i. This study this study could provide some insight dramatic shifts in preferred gear analyzes 21 years (1984 to 2004) of into the status of stocks. Fourth, type, market patterns and island- data from fishermen catch and dealer there had been no effort to compare specific production. Statewide annual sales reports to provide a current reported catch data with dealer data commercial landings ranged between

14 7,000 and 12,000 pounds with the 1993 to peak at 60 pounds per day reporting only 100,000 in sales. The exception of a three-year low of 2,000 in 2002. Hand harvest catch rates on total value of dealer sales was lower to 3,000 pounds from 1993 to 1995. O‘ahu and Hawai‘i remained relatively by a comparable value, approximately Maui fishers accounted for 61 percent constant over the 21-year period, $30,000 less annually. Dealer reports of the 185,263 pounds of commercial averaging 10 to 20 pounds per day and also captured fewer total active fishers, catch reported from 1984 to 2004. 20 to 30 pounds per day, respectively. reporting sales from 340 different O‘ahu and Hawai‘i fishers reported 16 fishers in the 21-year period, whereas Mean weight for spiny lobsters percent and 17 percent, respectively, 537 fishers reported selling their remained fairly constant over the 21 while Kaua‘i fishers accounted for only years, fluctu­ating between 2.0 to 2.5 6 percent of the total landings. Maui’s pounds on Hawai‘i and Maui and contribution increased to 85 percent between 1.5 and 2.5 pounds on O‘ahu. of the landings during the last five There appears to be a gradual decrease years. in mean weight on Maui since 1995, Spiny lobsters consist of almost 90 while on O‘ahu mean weight has been percent of the reported catch, while steadily increasing since 1990. Based on slipper lobsters account for just over 10 limited data from 2002 to 2004, green percent. Improved species identification and red spiny lobsters harvested in in the catch and dealer data from the this fishery have a similar mean weight last two years of the study indicate of 2.15 pounds in all island areas. that the green spiny lobster is the Mean weight for slipper lobsters was catch to licensed dealers. A much closer predominant catch from Maui and slightly smaller than for spiny lobsters, correlation between catch and dealer Kaua‘i (93 percent), while the red fluctuating between 1.5 and 2.0 pounds data sets began in 1999 and continued spiny lobster dominates the catch over the time-series but exhibiting no until 2002, with total annual reported from Hawai‘i and O‘ahu (90 percent). upward or down­ward trend. pounds sold and value of sales within A huge drop-off in reported slipper A few individuals dominated 8 percent for the two data sets. Catch lobster landings was also observed in the fishery. Twenty fishers were reports were revised in 2002, no longer the last two years, totaling only 0.25 responsible for 52 percent of the requiring fishers to report sales data, percent of the landings. 185,263 pounds of reported landings, which eliminated the ability to cross- A dramatic shift in gear preference while more than 500 registered fishers check future landings and sales figures. occur­red around 1994. Between 1984 harvested the remaining catch. The In the early years of the time- and 1993, trap harvest accounted for small-scale fishers earn only a few series, data fields from both catch twice as many landings (59 percent) hundred dollars in a given year from and dealer reports were not always as the next most productive gear type, their lobster sales. The 20 primary completed. Catch reports did not hand harvest (27 percent). Hand fishers, most active for about six specify the number of lobsters caught harvest represented 79 percent of the years of the 21-year study, report in 20 percent of the entries, which reported landings between 1994 and between $5,000 and $10,000 each limited the ability to analyze mean 2004 and accounted for 91 percent year in lobster income. The market weight in some instances. Catch of landings between 2001 and 2004. exhibited even greater consolidation, reports improved to 100 percent Lobster nets were employed most with a single dealer from each island completion in 2002 with the initiation frequently on O‘ahu, accounting for region dominating the market. At of the revised report forms. Dealer 23 percent of that island’s landings but least for Maui and Kaua‘i, these reports only reported the number of only 5 to 10 percent of the landings virtual monopolies appeared to have lobsters in 40 percent of the entries. from the other islands. a beneficial impact on their regional In addition, 23 percent of the dealers fishery by increasing the demand for During the years of its greatest did not report the value of the sale, lobsters and offering $2.50 to $5.00 use (1984–1993), trap harvest CPUE which limited determining price per more per pound than on Hawai‘i and averaged 20 to 40 pounds landed per pound. Prior to 1990, dealers almost O‘ahu. This, in turn, appeared to day. Hand and net harvest displayed never distinguished between spiny generate more participation and total similar CPUE values during this and slipper lobsters. Dealer reports landings. The 21-year statewide mean same period. Catch rates for all three improved gradually beginning in 1996 price per pound, adjusted to 2004 primary gear types were at 21-year lows and were nearly 100 percent com­plete value, was $10.72. in 1993, averaging less than 20 pounds by 2002. In addition, both dealer and per day. As hand harvest became the Dealer data captured less of the catch reports began identifying lob­ pre­ferred gear type (1994–2004), commer­cial fishery activity, with sters to species in 2002, with nearly its mean CPUE on Maui gradually fishers reporting selling 150,000 100 percent compliance by 2003. improved from 10 pounds per day in pounds of lobsters and dealers

15 Based on this 21-year summary of the Detailed analysis of the guts of 91 Ecological Impacts of Carijoa riisei on avail­­able data, the MHI lobster fishery ta‘ape, 99 moano, 39 weke ‘ula and Black Coral Habitat does not appear to be experiencing 40 white weke that contained food are by Samuel E. Kahng overfishing. The fishery has adapted to presented in this report. Dietary data new harvest methods and responded to were summar­ized by “frequency of an expanding market with stable trends occurrence” and “percent numerical in total landings and mean weight and abundance,” and these values were stable or increasing trends in CPUE for multiplied to give the “index of hand harvest, the currently preferred relative importance” (IRI) for each gear method. While analyses of these prey category. Dietary similarity was indicators were sometimes limited due then assessed by several measures. to poor species identification or small The 25 most important prey for each data sets, revised reporting forms and fish species were determined based on increased reporting compliance by the IRI, and the correlation among these fishery in the later years of this study ranks was calculated for each species. should provide the type of data for Also, IRI ranks were used to cluster Summary better fishery analyses in the future. results and generate dendrograms In 2001, the invasive octocoral representing the relative similarity of Feeding Interactions of the Introduced Carijoa riisei was discovered diets. Finally, two different overlap Blue-Line Snapper with Important overgrowing com­mercial black coral indices (Morisita’s index and Horn’s Native Fishery Species in Hawaiian species Antipathes griggi (formerly index) were calculated to com­pare Benthic Habitats A. dichotoma) and A. grandis in the dietary overlap. The results of these ‘Au‘au Channel between the islands by James D. Parrish and measures were generally consistent. of Maui and Lana‘i. The un­known, Brett D. Schumacher Diets of moano were by all measures long-term ecological impact of this the most similar to ta‘ape, but the data biological invasion raised questions used indicate that these species feed regarding the sustainable yield of the at different times of day. Diets of the commercial black coral harvest in two weke species were most similar to the ‘Au‘au Channel. In 2001, 2003, each other; there is some indication 2004 and 2006, deep-water surveys

that the diet of weke ‘ula may be more using the Hawaii Undersea Research similar to the diets of moano and Laboratory’s Pisces IV/V manned ta‘ape than to the diet of white weke. submersibles and RCV-150 remotely It has frequently been suggested operated vehicle revealed that the (with­out factual support) that ta‘ape overgrowth was wide­spread in the prey on young goatfish or other channel with a maximum impact Summary fish or crustacean resource species. between 70 and 110 meters, where more than 40 percent of the black The blue-line snapper, or ta‘ape Neither suggestion was supported by corals had C. riisei overgrowth. The (Lutjanus kasmira), was introduced our data. The two most piscivorous most recent data from 2006 suggested to nearshore waters of Hawai‘i in the species formally analyzed in this that the impact of the biological 1950s with the goal of enhancing study were ta‘ape and moano, but invasion was not worsening with time. commercial and recreational fishing none of the remains of fish found opportunities. Although the fish has in the guts of either of these species To confirm whether the ecological adapted well to its new environment, was from resource species. They were impact of C. riisei was worsening or spreading quickly throughout the instead primarily small cryptic fishes stabilizing with time, a new survey was archipelago and becom­ing highly such as gobies (family Gobiidae) and conducted in November of 2009 in abundant across a substantial depth sand-burrowers (family Creediidae). the ‘Au‘au Chan­nel and off the south range, it has not been well received as Similarly, none of the invertebrate coast of Kaua‘i. An effort was made a food fish. It is not actively sought by remains obtained in guts of any of to replicate areas previously surveyed recreational fishers and is among the the focal fish species was identified as in the Keyhole Pinnacle area in the lowest priced fish in local markets. At being from resource species such as northern ‘Au‘au Channel to enable a best it is considered a nuisance species, the Kona crab (Ranina ranina). comparative analysis across time. but many individuals in the state perceive Results of the survey found that ta‘ape as adversely affecting native species the biological invasion of C. riisei by competing with them for limited re­ and its impact on black corals on the sour­ces or by preying on them. deep reef in the ‘Au‘au Channel, while widespread and serious, appeared

16 to be less severe than previously Laysan and Necker in the NWHI for as a function of species-specific reported. Overgrowth on black corals the purpose of both reproductive and detection probability. A double had the most impact in the 70 to taxonomic studies. observer approach was applied to a 105 meter depth range and was most roving snorkel survey to estimate The taxonomic study identified abundant in areas of high current detection probabilities and calculate two additional black coral species: flow. C. riisei had not been observed population abundance of a rare an Aphanipthes sp. from the ‘Au‘au overgrowing black corals in Kaua‘i, coral reef fish, the Pacific humphead Channel most closely resembling A. where their upper depth range was wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus), on verticillata from the Southwest Indian slightly shallower due to lower optical the reef flats of Tutuila Island in Ocean and an unidentified Antipathes water quality. American Samoa. This approach sp. from Ka‘ula. It also revealed that allows for the calculation of observer- Reproductive Characteristics of the identification of different black coral specific detection probabilities Hawai‘i Black Coral Species Antipathes species in situ or from photographs and the estimation of population griggi with Implications for Future is often problematic. Several species abundance by incorporating detection Management exhibit great morphological varia­ probabilities. Factors that influence tion in colony branching pattern by Daniel Wagner and detection such as observer bias, and color­ation and cannot be readily Robert J. Toonen species-specific detectability and dif­fer­­entiated in situ, resulting in species-group characteristics were incorrect identification by even train­ed incorporated in the model. Multiple personnel. regression was used to determine Reproductive study results showed relationship of other factors such that A. griggi is gonochoric with a 1:1 as distance of fish from observers, sex-ratio and that gametogenesis is horizontal visibility and wideness of Histological slides of mature polyps of the Antipathes highly synchronized both within and reef flats (as a function of sheltering griggi (Left: spermaries; Right: oocytes). between colonies. It also showed that from wave action) with the detection Summary reproduction, while possible, does not probability and population estimates. occur frequently and/or successfully A total of 58 surveys estimated a The Hawai‘i species Antipathes at depths between 75 and 100 meters. detection probability of around p = griggi had previously been identified Results of these studies may have 0.61 for juvenile humphead wrasse. as A. dichotoma, a species from the manage­ment implications as previously This suggests that on reef flat habitats Mediterranean. Until recently no thought of deep refuges for black coral an observer has a 61 percent chance of taxonomic revision was made for colonies may have been over estimated detecting the individual at any given this commercially valuable Hawai‘i and harvest may be occurring on the survey. The “corrected” population size black coral species, and the name A. more reproductive colonies. dichotoma was continuously used was 359 ± 25 individuals from counts in the primary literature. In 2009, Mapping and Assessing of 218 individuals. Juvenile humphead specimens collected as part of this Critical Habitats for the Wrasse wrasses were mostly observed in wide study were compared to A. dichotoma (Cheilnus undulatus) sheltered reef flats with small patches of specimens from the Mediterranean. by Marlowe Sabater sand bordered with branching corals. As a result it was con­cluded that the This juvenile habitat comprises only Hawai‘i species was dif­ferent from A. 1.6 percent of the shallow reef habitat dichotoma, and the new name of A. and suggests that Tutuila Island coral griggi was assigned. reef system can potentially support only a small population size. These A study was conducted to answer results suggest that the perceived key questions about the sexual low abundance of this coral reef fish reproductive characteristics of A. species can be explained by the limited griggi. An exhaustive review of the distribution of the juvenile stage’s primary literature was performed preferred habitat. Finally, this study covering more than 330 journal Summary provides a methodological perspective articles dealing with black corals, Underwater visual census is the most on the survey of a rare and threatened with special emphasis on black coral widely used method to determine coral reef fish and provides a mechanism reproduction, taxonomy and ecology. fish abundance. However, this meth­ to correct estimates of its population Colonies of A. griggi were tagged od ignores the basic assumptions­ abundance. More importantly, the south of Kaua‘i and sampled monthly. of animal detectability. This study results have implications on how the Taxo­nomic samples were also collected quantifies detectability in reef fishes status of a naturally rare reef fish is in the ‘Au‘au Channel off of Maui, and estimates population abundance viewed and the perceived impacts of from Ni‘ihau and Ka‘ula, and from threats such as overfishing.

17 Characterizing the Kona Crab general­ized linear model. The results Habitat Usage and Movement (Ranina ranina) Fishery in the of the assessment estimated a 50 Behavior of Five Ubiquitous Main Hawaiian Islands percent de­cline in stock abundance Mesopredators in Palmyra Atoll by Lennon Thomas over the last 18 years. While the by Gen Del Raye and Kevin Weng model standardized CPUE for season Summary and area fished, other potential factors Summary Using 1948 to 2009 commercial were impacting CPUE for which the Coral reef mesopredators are a relatively Kona crab landings data from the State model did not account. The purpose overlooked functional group that may of Hawai‘i, Department of Aquatic of this project was to identify potential play a large role in the functioning of Resources, an assessment of the Kona environmental and socioeconomic human-impacted ecosystems. High crab fishery in the main Hawaiian factors that could impact the MHI resolution habitat maps coupled with Islands was conducted to determine Kona crab fishery to gain a better long-term pass­ive acoustic tracking were the status of the understanding of interactions occur­ used to determine the habitat usage stock. Recreational ring in the ecosystem. Correlation and movement behavior of five widely catch data was not analyses were run to examine the distributed mesopredators: the bluefin available and not relationships between time series of trevally (Caranx melampygus), yellowlip incorporated into Kona crab commercial data and non- emperor (Lethrinus xantho­chilus), long­ the assessment. fishery related factors. face emperor (L. olivaceus), Napoleon Known life history characteristics of the The results revealed significant wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus) and wahoo Kona crab were summarized, and gaps relation­ships between Kona crab (Acanthocybium solandri) in Palmyra in biological information were identified. CPUE and average wind speed, popu­ Atoll. The results revealed significant relationships between habitat factors and Data analyses revealed clear tempo­ lation size, average market price for frequency of detection and produced ral and spatial trends in the fishery. Kona crab and average cost of fuel. some of the first estimates of movement CPUE varied significantly by statis­ Rainfall and unemployment rates had range for these species. In both move­ tical fishing area and by season. a significant relationship with fishing ment behavior and habitat usage, In the latter years, the commercial effort. Both socioeconomic and the species studied can be broadly fishery was dominated by a few high environ­mental changes are believed categor­ized into a more sedentary volume fishers at Penguin Bank, to have a large impact on this small reef-associated group (C. undulatus, which accounted for roughly half fishery, and stronger relationships may L. olivaceus and L. xanthochilus) and a of the commercial landings. CPUE be present at smaller temporal and highly mobile semi-pelagic group (C. was standardized using a generalized spatial scales. While no significant melampygus and A. solandri). These linear model, which removed effects of relationship was found between characterizations of preferred habitat potential spatial and temporal changes large scale environmental indices and movement range hold strong in the CPUE that are unrelated to and CPUE, potential environmental implications for the manage­ment and stock abundance. The model produced relationships should continue to be ecology of these species, includ­ing the a relative index of stock abundance investigated because of the potential impact of habitat degradation and the (standardized CPUE) that showed large impact the environment may have design of marine reserves. a decline in the Kona crab stock of on recruitment success of crustaceans. approximately 50 percent over the last 18 years. Changes in environmental conditions, changes in fishing effort and overexploitation of the stock are all likely factors contributing to the decline; however, the exact cause of the decline is unknown. Assessment of Non-fishery Impacts on the Catch and Effort of the Kona Crab Fishery in Hawai‘i by Lennon R. Thomas Summary In 2011, a formal stock assessment was conducted on the Kona crab fishery in the MHI by standardizing Movement summary for Caranx melampygus, showing all detected movements (lines) between receiver stations (nodes) where the color indicates the average number of movements between those receivers. commercial fishing data using a

18 PART 4: RESEARCH ON THE CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEM

CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEMS ARE COMPOSED OF many species that extend across jurisdictional boundaries. Removal of species and changes in habitat may result in undesirable changes in ecosystem structure or function. Most island cultures recognize the impor­t­ance of indirect impacts and have incorporated “ridge to reef” type of management concepts that take into account effects to the coral reef ecosystem beyond direct harvest. Through the initial CRE-FMP and the consolidation of the Council’s species-based Fishery Management Plans into place- based Fishery Ecosystem Plans, the first steps were taken to recognize the ecosystem-based approach to fishery management. As the Council works on the next phase, further research will be needed to determine and incorporate ecosystem concepts and indicators into the fishery ecosystem plans and fishery management process. This last part of the monograph provides a glimpse at the Council’s efforts to further implement an ecosystem-based approach to management through enhanced understanding of the ecosystem and the parts of the ecosystem that play an important role in in the lives of coral reef fish and impact the associated fisheries.

In Situ Acoustic Recording of Hawai‘i and could therefore be monitored vessels and breaking surface waves. Deep-Reef Slopes and Seamounts acoustically. Three deep-water Eco­ A strong evening chorus of presum­ Marc Lammers and Christopher Kelley logical Acoustic Recorders were ably fish sounds was recorded daily designed and built for this study. at all three locations. This chorus Summary They were deployed at three sites near began approximately a half hour after The sounds occurring on Hawai‘i’s Penguin Bank, Moloka‘i, for periods sunset and lasted for one hour at two deep reef slope and seamount habi­ ranging from two weeks to two of the sites and past midnight at the tats were investigated to determine months between September 2006 and third site. A hypothesized source of the the acoustic characteristics of these February 2007. A variety of sounds chorus is the mesopelagic boundary environ­ments and to establish whether were recorded at each site, including community, but more evidence is need­ Hawai‘i bottomfish produce sounds sounds form fish, dolphins, whales, ed to confirm this. Other fish sounds

19 understanding of these currents, a study was conducted to characterize some of the major currents (velocity, direction, persistence over time), the driving forces (e.g., tidal, seasonal, wind/wave driven) and the impact on larval transport and/or distribution around the island. Utilizing an Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler affixed to a vessel, surveys were conducted in six sites of priority interest for larval dispersal, including channels, banks and marine protected areas. Cruise tracks were 5 to 8 nautical miles with the vessel operating at 4 to 6 knots and repeated every one to two hours. Survey results from Aunu‘u, Taema and Amanave provided suitable tidal analysis.

Ecological Acoustic Readers array. Survey results generally present the flow of currents around Tutuila were also common, particularly Current Surveys between from the south­west during high tides along the slope of Penguin Bank. Potential Marine Managed Areas with eddies formed around bays and It is unclear whether these sounds in American Samoa headlands. Currents are also particularly originated from Hawai‘i bottomfish by Philip Wiles, Marlowe Sabater strong in the channel between Aunu‘u or other species. Cetacean sounds and Lucy Jacob and Tutuila. The presence of eddies were also common, including and intense water movement have the song produced by humpback the potential to hold larvae close to whales (Megaptera novaengliae) the island, giving them a chance to and whistles and echolocation clicks settle locally before being lost to the produced by dolphins. Dolphins open ocean. While continued surveys occurred consistently at two of are needed to confirm the currents, the sites examined, particularly at the growing data­set indicates that night, suggesting that these might enhancing spawning stocks in a be important foraging areas. The location such as Fagamalo would be ability of the recorders to detect nearby very beneficial to Maloata, Poloa and vessels was opportunistically tested, Amanave and of some benefit to the and it was determined that the system Component of the tide around the Western tip of Aoloau coastline east of Fagamalo. could automatically respond to vessels Tutuila. The blue arrow indicates a tidal excursion. However, enhanced spawn­ing stocks transiting within approximately 500 The green arrow is an approximate distance that in Amanave may have little benefit to meters and could “hear” vessels as far the residual flow will carry drifters and indicates the position of the eddy in Amanave Bay. Poloa, Maloata and Fagamalo. as 5 kilometers. The findings presented reveal that Hawai‘i’s deep-water habitats Summary An Approach for Assessing Essential Fish Habitat for Coral are acoustically quite dynamic and that Very little data exists describing the Reef Species in Hawai‘i investigating the sounds present in these circulation of ocean currents around environments could lead to important American Samoa, particularly on very by Daniel Luck new discoveries. local scales within bays and around Summary headlands. The scarce amount of large scale current data that does exist The Sustainable Fisheries Act of 1996 suggests large scale currents generally mandated that fishery management flow from east to west around the councils describe and identify EFH, American Samoan Archipelago. defined therein as “those waters However, these currents meander, and substrate necessary for fish for and it is not unusual for the flow to spawning, breeding and growth to reverse in direction. To get a better maturity” for all species managed

20 under a fisheries management plan. The lack of available data to do so, however, is something that most fish­ ery management councils face, and solving that problem would require a large amount of resources. A cost- effective approach for designating EFH for coral reef fish species would offer fishery managers an option for improving EFH designations. One straightforward approach to determining EFH for a species of interest is to com­pare its relative abundance between available habitats. A study was undertaken to deter­ mine how available fish survey data can be combined with remotely sensed benthic habitat data to provide a first-order approximation of habitat- specific relative abundance. In this context, the strengths and weaknesses of the available fish abundance and benthic habitat data for the MHI are discussed and habitat-specific density is combined with bathymetric data using ArcGIS to delineate EFH for a pilot species, manini (Acanthurus triostegus sandvicensis). The approach used provides for an additional way for determining EFH; however,­ a ground- truth component is needed through cost-effective shallow-water vis­ual fish surveys to validate the approach.

Selected habitats of the manini between Barabers Point and Na-na-kuli, O‘ahu.

21 PART 5: CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEM REPORTS PREPARED FOR THE WESTERN PACIFIC REGIONAL FISHERY MANAGEMENT COUNCIL (1995 to 2016) These reports can be found on the Council’s website at www.wpcouncil.org/fishery-plans-policies-reports/grey literature/.

Research and Historical Data Research and Information on Research on the Coral on Coral Reef Fisheries Coral Reef Associated Species Reef Ecosystem Amesbury JR and Hunter-Anderson Del Raye G and Weng K. 2012. Bartram P. 2012. Assessment of RL. 2003. Review of Archaeological Habitat Usage and Movement Freshwater Impacts on Coral Reef and Historical Data Concerning Reef Behavior of Five Ubiquitous Fisheries of Hawai‘i. Fishing in the US Flag Islands of Mesopredators in Palmyra Atoll. Fugro Pelagos, Inc. 2004. Bathymetry Micronesia: Guam and the Northern Hawaii Cooperative Fishery & Habitat Mapping: Farallon de Mariana Islands. Research Unit. 2008. Report on Medinilla, Northern Mariana Islands Dye TS and Graham TR. 2003. Biology of Parrotfish of Hawai‘i. Survey Report. Review of Archaeological and Histo­ Kahng SE. 2007. Ecological Hawhee JM. 2007. Western Pacific rical Data Concerning Reef Fishing in Impacts of Carijoa Riisei on Black Coral Reef Ecosystem Report. Hawai‘i and American Samoa. Coral Habitat. Lammers MO and Au WWL. 2011. Green A. 1997. An Assessment of the Kelly KE and Messer A. 2005. Spatial and Temporal Patterns of Status of the coral Reef Resources, Main Hawaiian Island Lobsters: a Deep-Water Acoustic Chorus and their Patterns of Use, in the US Commercial Catch and Dealer Data Observed off O‘ahu, Hawai‘i. Pacific Islands. Analysis (1984–2004). Lammers MO and Kelley C. 2007. In Hunter C. 1995. Review of Status Parrish JD and Schumacher BD. Situ Acoustic Recordings of Hawaiian of Coral Reefs around American 2005. Feeding Interactions of the Deep-Reef Slopes and Seamounts. Flag Pacific Islands and Assessment Introduced Blue-line Snapper with of Need, Value and Feasibility of Luck D. 2012. An Approach for Important Native Fishery Species in Establishing a Coral Reef Fishery Assess-ing Essential Fish Habitat for Hawaiian Benthic Habitats. Management Plan for the Western Coral Reef Species in Hawai‘i. Pacific Region. Sabater MS. 2010. Mapping and Wiles P, Sabater MS and Jacob L. Assess­-ing Critical Habitats for the Munro JL. 2001. The Assessment of 2010. Current Surveys between Wrasse (Cheilnus undulates). Exploited Stocks of Coral Reef Fishes. Potential Marine Managed Areas Thomas L. 2012. Assessment on in American Samoa. Maciasz M. 2012. Analysis of Com­ Non-fishery Impacts on the Catch mercial Fish Trap Data in Hawai‘i. and Effort of the Kona Crab Fishery Milne N. 2012. Hawai‘i Coral Reef in Hawai‘i. Dealer Study. Thomas L. 2015. Characterizing Ochavillo D. 2012. Coral Reef Fishery the Kona Crab (Ranina ranina) Assessment in American Samoa. Fishery in the Main Hawaiian Islands. Pylman K. 2012. Fish Traps as an Wagner D and Toonen RJ. 2010. Indi­cator of Fish Abundance. Repro­ductive Characteristics of the Hawaiian Black Coral Species Walker R, Ballou L and Wolfford B. Antipathes Griggi with Implications 2012. Non-Commercial Coral Reef for Future Management. Fishery Assessments for the Western Pacific Region. Zeller D, Booth S and Pauly D. 2005. Reconstruction of Coral Reef- and Bottom-Fisheries Catches for US Flag Island Areas in the Western Pacific, 1950–2002.

22 Photo: Leana Peters Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council 1164 Bishop Street, Suite 1400 Honolulu, Hawaii 96813 Tel: 808-522-8220 Fax: 808-522-8226 [email protected] www.wpcouncil.org Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management Council 1164 Bishop Street, Suite 1400 Honolulu, Hawaii 96813 Tel: 808-522-8220 Fax: 808-522-8226 [email protected] www.wpcouncil.org

ISBN 978-1-937863-98-2

Cover photo: Eric Woo Inside cover photo: Joshua DeMello/WPRFMC