TRANSCENDENTALTRANSCENDENTAL THOUGHTTHOUGHT An International Reviewed Journal Of And Interfaith Dialogue

Pre-Inaugural Issue November 2011 T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought

2 3

© 2011 Manila, Philippines Book title: TranscendentalISSN: Thought 2243-9625 Date of Publication: November 2011

al Thought t PUBLISHER: Al-Mustafa International College,

EDITORIAL BOARD: Mahpeykar

Dr. Seyed Hashem Moosavi The Editor Transcenden A Biannual Journal Pre-Inaugural Issue Dr. Mohammad Ali Savadi November 2011 Art Design inspired by Reza Senior Editor Publisher: Al-Mustafa International College, Dr. Bahman Samadi Manila-Philippines Associate Editor Acmad Toquero Macarimbang Managing Editor Fatimah Novio-Faiyaz Lay-out Artist Marziyah dela Rosa Circulation

For inquiries and subscriptions, please write to: AIC Research, Al-Mustafa International College 3rd Floor, Keystone Building, 220 Sen. Gil Puyat Avenue, Makati City, Manila-Philippines Telefax: (632) 817-1881 Website: www.aic.ac E-mail: [email protected] T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought

4 5

TRANSCENDENTAL THOUGHT Published Biannual by: An International Reviewed Journal of Islam Al-Mustafa International College, And Interfaith Dialogue Manila-Philippines Distributed in 80 countries Pre-Inaugural Issue November 2011 The Editor: Dr. Seyed Hashem Moosavi

Al-Mustafa International College, Manila-Philippines, is a worldwide branch of Al-Mustafa International University in Qum, Islamic Republic of .

Disclaimer: All opinions, views and thoughts expressed on this journal are those of the individual authors, and it might not reflect the opinions, views and thoughts of Al Mustafa International College. Reprints of works should include a statement that the article published in the Transcenden- tal Thought with proper attribution of the author and publisher. T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought

6 7

In this Issue

GUEST REVIEWERS: Message From The Editor CONTIBUTING AUTHORS: - Dr. Ma. Concepcion Dr. Seyed Hashem Moosavi 8 - Ma. Concepcion O. Abaya Focolore Movement Philippines Focolare Movement Philippines - Dr. Hamidreza Ayatollahy Research Institute for Humanities and Chiara Lubich’s Spirituality Sodom’s : A Combined - Norani Abu Bakar Of Unity: An Invitation Cultural Studies, Tehran Reading of the - Mehmet Ata Az - Dr. Mohammad Saeed Bahmanpour For Universal Brotherhood The Islamic College, London 10 Destruction of Sodom Ankara University, Turkey By: Ma. Concepcion O. Abaya and Gomorrah - Roger Baumann - Dr. Benj Bangahan 76 Harvard University University of Santo Tomas, Manila From The Christian and - Andrew C. Clark - Dr. Mohammad Jafar Mahallati Muslims and Christians Islamic Traditions American University , Ohio Interfaith Initiative By: Ibrahim J. Long - Hamed Fayazi - Dr. Aisha Musa Colgate University, New York For Peace Building: Hartford Seminary, Connecticut A Case Study On Indonesia 20 - Ibrahim J. Long - Dr. Syed Nasir Zaidi Departed But Not Dead: Hartford Seminary, Connecticut Al-Zahra Islamic Center, Vancouver By: Norani Abu Bakar The Rituals of Contact - Mohammad Jafar Mahallati with the Deceased in the Oberlin College, Ohio The Issue of the 88 Islamic Tradition - Aisha Musa Createdness of Qur’an Colgate University, New York 32 By: Mohammad Jafar Mahallati - Mahmood S. Tajar By: Mehmet Ata Az Al-Mustafa International College,Manila, Jizya: Towards a Shifting Discourses: Qur’ānically-based American Evangelicals Understanding of a on Islam Before and 98 Historically After 9/11 46 Problematic Term By: Roger Baumann By: Aisha Musa

Islam and Social Action: A The True Man of Faith: Review on Farid Esack’s On A New Look at the Being A Muslim 60 108 Interfaith Dialogue By: Andrew C. Clark By: Mahmood S. Tajar Justification in Paul and James and a Muslim Perspective By: Hamed Fayazi 66 T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought Islam is a universal religion, the first pre- and social implications of faith, and the juris- the comparative requisites to which are open-heartedness and diction of religion target all religious creeds. study of religions: the a devotion to dialogue. These two character- No single ideology is capable of answering all first is to study the existing 8 istics give birth to a passion for debate and these challenges. Withstanding this demoral- literature of each religion dili- 9 regular reevaluation of thoughts, whether in izing movement demands inter-faith coop- gently, and the second and more jurisprudence, theology, philosophy, or mys- eration, for the ideology of atheism does not important condition is to avail of ticism. target any particular belief system, but rath- no other than primary sources in this er aims at the roots of belief as a whole. For regard. Interfaith Dialogue as an Inevitable Necessity this, the faithful from all schools of thought have to share resources and experiences, best Defense of Truth, the Noble Aim of Inter- Message from The generation of new religious under- achieved through publications and journals. faith Dialogue standing is clearly unattainable without The Editor Another point of interest in interfaith di- analysis and reflection into the religious The most popular trend today in inter- alogue is the role of faith in daily life. We may text. On the other hand, the contemporary faith dialogue is theological critique, which Dr. Seyed want to analyze the influence of religion or threat of atheism requires the solidarity of is of considerable significance in its own rite. the extent of its presence if any, in the interac- the faithful from all religions, demanding However even a fair and correct critique on Hashem tions of individuals or the society, in which a search for commonalities among them. religion demands meticulous research into its case regardless of the content of a particular These common factors cover a wide range, foundations; for a lack of knowledge easily Moosavi belief system, the general criteria of the ex- from beliefs and practices to religious senti- discredits the outcome. If we intend to defend istence or absence of belief is under scrutiny. ments, from the topics of monotheism and the truth, would our ignorance of the teach- This may then require the coverage of a num- resurrection to discussions on law, juris- ings of the faith under scrutiny not sabotage ber of sample groups with an array of ideolo- prudence, and even ethics. The identi- this truth instead? We must be particularly gies. fication of similarities will determine cautious not to accuse, for false accusation the extent of cooperation among is tantamount to lie, a sin rebuked by almost religions and prevent the loss of re- Comparative Studies as a Requirement to all religions. If we expect our critiques to fair sources on parallel concerns. Interfaith Dialogue in their judgments and not evaluate us by a single sentence they heard here and there or The menacing flood of doubt and One requirement in religious studies is by a single book they read, we shall in turn criticism channeled through the media the comparative research. These analyses cov- be fair in our critiques of them; neither de- on the existence of God and the conflicts er a wide scope of topics from legal aspects nying their strengths by exposing their of religion and science, church and state, moral to theological perspectives and ethical issues. weaknesses, nor closing an eye on their Some examples may include resurrection in shortcomings in total admiration. Islam and Judaism, apostolate in Islam and It is therefore upon us to avoid Christianity, divinity in Islam and Hinduism, unethical techniques in our politics and administration in Islam and Con- defense, for the righteous fucianism, asceticism in Islam and Buddhism, end demands righteous and messianism in Islam and Zoroastrianism. means. Two conditions are of prime importance in T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought

This paper aims to unfold how Chiara Lubich’s1 charism of unity as a collective way of being and a way of life, is a challenge and an invitation towards a more humane international order that could be a channel for collaboration and dialogue among religions and help bring about universal 10 11 brotherhood. Whether in the field of human social relations or in the spiritual realm of religions, man, being God’s creature and a social being tended to aspire for communion with His Creator and his fellow human beings. Lubich highlights this in her philosophy of being.

Lubich’s Philosophy: Being in Communion with Absolute Being Lubich explains that in every language and the Absolute Being is.” culture, the concept of being is affirmed. Hu- I am myself when I give myself to the oth- man beings are immersed in communion with er, when out of love I am lost in the other. For everyone and everything. So, being cannot be instance, I have a flower and I give it; I deprive negated since it is around us (the various reali- myself of it. In depriving myself, I am losing ties) and within us (our inner lives). This being something of myself (this is non-being); in real- which is common to all - their becoming, their ity, because I give that flower, love grows in me limits, and the very cessation of their existence (this is being). reveals that all that exists is rooted in a Being Thus, my subjectivity is, when it is not- Chiara Lubich’s which simply and absolutely is. that is, when it is completely transferred, out The same for our inner lives. Through of love, into the other. And because we live faith, we are aware of such being. This aware- our nothingness, we affirm with ourselves the Spirituality of Unity: ness is light, and at the same time, confession superiority of God, His being-Everything. At of the Absolute Being, of the most pure Light. the same time, because we are nothing by being An Invitation for Universal Brotherhood Human beings invoke and seek this most pure love in the present, God’s immense love opens By: Ma. Concepcion O. Abaya Light as its guarantee, certainty, and final des- the way for us to participate, such that we are Focolare Movement Philippines tination. “nothing” of ourselves and “everything” be- To say “I” is opening oneself, in commu- cause of Him.In short, “I am when I am not.”2 nion with the being of all things, saying that

Lubich‘s Spirituality of Unity: God - Love The above philosophy of being was fertile in their hands as they run to the air raid shel- ground for the discovery of God- Love amidst ters, Chiara and her six companions discovered the ruins of the Second World War. Lubich the testament of Jesus “That All men Be One” understood that God was constructing a new (John 17:21) in a new light. This then became reality in their hearts. With only the Gospel the Magna Carta of a Movement3 that was T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent

born. She narrates: If we remember correctly, it was on the each person in this way. a l T hought them in every way. The Gospel says that a l T hought It was during the war. A few girls and I were feast of Christ the King. We were impressed in a dark room, perhaps a cellar, I don’t remem- by the liturgy that day: “Ask of me and I will even counts the hairs of your head (cf Luke ’s vision shows a parallelism: “Therefore, it is necessary in every moment ber. We were reading the testament of Jesus by make the nations your heritage and the ends 12:7). The Qur’an repeats this, “He is closer the light of a candle - Jesus’ last will. This is the of wakefulness [or vision], one must be facing of the earth your possession.” (Psalms 2:8). to us than our jugular vein.” (50:16) Him, until in one’s heart, there is the quietude founding document of unity, Jesus’ testament. We believed it.5 We didn’t read anything else, only the Testa- This spirituality of unity is based on the of one’s awareness...that whatever one does, con- 12 10 13 ment of Jesus. One by one, those difficult words Those days were so full of light; they knew understanding that God is a God of Love, a sciously or not, all will be directed to Him...” seemed to become clear. We felt that we could the Gospel by heart but everything appeared Father. Lubich envisions the whole human- He sums up our relationship with Him understand them. What particularly remained new. Lubich kept on writing notes and shar- ity as one family with the same Father who when he describes the Perfect Man, God’s Vice- with us was the conviction that the Testament ing with her friends whatever she understood gerent, who he is “for God in the same place as loves them personally and collectively. of Jesus was the Magna Carta of our new way from God. There was only one topic, the most the eye of the eye is for the man, with which of life and of all that would soon come to life Ibn Arabi7 echoes the same reality that important for the newly-founded Movement: seeing happens, and that is what is meant by around us. This experience alone would suffice we are one family as he points out that we to show how unity is the specific characteristic Unity. “While all the Gospel attracted us, to vision.” He continues: of the Focolare Movement. the point of considering it to be the rule of are “many by variety and personality, yet “Man is the sight of God over His creation and God’s mercification of it. He is the con- We know it: unity is what God wants the newly-born Movement, that light (to- there is no doubt that we are according to from us. We live in order to be one with one Reality and that (that single Reality) nective and collective word. And the universe Him and with one another. This splendid day we can say, that charisma) led us to un- is complete by his existence and he is for the collects together. That there are differences universe like the bezel of the seal, and he is the vocation binds us to heaven and immerses derline and to make our own especially the which distinguishes people is evident oth- place of the engraving by which signature all the us in a universal brotherhood. Nothing words which, interlinked with one another, erwise, there couldn’t be a plurality in the possessions of His treasuries are sealed. And he could be greater. For us, no Ideal could be would constitute the foundation stones of a is called the Vicegerent because of this, that he is 4 8 greater... it is logical. new spirituality: the spirituality of unity.”6 One.” the preserver of His creation like the seal is the For Lubich, it was discovering God so close But then young as they are, they realized They believed in God’s love which is safeguard of the treasures, and as long as the seal they are incapable of such a very demand- to them and therefore will not leave the renewal of the King is upon it, no-one dares to open it ing task for unity. So they went to Jesus and the first imperative of this new spiritual- of society to human efforts alone, but will take without His permission.”11 asked for the grace to teach them how to ity. They believed that they are personally an active role. Thus, she exhorts us to believe live this reality. Kneeling around an altar, and immensely loved by God, because He in the love of God and from the thousands of Unity through Dialogue they offered their lives so that if He wished, knows each one intimately and He cares for choices that life has to offers us, to look to God He could use them to accomplish unity. “But how is unity created?” Lubich her- as the ideal of our lives. In her 1946 notes, she self asks. With no hesitation, she responds: “It’s proposes: “Above all, each of us must keep our gaze [by means of] dialogue.” Unity comes about fixed on the one Father of so many children, and through dialogue. Jesus’ prayer for unity can then consider all persons as children of that one be fulfilled through dialogue. Incidentally, “the Father. Our thoughts and affections (because, of deepest aspiration of humanity is [also] the de- course, we loved in a merely ‘human’ way) must sire for unity, for love.”12 In effect, dialogue is go beyond every human limit and acquire the habit (I would say, the virtue) of turning con- the call of our times in all areas of human rela- stantly towards this universal brotherhood in tions. Yes, dialogue is the call of our times. Dia- our one Father: God.”9 logue means “loving, giving what is in us out of And every time they would read those love for the other, and also receiving and being notes of 1946 they would ask themselves: are enriched.”13 In short, dialogue is “a mutual en- we attuned to this? Are we imbued with this richment, a love for one another, a feeling that attitude? Do we consider everyone we meet, we are already brothers and sisters, the creation everyone, as candidates for unity? We must see of universal brotherhood here on earth.”14 T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent

But how to do dialogue?Lubich explains To love everyone is also enshrined in Bud- within them the others feelings, to resolve his or comes the pure and clear mirror in which the a l T hought a technique she calls calls an “art.” This, like dhism: her problem as one’s own, doing this for love. lights of Truth are reflected in all their splen- a l T hought in any other profession requires time and con- Oh Monks, you should work for the well be- It means to empty ourselves in order to under- dor.”30 ing of many, for the happiness of many, moved stand our neighbour and to put ourselves in his tinuous exercise due to demands of love, as to or her situation. If we are “love” always, in the Making ourselves one applies first of all 15 by compassion for the world, for the well being make it alive and operative. Tis “art of lov- of men and women.21 present moment, then without realizing it, we to inter- religious dialogue. It has been written 26 14 ing” is affirmed by Eric Fromm, noted psy- Secondly, it loves the other as oneself. In are living the nothing of ourselves. that: “To know the other’s religion implies put- 15 This “living the other” embraces all as- chologist (1900-1980) whom Lubich cites, the late fifties, she wrote: ting yourself in the shoes of the other, seeing “our civilization very rarely seeks to learn the Your neighbour is another you and you pects of life and it is the greatest expression the world as he or she sees it, grasping what it art of loving; despite the desperate search for should love him as such. If he cries, you should of love because by living in this way we are means for the other to be Buddhist, Muslim, love, everything else is considered to be more cry with him; if he laughs, you should laugh dead to ourselves, to our ego and to all attach- Hindu, etc.”31 important: success, prestige, money, power.”16 with him. If he is ignorant, you should make ments. We can achieve that “self-nothingness” Ibn Arabi who is considered one of the yourself ignorant with him. And if he has lost to which the great spiritualities aspire and that Lubich claims that in this art of loving “lies the his father, you should identify with him in his greatest luminaries of the firmament of Sufism, 17 secret of a dialogue that can build unity.” suffering.”22 emptiness of love which is accomplished in the personifies this reality when he mentioned the 27 First of all, it is a universal love; it loves Such love is echoed in the great world re- act of welcoming the other. Religion of Love. His Tawheed couched in vari- everyone. For this kind of love there is no such ligion of Islam: Selfnothingness highlights Abd al-Qadir ous universal symbolisms like the heart, light thing as the person who is pleasant or un- None of you is a believer until he loves for al-jilani concept of the divine spark. In his Is- and veil and particular symbolisms of mirror, pleasant, beautiful or ugly, big or small, fellow his brother that which he loves for himself. (The lamic Mysticism and the Sufis,28 he says, this di- patterns of life, fragrances and colors32reinforc- 23 countryman or foreigner, white, black, or yel- 42 Traditions of An-Nawawi) vine spark shines when the self becomes noth- es the art of loving as he exhorts people to be low, European or American, African or Asian, In Hinduism, for example, there is this ing. In the book The Secret of Secrets: Revelation “receptive to other tenets so as to have the true Christian or Jew, Muslim or Hindu. Everyone passage from the Mahabharata: of Islamic Sufism and Mysticism, he says that knowledge of what reality is.”33He is the fore- Do naught unto others which would cause nothingness is the state experienced by the Sufi, must be loved as God loves, without distinc- you pain if done unto you.24 In effect, it is the runner of dialogue in the 13th century char- tion. This means that we have to do away with Golden Rule, present in all religions. from the word saf i.e. pure. They are acterized by intolerance and injustices where all our preconceived judgments of others in or- Thirdly, it is the first to love. It doesn’t wait called by this name because “their inner world religion was the rallying point for war by both der to be sure that our love includes everyone, to be loved in order to love. That is, it doesn’t is purified and enlightened with the light of Muslims and Christians. 18 setting aside no one. wait to be loved in order to love, but it always wisdom, unity and oneness.” For the Sufi, sanc- Pope John Paul II in Madrasencourages all We found this same faith in God’s love takes the initiative. This way of loving exposes tity is journeying along a path which comes in towards dialogue. He says, “when we (belong- for His creation in many brothers and sisters of us to risks, but if we want to love in the image various stages of tasawwuf orIslamic Mysticism. ing to different religions) enter into dialogue other religions, beginning with those that trace of God, and to develop this capacity to love, The fourth stage is fana, self-annihilation. This among ourselves, that is, when we are open to their roots back to Abraham, religions which which God has put in our hearts, we must do is the last stage - annihilation of self, the state the other in a dialogue made of human kind- 19 affirm the unity of humankind. as He did. He did not wait for us to love Him of nothingness where the false self melts and ness, reciprocal esteem, respect and mercy, we That such love is universal because it is in return. Rather, He always shows us and in evaporates. The divine attributes then enter are also opening ourselves to God, we let God 34 rooted in God is evident for Ibn Arabi’: thousands of ways that He loves us first, what- his being. In contrast, the multiplicity of the be present in our midst.” It is He who is revealed in every face, sought ever our response might be. We have been worldly attributes and personalities disappear Lubich clarified that this art of loving in its in every sign, gazed upon by every eye, wor- created as a gift for one another and we fulfill and is replaced by the single attribute of unity. process, if lived out by more than one person, shipped in every object of worship, and All disappear except the One who is pleased pursued in the unseen and the visible. ourselves by striving to love our brothers and becomes reciprocal. Mutual love, then, is what Not a single one of His creatures sisters with a love that takes the initiative before and the one with whom He is pleased. Al-jilani is needed to bring about peace and unity in the can fail to find Him in any gesture of love on their part. This is what explains this last stage. world, and makes all humanity one family. its primordial and all the great founders of religions teach us with “In reality, the truth is always present. It nei- This dynamism of love demands daily ther disappears nor declines. What happens is original na- 25 training and sacrifice. Since to be committed to ture.20 their lives. that, the believer realizes and becomes one with Lastly, its concrete expression enables a per- that which has created him. In being with Him, live and bring unity means accepting suffering, son to make oneself one with the other.True the believer receives His pleasure: the temporal out of love. She stressed that the suffering re- love must also know how to make one with being finds its true existence by realizing the quired by love is the most powerful instrument the other. She says “to be one means to feel eternal secret.” (p.43) for giving humanity its highest dignity, that of 29 Ibn Arabi explains self – annihilation as feeling that we are not so much a togetherness the stripping of what is not real in the form of peoples, one beside the other, often in con- of action, attribute or essence at the same time flict with one another, but that we are one single implying perfect control of oneself in words, people.35Lubich has always revealed to all who deeds and thoughts. “It is at this price that one had embraced this spirituality that the secret attains an interior spiritual state where one be- T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent

for unity is contained in that cry, when Jesus gence of terrorism in a global landscape. She sees Mary is a model for dialogue in her noth- of Love: a l T hought after hours of agony cries “My God, my God, admonishes for the urgency of more solidarity, ingness because of her fullness of the divine. “My heart has become capable of every form: a l T hought why have you forsaken me?”(Matt. 27:46) above all, a fairer sharing of goods. She believes His comment on Sura 19:16 reveals this. He it is a pasture for gazelles and a convent for Chris- tian monks, Lubich recounts: people’s hearts must be touched so the sharing says that the substance of Mary is the very sub- And a temple for idols and the pilgrim’s Ka’ba “After decades of intense spiritual life, in line must come from our hearts. stance of original sanctity. She describes her and the tables of the Tora with this new spirituality, we realized that there 16 Lubich is convinced that to achieve this, as one drawn towards the source of the divine and the book of the Koran 17 is a moment in the life of Jesus which is charged I follow the religion of Love: whatever way Love’s with answers to all our questions. It is the mo- the idea and practice of fraternity must spread lights. Having the loftiest aspirations, she with- to many people- a universal fraternity would drew from all created things and penetrated camels take, ment of that great, very great ‘why’ which Jesus that is my religion and my faith.” addressed to God before dying, in his mysteri- be the answer. Then, one can look forward with the light of divine mystery. He explains, Were it not for the excess of your talking and the ous cry: ‘My God, my God, why have you for- to brothers and sisters who will know how to “When she had contemplated the manifesta- 36 turmoil in your hearts, you would see what I see saken me?’” look after one another, how to help one an- tion of the orient bursting forth from the eter- and hear what I hear! For Lubich, unity is not a concept, but When my Beloved appears, With what eye do I see 37 other, how to share what they have. Muzzafar, nal, its lights invaded her and its secrets reached a person: Jesus in his abandonment. Thus, a contemporary sociologist claims that people the inmost depths of her soul. Her soul con- Him? With His eye, not with mine, For none sees Him except Himself.” through all these years, this spirituality of uni- who have already a universal, spiritual vision ceived by the breath of the hidden mystery, she ty, by God’s grace, saw the flourishing of the of unity and are prepared to act could achieve became the bearer of the Word most High and - Ibn al-`Arabi, Tarjuman al-Ashwaq Movement, encompassing and bringing people their ideal. These individuals with faith in God of the light of the Spirit most lofty. When her in The Mystics of Islam, translated by together, in a deeply felt fraternity, coming and committed to social action can do much to state became grandiose by the reflection in it Reynold A Nicholson). from numerous Churches, various religions remove the injustices that are obstacles to unity. of the beauty manifesting the eternal, she hid and people with no formal faith but who share He encouraged these individuals or groups with herself far from creatures, putting her joy in the ENDNOTES with others great human values such as justice, such vision to communicate with one another nuptials of the Reality.”43 1 Chiara Lubich was born in Trent, Italy on January solidarity, peace, human rights, etc. The spiri- and together face the challenges that confront In this third millennium, the author be- tuality entails and its impact which went be- 22, 1920. In the same stature of Pope John Paul II and humanity in their own societies or in the world lieves that dialogue is the pathway for harmo- Mother Theresa of Calcutta, Lubich stands as a leading yond their initial group, passing frontiers and at large (Muzafar, 1990: 12).41 nious living in this global landscape, beset by spiritual figure in the modern times. She founded the Fo- making itself heard on the international scene, Lubich anchors on the contribution of re- onslaughts of uncertainties – brought about by colare Movement in 1943, and remained its president un- til her death on March 14, 2008. Her biographies include with passwords like the culture of giving and ligions to bring about universal fraternity. She diverse ethnic and religious affirmations. The sharing, the civilization of love and from this Jim Gallagher, A Woman’s Work: A Biography of the Foco- 38 says, “Where else, if not in the great religious willingness to explore the various avenues that lare Movement and its Founder (London: Harper Collins, evolved the Economy of Communion for the 1997), Franca Zambonini, Chiara Lubich: A Life for Unity 39 traditions, could a strategy of fraternity begin, a would lead to new pathways and to enter as poor and the Movement for Unity among strategy that could bring about real change even deeply as possible into other cultures and re- (London: New City Press, 1992) and Michel Pochet, Stars and Tears: A Conversation with Chiara Lubich (New York: politicians. in international relations?”42 The great spiritual ligions through dialogue will hopefully bring What then does the spirituality of unity New City Press, 1985) Edwin Robertson.Chiara (Manila: and moral resources of religions, with their ide- one to the rediscovery of the life-giving and life- New City Press, 1979) Her spiritual insights could be have to do with the Da’wah Islamiyah in the als, aspirations to justice, commitment to alle- generating component of our diverse religious gleaned in Chiara Lubich. Stirrings of Unity (Manila: New Contemporary World? viation of poverty, when mobilized to become convictions and commitments. At this point City Press,1987) Chiara Lubich.Essential Writings (New Lubich’s thrusts towards dialogue with sources of change could certainly be translated let us take the invitation for universal brother- York: New City Press, 2007). other cultures and faiths sees echoes of what 2 Chiara Lubich, “Spirituality for Harmonious Living.” into actions that could positively influence the hood as instrument for revival and challenges Acceptance Speech delivered at La Salle University, Mexico Abd al –Qadir al-jilani and Ibn Arabi refers in international order. in the reality posed by Ibn Arabi inhis Religion upon conferral of the honorary doctorate degree in Phi- the cleansing of the heart when she explains The various dialogues in the Focolare how we have to put aside our ego, our attach- Movement that evolved from the technique ments as to achieve “nothingness of self” to called the “art of loving,” are anchored on the which great spiritualities aspire. “In this way, reality of Mary as its model. Mary is revered by we become empty of self out of love by wel- people of various cultures and faiths. In fact, coming the other; we give space to the other, Mary has an important place in Islam. Mary’s who will always find room in our heart; and name and references appeared about 45 times because we will relate to others always, we are 40 in the Qur’an. In 21, 91; “Mary is the open to learning from them.” Virgin par excellence who guarded her womb; Lubich’s spirituality of unity has broken God breathed into her and cast into her His frontiers in the socio-economic and political word.” In Surah 23, 50 it states: “Mary is a sign fields. Her same thrust to dialogue is contained to the world.” in her concern for the structural injustices Sufi Al- Baqli (d.1209), in his II, 7 present in society, a major factor for the emer- T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent

losophy, Honoris Causa. 1997. In conferring to her the Introduction to the Meccan Revelations. Michel Chodkie- Abdul Majeed & Co., 1995). This project ushered for Lubich a doctoral degree “honoris a l T hought award of Honoris Causa in Philosophy, Vice-Rector Rafael wicz William Chittick and James Morris. (Pir Publications 29 Ibn Arabi. Kitâb al-fâna’ fi-l mushâhadah. causa” in social sciences from the University of Lublin, Po- a l T hought Martinez Cervantes acknowledges the “gift of Wisdom Inc.West Broadway, New York, 2002). 30 Osman Yahya. Theophanies and Lights in the Thought land in 1996 and another in Economics by the University which God has granted to Chiara, a gift which she shares 8 Ibn Arabi. Extract from the Fusus – al-Hikam. of Ibn ‘Arabi. Vol 10 Journal of the Muhyiddin Ibn Arabi of the Sacred Heart (Piacenza, Italy)in 1999. She also re- with all people of good will: the wisdom of the Gospel.” 9 Chiara Lubich. Notes 1946. Soceity, 1991, pp.35-44. ceived the “Cruzeiro do Sul” from the President of Brazil With this gift, Chiara has reminded the world on how to 10 Ibn Arabi. Quoted in Cecilia Twinch. The Beauty of 31 See F. Whaling, Christian Theology and World Reli- for promoting the Economy of Communion. In 1999, she reach this unity: love. He explains that this logic is pre- Oneness witnessed in the emptiness of the heart. Speech gions: A Global Approach, London 1986, pp. 130-131. presented the Economy of Communion at a global confer- 18 19 cisely what sustains the experiences and intuitions of Chi- delivered at the MIAS Symposium on Retreat, Berkeley, 32 Concepcion Abaya. Unpublished research on Ibn ence on “Market Society, Democracy and Solidarity” that ara Lubich, “The logic of love, wisdom, which is much October 1997. Arabi’s Tawheed in its Symbolisms, 2011. was held in Strasbourg, France organized by the 50th an- more than what we generally understand as ‘philosophy’.” 11 ______.Extract from the Fusus – al-Hikam.The call- 33 Ibn Arabi. Fusus I. 113 niversary of the European Council. Cf. Fondi-Zanzucchi. Such philosophy gave birth to a new reality, a small com- ing by revelation of the Brides of Absoluteness in the places 34 John Paul II, in Madras, Il dialogo interreligioso nel Un Popolo Nato dal Vangelo 504-522. munity, a seed that grew very quickly and became a tree in of absoluteness of the Wisdoms of the bezels. magistero pontificio, Libreria Editrice Vatiwcana, p. 385. 39 The “Movement for Unity in Politics” was founded which many birds can find their “home”. Indeed, this is 12 Chiara Lubich. Quoted in The Breadth and Depth of 35 Taken from Chiara Lubich. A Spirituality for Harmo- by Lubich on May 2, 1996 in Naples at a meeting with the meaning of “focolare”: “Home”, “fire”, “warmth”. Chiara Lubich’s Instrument of Dialogue by Alexis Deodato nious Living.” Acceptance Speech. Delivered at La Salle 40 politicians adhering to the spirituality of unity from 3 After the Second World War, Chiara Lubich and her S. Itao, New City Magazine, March 2011. University, Mexico. 1997. For further reading see Chi- diverse political parties. Based on a mutual agreement to first companions lived together in a house which people 13 Ibid. ara Lubich. Unity and Jesus Forsaken (Manila: New City love the party of the other as one’s own, the individual called “Focolare” meaning hearth or fireplace. In 1947, 14 Ibid. Press,1985); Chiara Lubich. The Cry of Jesus Crucified and politician strives to bring ahead his party’s platform. The Bishop Carlo de Ferrari of Trent recognized the emerging 15 Crescencia C. Gabihan, The Spiritual Vision of Chiara Forsaken in the History and Life of the Focolare Movement adherents of this Movement regard politics as a possibility group as a Movement in its own right which was given the Lubich: Pathways of Inter religious Dialogue. Unpublished from its Birth in 943 until the Dawn of the Third Millen- to love the neighbor in a crescendo of charity that goes name the Movement of Unity. Later it was called the Foco- Thesis for a Doctorate in Theology, UST 2007. nium (New York: New City Press, 2001). from the interpersonal level up to the “polis.” It is not a lare Movement. The Focolare Movement is present in 182 16 Cf. Eric Fromm, “L’arte di amare” in: Il Saggiatore 36 Ibid. For further reading see “Acceptance Speech.” new political party; rather it is a “locus” where persons countries. The Focolare’s engagement in inter-religious di- (Milan, 1971), 18. Quotation cited in: Lubich, “Brother- Unpublished talk delivered on the conferral of the hon- differing in cultural and social backgrounds and with di- alogue extends to the Muslims, Jews, Hindus, Buddhists, hood and Peace in the Various Religions.” Unpublished orary doctorate degree in Theology. University of Santo verse functions and political parties, accept the challenge Sikhs, and several others. People who profess no religious speech delivered to a group of Islamic theologians and Tomas Manila, January 14, 1997. “This was how we called to search and increase the common good. In December conviction have also been embraced by the Focolare. Then Imams from different in Spain and North Af- Jesus in this mystery that summarizes and is central to his 2001, Lubich proposed a “pact of fraternity” to a group in the last decades, the Focolare has engaged in dialogue rica. Mariapolis Center “Luminosa,” Madrid, December redemptive mission. In a climax of love and suffering, He of Italian parliamentarians in Rome. Since then a regular with various areas of culture Other movements which have 7, 2002. cries out from the cross: My God, my God, why have you meeting is held among them for a spiritual and practical come to life from the Focolare include: Gen Movement, 17 Chiara Lubich. “Initiatives of Change” (Moral Re- forsaken me?” (Mk 15:34; Mt 7:46). It is in this moment deepening focused on fraternity. Similar groups meet in New Families Movement, New Humanity Movement, etc. armament) Can Religions be Partners in Peace Building? in which He experiences separation from His Father with the Czech Republic, in Slovakia, Brazil, Austria and Ar- 4 Chiara Lubich, “Unity, Part I” Unpublished speech Caux, Switzerland, July 29, 2003. whom He is and remains one” Cf. Focolare Interdisciplin- gentina. In 2001, a conference was held in Innsbruck delivered to the international Members. Rocca di Papa, 18 Chiara Lubich. “Love of Neighbour in the Spiritu- ary Study Center. An Introduction to the Abba School (New (Austria) entitled “Thousand Cities for Europe” organized Italy, October 5, 1981. ality of Unity.” Unpublished speech given on November York: New City Pressl, 2002), 26. by the “Movement for Unity in Politics” in collaboration 5 Chiara Lubich, “Towards a Spirituality of Unity.” Un- 1, 2002 at the Fifth Congress for Muslim Friends of the 37 Lolita Castillo. Unpublished Thesis “The Vision and with the mayor of Innsbruck, who was then president of published speech delivered at theBossey Ecumenical Insti- Focolare Movement in Castelgandolfo (Rome). Praxis of Nothingness and Unity in the Spirituality of the League of Mayors of the European Council. The main tute. Celigny (Switzerland), October 26, 2002. 19 ______. “Initiatives of Change” (Moral Re-arma- Chiara Lubich.” Doctoral Thesis. De La Salle University, speakers for the occasion were Chiara Lubich and Prof. 6 ______. A Spirituality for Harmonious Living.” La ment) Can Religions be Partners in Peace Building? Caux, 2005. Romano Prodi, president of the European Commission. Salle University, Mexico. 1997. Switzerland, July 29, 2003. 38 In the field economics, Lubich has initiated the Econ- Fraternity was highlighted as the basis for the political vi- 7 Shaykh Ibn Arabi al-Shaykh al-Akbar (1165-1240) 20 Ibn ‘Arabi, Futûhât al-Makkiyya. omy of Communion wherein business enterprises share sion that has guided, and must still guide, the path towards a Spanish Sufi in the Sunni Order, was born Murcia, in 21 Mahagga, 19. their profits into three parts so that a third goes to the the unity of Europe: unity in diversity. Cf. Fondi-Zanzuc- Andalusia, Spain. He started traveling in his adolescent 22 Chiara Lubich, “Brotherhood and Peace in the Vari- poor, another third goes for the formation of people in chi, Un Popolo Nato dal Vangelo, 523-539. years meeting spiritual teachers and “Friends of God” ous Religions.” Unpublished speech delivered to a group of the culture of giving, while the remaining third is allot- 40 Chiara Lubich. “Imagine a World Enriched by Di- throughout Spain and North Africa. During his pilgrim- Islamic theologians and Imams from different mosques in ted to the company for the growth and improvement of versity: What future for a multi-ethnic, multi-cultural and age in Mecca at the age fifteen, he had an extraordinary Spain and North Africa. Mariapolis Center “Luminosa,” the business. This project was launched during her trip multi-faith society?” Speech delivered at Central Hall, mystical “unveiling” (kashf) or “opening” (fotuh) where he Madrid, December 7, 2002. in Sao Paolo Brazil (1991) after viewing the mocambos Westminster, London, June 2004. wrote his Al-Futuhat al-Makkiyya (The Meccan Revela- 23 ______.Quoted in “Love of Neighbour in the (squatters) amidst the affluent section of skyscrapers. Car- 41 Muzafar, Chandra, “What is Unity?” Aliran Monthly. tions) where diverse topics of Tasawwuf (Islamic mysti- Spirituality of Unity.” Unpublished speech given on No- dinal Evaristo Ams defined the area as the crown of thorns. Vol. 10 No. 2, 1990. cism) are illuminated in the light of the Qur’an and Ha- vember 1, 2002 at the Fifth Congress for Muslim Friends The business enterprises engaged competent persons who 42 ______. “Imagine a World Enriched by Diversity: dith. He is also known for al-Fusus al-Hikam (Bezels of of the Focolare Movement in Castelgandolfo (Rome). Ar- will voluntarily operate their enterprises according to this What future for a multi-ethnic, multi-cultural and multi- Wisdom) which dwells on the aspects of self-knowledge, chives of the Focolare Movement. Rocca di Papa, Rome scheme. They are people linked by a Gospel- based rela- faith society?” Speech delivered at Central Hall, Westmin- interior understanding and saintliness and a collection of (Italy). tionship of mutual love. Currently, there are about 800 ster, London, June 2004. poems, Tarjuman al-Ashwaq written during his encounter 24 Ibid. big and small business enterprises worldwide committed 43 Christopher L. Jaban, Rodrigo F. Ponce, Crescencia with Persian Islam. It contained his famous Lady Nizam. 25 Ibid. to the objectives of the Economy of Communion. An C. Gabihan. “Showing the Asian Faces of Mary,” Unpub- His innumerable works disseminated by his followers be- 26 ______. When did we see You, Lord?(New York: initiative to establish business parks near the Movement’s lished Monograph submitted to the Faculty of Sacred The- came the cornerstone for Islamic revelation. History con- New City Press, 1979) 113. “little towns” that are witnesses to reciprocal love was later ology, UST, 2002. firmed his destined – role of being the “Seal of Muham- 27 ______. “Initiatives of Change” (Moral Re- organized. These business parks aim to offer shares at rates madan Sainthood”, as his voluminous writings containing armament) Can Religions be Partners in Peace Building? affordable for the masses to make them active business the “the underlying spiritual “Reality” meant to reveal and Caux, Switzerland, July 29, 2003. partners. The Economy of Communion launched in 1991 convey – was specially intended to open up the inner spiri- 28 Hadrat ‘Abdul-Qadir al-Jilani. The Secret of Secrets: has become the topic of researches by economic experts as tual meanings at the heart of all preceding prophetic rev- Revelation of Islamic Sufism and Mysticism. Interpreted by alternative to the current market system as well as in var- elations (and especially the Qur’an and . Taken from Shaykh Tosun Bayrak al- Jerrahi al –Halveti (Malaysia: S. ied theses/dissertations from different parts of the world. T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent

Introduction a l T hought a l T hought The adherents of the Abrahamic faiths have lived as neighbors since the day their spiritual great grandfather lived. Among approximately five billion religious people in the world today, i.e., almost 85 percent of the world population,1 it is forecasted that there will be three billion Christians and 2 20 2.2 billion Muslims by 2050. Their relationship plays a significant role in global peace and human 21 flourishing. The first part of this paper gives an overview on the role of faith in today’s multi-religious communities in order to support its argument on the importance of interfaith engagement between Muslims and Christians for the sake of world peace. This writing uses Indonesia as its case study to illustrate a country’s progressive transformation from a religiocentric to a religiorelative community and how this newly developed landscape impacts its nation. The last part of this paper suggests ap- proaches that can be implemented in order to achieve sustainable solutions for peace.

Unity in Diversity and the Unleashing of Social Value of Faith Tradition What will the world be like if Christians peace to the world unless these values are assimi- and Muslims live beyond tolerance and engage lated by the community at large. The question is one other for the betterment of mankind? What if it is realistic to presume that such assimilation will happen if fear and war is transformed into is possible knowing that many of these 55 per- love, cooperation and trust? After all, Muslims cent of the world’s citizens live in rather unreach- and Christians do share many common values able areas? This is not an easy task. However, an and their faith is rooted in a common historical attempt to overcome such difficulties may begin tradition. by doing good works together. Many social scientist, including Peter Berg- This proposal may sound very theoretical to er who in the 1970s advocated the seculariza- some. Perhaps, the result from the Jubilee USA tion theory, which says religion will dissolve with Network will awaken us from underestimating modernization, now recognize the resurgence the power of interfaith unity in working towards of religion in the 21st century. Certainly, this is the common good. An alliance of over 75 reli- good news only if faith adherents live in peace gious denominations, faith communities and Muslims and Christians and if the emergence in spirituality promotes be- NGOs, the Jubilee members persevere to work neficent and benevolent mutual behavior. Some for the cancellation of international debt owed scholars say that hospitality in hermeneutics and by developing countries. As a result, more than Interfaith Initiative for human rights hermeneutics is emerging among 23 of the poorest countries in the world received 3 modern religions. Unfortunately, such in vogue over $88 billion debt cancellation in 2010.4How- Peace Building: A Case hermeneutics on religious ethics will not bring ever stunning this outcome may be – and there Study on Indonesia

By: Norani Abu Bakar Yale University T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent

with these rapid changes, persuading and culti- some Muslim and Christian groups. However, a a l T hought vating a religiorelative attitude within their com- peaceful relationship between both faith adher- a l T hought munity. There have been many optimistic schol- ents cannot be achieved unless their respective arly voices affirming that the process of religious leaders set an example in extending their hands engagement of human rights is now underway towards each other for forgiveness and reconcili- 22 in Christian, Islam, Judaic, Buddhist, Hindu and ation prior to working on tangible matters. In 23 traditional communities alike.6 Some reports spite the aforementioned pessimistic response, A also on the growing momentum of transforma- Common Word initiative resonates in the hearts tion from a religiocentric to a religiorelative per- of some international and national faith related spective.7 They define the two saying the former leaders though they were not involved with the causes many deaths and the latter brings hope initial founding of the collaboration. Among and peace. Thus, the perspective on religiosity these leaders are non-Muslims and non-Chris- in this century should shift towards preemptive tians. collaboration where compassionate and fruitful One of the most significant offshoots from interfaith engagement is not initiated during the A Common Word initiative is the launching of actual crisis but simply because living ethically is ‘World Interfaith Harmony Week,’ a UN resolu- are more – so much more remain to be done, primary mean is through a mutually respecting a core essence to every faith tradition. tion for worldwide interfaith harmony that falls with seemingly insurmountable obstacles ahead. discourse. As love is the essence of each faith, One of the most remarkable religorelative annually on the first week of February. It aims to However, as the adherents of Abrahamic faiths communicating with love and wisdom or diplo- efforts is encapsulated by ‘A Common Word’ col- promote harmony among all peoples regardless tradition, Christians and Muslims are to recall macy is scriptural. It is diplomacy that elevates laboration on loving God and neighbors among of their religions. This initiative was led by King and claim the covenant of God of Abraham that a relationship from the level of tolerance to en- Muslim and Christian leaders.8 This effort was of Jordan, HM King Abdullah II and HRH God will bless Abraham’s descendants and turn gagement. Diplomacy facilitates forgiveness, re- initiated corporately by 138 Muslim leaders Prince Ghazi of Jordan as a follow-up of Prince 5 them into great nations. pentance, reconciliation and restoration. It trans- led by HRH Prince Ghazi of Jordan, dozens of Ghazi’s initiative on A Common Word.9 forms the relationship between two strangers to grand muftis, an ayatollah and leaders of many The initiative A Common Word could be Interfaith Diplomacy, Collaboration and En- acquaintances, casual friendship and then to love Islamic countries and Muslims scholars and 102 gleaned also in the Philippines through the Mag- gagement relationship. Christians including His holiness Pope Benedict, bassa Kita Foundation Incorporated (MKFI) and The mainstream Muslims and Christians Communication as an act of God’s love patriarchs, clergies and academia. This important the Philippine Center for Islam and Democracy agree that the core of their faith promotes human is inherent in Abrahamic faiths. According to breakthrough gives evidence that it is possible for (PCID). Magbassa Kita Foundation Incorporated rights and dignity, tolerance, solidarity and equal- Islam, the conveys ’s command Muslims and Christians to work together to- is a humanitarian work established by former- ity founded on the basic principle of loving God for mankind which can be further understood wards reconciliation and peace building while Senator Santanina Tillah Rasul, way back in the and our neighbors. Numerous passages from the through the life and the relationship of Prophet acknowledging the differences persisting be- 1960s in response to the need to alleviate the Qur’an and sayings of Prophet Muhammad tes- Muhammad with others. In Christianity, the tween both faiths. very low level of literacy in the Southern Philip- tify to this. And similarly, many passages in the Lord Jesus Christ, the Incarnate Word, com- There have been also many voices critiquing pines. Its adult education programs were subse- Bible and sayings of Lord Jesus Christ speak on municates the will of the Father, converses and interfaith diplomacy as the mask of hypocrisy quently adapted by the Philippine government these values. The two most relevant texts are: lives among the people to show them the way of in acknowledging the tension between Muslims and recognized by the United Nations Edu- ‘So invoke the Name of thy Lord and devote thy- life. After his ascension, the Holy Spirit manifests and Christians. It is true that xenophobia, dis- cational, Scientific and Cultural Organization self to Him with a complete devotion’- Quran: Al- in the lives of the adherents and interacts with trust, bigotry exists and wars are waged between (UNESCO). Both organizations aim to culti- Muzzammil, 73:8 them. Indeed, conversing with love including ‘None of you has faith until you love for your correcting, rebuking or condemning human be- neighbour what you love for yourself’ by Prophet Muhammad havior is an essence of both faiths. Only through ‘Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God, the Lord is the conviction that diplomacy is the will of God One. And you shall love the Lord your God with all can both adherents embrace God’s beautiful plan your heart, with all your soul, with all your mind, for our coexistence. And the fundamental con- and with all your strength.’This is the first command- cept of fruitful diplomacy must first begin with ment. / And the second, like it, is this: ‘You shall your neighbour as yourself.’There is no other com- cognitive dialogue based on correct information mandment greater than these.” Jesus Christ sayings in order for peace to be established. -Mark 12:29-31 As globalization intensifies the diversifica- Faith values such as loving God and neigh- tion of faith traditions in a community, faith re- bors can be shared in many ways and often, its lated leaders needs to be proactive in keeping-up T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent

lic missionaries brought by the Portuguese, and tantism, Catholicism, Hinduism and Buddhism. a l T hought Protestant missionaries brought by the Dutch. Pancasila, the influence of shari`ah in na- a l T hought The latter colonized Indonesia from the 17th tional policy and the position of official national century to 19th century. From the 20th century religions are still debated in contemporary In- onwards, an increase in missionary efforts and donesia. Some Islamic groups demand for more 24 the growth of both Roman Catholicism and var- compliance between official law and shari`ah and 25 ious Protestant denominations took place. The advocate for a completely Islamic state. However, Dutch sustained good diplomatic relationship Muslim proponents of pluralism and liberal Is- by supporting pre-existing Islamic governance lam, as well as members of other religions, fa- structures so it could continue its trading busi- vor the freedom of religion and the secular state. ness in this region. Their non-intervention on The largest Muslim organizations in Indonesia, Islamic religious matter strengthened the author- Muhammadiyah (1912) and Nahdlatul ‘Ulama ity of rural Islamic boarding schools and mysti- (NU) (1926), coming from the modernist and cal leaders. Towards the twentieth century, these neo-traditionalist movements respectively, are leaders later became the founders of indepen- committed to upholding Pancasila. They do not dence movements, which merged around either advocate instituting a Muslim state and instead vate harmonious and peaceful coexistence in the ligiocentric and religiorelative perspectives can Muslim or popular nationalist parties. promote a pluralistic, democratic state. Organi- southern part of Mindanao where tensions exist best be studied by analyzing transformational Since Indonesia’s independence, there has zations such as the Liberal Islam Network (1999) among the Muslims, Christians and Lumads (a faith-related experiences of a nation. This paper been an increased observance in the less cultural- are dedicated to advancing liberal Islam. They minority race with no specific faith tradition). selects Indonesia as its case study. To facilitate a ly-influenced towards the more universal form of aim to defend civil liberties such as freedom of Many of their projects focus on improving edu- deeper understanding of the conflict, its contrib- Islam. This country is not an Islamic state even expression, minority rights, women’s rights and cation among the marginalized Muslim youths. uting factors and the impact of the crisis on the though its inhabitants are predominantly Mus- freedom of religion. Although there are several The mayor of Zamboanga City, Mr. Lobregat, a citizens, the paper gives a brief background and lims. Today, the largest Muslim organizations political parties that have been founded on re- Catholic, strongly supports the program which some facts on Indonesia. Later, an analytical dis- in Indonesia are the “traditionalists” (Nahdlatul ligious grounds, elections routinely demonstrate addresses the needs of Muslim communities in cussion will be presented on the way interfaith Ulama) and “modernists” (Muhammadiyah). the general population’s support for Pancasila this district. Such endeavors reaffirm the positive engagement was implemented prior to and after In post-colonial Indonesia, several presidential and for continuing a history of tolerance and di- growth and awareness of religiorelative perspec- the conflict. This segment will also outline some regimes - most notably that of President Sukar- versity for the many religions co-existing in In- tive in the area. of the policies that may have developed as a result no (1945-1967) and President Suharto (1967- donesia. Interfaith engagement or dialogue should of the crisis. 1998) - created public policies that favored some Indonesia guarantees religious freedom to not necessarily be initiated to counter-react to a religious groups. President Sukarno established six officially recognized religions, frequent con- crisis. Rather communities can set up programs General background on Indonesia and the cri- the Pancasila or Five Principles as the founda- flict happens; the largest scale of religious violence to prevent and derail such crisis. An example of sis in 1999 - 2000 tion of its new constitution, “Belief in the One happened in 1999-2000. Some of the riots were a proactive approach is apparent in the interfaith Indonesia is the most populous Muslim- and Only God; just and civilized humanity; the between Muslims and Christians. In Sulawesi, work of the Islamic Society of North America majority nation in the world. The religious unity of Indonesia; deliberation for consensus; more than 1000 people are believed to be killed. (ISNA) which executed many interfaith projects population consists of 88.2% Muslim main- and social justice for all of Indonesia’s people.” In 2006, the government executed three Chris- decades before September-11 incident. Two of ly Sunni with slightly over one million Shi’a, Later, under President Suharto, the government tian ministers who incited the religious violence the interfaith projects organized or participated 5.9% Protestant, 3.1% Catholic, 1.8% Hindu officially recognized five religions: Islam, Protes- in Poso, the place where violence was triggered by ISNA are: ISNA and National Association for and 0.8% Buddhist and 0.2% belong to other the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) religions.10The Indonesians came in contact with collaboration in areas of poverty, education and Arab traders engaged in commerce with Indo- anti-bigotry; and ISNA support to Interfaith nesia in the fourth century CE. However, Islam Health Fair in Detroit where numerous Muslim began to be assimilated only in the beginning of and Jewish doctors, nurses and social workers the eleventh century through intermarriages and were on hand to provide medical check ups and the movement of Sufism. In the earlier days, Is- meals for participants who are homeless. lam in Indonesian retained much of the previous blend of Hinduism, Buddhism and Animatism. Interfaith Initiative for Conflict Resolution in Christianity arrived in Indonesia during the Indonesian sixteenth century through two means: Catho- An understanding of the dynamism of re- T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent

to greater tension. Many of the privately owned gagement between the faith traditions. The pres- a l T hought commerce and economic entities were controlled sure from the economic crisis has wiped away a l T hought by Chinese-Indonesians. Even though Chinese their harmonious community life. Furthermore, Indonesians comprised only 3 to 4 percent of interfaith initiative is not new in Indonesia. The the population, they have much influence and first formal inter-religious conference took place 26 disproportionate control of the Indonesian way back in November 1967. It was sponsored 27 economy. The Chinese came to Indonesia dur- by the government to develop some strategies ing the period of Dutch colonization and have for resolution towards religious related social taken up business and professional employment. problems. In this conference, the participants Historically, they went through great discrimina- proposed a concept of inter-religious harmony tory practices, bear up with prejudices and even which can foster engagement so that every re- violence and were once purged during the anti- ligious community can live together peacefully communist movement that took place under the and respectfully.13 Suharto governance in 1965. Many of them are In 1969, the government issued a joint de- Christians, Mahayana Buddhists and Confu- cree with the minister of religious and internal cians. Their high financial status provoked resent- affairs in preserving harmony among the - by a brawl between Christian and Muslim gangs versus me’ and not as ‘us - Indonesians,’ the Abra- ment causing the outbreaks of the anti-Chinese bers of religious communities. This decree was in December 1998, which sparked the religious hamic faiths adherents who share many common violence. Soeharto’s son-in-law, Gen. Prabowo renewed in 2005. The decree mandates govern- violence in 1999. Many protested the execution values. This version of religiosity is articulated by Subiyanto, helped fuel anti-Chinese sentiment ment leaders in each provinces and districts to of the three Christians and criticized the govern- scholars as religiocentric. by labeling them “traitors” who fled with their take part in sustaining harmony among religious ment for not punishing Muslim instigators in the While some media coverage tried to portray money abroad. After the riots in the cities of communities and to support the communities to same fashion. the core reason of the unrest to violence between Jakarta, Solo, and Surabaya, the situation wors- establish a forum called Inter-Religious Harmony After the 1999-2000 event, a peace agree- the Muslims and the Christians, religion was not ened especially for ethnic Chinese women who Forum (Forum Kerukunan Umat Beragama - ment was signed between two parties in 2002, the main contributing factor to it. Religion be- were submitted to mass rapes and other forms of FKUB). Its aim is to build dialogue among re- but some sporadic incidents still happened after came a scapegoat to Indonesia’s economic crisis sexual assault in a systematic, organized fashion. ligious leaders, accommodate aspirations from that. Between March 1996 and August 2005, which was an aftermath of the financial crisis religious organizations and communities, and to about 180 churches were destroyed, burned or that hit Asian economics beginning July 1997. Interfaith Initiative Before and After the Con- give recommendations to the government on the closed by force. Other incidents that can be cited Before this crisis, the exchange rate between the flict feasibility of erecting places of worship. Mem- are: the closure by force of more than two dozen rupiah and the dollar was roughly 2,600 rupiah bers of this forum are religious leaders from the churches in West Java by the Islamic Defender to 1 USD. The rate plunged to over 11,000 ru- The convergence of various factors in the field of politics, socio -economics and religion various traditions. Front (FPI) in 2003; the imprisonment of believ- piah to 1 USD in January 1998. The currency The unrest in 1999-2000 and the sporadic ers from the “Sang Timur” Catholic School; the devaluation contributed to a sharp decline in the may have been contributing factors to the tur- moil in 1999-2000. Even though faith seems to religious problems that continuously take place conflict between Muslim residents and members purchasing power as the increase in the price for in Indonesia to date indicate that the country of a Christian Batak Church; and violent attack basic goods outpaced wage increment. The im- have the least influence in these, the unrest had its significant impact on religious communities. needs to institute certain mechanisms to help against followers of the Muslim Ahmadiyah sect. pact of lower real wages pushed many poor peo- strengthen the systems concerned. This can be The Christians were not the only people ple below the poverty line. The sharp recession Given that Indonesian culture is rich in hospital- ity, it is difficult to imagine the absence of en- improved first by studying the available reports who were attacked. In Ambon city, the provincial caused the contraction of GDP by 13.1 % and but unfortunately, many reports are not prop- capital of Maluku, both Christian churches and only 0.8% growth in 199912. The situation got mosques were burnt down along with hundreds worse when the agricultural output, the econom- of houses, banks, shops, stalls, vehicles and gov- ic sector composing the bulk of the employed ernment buildings. Around 20,000 people were Indonesians, was affected by poor weather, natu- forced to flee their homes and take refuge in mili- ral disasters, and civil unrest. The tension which tary headquarters, houses of worship and other ushered rioting and nationwide unrests pressured facilities.11 The unrest saw a number of people the public and forced President Suharto to step being injured, properties being burned down, down after 30 years in power. Consequently, po- people seeking refuge at worship places, schools litical turmoil was at its peak. being destroyed and people tortured to death. In Rising prices, food shortages, devaluation of short, all suffered the same fate. In this fight, the rupiah and massive unemployment widened the Muslims and the Christians look at each as ‘you gap between the rich and the poor and this led T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent

by each interfaith organization. Interestingly, speech on the 10th November 2010. Every coun- a l T hought none of the description of the activities covered try has its imperfections, but acknowledgement a l T hought by the NGOs include restoration of the dignity, should be given to its national scholars, some of forgiveness and healing. The report from Oslo them paid a high price to voice their insights on written in 2002 also had no record on these religious pluralism and interfaith engagement. 28 events as taking place in the interfaith initiatives. Among the leading scholars in this area are; 29 Scholars however suggested that the primary dis- H.A.Mukti Ali, a modern Islamic thinker, who tinction between an interfaith diplomacy (IFD) pioneered the idea of inter-religious harmony in and other identity-based dialogues is that the 1960 when he was the minister of religious af- IFD becomes a religious experience itself.15The fairs (1971-1978). Mr. Ali developed a model book, Unity in Diversity writes that a success- of inter-religious harmony that was based on Is- ful IFD is transformative; it transform strangers lamic principles of justice, absolute freedom of into an interdependent relation with one another conscience, the perfect equality among humans, as a member of the community. For both faiths and the powerful solidarity in social interaction, groups to be interdependent with one another, which serves as reference when dealing with in- forgiveness and healing must first take place. ter-religious issues. erly documented, making it difficult to evaluate. among the public. Perhaps in the next decade, The collective memory from the past cannot be In studying the progress of interfaith en- Many cases, especially violence towards the eth- especially, with President Obama’s speeches on erased simply through this exercise. However, gagement in a country, an analysis should also nic Chinese women have not been thoroughly Indonesia as a model for religious tolerance in 14 this is the stepping-stone prior to addressing be made by reading reports from external parties investigated because in-depth information is not November 2010 plus the improvement in me- the commonalities on justice and human rights such as the reports written by US International available for certain reasons. dia technology and the inclusion of the studies and partnership in building better communities. Religious Freedom Report (2006) and External One possibility could be the inadequate on pluralism in learning institutions, the inter- Between the Muslims and the Christians, the report from The Oslo Coalition (2002). The lat- infrastructure to support the execution of tasks faith initiative in Indonesia will grow exponen- painful history from the ‘crusade’ or ‘jihad’ still ter wrote that the general impression brought mandated to the government leaders of each tially. lingers in the heart of the adherents and this pre- home by the delegation was that of a strong and province and district. This infrastructure needs One of the leading interfaith organiza- existing tension may emerge during discourse. confident co-operation between the leaders of the to include training for the religious leaders to run tions is Indonesian Conference on Religion and Only forgiveness helps. Some scholars also sug- mainstream churches and the dominant Muslim the Inter-Religious Harmony Forum and system- Peace (ICRP) and the organization lists another gest that discourse may begin with a prayer in a networks of NU and Muhammadiyah.16 During atic documentation and reporting to the central 51 organizations throughout the country that way that is most comfortable to the participants. the Oslo visit to the various Islamic Boarding governance. The fact that the country comprises are considered interfaith organizations. All have The scale of the death figures from its reli- Schools in the rural NU-context of Jombang, 17,000 islands with about 243 million popula- similar activities: organizing interfaith forums, gious conflict is relatively low compared to many teachers who were asked about their opinion tion makes any management overarching in a dialogues, and events, and promoting pluralism countries with much smaller population. Sudan, on the current shari‘ah-debate responded say- widely disperse geographical area and diverse and cooperation among the different faith ad- which has about 40 million people today, had 2.5 ing they were against the inclusion of shari‘a in population extremely difficult. Under these cir- herents. Some of the interfaith organizations are; million deaths in its last 20 years of conflict. For the constitution, since “Indonesia is pluralistic”. cumstances, a decentralized system as such can Indonesian Peace Building Directory, which sup- such a big country with huge diversity of races They also reported that many Muslims volun- function well with the empowerment and com- ports interfaith and religious minority organiza- and religion, Indonesia has been able to maintain teered to protect churches during Christmas and petency of the leaders in si-tu which can only tions; Institute of Human Assistance of Interfaith a very high religious tolerance. President Obama Easter celebrations from being burnt. be made possible through proper training. It is Community, founded by leaders of Islam, Protes- during his visit to Indonesia affirmed this in his The Oslo report and the various writings understandable that this task was unmanageable tantism, Catholicism, Buddhism and Hinduism; during turmoil. However, as Indonesia’s economy Liberal Islam Network which focuses on gender recovers and the political environment becomes equality and interfaith dialogue; and Society for stable, the renewed decree may have greater po- Interreligious Dialogue, the second oldest Indone- tential of success with good management. sian organization involved in inter-religious dia- Today, the number of local NGOs dedicat- logue that was established in 1996 which focuses ed to interfaith and pluralistic concerns has in- on Indonesian religious leaders and youth. creased. This could be an indication of a positive The Pluralism Project of Harvard Univer- outcome of the initiatives that were launched in sity did a study on ‘Religious Pluralism in Indo- 1967 and 1969 by the Indonesian government. nesia’ through its ‘International Portrait’ chapter This attests that the common vision to cultivate and a report by Agus Hadi Nahrowi described a harmonious pluralistic society does resonate in great length the activities that are organized T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent

each other’s spirituality and religious practice 5 See Hebrew Bible or Old Testament, Genesis Chapter a l T hought is key to interfaith reconciliation. 15-17. a l T hought 6 John Witte, God’s Joust God’s Justice – Law and Religion in the Western Tradition, (Cambridge: Eerdmans, 2006), 77. Conclusion 7 Pippa Norris, Rogel Inglehart, Sacred and Secular – Re- ligion and Politics Worldwide, (New York: Cambridge Press, 2004), 4. 30 The core of the Abrahamic faith projects a 31 spirituality that characterizes the benevolent and 8 A Common Word is an initiative is a groundbreaking step towards reconciliation between Islam and Christianity beneficent way of religiosity. These values are led by Muslim and Christian leaders as a result of Muslim the treasure of Christians and Muslims. Shar- leaders’ invitation to peace in 2007. ing these commonalities in all disciplines of life, 9 Ref: http://acommonword.com/en/a-common- politics, and economics will fuse members in a word/11-new-fruits-of-a-common-word/442-un-com- pluralistic community from being tolerant to be- mends-a-common-word-a-common-word-leads-to- the-world-interfaith-harmony-week.html (accessed 4th ing engage with one another. This relationship is December 2010). to be cultivated in our daily life, with or without 10 Harvard University see http://pluralism.org/reports/ crisis. At times of conflict, the efforts of coming view/32 (accessed 3rd December 2010). together in resolving conflicts by adhering to the 11 See http://www.wsws.org/articles/1999/jan1999/indo- voiced the same tone that the development of addition to finding solutions to conflict reso- j30.shtml (accessed December 2010). common values and applying tactful wisdom, 12 Asian Development Outlook 2001 : II. Economic the interfaith initiative in Indonesia looks very lution and building the trust for interdepen- knowledge, efficient strategies, patient and love, Trends and Prospects in Developing Asia : Southeast Asia promising. The interfaith activists, scholars and dency towards one another. This initiative and developing partnership with the right key for Indonesia, see http://www.adb.org/documents/books/ religious leaders have reached another milestone can be done by local governments or NGOs. parties, including the rightist and leftist, will be ado/2001/ino.asp (accessed 3rd December 2010). 13 “Kerukunan Umat Beragama: Pengantar” see http:// since 1999. However, a few writings singled out c. Developing partnership between religious the best approach to crisis management. Long that while the government generally respects reli- leaders and all key parties to the conflict reso- www.humasdepag.or.id/kerukunan.php term solutions should be the motivational fac- 14 “Obama Lauds Indonesia as a Religious Tolerance gious rights, at some occasions, there are still re- lution, locally and internationally. This may tors to interfaith initiatives in every conflict reso- country,” see http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/asiap- ligious discrimination and restrictions for unrec- include the non-mainstream groups too, in lution. At the same time, the approach and en- cf/11/09/indonesia.obama/ (accesses 5December 2010). ognized religions. Another weakness mentioned addition to the partnership with the media gagement should always give room for each other 15 Mohamed Abu Nimer and others, Unity in Diversity – is that the government also sometimes tolerated which tend to create sensational reports for Interfaith Dialogue in the Middle East, (Washington: United to celebrate one’s own spiritual experience while States Institute of Peace Press, 2007), 15. abuse of religious groups by individuals, or failed the general public. walking through one’s life journey. 16 Report from The Oslo Coalition Report on Freedom to punish the perpetrators. For example, some of d. Educating religious teachers and clergies on of Relgion or Belief in 2002, see http://www.oslocoalition. org/html/project_indonesia/indonesia_project_report.html the inter-religious violence has been instigated Islam and Christianity, especially on the ‘hos- ENDNOTES by factions in the military and allowed to spread pitality in hermeneutics’17 of the Bible and (accessed 5 December 2010). 1 17 See Miroslav Volf, “A Voice of One’s Own: Public Faith due to the lack of police and law enforcement. Quran and contextualized research work. World Christian Trend, http://www.gordonconwell. edu/lifelong_learners/worldchristiantrends (accessed Octo- in a Pluralistic World” in Democracy and the New Religious Facilitate their personal relationship develop- ber 2010). Pluralism, ed. Thomas Banchoff (New York: Oxford Uni- Interfaith Engagement towards Sustainable ment with adherents of other faiths. 2 Ibid. versity Press, 2007), 280. and Lasting Peace e. Teaching and coaching the community 3 See, e.g. An-Naim, Toward an Islamic Reformation: Civ- il Liberties, Human Rights and International Law, (Syracuse: Based on the studies done on various reports members, perhaps through a centralized community center, on appreciation of oth- Syracuse University Press, 1990), 77. and discussions on Indonesia and the research on 4 Jubilee Debt Campaign (2010), see http://www.jubi- the interfaith initiatives that take place in areas ers’ culture and religion. Such initiative can leeusa.org/ (accessed Dec 2010). where there are Christians and Muslims, the rec- be edified by inviting the communities to or- ommendations for a long engagement initiative ganize an event together, for example, by cel- between Muslims and Christians may consist of ebrating the national day or other festivities. f. the following: Supporting the provision of the basic needs of both community members, such as having a. Educating the youths – this requires a sys- tematic development of educational materi- shelter, food, basic health care and education, als and pedagogy that allows conversation in including hygiene and home economics and a secured environment. management. g. b. Training interfaith initiative religious leaders Developing interfaith related policies and on how to run an interfaith discourse that competent team to implement the policies. h. allows the sharing of spiritual experience in As Abrahamic faiths adherents believe in God, advocating honor and respect towards T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought

32 The nature and validity of attributes ascribed to God to make His being intelligible has 33 long been a controversial issue among Muslim scholars and philosophers. The issue of (speech of God) as an attribute of God —considered fundamentally problematic as an attri- bute of God— and whether the attribute bears an eternal meaning as other attributes do, and whether it has a correlation with His nature, have been questions that have been pondered on by many Muslim scholars. While discussions on the nature of His kalam attribute continue, the The Issue different camps on this discussion have inevitably led to a very closely related topic, the nature of the Createdness of Qur’an of the Qur’an that is considered to be His revelation. While some sects and scholars advocate the createdness of the Qur’an and its temporality on the basis of its muhdas nature (created By: Mehmet Ata Az afterwards) and eternalness, others argue for its precedence and its non-createdness (ghayr-i Ankara University, Turkey makhluq) on the grounds of similar justifications and discourse. This study concentrates on the issue of the createdness of the Qur’an as it relates to the creation of the kalam attribute rather than the eternalness of kalam, the temporality of kalam or its relation to the nature of God. Before describing the emergence, the development and the historical course of the issue which caused deep debates among Islamic scholars throughout the historical period of , clarification needs to be made on the two fundamental perceptions regarded as the salient point of the topic under consideration. Behind the reasons for these explanations first lies the fact that the discussions on the createdness of the Qur’an did not reach a conclusion due to misinterpretation on the meanings of the same words as well as the way principles and concerns are being processed by the arguing schools, who built the doctrines upon concepts which were not thoroughly analyzed. Secondly, they identified the at- tribute of speech with speaking and did not see that the attribute of speech could be a reason or a means to speak. Therefore, it is necessary to determine which terminology or concepts were used from the 2nd century AH onwards, and to question the correctness of the notions and the meanings they carried, as these exercises determine the course of their debates and the conclu- sions they would lead into. 1. The two keywords: The makhluq (cre- cultural structure and adopted principles. ated) and ghayr makhluq (the un-created) During these more or less two centuries, the When the discussions on the Qur’an that common denominator of verbal and written took place between AH 124 and the 4th cen- debates was centralization of the terms cre- makhluq tury AH are examined, it is obvious that the ated ( ) particularly by the Mu’tazilah ghayr makhluq reason for not reaching a consensus or con- and the uncreated ( ) as two clusion is insufficiently analyzed notions, as presuppositions. Since the beginning of the well as the issues arising from different mean- 2nd century AH, the discussions that were ings ascribed to the same concepts. Each and made through the ‘risalat’ or between the ex- every part of the discussions tried to solve perts on the science of hadith and the Mus- the issue in the light of its own knowledge, lim jurisprudence that represented the Salafi, as well as the Mu’tazilah, were focusing on T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought whether Qur’an as being “created” is appro- by the kalam schools on the issue of the cre- dent from the subject.5 Lastly, for the Salafi, lamullah which is muhdecannot be imagined priate terminology. atedness of Qur’an. First of them is presented it is regarded as a transcendent kalam that is in conjunction with each other. Because what As far as the interpretations of the phras- by the Mu’tazilah who takes the words liter- based on the unity of the word and the mean- is hadith cannot be transformed intoqadim. es the makhluq and the ghayr makhluq are ally as their basis: kalam as a particular struc- ing of which authority descends directly from This also shows that God spoke through a ka- 34 concerned, there seems to be a difference in ture, a system consisting of letters which are His nature. Within this definitional frame- lam which He created within an entity and 35 the interpretation between the Salafi and the arranged in a way that brings meaning.2 The work, the kalam discussion by the Mu’tazilah that God is al-mutakallim.9 Hence, according Mu’tazillah. This difference is closely related second one proposed by the Asha’irah who is built upon a perception that it is an act of to the Mu’tazilah, God speaks by creating His with the meanings that each word attributed takes the meaning as their basis and states speech whereas, according to the Asha’irah words, and the words came into being, but to the revelation, the way they commented that the meaning of kalam is indicated by and Salafi, it is based on an attribute that that does not mean that it requires any or- on it and the nature of the revelation per se. signs and phrases identified by the muwadaa exists with the nature of God. This defini- gan for its creation. This is because all things The Salafi, one of the schools, interprets (grammar and that it exists with its subject).3 tional difference between the Mu’tazilah, the that come into existence through God exist the Qur’an or the kalamullah as having no And the third and the last standpoint is by Asha’irah, the Maturidiyyah and the Salafiah directly or without a means.10 Thus, while the connection with God’s attribute al-Khaliq the Salafi who defended both, the word and results from the distinction and the relation Mu’tazilah deal with a negative theology on (The Creator), that is, it bears no similarity the meaning, i.e. the Qur’an as letters, vers- between the attribute of speech and what is the relation between the speech attribute and to anything to do with “createdness”. On es, words and meaning. It is kalamullah and spoken of. the act of speaking per se based on negative 4 the other hand, the term “created” has therefore is uncreated”. The Mu’tazilah describes the connection theology, the Asha’irah and Salafis share an different meanings for the Mu’tazilah, and While the Mu’tazilah try to overcome between kalam attribute and the act of speak- approach of syllogism and they explain the some of the meanings used can be trans- the issue of the createdness of the Qur’an ing as an internal action of human. However, relation between God’s kalam and human by separating the attribute of kalam and the it has no internal connection with God and speech on the same level. Furthermore, while lated as “to make”, “to create”, or “to set act of speaking itself and by building a rela- is an external action and an indication of the Asha’irah defines kalam as the “meaning” up”. Through these meanings, they con- tionship of process and action (creation), the words that are laden with meanings. For the signified by letters, the Salafis try to justify cluded that the term “makhluq” meant Asha’irah, the Maturidiyyah and the Salafi- Mu’tazilah, the act of speaking and the attri- kalam as an attribute within the relation of that God created and set up his own ka- yyah try to reach a resolution by dissolving bute of speech are completely separated from word and meaning.11 TheAsha’irah theolo- lam, hence, He is the speaker. And in con- the kalam and the act of speaking into each each other and kalam is defined as not only gians are in agreement that the word is named trast with the Salafi and the ahl al-Sun- other, i.e. by identifying one with the other. something that was created, but as a symp- kalam in terms of the “meaning” indicated by nah, the Mu’tazillah regarded the phrase If these approaches are selected, the first ap- tom as well. Thus, the Mu’tazilah has tackled it. For example, the Asha’irah scholar Abu “it is created” in a certain time period as proach leads to the view that the kalamullah God’s kalam within a linguistic domain.6 Ac- al Ma’ali al-Juwayni defines the kalam as a the creation of the Qur’an, i.e. a form of is assumed to be a verbal communication cording to this point of view, since relating meaning which indicates and signs an expres- 12 sound was for the purpose of communica- established by God with His messengers in kalam to somebody depends on its occur- sion that exists with its subject. tion with mankind. Therefore Mu’tazilah different moments of history. The second rence through this person’s intention, will or While Mu’tazilah tackles kalam based supported the view that kalam was cre- approach is a complete paradox. When it is motive, it is only possible to describe God on literal speech, the ahl al-Sunnah mainly viewed through its contextual meaning, ka- as mutakallim when a kalam is attached to claims that kalam is an attribute or mean- ated thereafter.1 Yet the Salafi and the ahl lam can ascribe different forms yet it is essen- Him.7 On the other hand, the Asha’irah and ing which exists through the speaker. In fact, al-Sunnah, in contrast with Mu’tazilah, tially “unique”. On the other hand, as far as the Salafiah describe kalam as an “internal” Fakhr al-Din al-Razi remarks that he agrees claimed that God’s kalam attribute meant the “word” is literally approached, kalam and relation and consider the relation between on the contention that God does not com- that He is the al-Mutakallim with his own its internal and simple unity (kalam-al nafsi) the kalam attribute and the act of speaking municate through sounds and letters; His voice of which its nature is incomprehen- may express multiplicity in meaning depend- as the same deeds, both for human and for kalam, on the contrary, is through kalam sible. Based on this standpoint, God did ing on the difference in the language of the God. Within this framework, kalam of God al-nafsi, which happens to be a sifah present not create Qur’an the way He created the revelation. Within this context, kalam, ac- is similar to the relation between the thought with His being. rest of the beings, and the Quran is a ka- cording to the Asha’irah approach, is accepted and kalam, a construction integrated with lamullah revealed by God through its in- as the meaning and the attribute which exist each other in one’s self (mind), because the 2. The beginning and historical develop- comprehensible nature. in and within a person (self, subject or mind); Qur’an cannot exist outside God. Otherwise, ment of the createdness of Qur’an issue In this context, it is possible to say that and according to the Mu’tazilah’s approach, it is not God but the locus where words are 8 The issue of the createdness of the there are three different standpoints adopted it is a reference system with its own rules of created becomes the mutakallim. According construction and phonetics and is indepen- to the Mu’tazilah, God Himself and the ka- Qur’an as it relates to God’s kalam attribute T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought reached a high point in the history of Islamic at around year 120. After Ja’d ibn Dirham’s initial effort to The doctrine was assimilated into the Islamic theology to a point of unprecedented argu- He was then followed Jahm ibn Safwan. develop this doctrine, Jahm ibn Safwan sys- community through Ja’d ibn Dirham whose ments, torture and declaring each other un- Ja’d was killed by Halid ibn Abdullah al- tenatized the contention of the non-created- thinking was influenced by the Jewish and Kaysari. believers. Worst of all, and particularly when ness of Qur’an and found supporters in the Christians’ doctrines such as the Greeks be- 36 And Jahm was killed during the reign of 37 the right for free speech was taken away, the Merv on Hisham ibn ‘Abdulmalik.17 course of time. Regarding some narratives, lieve that Fates and Babylonians the tablets issue turned out to be a deadlock by “Mihne Shahrastani, similarly, accounts as fol- after Jahm ibn Safwan was killed by Hisham of fate, Jews believed that the Law had been Event”13 which was caused and supported by lows: ibn Abd al-Malik in Merv, the doctrine was created before the world and Christians also the caliph. In other words, the events became Ja’d ibn Dirham is the first to come up defended by Bishr al-Marisi. Even though, believed that the Logos existed eternally in even more problematic and atrocious because with the view about Qur’an’s createdness.18 in the course of developing and spreading of God. On the other hand, Ibn Qutayba thinks of the Caliphate governance’s bias who was So far, the resources that dated to this the doctrine, Bishr al-Marisi could not meet that Bayan ibn Siman was the the first person supposed to be neutral, thus causing theolog- first century demonstrate that al-Ja’d ibn Jahm ibn Safwan and he did not take the who effected by external discussions said that ical arguments to turn into a political debate. Dirham is the chief architect of the issue of standpoint (of the doctrine) from him liter- the Qur’an was created.22 19 This conflict continued until Abbasid Caliph the createdness of the Qur’an. However, ally, yet he did it with the help of the citi- The issue of the createdness of Qur’an al-Mutawakkil released a decree on AH 234/ questions can still be raised on the possibil- zens of Jahm ad the supporters of Jamiyyah. that emerged in the early period of the CE 848 forbidding any discussion on the na- ity that al-Ja’d ibn Dirham could have taken Bishr had in a philosophical sense systemati- Umayyads reached the period of Ma’mun via ture of the Qur’an.14 Thereafter, the peaceful up this view from another person or from the cally discussed the subject in all aspects with the continuous discussions and various writ- discussion between Abu ‘Ali al-Jubba`i (d. internal discussions of another religion and his opponents and tried to spread as well as ings related to this topic. The issue, which on AH 303/CE 916), Abu ‘Ali Muhammad whether or not he came up with this thesis justify his reasoning. Sometimes, he was as- had been taken up and debated by many, and al-Jubba’i (d. on AH 321/CE 933) from the all by himself. sisted by the statesmen. As it was historically continued to be observed and dialogued until Mu’tazilah and the Ash’ariah theologists Qadi Ahmad Amin claims with regard to recorded, Bishr (d. on AH 218/CE 833) was this very period, developed into a political de- Abd al-Jabbar (d. on AH 414/AD 1025) and his opinion the origin of createdness of the of Jewish origin and during the reign of Ha- bate from the later part of the Umayyad when al-Juwayni (d. AH 478/CE 1085) turned into Qur’an is outsourced. According to him, al- run Rashid or Ma’mun (according to some the Umayyad caliphate manipulated the au- a vicious circle of linguistic and theological Ja’d ibn Dirham was under the influence of other resources) he defended and developed thority of Mam’un and others and turned argumentation.15 Jewish and Christian theology and he took this doctrine for about 20 years. the issue into an official discourse employed The argument of the createdness of this issue from them. As a proof, he quoted Based on this historical study, it is rea- in political spheres. Consequently, the issue the Qur’an was first brought systematically the Caliphate of Ma’mun, who had a high in- sonable to suggest that he thought and the became a formidable question, a deadlock in- into question by Ja’d ibn Dirham (AH 124/ terest in theology and philosophy, as saying: scholarly work on the createdness of Qur’an termingled by too many factors. CE 741) who was known for his refusal of Those suggesting that Qur’an is uncre- issue was first developed by Ja’d ibn Dir- Ma’mun, who was well-known for his ated are similar to those saying Jesus is God’s God’s attributes. By the order of the Caliph, son,which means as Jesus being God’s word, ham, followed by Jahm ibn Safwan, Bishr interest in theological and philosophical he was beheaded after being put to exile due he is uncreated too.20 al-Marisi and when this thought reached subjects, sympathized with the Mu’tazilah to his discourse. Al-Ja’d ibn Dirham was the This statement may seem reasonable; the Mu’tazilah, the school adopted this idea who were supporting their views with philo- educator of Marwan ibn Hakam who was the for during the reign of Ma’mun many as one of their basic doctrines. This doctrine sophical and logical methods. Naturally, the last Caliph of Ummayads. Al-Ja’d ibn Dir- studies from different languages and cul- was first learnt from their affiliation with the Mu’tazilah defending createdness of Qur’an ham introduced his opinions about the attri- Jahmiyyah, and then it was systematized and thesis convinced Ma’mun to accept the creat- tures were being translated into Arabic. butes and the createdness of the Qur’an dur- taught throughout the history of the philoso- edness of Qur’an and used him to adopt the ing Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik’s period (AH Besides, it is also possible that Muslim phy by the Mu’tazilah. It is believed that Abu contention and to manipulate the authority 105/124 CE 125/743), who captured him scholars are influenced by the increased Musa al-Murdai who subscribed to the Bagh- of the state. and sent him to Khalid al-Qasri, the governor conquests of the Caliph Omer, which dad way of Mu’tazilah said: The unforgettable products of this con- who exiled him. Later on, by Hisham’s order, caused an exchange of ideas as a result of He who says Qur’an is uncreated, accepts flicting situation were the “events” that rose 21 he was beheaded on the first morning of ‘Eid, encountering and adopting different cul- existence of two deities. from it, the “Mihna Event”, which took place the festival of sacrifice.16 tures and views of different religions and We have already mentioned earlier that to oppress the opponents by torture in or- The following is Ibn Taymiyyah’s views communities, whereas some of those cul- some Islam theologians believed that the cre- der to force them to give up the idea against atedness of the Qur’an issue infiltrated into on the account mentioned: tures and communities also accepted Is- official political contention of the state; the the Islamic community from outside and was Ja’d ibn Dirham was the first to come up lam. createdness of Qur’an. After Ahmed ibn Abu with the opinion about Qur’an’s createdness supported by some external communities. Duad was appointed with the head kadhi T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought position by Ma’mun, the createdness of the definition of the attribute of kalam which indicate by literal words is qadim (pre-eter- zal from all deficiencies. This means that its Qur’an issue turned completely into a po- described God, the al-mutakallim. Asha’ari, nal) and the meaning exists with God. It is eternal relation can be separated into differ- litical discourse. The scholars of Mu’tazilah so to speak, divided the elements of the issue fair to conclude that Asha’ari tried to recon- ent parts including prohibition (nahy), com- began to increase their political influence and made a classification to tackle the issue cile the different stances of the Mu’tazilah and mand (amr), message (khabar), call nida, and 38 on the state in AH 218/ AD. The scholars in a more fruitful way. His work led to the ahl al-Sunnah, and followed the middle path the like. The ahl al-Sunnah does not find it 39 of Mu’tazilah took over the control in order formulation of: kalam al-lafzhi and kalam by dividing kalamullah that was embraced as obstructive or oppose that al kalam al-lafzhi, to create official discourse of the state. They al-nafsi which later were often highlighted kalam al-lafzhi by the Mu’tazilah and as ka- bearing the ordinary qualifications, i.e. those made Ma’mun publish a circular and started in the discussions of the issue of kalamullah. lam al-nafsi by the ahl al-Sunnah. indicating its makhluq, meaning exists with to torture, put in dungeons and even kill This classification or dichotomy was in fact Many scholars of Islam discussed the God. For, the evidence or the indicators that the opponents of the createdness of Qur’an, extremely helpful in facilitating the compari- issue with assumptions that the Qur’an and refer to the createdness of Qur’an in fact be- which was the official stance of the state. This son work in the ability of the human beings its relationship to God is an attribute, that long to lafz (word) not to the meaning that tyranny in the mind and in the speech con- to speak and the usage of this classification the kalamullah is identified with knowledge exists and pre-eternal with God. Besides, the tinued for 16 years, including the al-Mu’tasim enabled them to engage in the discourse more of (ilm) God, that it is sent down and is not plurality of al kalam al-lafzhi (Qur’an, Old and the Wasil periods. All sources indicate effectively. Asha’ari clarified this subject clear- that of human speech, that the use of deriva- Testament, Bible, etc.) does not at all indi- that the scholars were put under pressure and ly by saying that there are two kinds of kalam. tives of call in the dialogues between God and cate that the multiplicity of al-kalam al-nafsi forced to accept this ideology. The first one is speech with sound and the the prophet Jesus; and interpreted the verses existing with God himself. The plurality of Ma’mun was not satisfied with all that he other one is speech without sound and let- within this framework and the stance that the lafzh disclosing only the distinguishable did. He issued four decrees in different times ter. Kalam al-nafsi is a meaning which finds a it is uncreated is supported by the methods part of kalam does not imply the plurality of to Islah ibn Ibrahim, the region of Baghdad, voice by letters and signs. On the other hand, based on verses. meaning, the spiritual world of kalam. There- ordering him to declare, that muhadiths, ka- kalam al-lafzhi is signs and letters that signify However the Mu’tazilah regarded Qur’an fore, the kalamullah, which is written in the dhis, lawyers and Sufis shall be interrogated kalam al-nafsi and in that respect kalam al- as a text consisting of suras, verses and letters Qur’an, memorized by hearts and uttered by in order to find out if they accept the creat- lafzhi is external to the essence of God. Hence with unity among them, a text that can be tongues, is ghayr makhluq. Because kalamul- edness of Qur’an or not, and if they don’t, it is makhluq (created). Asha’ri, in this respect written, read, heard and is a miracle of the lah is read, heard and read through lafzh or they shall be punished with imprisonment. interprets kalam al-lafzhi as the words of ka- Prophet; and for this reason, they believe that verses signifying a qadim meaning. Ahmad ibn Hanbal and Ahmad ibn Darwaki lam al-nafsi, and kalamullah as ghayr makhluq it is impossible to consider it as an attribute That kalamullah bears this such char- were first to be sentenced, prisoned and tor- (uncreated).25 Here the meaning of the signi- of God or to render it as something that ex- acteristics does not denote a createdness, in tured.23 fied word was turned into an act of the speak- ists with God (pre-eternal). Furthermore, other words its muhdes quality. Just as writ- The struggle of the supporters of Ahmad ing attribute (kalam) and was foregrounded there were efforts to prove the createdness of ing, hearing or pronouncing a sentence like ibn Hanbal, represented by the Muhaddiths as unique and present with God. Therefore Qur’an through inferences from the verses “Fire has a burning effect” does not require its and the followers of Salafi school, against the kalam al-nafsi is essentially the word of God. and its temporality, consecutive verses, its as- realness as sound, letter and system, kalam Mu’tazilah continued within the framework Kalam al-lafzhi on the other hand, being the sumed send down by God or its proclaimed al-nafsi reflecting the kalam meaning by ahl of the letters, kalam and words of Qur’an. signifier and carrier of meaning, is also the (some verses nullify by other verses) al-Sunnah cannot be fully understood by lin- While the Mu’tazilah insisted that all those word of God, but in a metaphorical sense.26 character. guistic terms. mentioned were created, some Hanbalis and Sha’ari in this sense confirmed the Mu’tazilah’s The ahl al-Sunnah, who basically op- Imam al-Nasafi, in his Tabsirat, describes Salafis on the contrary, claimed that they were claim through this classification by confirm- posed the Mu’tazilah’s standpoints, represent the kalam definition of ahl al-Sunnah in dif- uncreated. On the other hand, the Sufis were ing that Qur’an is something that can be the school with the strongest debates on this ferent words to the effect of the same conclu- quite reluctant to give their opinions. Accord- written, heard and recited, and hence it is cre- issue. The kalam is defined in Abu al Ma’ali sion: ing to this group, declaring opinion on this ated. Because each word is readable and writ- al-Juwayni in his book al-Irshad as follows: Kalamullah is an eternal attribute which subject is bid’a (heresy) and if there is some- able Qur’an is also characterized with a kind Speech, which exists with the owner of bears no relation to the system of phonetic or letter codes. The kalam attribute exists with thing to say on this subject, their stance is of consequentiality, a combination formed of it, is what the convenient referents and refer- ences signify. God and bears opposite meanings to silence; that Qur’an is speech of God (Kalamullah).24 different parts; as for the meaning which ex- According to ahl al-Sunnah, kalamullah speechlessness or inability as in naivety of a The arguments on the createdness of the isted with the person (God), it is pre-eternal child, or muteness. With this attribute, God —in other words, al-kalam al-nafsi— exists Qur’an started to follow a different course and existent. For as much meaning is not sub- commands, prohibits and calls; this attribute with God’s nature and has a meaning which with the Abu Musa al-Asha’ri (AH 330/CE ject to change depending on the phrases or is evidenced by the expressions. Designating can be expressed with a verse exempt munaz- the expression as kalamullah is only because 935). This difference related closely with the words. For Ash’ariah, the kalamullah which T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought they are indicated by kalam (speech). When man.34 God speaks in Arabic, they call it Qur’an; In addition to all these, Ibn Taymi- when He speaks in Syriac they call it Bible yyah relates the arguments of Salafiyya and and in Hebrew, they call it Old Testament. The difference is in the expressions, not in the eminent great imams of four schools and he 40 attribute per se.27 states his opinion as the following: 41 The Salafi, as opposed to Mu’tazilah The description of kalam has been a mat- and ahl al-Sunnah, believe that it would be ter of dispute among men and some inter- preted it as “a word signifying a meaning”, great illusion to abstract word from mean- while others read it as “the meaning signified ing when considering the realness of kalam by a word”. For different camps, on the other and that it is absolutely necessary to con- hand, kalam is a conception that covers both ceive it holistically in order to understand word and meaning, whereas still others argue kalam.28On the contrary, the Salafis based ka- that kalam, although it may correspond with meaning or word depending on the situation, lam as an attribute within the unity of word is in fact an all-encompassing concept cover- 29 and meaning. Therefore they did not con- ing both.35 sider kalam as it is seen by Mu’tazillah who As it can be seen, all four schools regard (the earlier religious scholars) do not say, “the al-Askar, Abu Hanifa uses an take the issue on the basis of lafzh, and think kalam as consisting of word and meaning, yet word per se is pre-eternal” or “Qur’an is pre- analogy (“swear on the Qur’an”) God is exempt from all attributes or like ah- they are in disagreement on the primacy of eternal”. On the contrary, Salafis asserts vari- related to and makes a deduction. al Sunnah who divide the kalam as al-kalam one over another and on the relationship be- ous accounts like “it is kalamullah, revealed In other words, in Abu Hanifa’s logic, ev- al-nafsi and al-kalam al-lafzi. In other words, tween the two. (munazzal) or ghayr makhluq.”37 erything except God is makhluq; and since the Salafis take kalam without any interpreta- According to Salafis, kalam is an attri- Abu Hanifa, who brought forward the Qur’an is something other than God, it is a tion or ta’wil (explanation), i.e. without any bute that belongs to the speaker. According- opinion of ahl al-Sunnah in its original form, makhluq, too.”40 deviation. From the standpoint of united- ly, kalamullah cannot be separated from its regarded kalam as essential attribute among Despite all of the explanations above, we ness30 of lafzh and meaning in kalamullah, owner (speaker). In fact, God made Gabriel His other attributes is qadim and that God is see such statements in al-Fiqh al-Akbar which the Salafis define kalamullah as one single hear His kalam attribute. To the understand- mutakallim with His essential kalam and the is believed to be written by Abu Hanifah: conception or attribute31 within God’s eternal ing of the adherents of this school, it is not attribute is eternal itself.38 It is claimed that Qur’an is revealed to the prophets as knowledge, take an agnostic attitude towards appropriate to say “kalamullah has been sepa- Abu Hanifa, in the context of the issue of the God’s kalam which is written in the holy the way divine kalam is spoken and its na- rated from God’s nature and been transfused createdness of Qur’an, advocates Qur’an is books, memorized in hearts and uttered ture; and claim that the speech of God can no to prophets”. However, the statement that makhluq. However, the historian, al-Khatib by tongues. Qur’an is in the form of a 32 makhluq so that we can read and pro- way be figurative or metaphoric. According should be made: “He, as kalamullah, is ghayr al-Baghdadi defended Abu Hanifa and clari- nounce it. However the Qur’an itself is to them, Qur’an is kalamullah both in word fied him as the following: makhluq” (Originated in Him and returns ghayr makhluq.41 and meaning and is a divine attribute of God. back to Him). The statement “originated As far as the issue of createdness of Qur’an In order to resolve the paradox between Within this context, the Salafis distinctively in Him” means He Himself is the one who is concerned, Abu Hanafi is said to con- his own expressions above and the statements from Mutazilah and Asharies, contend that speaks; and the statement “returns to Him” tend that Qur’an is un-created (ghayr- here, we may have to disregard the claim that while considering kalam, word and mean- 39 means kalamullah cannot be devoted to mu- makhluq). Fiqh-i Akbar is written by Abu Hanifa or ing must be preserved and must not be shaf (the Divine Books) or by the mind that Nevertheless, when Abu Yusuf (Abu what he means is the written words in Qur’an interpreted.33For example, the Islamic schol- memorizes it, i.e. the prophets.36God has spo- Yusuf Yaqub ibn Ibrahim Ansari) was asked as in the analogy of “swear” above. ar Ibn Taymiyyah remarks that the Qur’an ken using the letters and meanings of Qur’an. about the createdness of Qur’an, he asked not Imam Shafi, on the other hand, tries to is God’s kalam –a whole- with all its verse, The speech there belongs neither to Gabriel to call the Qur’an with the term “created”. be unbiased and follows the midcourse be- words, meaning and letters and he criticizes to Mohammad. Besides, the Salafi school When the same question is directed to Abu tween Salafiyya and ahl al-Sunnah yet he takes the stance of Asharites that who attempt to confirms and insists on the view that Qur’an Hanifa, he replied “Qur’an is makhluq. Be- a stance when it comes down to the issue of separate word and meaning. According to - as word and meaning -is God’s kalam and cause whoever says that ‘I swear on the Qur’an Qur’an’s createdness. Imam Shafi like fuqaha Ibn Taymiyyah, Gabriel heard the kalamullah that God has revealed the Qur’an through that I am not going to do it’ swears in fact on and the muhaddithun, he says “Qur’an is –consisting of word and meaning— directly His speech. According to Salafiyya, kalamul- something else than God and everything ex- God’s kalam and is not a makhluq.” As evi- from God and delivered it to the Prophet lah is pre-eternal in its genus or nature. Salafis cept God is makhluq.” As stated by Abu Hilal dence, he underlines the verse stating “God Mohammad who in turn communicated it to T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought spoke to Moses.”42 than follow those bid’at makers. However, bal disapproves in analyzing or immersing tion of the verses, Amad ibn Hanbal can be At this point, one can speculate that Ibn Qutaybah opposes this stance based on in such debates and does not want to permit said to advocate that Qur’an is not created, there is another reason why Imam Shafi ac- the presumption that it is difficult for him them to be discussed. While he speaks on this that, on the contrary, Qur’an is qadim. Yet, cepts the statement “God spoke to Moses be- to remain silent during a period of intense matter, he appears extremely reluctant. His it should be kept in mind that, the accounts 42 hind a veil”. Imam Shafi was objecting to the debates. It is particularly clear that this was actual objective seems to prevent them from have strong arguments according to others 43 claim that “Qur’an is makhluq” as stated by the reason lying behind the pressures and tor- any misleading that can be caused by the de- rumors. Because Amad ibn Hanbal may actu- Ibrahim ibn Ismail Ulayya who was a follow- tures he went through during Mihna Event baters and to protect people against confu- ally have kept silent due to his political wor- er of Jahm ibn Safwan. The later founded and at Umayyah reign. Those who advocate that sion.49 ries at the time and may have felt it necessary developed Jamiyyah (upon the doctrine of he was reluctant to say anything at the time, In can be concluded that both sides to stay away from such discussion in order Ja’d ibn Dirham who first coined the phrase attempt to prove it by the letters he sent to have good arguments. When an overview is not to mislead common people. “createdness of Qur’an in history).43 Mu’tasim. The letter portrays an imam trying presented on Amad ibn Hanbal by putting Imam Shafi’i, who confirms the attri- to be reserved about the issue. Another evi- together all of his views and sentiments, an Conclusion butes ascribed to God, resorts to nass and dence is the following account which Ahmad insight can be drawn that he advocates the Sunnah as the evidence and tries to prove that ibn Hanbal brought forward: standpoint that highlights the Qur’an as not When we analyze the discussions focus- Qur’an is not makhluq. However, he does not He who says the Qur’an is makhluq, he is being created. However, he opted to remain ing on kalamullah from the second half of 124 attempt to make dichotomy or division as a Jahmi (from the Jahmiyyah). If he is Jahmi, silent due to the chaotic atmosphere and the AH until the end of the fourth century (AH), he is kafir. And he who says the Qur’an is not the most substantial contentment one can ahl-al Sunnah or other scholars did. Accord- 46 anxiety present during that period. makhluq, he makes bid’at. reach seems to be that many of these debates ing to him, all verses and meanings Qur’an Ibn Qutaybah rejects this account and Nevertheless, Amad ibn Hanbal made had been built on fallacious propositions and is God’s kalam and to deny or reject it is in- objects this opinion. Another group, howev- efforts to to support his views with Qur’an grounds. One of the reasons why all these de- fidelity (takfir); and to attempt to interpret it er, claims that Ahmad ibn Hanbal means that verses. Takes the verse “We have made it a 50 bates did not reach a conclusion is that the through various tawils is bid’at. Qur’an is not a makhluq all together with the Qur’an in Arabic” as example and states that concepts had not been sufficiently analyzed During the end of Umayyad reign, Ah- letters, expressions and meanings in it. To it would be a great mistake to take the word/ and the attribution of false or different mean- mad in Hanbal was one of the people who substantiate this, they point at his letters and verb “made/ja‘ale” in the verse as an indica- ings to the same concepts under discussion. was harshly oppressed and tortured in the other accounts delivered by Ibn Hanbal. One tor of Qur’an’s createdness. Or another verse 51 Each group or community attempted to re- event called Minha Event (the Inquisition of the documents mentioned is the letter he “And they made Qur’an in parts’ , “They solve the issue within the framework of their of the Abassid Caliph al-Ma’mun - known as sent to the Mutawakkil (the one who relies made the angels female who are subjects of God 52 own background, cultural structure and most the one who issued circulars as a result of the on God and therefore trustingly bears those the most Compassionate.” The word “ja‘ala” importantly, their own principles. During pressure of scholars of Mu’tazilah of the time hardships that come his way) who asks him to in these verses means in fact “samma”. How- the period of about two centuries, the com- who were forced to admit that the Qur’an state his actual opinion and write a text to re- ever, the word “ja’ala” close to the “fa‘ala” in mon denominator of the disputes – whether was created rather than uncreated). Ahmad lieve the pain and stress arising from the issue meaning (as it should be here) can be best ex- verbal or written— had been the phrase of ibn Hanbal was one of the few scholars to of createdness of Qur’an.47 He latter appears emplified in the verse “they seal ears with their 53 54 makhluq which was accepted as a presump- refuse it and advocated that all attributes of to indicate two points: fingers’ Yaj‘aluna means here “fa‘ala’. tion (by the Mu’tazillah). Therefore, the issue God that are stated in the Qur’an and Firstly, for Ahmad ibn Hanbal, who Amad ibn Hanbal, points out that the of the createdness of the Qur’an which dis- are in the fact His attributes designating His takesides with the Salafi as his predecesors, word ja‘ala in the very well-known verse “We 44 rupted the communities at the time is simply uncreatedness. Also, he regards that all of believes that Qur’an is not created. Accord- have made it a Qur’an in Arabic” is used in the attempts of affirmation or negation of the the attributes including His kalam attribute ing to him, “Qur’an is God’s kalam and God’s the meaning of fa‘ala (rendered), not “create/ pseudo conclusion reached, rather than ex- as pre-eternal. Since kalam attribute is qadim, kalam does not indicate a createdness. Rather, made” as it was supposed. The word ja‘ala in amples of an accurate sample. Almost all the and result of this idea the Qur’an is qadim it declares His command (amr). Command the following verses also used in the meaning 45 55 discussions within this period had occurred as and uncreated too. and createdness are thoroughly different from of “fa‘ala” “We have sent it down as an Ara- 56 arguments depicting a speculative approach It is also rumored that Ahmad ibn Han- each other.” His inferences take their sources bic Qur’an so you people may understand” and to support some a priori presumptions. bal was in fact silent about the issue and was from the nasses48 in Qur’an, speeches of had- again in “Verily, We have made Qur’an easy, in Although the issue of createdness of the reluctant to take a stance. The same rumours iths and remarks of the companions, sahaba your tongue, onto your heart in order that they 57 Qur’an —as a multifaceted issue— is origi- went on with his claim that he regarded such and tabi’un. may give hed,” and “We have made Qur’an in 58 nated in the enigmatic nature of its relation- discussions as bid’at and preferred to be duly Secondly, the letter shows that Ibn Han- Arabic, that ye may be able to understand.” silent and said that he’d rather keep quiet As it can be shown his way of interpreta- ship with revelation, it in fact demonstrates a T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought number of erroneous methods which in turn as kalamullah pre-eternal with His nature, opinion of ahl-al Sunnah only expresses an tawid, Matba’a al-hadara?tu al-Sharkiyya, 1932, p. 119- became the source of its insolubility. Miscon- they agree that the concept of mutakallim instant speculation in human minds. In this 120. 26 Ibid., p. 119-120. figured methods appear to be the most influ- has its roots in the human mind. Mu’tazilah design, words are accompanied with mean- 27 Nasafi, Abu al-Muin, p. 349-50. ential factor in the course the issue takes in on the other hand, believes that kalamullah ings. And speech exists after this act. To de- 28 Ibn Taymiyya, ar-Rasail, v.III, p.76. 44 time. By erroneous methods, we mean the must be thought separately from it, since the fine God’s kalam on the basis of mind and 29 Ibid., p.76. 45 handling the kalamullah issue in terms of a kalamullah is only the object of revelation. human thoughts is both logically and onto- 30 Ibid. dichotomy of ‘makhluq and ghayr makhluq”, However, while ahl al-Sunnah regards kalam- logically fallacious. 31 Ibn Taymiyya, ibid., p. 76. which arises from the search of meaning and ullah within the context of the meaning and “The Qur’an is kalamullah, revealed 32 Abu al-Izz ad-Dimashqi, Akidat al-Taawiyya, p. and not created,good and bad both come 195. assuming that each notion has ontologically the lafzh together, the Mu’tazilah took it only 33 from Him… “(Mosul, 200/815)59 Abd Al-Jabbar ibn Amad, al-Muit bi al-Taklif, severe distinctions. The defective reasoning in on the grounds of lafzh and makes an errone- tah.Omar al-Sayyid Azmi, ed. Amad Fuad al-vani, resolving the issue went even further and it ous inference on this attribute and its prod- Egypt Egypt, n.d., p. 308. was presumed that word (speech) is an attri- uct (the Qur’an) within the relationship of ENDNOTES 34 Ibn Taymiyya, ibid., p. 22, 24, 55, 60, 76, 162. 35 Ibid., p. 55. bute to God. the nature of God and the principles of - 1 Abd Al-Jabbar ibn Amad, al-Mughni, “Khalk al- 36 The emergences of evaluations that are hid. Attempting to justify their approach, the Qur’an” Vol., Cairo, 1961, s. 3-4.Cairo, 1961, p. 3 4; Ibid., p. 75. seriously fallacious have a considerable ef- Mu’tazilah focus on the belief that the kalam For more information: Jan R. T. M. Peters, God’s Created 37 Ibid., p. 55. 38 Hamid Abu Zayd, Ilahi Hitabn Tabiati, fect on the deadlock of the issue under con- (described as the source of the true path (hi- Speech: A Study in theSpeculative Theology of the Mu’tazil Qd l-qudt Ab Hassan Abd al-Jabbr bn. Ahmad al-Hamdan, trans. By: Mehmet Maşal, Kitabiyat Yay., Ank., sideration. While the Qur’an issue must be dayah) of God, creator of everything) was re- Leiden 1976. 2001, p. 333. handled as “what has been delivered to the vealed to the prophet. That the world is taken 2 Ibid., p. 6, 7. 39 Ibid., p. 333. Prophet Mohammad” who was the addressee as an attribute negates the revelation. 3 Juwayni, al-Irshad, tah. M.Y. Musa, Cairo, 1959, p. 40 Ibid. of the revelation, it was considered to be an Within the framework of linguistic ex- 104. 41 Ibid. 4 Ibn Taymiyya, ar-Rasail, 1349, III, p. 60. 42 Muhammad Abu Zahra, Imam Shafii, Dar al- attribute to God’s and within the context of planations employing the kalam-al lafzi and 5 Abd Al-Jabbar ibn Amad, ibid., p. 48,58. Fikr al-Arabi, Cairo, 1948, p. 136-37. God. kalam-al nafsi –the key concepts of the issue 6 Ibid. p. 48. 43 Ibid., p. 136-37. Such considerations made it inevitable of uncreatedness of Qur’an—demonstrating 7 Nasafi, Abu al-Muin, Tabsiratu al-Adilla, D mashq, 44 Muhammad Abu Zahra, Amed ibn Hanbal, that lafz is to be separated from meaning and the two facets of the same concept, we can 1990, I, p. 349. 8 Abd Al-Jabbar ibn Amad, ibid., p. 50-51. Dar al-Fikr al-Arabi, Cairo, 1947, p. 131-32, 136- led to the discussion focusing on whether the make the following conclusions: 9 Abd Al-Jabbar ibn Amad, Sharh al-Usul-i Khamsa, 37; Ahmad ibn Hanbal, al-Radd ala al-Zanadiqah lafz (the Qur’an we hold in our hands) is cre- The kalam-al nafsi that is perceived by Abdulkarim Osman, Cairo: Maktaba Vahba, 1996, p. wa al-Jahmiyyah, al-Matb?a al-Salafiyah wa Makta- ated and the believer’s contention that the ahl al-Sunnah and Imam al Ghazali as the 539. biyah, Cairo, 1393, p. 26. 10 Ibid., p. 541-42. 45 Ibid., p. 132. Qur’an exists with God’s nature is uncreated. way of mind allowing speech to be delivered 11 Ibn Taymiyya, ibid., III, p. 22, 24. 46 Ibid., p. 133. As a result of this differentation the Qur’an, to human beings is as defective as Mu’tazilah’s 12 Juwayni, ibid., p. 104. 47 Ibid., p. 132-36. we actually hold in our hands has been ac- description of the problem thoroughly on 13 Shahristani, al-Milal wa al-Nihal, Matba’a al-bulaq, 48 Ibid., p. 138-39; Ahmad ibn Hanbal, al-Radd cepted as the figurative Qur’an according to lexical (lafzh) terms, totally ignoring the Egypt, 1263, s. 68; Ibn Qutayba, al-itilaf fi’l-Lafz, Egypt, 1349. ala al-Zanadiqah wa al-Jahmiyyah, p. 26. ahl al-Sunnah, especially the Asha’irah and meaning. As a matter of fact, it is therefore 14 Qasimi, Jamaladdin, Tariu al-Jamiyya wa al-Mutazi- 49 Muhammad Abu Zahra, Amed ibn Hanbal, p. meaning, as the attribute of God, is the ac- impossible to solve the issue of createdness la, Egypt, n.d., p. 52: Subqi, Tajuddin Abu Nasr Abd al- 133. tual Qur’an. of the Qur’an unless the issue is analyzed on Wahhab, Tabaqat- Shafi’iyya, Egypt, 1324, p. 215; Amed 50 15/91. It can be concluded that the speculative the basis of the unity of speech and meaning. Emîn, Dua al-islam, Bairut, 1933, p. 198. 51 Ibid. 15 Juwayni, al-Irshad,; Abd Al-Jabbar ibn Amad, el- 52 analyses mentioned above have become an ob- Furthermore, ahl al-Sunnah is committing a 43/19. Mughni, “Khalk al-Qur’an” v. 53 Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd, ibid., p. 362. stacle that prevents the truth to emerge rather logical fallacy, if not thoroughly inconsistent, 16 Mubarak ibn al-Athir, Jami al-Usul 5 in Kitab al- 54 Ibid., p. 362. Qadr, 1903, p. 196. than shedding light on it. Such representa- when they take the issue on the grounds of 55 Ahmad ibn Hanbal, al-Radd ala al-Zanadiqah tions which result in a problem entangled by thinking the ability on human beings just as 17 Ibn Taymiyya, ibid., v. lll, p. 120-132. 18 Sharastani, al-Milal wa al-Nihal, p. 86. wa al-Jahmiyyah, p. 22-24. 56 itself are based on the notion of mutakallim the Mu’tazilah considers the issue as lexical- 19 Mubarak ibn al-Athir, ibid., p. 329. 26/195. shaped in the human mind. In this respect oriented only to deny the truth. On the other 20 Ahmed Emin,, ibid., p. 163. 57 Ibid. it can be said that set kalam aside from mu- hand, Ghazali’s explanation that the words 21 Ahmed Emin,, ibid., p. 147. 58 Ibid. 22 59 takallim, it makes meaningless the meaning of mean nahy, Khabar and the alike, are qadim Ibn Qutaiba, Kitab al- Maarif II, 1850, p. 148 Tritton, Arthur Stanley, Muslim Theology, Bur- 23 Ibid., p. 197. leigh Press, Bristol, 1947, p. 64. mutakallim. When ahl al-Sunnah and Salafis, with God. Yet later this is also problematic. 24 Ahmed Emin, ibid., p. 163. supporters of such views, accept the Qur’an Now that we are not able to comprehend the 25 Al-Jazari, Abdurahman Tawzihu al-akaid fî Ilmi al- T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought

In the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks in 2001, several American evangelical leaders publically expressed disparaging remarks against Islam and the Prophet Muhammad. 46 Pat Robertson of the 700 Club identified Islam as “a Christian heresy” “motivated by 47 demonic power,” and described the Prophet Muhammad as “an absolute wild-eyed fanatic … a robber and a brigand.”1 Franklin Graham, son of and successor to promi- nent evangelist Billy Graham, referred to Islam as a “very evil and wicked religion.” The late Jerry Falwell said that “Muhammad was a terrorist.” And former president of the Southern Baptist Convention, Jerry Vines, called Muhammad “a demon-possessed pedophile.”2 These statements, while they are particularly notable because of their in- flammatory character, are connected to a wider base of negative views of Islam among American evangelical leaders. A 2003 poll sponsored by the Ethics and Public Policy Center, Beliefnet and the Pew Charitable Trusts indicated that 77 percent of evangeli- cal leaders had an unfavorable view of Islam and 70 percent agreed to the statement “Islam is a religion of violence.”3

Shifting Discourses: American Evangelicals on Islam Before and After 9/11

By: Roger Baumann Harvard University T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent

ardson applies the redemptive analogy princi- The overall message of Richardson’s work is to a l T hought ple to other peoples using their own cultural emphasize the violent nature of the Qur’anic a l T hought resources. These include Christian interpreta- text, then to draw a straight line between his tions of Chinese pictographs and the Indian forensic textual interpretation and contempo- Vedas.9 rary Islam. In doing so, Richardson exemplifies 48 In explaining his work in Secrets of the Ko- a trend away from a contextualized encounter 49 ran, Richardson describes turning his attention with Islam toward a discourse of investigative toward Islam as he began to encounter more criticism and attack—a trend that I will now and more Muslims in Indonesia: explore in more detail. I approached the Koran after 9/11, and I began to study it intensively to see if the re- Contemporary Evangelicals and Islam Before 9/11 demptive analogy approach could work for Christians to approach Muslims winsomely. But I found that everything that a Christian The Contextualized Missions Approach would use of redemptive analogy to lead a per- Most of the literature that evangelicals son to God was already redefined in the Koran produced on Islam in the decades before 9/11 by Muhammad in a way that made the redemp- 10 is of what might be called a “missions genre.” tive analogy approach not work. This mode of engaging with Islam was part of The result of his textual study is his find- a much larger global imperative to spread the Throughout the decade since 9/11, evan- evangelicals in the later half of the twentieth ing that Islam is “the great exception”11 to his Christian gospel and seek converts through gelical concerns with Islam have grown sub- century and leading up to 9/11 before finally redemptive analogy thesis because “Islam is missionary activity around the world. On this stantially and the dominant discourse has be- drawing comparisons with early encounters be- unique among non-Christian religions. It type of literature, Richard Cimino notes: come one of confrontation and suspicion. A tween Christians and Muslims. stands alone as the only belief system that, due By the closing decades of the 20th cen- more recent 2011 Pew report found that 60% to its very design, frustrates anyone who seeks tury, most of the evangelical literature on the of white American evangelicals surveyed believe 7 to use the redemptive analogy approach.”12 Don Richardson’s Secrets of the Koran relationship between Muslims and evangelicals that Islam is more likely to encourage violence Thus we see in Richardson’s most recent work 4 In 2003, Don Richardson wrote a book on took place within the context of missions and than other religions. Considering the many a distinct change in tactics from bridge build- Islam called Secrets of the Koran: Revealing In- world evangelization. There was little written facets of this discourse of confrontation reveals ing to criticism. This shift is evidenced in what sights into Islam’s Holy Book. Richardson is best on the encounter between American evangeli- a conflation of theological and political identity he says about his approach to Islam: “Feeling 5 known, however, not as a commentator on Is- cals and Muslims outside of the need to devel- markers among evangelical Christians. These somewhat like an attorney quizzing an uncoop- lam but as an evangelical missionary. Through op strategies and other resources to bring the opinions of Islam were not simply formed on erative witness, I have opted to approach this his missionary work with the Sawi people of 13 Christian message to Muslims on the mission the spot after the attacks of 9/11: they come inquiry through the lens of interrogation.” 14 field. out of preexisting evangelical views on Islam— West Papua Indonesia, Richardson developed a views that have deep roots in the long history principle he calls “redemptive analogy.” He de- of interaction between Christians and Muslims scribes the principle as “the application to local across the globe and which developed signifi- custom of spiritual truth,” explaining that God cantly among evangelicals in decades before had already provided for the evangelization 9/11. Thus, in treating dominant American of [the Sawi] people by means of redemptive evangelical views on Islam, I aim to consider analogies in their own culture. These analogies the types of evangelical discourse on Islam be- were our stepping stones, the secret entryway fore 9/11, the changes in discourse post-9/11, by which the gospel came to the Sawi culture and started both a spiritual and social revolu- and the correspondence of these more recent 8 phenomena to the earliest encounters of Chris- tion from within. tians with Muslims.6 I will begin with a par- Richardson became a best-selling author ticular example of this broader shift within the telling the story of the Sawi concept of a “Peace evangelical discourse on Islam that serves as Child” in a book of the same name. In it, he a pertinent launching point into the broader describes how that concept resonates with the phenomenon I aim to address. I will then go Christian concept of God offering his own son on to outline four typical views of Islam among for the salvation of humanity. Elsewhere, Rich- T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent

Within this context, those whose focus degrees of latitude north of the equator—an turn of Christ and the end of the world, typi- books are usually aimed at the ordinary layper- a l T hought was on reaching Muslim areas tended to favor area identified as being the least reached by the cally look to current events and contemporary son in their everyday encounters with those of a l T hought culturally contextual approaches to communi- Christian gospel. Areas within this window in- political realities and interpret them in light other faiths, the need for this literature was not cating Christianity to Muslims that deempha- clude North Africa, the Middle East as well as of apocalyptic literature in the Bible. Central especially pressing prior to Islam’s greater vis- sized the cultural particulars of the missionar- South and South East Asia—all areas in which to this approach is the importance of Israel.19 ibility and growth in the 1990s.”23 The focus 50 ies’ western contexts and attempted to avoid Muslims are a majority or a significant minor- Since the nation of Israel is central to a dis- of popular defenses of Christianity tends to be 51 the perception of evangelization as a part of ity.16 pensationalist understanding of history, as an on particularly relevant challengers to the faith. long-standing political and cultural imperial- Along with this particular geographic fo- ostensible enemy of Israel, Islam becomes an Before Islam became a concern in the 1980s ism. Historian Thomas Kidd describes this cus came a new explanation for why this area enemy of God aligned with Satan in the cata- and 90s, the attention of evangelical apologists context-focused phenomenon noting, “Among presented such a significant challenge to Chris- clysmic struggle of the earth’s last days. Begin- was largely on the sorts of challenges presented evangelical missionaries, all signs pointed to tian missions. The greatest obstacle was not the ning with the Iranian revolution of 1979 and by new religious movements like Mormonism, efforts to abandon cultural baggage that mis- human cultural factor but opposition within the later decline and eventual break up of the Jehovah’s Witnesses and New Age spirituality, sionaries might have formerly imposed on the spiritual realm. This view of the Muslim Soviet Union, dispensationalists began to turn but also on liberal Christianity, secularism, hu- converts.”15 This method resonates with Don world became particularly popular among their attention away from communist world manism and atheism. Richardson’s early work in searching for and some charismatic evangelicals and Pentecostals powers and towards Islam as a central player in An example of a Christian apologetic working with “redemptive analogies” as de- who embrace the idea that evangelism is largely end-times biblical prophecy. As Kidd puts it, work on Islam that appeared before 9/11 is the scribed above. To these missionaries and the about “spiritual warfare” by which Christians “Soviet hostility to Israel remained a key feature book Answering Islam by Norman Geisler and organizations that sent them abroad, Muslim can confront obstacles to the spread of Christi- of [the end-times] scenario, but Muslim anger Abdul Saleeb. For its authors, such a book is countries (particularly in the Middle East) were anity within the spiritual realm through prayer and oil power were becoming ever-more essen- necessary because, “Since both orthodox Islam “unreached” places where the presence of other and other forms of spiritual warfare.17 In this tial to the prophesied attack on Israel.”20 and Christianity claim to be the true religion, Christian churches made little difference to the view Islam, as a religion, is literally “demon- Within this eschatological understanding it is incumbent upon thinking persons to ex- need to evangelize local populations. In fact, ized” because proponents identify demonic and of Islam, the focus shifts from spreading the amine carefully the evidence offered by both evangelistic efforts often extended to trying satanic forces as what reinforces Islam. This in- gospel in the Muslim world to presenting Islam and to make their own decision in view of the to “convert” Catholic and Eastern Orthodox terpretation extends into the past, as Muham- as an enemy of God. Dispensational theology evidence.”24 Originally published in 1993, this Christians along with Muslims. mad is understood as having been under the “tended to paint Muslims, especially Arab Mus- book exemplifies the genre leading up to 9/11 In this effort to distance Christian evange- influence of demonic powers that oppose God. lims, as being on the wrong side of the global in several ways. First, much of the book is ded- listic mission from imperial conquest, experts It also relates to the present political landscape eschatological conflict.”21 With the enmity be- icated to educating about Islam (from a Chris- disagreed on the specifics of which cultural within the 10/40 window as evidenced by the tween God and Islam seen as irreconcilable and tian perspective). This was necessary because, practices converts could maintain and which views of spiritual warfare advocate George Otis a clash between Islam and Israel inevitable, the at that time, most evangelicals knew very little needed to be abandoned. There were, for ex- Jr., who contended that “two powerful demon- mode of interaction within this approach shifts about Islam. Second, Answering Islam offers a ample, debates over the necessity of public bap- ic forces, with great biblical significance, stand from conversion to confrontation. While there “view from within” as one of its authors is a for- tism and the appropriateness of continued par- at the epicenter of the unreached world—the is some potential for individual Muslims to join mer Muslim who converted to Christianity.25 ticipation in Muslim prayer and congregational prince of Persia (Iran) and the spirit of Baby- God’s side in the final struggle by becoming By presenting Islam from the point of view of a gatherings. In spite of these debates, lon (Iraq).”18Since spiritual warfare proponents Christians, Islam as a whole is on an unavoid- convert, such Christian apologies aim to equip the overarching focus of the contextualized understand both religious and political institu- able collision course with God and Israel.22 Christians to use their arguments and strategies missions approach was on spiritual conversion tions as subject to demonic possession, this ap- for evangelizing Muslims they know personal- rather than cultural conversion, and on making proach to understanding Islam has theological The Apologetic Approach ly. Finally, this book affirms Muslims as fellow Christian discipleship as accessible and accept- as well as political implications. monotheists sharing a certain theological foun- able to Muslims as possible. The fourth typical approach to Islam dation with Christians and Jews. This affirma- among evangelical Christians prior to 9/11 is The Eschatological Approach tion is not the case with all evangelical Christian the apologetic approach. The apologetic move- The Spiritual Warfare Approach apologies aimed at Islam prior to 9/11. Some The eschatological approach to under- ment within evangelical Christianity produces such works are more confrontational, focusing Out of these earlier foundations of the standing Islam takes the above-described po- works defending Christian beliefs against crit- on Islam’s violent and evil nature, in many ways Protestant global missions movement came a litical implications of demonizing Islam further ics and competing worldviews—both religious prefiguring the general move in that direction more refined approach focused on a part of the to implicate Muslims as enemies of God within and secular. In considering the appearance of with post-9/11 literature on Islam.26 world called the “10/40 window,” and with it predictions and warning about the imminent Islam as one of these competing worldviews a change in how many evangelicals understood “last days” of the earth. Dispensationalist against which Christian apologists argue, American Evangelicalism Post-9/11 Islam. The 10/40 window marks the geograph- premillenialist biblical prophecy movements, Cimino points to an increase of Islam’s visibil- ic area of the globe between 10 degrees and 40 which anticipate the impending rapture, re- ity to American Christians: “Since apologetic The categories described above are not T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought

52 53

necessarily neat divisions separating distinct Given the historical background of Ameri- No longer necessarily connected to spiri- ize that the religion of Islam, as embraced by schools of thought. They represent typical re- can Christian views of Islam, it comes as no sur- tual warfare, global missions or eschatological millions of radical Muslims, has become a real sponses to Islam before 9/11 and, it is worth prise that the horrifying events of September 11 themes, the characterization of Islam as inher- threat, not only to Christianity but to freedom generated fresh speculations among Americans noting, significant overlap existed between about the “real” nature of the Muslim faith, the ently violent and demonic became a theme of religion in general and to our very way of life these types of discourse. But after 9/11, with prospects for Muslim conversions, the ancient unto itself, so much so that this theme has di- as Americans.”29 the dramatic increase in evangelical attention roots of the Arab-Israeli conflict, and the place rectly eclipsed earlier, less slanderous discourse In closing the section on Islam and vio- 27 to Islam, the boundaries between these types of Muslims in last-days scenarios. on Islam. For example, sales of Geisler and lence, the authors also state: “We are not engag- of discourse became significantly blurred. Ele- In the immediate aftermath of the 9/11 Saleeb’s Answering Islam soared in the months ing in old Christian-Muslim polemics when we ments of several and all of these tendencies are attacks, President George W. Bush, himself following 9/11, which led to the release of a point out the prevalence of violence throughout visible in many works post-9/11. At the same an evangelical Christian, made a distinction second edition. This second edition contained the foundations and thus subsequent history of time, certain themes became central to the new between Islam, which he called “a religion of much of the same content as the first edition, Islam.”30 The implication is that a totalizing de- discourse while others were largely excluded. peace,” and the terrorists who had attacked but added a section called “Islam and Violence” scription of Islam as inherently and necessarily The tension that existed between the con- America. The general tone within the torrent that concludes: violent is not controversial—rather it is a plain textualized approach to Islam advocated by of evangelical voices commenting on Islam was Violence in Islam, whether in the form fact. From the noteworthy denial that this type Christian missionaries to Muslim countries much less willing to accept this distinction. of terrorism, or the persecution of Christians of discourse is not in line with “old polemics,” and the general attack on Islam by those who The prevailing opinion among evangelicals and other minorities in the Muslim world, or I will turn to considering some of the earliest saw it as either a spiritual stronghold of Satan with respect to Islam was that—far from being capital punishment for an individual who turns Christian encounters with and positions on and/or an enemy of God and Israel in last-days a radical perversion of the religion—violence away from Islam, or death threats on Islam in order to draw comparisons with the scenarios all but disappeared post-9/11. Some and terror were at its very core. Thus, books in Rushdie for allegedly insulting the prophet recent evangelical discourse. And, contrary to missionaries working in Muslims countries this new wave of attack on Islam, like Richard- Muhammad, are not simply some isolated inci- Geisler and Saleeb’s qualification, I consider the voiced concern over the public attacks on Is- son’s Secrets of the Koran, seek to prove conclu- dents or aberrations from the true and peaceful recent mode of evangelical discourse on Islam lam by evangelical leaders and some evangelical sively that the natural and logical outworking religion of Islam. Such violence in fact goes to to have clearly discernible roots in these earliest books treating Christian relations with Islam of the Muslim faith is violence and oppression. the very roots of Islam as found in the Qur’an encounters. have continued to affirm shared beliefs aimed They see the Qur’an and the example of the and the actions and teachings of the prophet of Prophet Muhammad as not only potentially 28 at dialogue. But these voices, which were once Islam himself. Parallels with Early Christian Encounters much more prominent parts of the overall allowing for violence but as requiring it. Ele- This edition also reframes its introduction discourse on Islam, have been drastically out- ments of earlier discourses attributing satanic to the material it treats. Where the first edition While Islam and the Qur’an in many ways numbered by a more confrontational mode of influence to the origins of Islam became promi- called for the reader to “examine carefully the incorporate previous knowledge of and famil- discourse. 9/11 marks the emergence of an at- nent themes as is evidenced in the public com- evidence…and to make their own decision,” iarity with Christian scriptures, Christians out- tacking approach as the hallmark of evangelical ments made by Robertson, Graham and others the introduction to the second edition states: side of Arabia had very little experience with encounter with Islam. Kidd notes: described above. “[in light of 9/11] non-Muslims suddenly real- Islam before it began spreading through the T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought

54 55

Middle East and North Africa in the late sev- lims as fellow monotheists and commended the enth and early eighth centuries. Even then, Prophet Muhammad for introducing the Arabs knowledge of Islam and the beliefs and prac- to the God of Abraham. This view resonates tices of Muslims came slowly to Christendom, with certain evangelical positions (more accept- beginning with the Christian communities ed before 9/11) that sought common ground in areas encompassed by the expansion of Is- with Islam as a monotheistic faith with several lam. Hugh Goddard, in his work A History of points of contact with Christian and Jewish Christian-Muslim Relations, points out that the scriptures. Goddard notes, however, that this Christian world at the time of the rise of Islam early interpretation of Islam “was fairly quickly was already deeply divided both theologically subjected to a number of challenges, as it began and politically.31 Divisions within the church to become clear that the Islamic community between Western Roman and Eastern Byzan- was not only convinced that its coming was tine authorities were complicated by splits re- part of God’s will, but also saw itself as having a sulting from the Council of Chalcedon in 451 mission to be a kind of corrective to or even ful- CE with Eastern bishops taking sides either in fillment of, the message of the Christian com- support of or opposition to the Pope’s position munity.”32 This realization came as Islam spread and the decisions of the council. Christians further into Christian territory. With this we who rejected Chalcedon were persecuted by see, much like with post-9/11 evangelical views those who upheld it, thus creating political di- on Islam, a move toward a confrontational ap- visions out of theological divisions. proach as Islam is increasingly perceived as both It was into this divided Christian world a political and theological threat. that Islam emerged and it was in this context A second early view of Islam came from that various Christian understandings of Is- non-Chalcedonian Christians who interpreted lam were formulated and proliferated. God- the spread of Islam as God’s judgment on their dard identifies three major views on Islam dur- erring theological opponents within the Chris- ing that early period of encounter. First is the tian world. Here one is reminded of comments early notion that the success and the spread of after 9/11 made by many of the same evangeli- Islam could be attributed to God blessing the cal leaders quoted above. While criticizing Is- descendents of Abraham through Ishmael. Pro- lam, Falwell and others also blamed the attacks ponents of this view were sympathetic to Mus- of 9/11 on what they saw as America turning T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent

has contemporary counterparts in the field of the evangelical literature on Islam after 9/11. a l T hought evangelical Christian defenses against Islam. In I have also shown that we find in the ear- a l T hought 2006, evangelical apologist Michael Licona au- liest Christian encounters with Islam, patterns thored a fictional debate between the Apostle that resonate with the contemporary evangeli- Paul and the Prophet Muhammad called Paul cal reactions against Islam. This is not to insist 56 Meets Muhammad: A Christian-Muslim Debate that there are direct or deliberate connections 57 on the Resurrection.35 Like John’s debate, Licona between contemporary evangelical treatments bases his work on his experiences and interac- of Islam and earlier encounters. It is, however, tions with Muslims and his reading and inter- significant to note that the patterns that exist pretation of Islam’s textual sources. And also in evangelical discourse find precedent in these like John of Damascus, the words of the Mus- earliest Christian views of Islam. Perhaps the lim participant are actually those of the Chris- most important point to take from this com- tian author, and the target audience of the de- parison is not the commonalities in content, bate is Christian.36 rather the extent to which particular political circumstances tend to combine with theologi- Conclusion cal concerns to give very specific and discern- away from its moral foundations as an ideal- ments about Islam being a heresy. It also reso- ible contexts for the encounter of Christians I have shown how the internal dialogue ized Christian nation. Aside from theological nates with Don Richardson’s conclusion that and Muslims. within American evangelical Christianity began notions of divine retribution against Christian bridge building with Islam is impossible be- In his account of American Christian to shift toward a mode of attack and confron- society, there is a political element to this view cause the Prophet Muhammad directly chal- interactions with Islam, Kidd suggests that tation even before 9/11. In the wake of 9/11, of Islam as Christians blame their leaders for lenged so many essential Christian doctrines. “American Christians’ views on Islam divulge evangelicals of previously distinguishable posi- their lack of faithfulness and prescribe a re- Based on his life-long experience with more about American Christians than about tions on Islam began using common tropes and 37 turn to a more Godly political system. Non- Islam and his understanding of Muslims as any actual Muslims.” The fact that many of themes in what appears to be a unified assault Chalcedonians, having experienced persecu- Christian heretics, John of Damascus wrote a the loudest evangelical voices that have spoken on Islam. These themes include broad general- tion from Chalcedon affirming Christians, saw work entitled Disputatio Saraceni et Christiani out against Islam are not at all experts on Is- izations about Islam, as a unified whole, being the presence of Islam as liberating them from (The Disputation of a Muslim and a Christian). lam lends support to this suggestion. Studying rooted in violence. Explicitly and implicitly oppressive church authorities much as some Goddard suggests that this work was “intended the evangelical discourse on Islam since 9/11 denying the possibility that God could have re- contemporary evangelicals understand 9/11 as no so much as a theological evaluation of Islam does not provide either an adequately com- vealed the Qur’an, challenges are largely aimed a judgment from God for America’s iniquities. but rather as a kind of manual of guidance for prehensive or contextualized view of Islam. It at the character of the Prophet Muhammad. Finally, Goddard describes a third view of Christians who find themselves entering into does, however, provide us with insights into the Charges of pedophilia, demonic possession and Islam that originated with John of Damascus. theological discussion with Muslims.”34 This theological and political contexts of evangeli- an obsession with violent rule are pervasive in Raised in Christian family in Muslim Damas- genre of discourse that came out John’s expe- cals—particularly in the United States. While cus in the seventh century, John acquired a sig- riences remains an important part of contem- nificant first-hand knowledge of Islam through porary evangelical opposition Islam. As noted his education and his work for the Caliph as above, contemporary evangelical apologies tend a high-ranking official. John alleged that the to be popular works intended to equip believ- Prophet Muhammad came across the Old and ers with material with which to confront chal- New Testaments and, with the help of an Arian lenges to orthodox Christian faith. Evangelical monk, created his own heresy. He described apologists frequently use debates as contexts in Islam as “a deceptive superstition of the Ishma- which to articulate a Christian worldview and elites” and “the fore-runner of the Antichrist.”33 defend it against challengers. John’s hypotheti- This position is similar to Pat Robertson’s com- cal debate between a Christian and a Muslim T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought

58 59 for my own usage I will employ the most widely accepted 22 While it is beyond the scope of this essay, it is interest- transliterations. ing to note the connection here to Samuel Huntington’s 8 Don Richardson, Peace Child (Seattle: YWAM Pub- Clash of Civilizations thesis. lishing, 2003), 9. 23 Cimino, No God In Common, 165. 9 See: Don Richardson, Eternity in Their Hearts (Ven- 24 Norman L. Geisler and Abdul Saleeb, Answering Is- tura, CA: Regal, 1984). lam (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 2002), 12. 10 Don Richardson, interviewed by Dick Staub, Chris- 25 Abdul Saleeb is a pseudonym used by the book’s sec- tianity Today, (February 2003); Available from http:// ond author in order to protect his identity. www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2003/februaryweb-only/2- 26 Cimino, No God in Common, 165. 10-22.0.html. 27 Kidd, 143. 11 Don Richardson, Secrets of the Koran (Ventura, CA: 28 Geisler and Saleeb, 323. Regal, 2003), 17. 29 Ibid., 7. 12 Ibid., 18. 30 Ibid., 329. it is beyond the scope of this essay, the extent to ENDNOTES 13 Ibid., 19. 31 Hugh Goddard, A History of Christian-Muslim Rela- 14 Richard Cimino, “New Boundaries – Evangelicals and tions (Chicago: New Amsterdam, 2000), 14. which theology and politics are mixed in evan- 1 See: http://mediamatters.org/re- Islam After 9/11,” Religion Watch (January 2006): 5. Ac- 32 Ibid., 36. gelical treatments of Islam demands further search/200603140008; http://mediamatters.org/ cessed 6 May 2009; Available from http://www.religion- 33 John of Damascus. Quoted in: Goddard, 39. clips/200605240010; and http://www.counterpunch.org/ consideration. watch.com/doc/2005-Cimino-Evangelicals-Islam.pdf. 34 Goddard, 41. wazwaz1010.html. In his book Orientalism, Edward Said 15 Thomas Kidd, American Christians and Islam (Princ- 35 See: Michael R. Licona, Paul Meets Muhammad: A 2 Quoted in: Thomas S. Kidd, American Christians and eton, NJ: Press, 2009), 123. Christian-Muslim Debate on the Resurrection (Grand Rap- suggests that we must ask questions about Islam (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009), 16 See: Luis Bush and Beverly Pegues, The Move of the ids, MI: Baker, 2006). what advantage is being sought in taking on 145, 147. Holy Spirit in the 10/40 Window (Seattle: YWAM Publish- 36 Evangelical apologist Ravi Zacharias wrote another 3 Cited in Richard Cimino, “No God in Common: the topic of Islam—what motivations are at ing, 1999). similarly themed fictional debate, titled The Prince and the 38 American Evangelical Discourse on Islam After 9/11,” Re- work? When we look closely at the history of 17 See: C. Peter Wagner, Confronting the Powers (Ven- Prophet: Jesus Talks with Mohammad, in 2004. Though it view of Religious Research 47, no. 2 (2005): 163. evangelical discourse on Islam and see themes tura, CA: Regal Books, 1996). is completed and widely listed among the author’s works, 4 “Continuing Divide in Views on Islam and Vio- 18 George Otis Jr., Strongholds of the 10/40 Window (Se- the book was not published and is only scheduled to be common to other Christian encounters with lence,” Pew Research Center, accessed 20 July 2011; Avail- attle, 1995), 109, Quoted in: Kidd, 128. released posthumously. able from http://people-press.org/2011/03/09/continu- Muslims dating back to the earliest meetings 19 See: Richard Cimino, “No God in Common: Ameri- 37 Kidd, xii. ing-divide-in-views-of-islam-and-violence/. of these two faiths, we should be motivated to can Evangelical Discourse on Islam After 9/11,” Review of 38 See: Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage, 5 The previously cited poll also found that 66% of dig deeper into these complex relationships. Religious Research 47, no. 2 (2005): 167. 1978), 5. Conservative Republicans and 67% of those who “agree 20 Kidd, 137. The American evangelical context for discourse with the Tea Party movement” see Islam as more likely to 21 Ibid.,143. on Islam, not being simply a theological en- encourage violence. While it is beyond the scope of this deavor, involves cultural and political factors essay to consider in depth the extent to which evangeli- that merit further consideration. As American cal theology intersects with political identity and ideology for those who hold a negative and confrontational view of evangelicals continue to formulate theological- Islam, it should be understood from the outset that the ly and politically informed conclusions about complexity of this intersection of factors is noteworthy. Islam and as these conclusion are manifest in 6 While the focus of this essay is on the growing ten- the public sphere—ranging from Qur’an burn- dency among American evangelicals to view Islam with suspicion, it should of course be noted that within the ings to opposing mosque constructions—this global evangelical Christian context, alternative approach- issue will be increasingly important to Muslim- es to Islam exist that emphasize mutual understanding, Christian relations in the United States and peacebuilding, cooperation, etc. The diversity of opinion around the world. This essay represents a first on Islam among evangelicals worldwide is of interest but, step in acknowledging the interconnected roles again, beyond the scope of this treatment of the dominant American evangelical discourse. that theology and politics play in evangelical 7 A note on spelling of Arabic words: Several works discourses on Islam and the apparent fact that that I reference throughout this essay use less common there exists among evangelicals a conflation of transliterations of Arabic words—for example, Koran for Christian identity with American (or perhaps Qur’an and Mohammad for Muhammad. I will leave in- tact whatever form authors use in their own writings, but “Western”) identity to the exclusion of Islam. T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought

60 61 Introduction Farid Esack, a South African Muslim of Pakistani heritage, presents a modern version of the Muslim faith throughout his book titled On Being a Muslim. As it becomes evident during the Islam and course of the text, the author’s life experiences have contributed significantly to the interpretation set forth. Specifically, Esack recalls on numerous occasions his time spent living under the racist South African regime, as well as his international travels. Interweaving personal anecdotes with Social Action: general discussions of theology, the text seeks to offer a progressive representation of Islam that embraces tradition yet makes it relevant to modern issues. Over the span of seven chapters Esack A Review on Farid Esack’s outlines, in a relatively concise manner, the most pressing of these problems confronting mod- ern Muslims around the world. What is interesting about the book’s arrangement is that each of On Being A Muslim chapter builds upon the concepts analyzed previously, working from inward to external renewal. I By: Andrew C. Clark would argue that the organization of the text in such a manner contributes to the author’s central American University focus.

Throughout his writing, Esack repeatedly alism,” which serves as a middle path.2 In order addresses the concept of tawhid, or monothe- to facilitate its development among Muslims, ism, in Islam. More precisely, it is necessary to reinterpret all aspects of the Belief in the existence and unity of Allah, religion, ranging from the Qur’an to cultural the Transcendent, is central to the life of a Mus- practices. With that said, I will examine Farid lim and the Qur’an places much emphasis on cultivating a relationship with Allah as a living Esack’s argument for tawhid as being the cen- and caring God to whom all humankind will re- tral concept of Islam. Additionally, I will dis- turn and to whom we all accountable.1 cuss the ways in which this tenet has facilitated Therefore, according to the author, this the emergence of new Muslim identities and tenet should be interpreted in a broader sense practices that encourage individuals to be so- than is traditionally acknowledged by the Mus- cially engaged in modern societies. lim umma, or community. In the book’s preface Esack contextualizes his attempts to introduce The Comprehensiveness of Tawhid an alternative to what he refers to as “dehuman- izing fundamentalism and fossilized tradition- Introduced briefly above, the centrality T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought of tawhid in Islam has and continues to be an This quote provides not only an excellent important article of faith for individuals prac- summary of the inner turmoil Esack experienc- ticing the religion. Although the concept typi- es because of this particular situation, but also Progressing from this initial belief, the cluding al-Azhar University and mosque, this chapter also comments extensively on the inter- open-air market served as Cairo’s economic 62 cally is translated as “monotheism” by scholars, addresses a more universal theme: the desire for 63 Esack argues in favor of a more comprehensive a close relationship with God. relatedness of God and His creation. To deviate center through the mid-twentieth century. In definition. The author, by emphasizing the In particular, as the author continues his from use of On Being a Muslim, I wish to pres- recent decades with the rise of global tourism, idea of unity as part of tawhid, establishes a narration, he mentions on several occasions ent personal experiences from my time residing however, the area resembles an American mall theological foundation for his subsequent ar- that he had come to view God as being indiffer- in Cairo, seeing as they pertain to the author’s more than a traditional Middle Eastern , guments. Much of Esack’s initial presentation ent to both personal and global suffering. For sentiments. Prior to leaving the United States, with merchants beckoning individuals “to have of this idea derives from his first chapter titled example, when visiting the Ka’bah in hopes of my encounters with Islam had been meetings a look, my friend.” Despite my high tolerance “On Being with Allah,” which helps in show- God presenting him with a clear consciousness, with pious individuals, who were predominate- for haggling, thanks to obnoxious boardwalk ing its connection with other, worldlier topics. “the silence that greeted me was deafening in its ly white converts to the religion. From these in- merchants back home, I found myself growing Attempting to convey to his audience the sense loudness. There was no glimmer of the emer- teractions I had crafted the mental image of Is- sick each time I visited the Khan, which made of bewilderment and anxiety that stems from gence of a new being consumed by the flame. lam as a tranquil, moral, and welcoming faith, my trips as quick as possible. I believe this re- contemplating tawhid, Esack relates an anec- I sat there, drained and frightened,” offers Es- but quickly found the opposite while abroad. sponse and others like it stem from the unre- dote from hajj, or the pilgrimage to Mecca. ack.4 From this comment it becomes evident This is not to say that all Egyptian Muslims alistic conception of Muslims that I fabricated He begins by stating plainly his feelings before that the author seeks to expose a disconnect be- lacked in their piety or loyalty to Islam; I was prior to living in Cairo. While these experienc- leaving South Africa: tween individuals’ desires and what God pres- afforded the opportunity to share an apartment es debased my idealism, I, like Esack, sought I approached Mecca with a mixture of ents to them. Although the benefits of the hajj with three Egyptian students who taught me a out the consolation of pious friends who I owe feelings. Social conditioning: the many tales did not manifest immediately and left Esack great deal. Rather, as Esack acknowledges in his much of my current perceptions of al-diin (Ar- of experiences of ‘hearts overflowing’ told by deeply shaken spiritually to the point of requir- writing, I observed what I consider “cultural Is- abic for “religion”). returning pilgrims compelling me to just ‘feel ing friends to ensure physical survival, several lam,” specifically the social rituals that have de- Whereas other students investigating Is- the greatness of the moment;’ my secular dis- remarkable incidents occurred eventually. The veloped over the centuries and attached them- lam in Egypt gradually became critical and at position militating against this and beckoning most significant of these events included the selves to the religion. An example of this quality times, openly hostile, towards Muslims, my me to be calm; the al-lawwamah (berating establishment of a social activist group named that I encountered repeatedly was the inclusion “spiritual consciousness” drifted in the other self) mockingly chiding: ‘Are you not ashamed the Call of Islam, which provided individuals of specific Arabic phrases, like ma’shallah (God direction. Unfortunately, I cannot provide a of defiling the sacred soil of Mecca with your with a Muslim organization committed to end- is pleased) or al-hamduia’Allah (if God wills), in single moment where this revelation occurred; footprints?’3 ing South African racism and sexism.5 everyday conversations without much thought. rather it developed through a series of con- It appeared that my Egyptian and other Arab versations and relationships. The first of these friends employed this language only because it resulted from living with three Egyptian stu- was something that had been instilled as proper dents, one of which I cite as embodying piety. social custom during childhood. This roommate, named Abd al-Hamid, and I Furthermore, outside of the university frequently sat up for hours and discussed vari- setting while navigating the clogged Cairene ous questions concerning Islam, such as the streets, I met a number of Muslims in the city’s nature of God, morality. Amidst the confusion and neighborhoods. Similar to the ide- that sometimes arose because of language dif- ological fall-out documented by Esack during ferences, it was evident that each of us sought his hajj as a result of the apparent absence of intimacy with God and recognized the inher- God, my adventures in Cairo’s Khan al-Khalili ent conflicts with peers that would arise period- drove me towards unsavory opinions of Islam. ically. Another relationship that contributed to Situated near the city’s holiest Muslim sites, in- a simultaneously inward and outward approach T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought

tices, be it sexual, racial, or economic biases. Lately, my prayers, or du’ua, have been devoted to Islam, like the one advocated by the author, an echo of the Spirit of Allah blown into all Within each of these manifestations of hatred, towards asking for forgiveness and strength in 64 stems from talks with a female graduate stu- humankind at the time of creation.”6Another ignorance of the tawhid of creation supplies a abstaining from acts that are considered ha- 65 dent. The details of how we exactly met, I am component of achieving liberation requires the foundation. raam, or forbidden under Islamic law. While unable to recall presently, but nonetheless, our individual to aspire to goals that transcend pas- these small changes in my behavior may appear exchanges encouraged me to meld my social ac- sive existence. Conclusion insignificant, I believe they exemplify the steps tivist impulses with Muslim theology. Ethar, a Esack bluntly states that in order to ac- outlined by Farid Esack in struggling towards As Esack has emphasized in this particular social egalitarianism. twenty-two year old Egyptian female, attended complish this state, Muslims will encounter section and elsewhere in his book, Muslims, in the university in hopes of obtaining a master’s strife, but emphasizes the need to find inspi- an effort to cultivate greater social engagement, ENDNOTES degree in journalism, specifically focusing upon ration from inherent beliefs and moral values. must begin by questioning what has been the portrayal of Muslim females in the coun- For instance, relating this topic to the racism passed off as tradition or fact. The formulation 1 Farid Esack, On Being a Muslim: Finding a Reli- try’s media. Over the course of the semester, officially endorsed by the apartheid South Af- of a personal relationship with God through gious Path in the World Today (Oneworld Publications: Oxford, 1999), 9. Ethar and I would forgo class in order to en- rican government, the author argues that the analysis of holy texts and consciousness of one’s 2 Ibid, 2. gage in these discussions that ranged in a top- basis for such actions are rooted in individual behaviors, thus, is necessary if the individual is ics from the Five Pillars to marriage customs. insecurities. To defend this assertion Esack cites 3 Ibid, 13. to contribute to humankind with any success. 4 Ibid, 15. Being a new convert with a limited mastery of a sura from the Qur’an that recounts the story I have committed to myself to Esack’s meth- 5 Ibid, 17. the Qur’an and hadith, I was humbled by the of Adam, who became distinguished among all odology and can attest to its benefits. In the 6 Ibid, 43. insight provided by this woman, yet never felt of creation by embodying the Spirit of Allah 7 Ibid, 55. 7 broadest sense, the text encouraged a renewed belittled because of it. Each time we concluded and free will. Consequently, our recognition connection with God that focused less upon 8 Ibid, 56. talking I emerged desiring deeper understand- of this fact and its applicability to humankind praying for the fulfillment of momentary de- ings of the religion, specifically its relevance to should motivate Muslims to fight for greater sires, such as getting an A on an assignment. modern social problems. social equality, whether it is manifested in leg- islature or personal actions. Where Do We Go From Here: Renewing Contributing to the growing gap between Islam through Social Engagement God and His children is the kufr, or ingrati- tude shown by mankind towards God’s many Through the provision of a thorough ex- gifts. Although this is traditionally understood planation of tawhid by employing relevant ac- as ignorance of the individual’s dependency counts from both the author’s and my life, it upon God for survival, Esack asserts that also is my attention to direct attention to the real- “we have to be aware of the many fine qualities world application of a comprehensive defini- that we have been imbued with.”8 The inabil- tion of tawhid as prescribed by Farid Esack. ity to acknowledge God-given strengths and Building upon this foundation, Esack first out- weaknesses, as a result, prevents humans from lines a methodology to liberate individuals, and achieving their full potential in life. Just as man therefore, permitting them to positively affect is dependent upon God for sustenance, he is the world around them. The author connects also reliant upon other humans for a meaning- this path towards freedom to tawhid by assert- ful existence. More importantly, this ignorance ing, “The first characteristic of truly liberating inhibits the emergence of relationships between speech and behavior is that these emerge from individuals that are mutually beneficial and free firm roots…For me, this means I listen to the of pretense. For an example of this, one has to voice deep within myself; the voice which is look no further than the causes for social injus- T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought

66 67 pMeopopolelseti n mom derern ssocic etieies feeeell thatthat envn ironnmmentn al crisis anandd inju dticioewisiththhreeligioeligissguiioensof?t Tecchhnhenoquqoulogyoogegygstyionanndcampupmbelitcopotheliccy;yono;nwhatwwhceraatn ofhaasmans thnyisygotgogsotetc thlahreoeolalndnodgicagiicralaeligell giganndoudusssocoscihohoologolagricscawhwl hcauo hahsavaevsefobregugmaannnstosoattatltttoootiooktukuddintnetoanaondundndrdelerlirliglyioi epntnerceaepppptpptriooonactothowewsarhah dsdveehbiees ennvnrvairisonoenmd.dm. Tentnht.e.rCoCe oanrececeerinrnthingneg othnheesiisssdsueu ea,cdaillffflf “rerthtehtuinknrkniingnng wtoororrleligldviieousws woandrldvethhieiccwss, .ana” d on the other side, the call

The concept of justification and the issues related to it have been a focal point in the history of Christian theology. This concept has been, at the same time, the subject of several controversies. A disagreement, for instance, arose as to the exact interpretation of the term “justification.” St. Augustine understood it to mean “making righteous;” an interpretation that remained undisputed until the end of the Middle Ages. In the Reformation era, however, this definition was challenged. Justification in Paul The classical Protestant theology has maintained that “justification” means “declaring human be- ings to be righteous,” and should be differentiated from “sanctification,” which denotes “making human beings righteous.” and James and a Another controversy emerged as to the means by which justification is achieved. Both Luther- anism and Calvinism proposed the formula sola fide, according to which justification is an act of God without any role for man’s works. This idea was condemned by the Council of Trent, which Muslim Perspective emphasized the role of man’s cooperation with God in the process of justification. Other differ- ences, also, e.g., whether the formal cause of justification is the imputed righteousness of Christ or the inherent or imparted righteousness of Christ, have emerged.1 By: Hamed Fayazi These controversies on justification are, however, older than the times mentioned above; they date back to the apostolic age itself. The most famous of these early disputes is that between Paul Hartford Seminary, Connecticut and his Jewish-Christian adversaries on the role of faith and works in justification. This dispute is detailed in New Testament writings, especially in the Pauline epistles and the Letter of James. In this paper, I will focus on the New Testament phase of this controversy without following the course it has taken throughout the history of Christianity. Starting with the Pauline epistles, I will analyze what exactly Paul means by the idea of justification “by faith apart from works” (Romans 3:28). 2 Then I will focus on the Letter of James to see what James has in mind by declaring that justification is “by works and not by faith alone” (James 2:24) and whether he is contradicting Paul or not. Afterwards, I will discuss briefly the issue of faith and works from an Islamic point of view. T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent

But before proceeding, it is crucial to look in the final judgment.5 faith in Christ, and not by doing the works of and also its “slaves.” (Romans 6:15-23) Chap- a l T hought at the meaning of the word “justification” and The ancient Christians’ perception of jus- the law, because no one will be justified by the ters 12-15 also deal with this ethical obligation. a l T hought its biblical background prior to the New Testa- tification was shaped by the context of Jewish works of the law. (Galatians 2:15-16) The firm bond between justification and its According to this passage, the belief that ment writings. The two word groups “justifi- tradition; it was a development of that tradition, moral implications also appears in 2 Corinthi- justification comes through “faith in7 Jesus cation, just, justify” and “righteous, righteous- not an innovation beyond it. It is noteworthy ans 5:21, where Paul insists that the believers Christ” was accepted even for the early Jew- ness” in English translations of both OT and that in the Jesus’ teachings of the synoptic Gos- are to “become the righteousness of God.”11 68 ish Christians; the fundamentality of Christ’s 69 NT stand for the same family of words in the pels, “justification language” is seldom used. Therefore, although Paul’s idea of “justifi- death and resurrection for justification was original languages. Unfortunately, there is no Even those infrequent occurrences do not bear cation by faith apart from works” negates any nothing really new.8 single etymological root in English that can any notably Christian sense. It can be argued, role for human endeavors – especially “works Therefore, Paul’s original contribution to show the relation between the word groups however, that a characteristically Christian us- of the law” -- and introduces justification solely the idea of justification by faith was this: Jesus’ of “justification” and “righteousness.” But it age emerged in those passages that introduced as God’s gift, by no means does it rule out the death and resurrection bring about justification should be remembered that these two concepts Jesus as “the Righteous One,” the messianic necessity of living a morally upright life. Paul is for Gentiles without any need for them to un- in the Bible are inextricably linked and must be personage who was unjustly murdered (Acts clear about this distinction: dertake circumcision or observe Jewish dietary studied together.3 3:14, 7:52), and then vindicated by God (1 Do you not know that wrongdoers will not codes. This viewpoint, furthermore, led Paul to The roots of “justification” as a theologi- Tim 3:16). The Jewish hope for God’s vindica- inherit the kingdom of God? Do not be de- a new understanding of Church as a new “peo- ceived! Fornicators, idolaters, adulterers, male cal concept are to be found in legal vocabulary. tion now saw realization through the cross and ple of God” open to both Jews and Gentiles, prostitutes, sodomites, thieves, the greedy, When someone is “justified,” he/she is proved resurrection of Jesus Christ. Thus, the idea of joining together in table fellowship.9 drunkards, revilers, robbers—none of these will “not guilty” before a judge. In the world of the vicarious sacrificial death of Christ developed: inherit the kingdom of God. (1 Corinthians 6: Because of his conflict with the “Juda- Israelites, the covenant with Yahweh was the “For Christ also died for sins once for all, the 9-10) izers,” recorded in Galatians, Paul was led to framework for legal judgment. “Righteous- Righteous one for the unrighteous.” (1 Peter Thus, it is true that from Paul’s viewpoint, use greatly dismissive language about the law. ness” in this context meant faithful loyalty to 3:18)6 justification is based on faith without any role He zealously writes, “Listen! I, Paul, am telling the requirements of the covenant. And, since, After these introductory points, we will for human works. But “true” faith, in which you that if you let yourselves be circumcised, by definition, covenant has requirements for now start our discussion of Paul, whose work justification is integrated, should lead to a life Christ will be of no benefit to you.” (Galatians both parties – i.e. Yahweh and the Israelites – made a major contribution to the Christian un- with high morals. Immorality and decadence 5:2) He decisively adds, “You who want to righteousness is required of both Yahweh and derstanding of justification. have no place in a “godly life in Christ.” (2 be justified by the law have cut yourselves off the Israelites. Thus, the righteousness of God Timothy 3:12) Claiming to have faith without from Christ; you have fallen away from grace.” means His determined loyalty to His covenant any change in character and conduct has no Paul and the Idea of “Justification by (Galatians 5:4) His radical standpoint could be with Israel; it is an aspect of His character that value. Faith apart from Works” seen also in the allegory of Hagar and Sarah reveals itself in defending and saving His cov- Now we will look at the Letter of James in Galatians 4:21-31. His Romans text, how- enant people.4 Paul represents a turning point in the which some regard as a contradiction to Paul’s ever, takes a more moderate position: there, he With the Exile episode, however, the Is- Christian understanding of justification; but teachings. refers to the law as a witness to the new mani- raelites’ conviction about God’s righteousness his thought also reflects the Jewish-Christian festation of the righteousness of God (Romans was challenged. How could God be righteous mindset on justification found in other New James and Insufficiency of Faith 3:21) and does not downplay the righteousness if He gives away Israel to her enemies? This Testament writings. Thus, Paul sees justifica- that could have been acquired before Christ In the New Testament, at least five men challenge was met with the development of an tion as God’s act of deliverance through Jesus (Romans 3:24).10 are mentioned with the name “James.” Only eschatological hope: God will finally manifest Christ, “the Righteous One,” whose sacrifice These new perspectives frequently subject one of them, however, enjoyed the authority His righteousness and validate Israel’s trust in brings about salvation for the covenant peo- Paul to criticism. His opponents objected that that the writer of the Letter of James seems to Him. It is in this context and similar ones that ple. This idea is clearly stated in Romans 4:25, Paul’s gospel promising justification apart from have enjoyed: James, the brother of Jesus, who the righteousness of God becomes closely con- where Christ is described as the one “who was works would lead to immorality. In response, became the head of Jerusalem’s church. Never- nected to the ideas of deliverance and vindica- handed over to death for our trespasses and was Paul emphatically condemned the accusations theless, there is uncertainty as to whether the tion. raised for our justification.” (Romans 3:8) and “by no means” (Romans 6:1) Letter was written by him.12 With the Qumran literature, the idea that Even the idea of “justification by faith” accepted that his gospel implied continuing in During the process of canonization, in God’s righteousness would bring about for- is not distinctively Pauline. In Galatians, Paul sin. In Romans 5:15-7:6, Paul emphasizes the which Christian churches of the second to giveness and removing of sins found a greater himself says, ethical implications of justification. After being fourth centuries selected certain writings from emphasis. Here again, justification is linked to We ourselves are Jews by birth and not Gen- tile sinners; yet we know that a person is justified restored to right relationship with God based among a diverse array of early literature to or- the bilateral nature of covenant: the people of not by the works of the law but through faith on His grace, the justified people must become ganize the New Testament, the Letter of James Qumran strived to be faithful to God’s cove- in Jesus Christ. And we have come to believe “instruments of righteousness” (Romans 6:13) was one of the latest writings added to the can- nant; in return, they expected to be vindicated in Christ Jesus, so that we might be justified by T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought

70 71

on. Two factors, perhaps, contributed to this that James does, indeed, contradict Paul; this with it. even the demons, the forces that oppose God, delay. First, the Letter of James was addressed viewpoint became dominant in much of the According to the NIB, James in 2:14 ques- possess. Such faith is obviously inadequate and to a Jewish Christian community, and hence ir- scholarly approach to James, and only recently tions the “usefulness” of faith that does not lead insufficient. relevant to the growing Gentile church of the lost its popularity.14 An important presupposi- to deeds. He dismisses the authenticity of faith In 2:20-26, James tries again to show the time. Second, James seemed to oppose Paul on tion for this viewpoint is that Paul and James that does not manifest itself in good works. “senseless person” that faith apart from works the issue of the role of faith and works in jus- are addressing the same issue: the issue of suffi- Although he asks whether such faith “can save is useless. For that purpose, he refers to the tification. ciency or insufficiency of faith for justification. you” (2:14), his issue is not really soteriology. stories of Abraham and Rahab, both of whom Eventually, however, the Letter of James Obviously they use a series of parallel vocabu- He has made it clear before that it is “the im- had faith demonstrated by their works. James was included in the canon. This must mean that lary (faith/works/ justification/saving) and ap- planted word that has the power to save your finds in their example faith that acted “along the content of the Letter came to be viewed as peal to the same scriptural evidence (the case of souls.” (1:21) James’ main issue here is how to with,” and “was brought to completion by,” the not incompatible with Pauline teachings. Also, Abraham). At the same time, their standpoints be a “doer” of that word. works (2:22). Faith that lacks this cooperation it might have been understood to have a gen- are paradoxical: one believes faith to be suffi- Moreover, note that he does not speak and unity with works is like “the body without eral message, for the benefit of Jews and Gen- cient for justification; the other declares it to of the “works of the law” but of the “works of the spirit” and simply “dead” (2:26).16 tiles alike.13 be insufficient. It is not, therefore, baseless to faith.” James’ topic is the essential unity be- This is how the NIB reconciles the appar- The apparent conflict between James and think that James is contradicting Paul.15 tween attitude and action; he is by no means ent contradiction between Paul and James. It Paul is one of the main issues that New Testa- In contrast to the above-mentioned view- trying to replace action with attitude. James’ proposes that Paul and James do not have dif- ment scholars tackle when discussing the Letter point, most of the readers of James throughout position here is exactly what Paul states in Gala- ferent theological perspectives; rather, the dif- of James. The central passage that reflects this history have been convinced that James and tians 5:6: “Neither circumcision nor uncircum- ference between them simply is due to the fact conflict is 2:14-26, where James writes, Paul do not contradict each other because they cision counts for anything; the only thing that that they address different issues. Paul deals What good is it, my brothers and sisters, if are not dealing with the same issue. When pro- counts is faith working through love.” James with soteriology. His topic is whether the base you say you have faith but do not have works? posing the idea of “justification by faith apart illustrates what he considers to be the “dead” for justification is faith apart from works or Can faith save you?…So faith by itself, if it has no works, is dead…. Do you want to be shown, from works” in Galatians and elsewhere, Paul faith very clearly: faith accompanying works. In this topic, Paul you senseless person, that faith apart from works is dealing with soteriology. His main issue is If a brother or sister is naked and lacks daily concludes that the base of justification is faith is barren? Was not our ancestor Abraham justi- whether anything else except faith plays any food, and one of you says to them, “Go in peace; apart from works. James, according to the NIB fied by works when he offered his son Isaac on keep warm and eat your fill,” and yet you do not role in bringing about justification and hence supply their bodily needs, what is the good of interpretation, has no disagreement with Paul’s the altar?... You see that a person is justified by salvation. But the issue for James seems to be viewpoint. He is drawing a line between true works and not by faith alone.… For just as the that? So faith by itself, if it has no works, is dead. body without the spirit is dead, so faith without different. (James 2:15-17) faith and fake faith. James maintains that true works is also dead. To explain how this reconciliatory view- In 2:18-19, James insists further on the faith is the basis of justification and salvation. The passage is in sharp contrast to Paul’s point could be supported, we will use the ex- inseparability of faith and works: faith could be It is this true faith that manifests itself in works. words about justification in Galatians and else- planation that The New Interpreter’s Bible( NIB) shown by works of faith, but what will remain Mere intellectual understanding of God is use- where. This has made some Christian figures, gives us for 2:14-26. Afterwards, we will review of faith without works? It will be just a mere less. So both Paul and James agree that faith most importantly Martin Luther, conclude the explanation to see how far we can agree intellectual belief which, according to James, apart from works is the key to justification; T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought James is only giving clarification when he ties Paul’s viewpoint. For Paul, the sufficient cause The above-mentioned verses are only a few rely on my mercy, and hope for my generosity, faith to works as a witness to faith. for justification is faith. Even though Paul’s among the fifty occurrences of the formula. and be confident by having good opinion about Now I will comment on the “faith” certainly manifests itself in works, the The juxtaposition of faith and good works is ex- me. [If so,] then my mercy will reach them and 20 my benevolence will take them to my content- 72 NIB’sexplanation and analyze the differences manifestations themselves do not play a role in pressed in other wordings as well. This shows ment and my forgiveness will cover them with 73 and similarities between James and Paul in the bringing justification; they are just signs that that the Qur’an does not consider faith to be my pardon. Verily I am Allah the Beneficent the issue of faith and works from my own view- show the real faith. From Paul’s viewpoint, sufficient for justification. The insufficiency of Merciful and Thus I have named myself.”22 point. once the real faith is there, it brings with it faith is explored more clearly in chapter 6 verse This idea is also reflected elsewhere. justification; it does not wait for manifesta- 158: For instance, in a prayer which is narrated An Analysis of Paul and James’s Perspec- tions to show up. For James, however, the faith Wait they, indeed, for nothing less than that from the fourth Shi‘ite Imam, we read, “I that Abraham or Rahab already had was not the angels should come unto them, or thy Lord tives should come, or there should come one of the do not rely – for being saved from your enough; it did not result in justification until portents from thy Lord? In the day when one punishment – on our works, but on your To comment on the NIB’s interpretation, their faith’s “manifestations” came about. Thus, of the portents from thy Lord cometh, its belief 23 I agree that James and Paul have significant grace toward us.” works themselves have a role in justification availed naught a soul which theretofore believed According to these passages, justification commonalities; their viewpoints are closer than not, nor in its belief earned good (by works). from James’ viewpoint. Paul would not agree is based solely on God’s mercy. Not only is our they seem at first glance. Both emphasize that Say: Wait ye! Lo! We (too) are waiting. with that degree of works’ dominance. faith insufficient, but also our good works are good works are necessary. Both of them think According to this verse, when certain signs incapable of bringing us justification. Faith and that believers must strive for high morals and of God appear, all will submit and believe. works provide only a requisite condition to refrain from any kind of immorality. Though However, belief (or faith) at that time will not Faiths and Works from an Islamic View- receive God’s mercy; they do not bring about they have different viewpoints regarding the benefit two groups of people: those who did not point or cause justification themselves. Seen in this extent to which Gentiles must observe the Jew- have faith before and those who had faith, but light, the Islamic doctrine here turns out to be ish law,17 they do not disagree that Jews are to A comprehensive study of the issue of faith did not “earn good.” This passage is perhaps the closer to the Pauline idea of “justification by abide by the law. Therefore, their difference has and works from an Islamic perspective is not clearest expression for the idea of insufficiency faith,” rather than James’ idea of justification no significant impact on how Christians live the purpose of this paper. What follows, then, of faith in the Qur’an. by faith and works. This is because Paul’s per- their lives. is just a short survey of how the writer sees the However, a more careful study shows that spective is more dependent on God’s mercy. However, it seems that Paul and James do similarities and differences between the Chris- the issue is not as simple as it might look. In Thus, one can argue for an essential similarity have different perspectives. I cannot agree with tian and Islamic faith traditions on these topics. 24:21, we read, “Had it not been for the grace between Islamic and Pauline understanding of the NIBwhich insists that, for James, works are As we saw, Paul’s idea of “justification by of Allah and His mercy unto you, not one of justification on this issue. merely manifestations of real faith, without any faith apart from works” introduced faith as the you would ever have grown pure.” This verse role for them, in themselves, in the process of only element needed for justification.18 The teaches us that the base for “purification” is justification. It is true that in 2:14-26 James’ Qur’an definitely looks anti-Pauline at first only God’s grace and mercy, not what we do. Conclusion The hadith21sources, which constitute the sec- topic is not primarily soteriology, but this glance. For the readers of the Qur’an, the for- In this paper, we discussed the topic of jus- ond fundamental source of religious teachings should not prevent us from paying due atten- mula “those who believe and do good works” tification and the role of faith and works in it. in Islam, give us a deeper understanding of this tion to what he says in passing about the role is familiar: As we saw, Paul introduced a new understand- of works in justification. I think, from James’ And give glad tidings (O Muhammad) unto idea. Even the combination of faith and works, 19 ing of justification to Christianity. He believed those who believe and do good works. (2:25) according to the hadiths, is not sufficient. Al- perspective, works are more than mere manifes- that human endeavors and especially works of Lo! Those who believe and do good works, though necessary conditions, faith and works tations of real faith. In 2:21-22, he clearly says, the Beneficent will appoint for them love. the law did not have any role in bringing about Was not our ancestor Abraham justified are never enough to bring about justification (19:96) justification. For Paul, justification was by by works when he offered his son Isaac on the or salvation. It is God’s mercy that eventually And as for those who believe and do good “faith apart from works.” (Romans 3:28) Thus, altar?You see that faith was active along with his works, we verily shall make them enter in among justifies and saves those who have faith and do works, and faith was brought to completion by the righteous. (29:9) in order to be included in the people of God, the works. good works: Lo! As for those who believe and do good The Messenger of Allah said, “Allah the new Gentile believers no longer needed to be Whatever he means here by faith, it is works, for them is a reward enduring. (41:8) Most Blessed the Most High has said, ‘The do- circumcised or observe Jewish dietary laws. clear that from James’ viewpoint, works are not Then, as for those who believed and did ers [of good] must not rely on their deeds that They could now be united with Jews in table merely signs of the true faith. Rather, they are good works, their Lord will bring them in unto they do for my reward. Even If they strive and fellowship. active factors with which faith cooperates and His mercy. That is the evident triumph. (45:30) tire themselves out in worshipping me through- (And) lo! Those who believe and do good This viewpoint, however, was not accept- is brought to completion. This is different from out their lives, they will be deficient in, and fall works are the best of created beings. (98:7) short of, worshipping me perfectly… They must able to a group of Jewish Christians who still T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent

2004), 720. manity is “under the power of sin.” This idea is not in a l T hought 13 Richard Bauckham, James: Wisdom of James, Dis- agreement with Qur’anic teachings. a l T hought ciple of Jesus the Sage (New York: Routledge, 1999), 19 All Qur’anic quotations in this paper are from 112-13Luke T. Johnson, “The Letter of James,” in The Pikthall’s translation. New Interpreter’s Bible: New Testament Survey (Nash- 20 See, for example, 2:62; 6:48. ville: Abingdon Press, 2005), 297. 21 In Arabic,hadithmeans saying. Technically, it 74 maintained that Jewish laws were necessary for or salvation themselves. It is totally God’s grace 14 Luke T. Johnson, “The Letter of James,” in The means a report of what the Prophet has said or done. 75 inclusion in God’s people. James, the writer and mercy that justifies and saves. New Interpreter’s Bible: New Testament Survey (Nash- In Twelver Shi‘ite Islamic tradition, the reports of the of the Letter of James, is viewed by some to ville: Abingdon Press, 2005), 297. sayings and works of the twelve Imams are also count- be a member of this group because he uses a 15 Some scholars disagree with the way this question ed as hadith. Hadith literature takes the responsibility ENDNOTES is usually put. They believe that it was not James who of interpreting and elaborating the Qur’anic teach- language that is seemingly contrary to Paul’s was responding to Paul, but the reverse. Therefore, the ings. words. While Paul maintains that one is “justi- 1 E.A. Livingstone, ed., TheOxford Dictionary of the Christian Church, 3rd ed. (New York: Oxford Univer- question should be asked whether Paul is really con- 22 Muhammad b. Ya‘qub al-Kulayni, al-Kafi, vol.2 fied by faith apart from works,” James believes sity Press, 1997), 914. tradicting James or not. Ibid., 300. (Tehran: Da?r al-Kutub al-Islamiyyah, 1997), 71. that justification is “by works and not by faith 2 All biblical quotations in this paper are from the 16 Luke T. Johnson, “The Letter of James: Intro- 23 Muhammad Baqir Majlisi,Bihar al-Anwar, vol.95 alone.” (James 2:24) NRSV. duction, Commentary, and Reflections.” In The New (Beirut: Mu’assasah al-Wafa’, 1983), 84. Others have tried to show that although 3 Richard B. Hays, “Justification,” in The Anchor Interpreter’s Bible, vol.12 (Nashville: Abingdon Press, James seems to contradict Paul at first glance, Bible Dictionary, vol. 3, eds. David Noel Freedman, 1998), 196-97. 17 Pheme Perkins, Reading the New Testament: an he is really speaking about a different topic. editor-in-chief; Gary A. Herion, David F. Graf, John Introduction (New York: Paulist Press, 1988), 162-63. Paul is concerned with the issue of how justifi- David Pleins, associate editors; Astrid B. Beck, man- aging editor (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 1129. 18 It is worth discussing to what extent the concept cation is acquired. In that topic, he concludes 4 Ibid. of justification in Christianity exactly fits into the Is- that nothing except faith plays any role. James’ 5 Ibid., 1129-30. lamic worldview. For instance, the Christian under- concern, however, is clarifying that it is the real 6 Although the sources that contain these formula- standing of justification presupposes the idea that hu- faith manifesting itself in good works that has tions were written after Peter, arguably each case re- such results, but “fake” faith (faith without flects general early Christian tradition. Ibid., 1130. works) is useless. 7 There has been disagreement as to the exact trans- We commented on this reconciliation lation of this formula. The original Greek (dia/ek pisteos Iesou Christou) could mean both “through the faith in that, although there is much more in common Jesus Christ” and “through Jesus Christ’s faith.” Tra- between Paul and James than might seem at ditionally, the first translation has been preferred, but first glance, on a theoretical level, they do have more recently the second rendering has gained favor. different viewpoints. In contrast to Paul, James This difference, however, has little importance in our does not view good works as merely manifesta- discussion: both emphasize the importance of Christ’s tions of real faith with no role in justification. death and resurrection as the divine act which is the For James, justification waits until good works base for justification, and both regard faith/trust as the required response on the human side. See: Ibid., show up; without them there will be no justi- 1131. fication. 8 Ibid. At the end, we shortly discussed the role of 9 Ibid. faith and works from an Islamic viewpoint. We 10 Ibid.; Calvin J. Roetzel, “Justification, Justify,” saw that the Qur’an seems at first glance to be in The New Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, ed. against Paul’s teaching, but a closer look at the George Arthur Buttrick (Nashville: Abingdon Press, Islamic sources shows that in fact Islam teaches 2006-2009), 479. 11 Ibid. that although faith and good works are requi- 12 A. E. Harvey, A Companion to the New Testament, site conditions, they do not cause justification 2nded. (New York: Cambridge University Press, T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought

76 77 Sodom’s Sin: Light thrust itself upon the plain of Jordan as the Lord seized the five cities of Gomorrah, and A Combined Reading of the Destruction of the new day witnessed the wrath of its Lord as He rained down upon them both fire and brimstone. The people of Lot had persisted in an evil and grave sin and arrogantly mistreated the righteous Sodom and Gomorrah From The Christian among them including Lot; a close nephew to the patriarch and prophet Abraham, and one of the and Islamic Traditions few to believe in him. The destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah has been documented in both the Bible and the Qur’an and read by Jewish, Christian, and Muslim believers as a consequence of By: Ibrahim J. Long disobedience to one’s Lord. And while they all confirm that the actions of the people of Lot were Hartford Seminary, Connecticut criminal, there is disagreement as to the most egregious of their acts. Much of what has been related in both the Bible and Qur’an is very similar, though subtle details give variant impressions to the lessons we should derive from their ill-fated doom. In some cases as well it seems that one, or the other, is unclear about an issue and can be further elaborated upon by peering into the others’ text. In an effort to convey to the reader just why these variant lessons may exist, and as well portray the strong similarities within their readings, I have combined the Biblical narration of the tale with what has been documented of it within the Qur’an.

Prologue tween you and me, and between my herdsmen and your herdsmen; for we are brethren. Is not Prior to Lot’s move to the city of So- the whole land before you? Please separate from dom he had lived alongside his uncle Abra- me. If you take the left, then I will go to the ham in Ur, in what is now southern Iraq. Af- right; or, if you go to the right, then I will go to ter Abraham’s sincere, yet unsuccessful, effort the left” (Gen. 13:8-9). Lot saw all the plain of to call his people to the worship of the One Jordan before him, which was at that time like God, he decided to migrate for the service of “the garden of the LORD” (Gen. 13:10). He his Lord (Gen. 12:1-3; Q. 29:26); an effort his then chose this land for himself and pitched his nephew joined him in. The journey first took tent in the city of Sodom; where the men were them both through Egypt and then to Canaan. exceedingly wicked and sinful (Gen 13:12-13). After they arrived in what would later be the Speculation has been made within the “promised land” they discovered that it was Christian tradition as to why Lot chose to live insufficient to sustain both of their flocks and in such a “wicked and sinful” city. Such suppo- herds; which may have been the cause of dis- sitions were further influenced by the story of putes between Abraham’s and Lot’s herdsmen Lot and his two daughters mentioned in Gene- (Gen. 13:6-7). To resolve this issue Abraham sis 19:30-38 and may have lead early Christian made a generous offer to his brother’s son. He theologians, like Origen (d. 254ce), to believe said to him, “Please let there be no strife be- T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought

that Lot’s later escape from Sodom was owed the wrath they so mockingly asked for. These butter and milk and the calf which he had pre- trusted them and felt from them apprehension. “more to Abraham’s merits than his own”.1 For sins were: approaching men instead of women pared, and set it before them; and he stood by According to Bedouin custom it is considered a 78 79 Muslims, Lot’s character is without doubt a (a sin never before committed), obstructing the them under the tree as they ate (Gen. 18:6-8). grievous crime to act treacherously against one But when he saw their hands not reaching for noble one. He was among those given favor road and robbing wayfarers, and committing in it, he distrusted them and felt from them ap- you have shared a meal with, so when Abraham by God (Q. 6:86), righteous (Q. 21:75), and meetings and public areas every evil. No exact prehension. They said, “Fear not. We have been saw them not reaching for the food he began a prophet. Muslim tradition firmly maintains description is given of just what these evils are; sent to the people of Lot” (Q. 11:70). to fear that these men had already intended for that Lot’s relocation to Sodom included a pro- rather, Muslim scholars have offered a diverse In both Biblical and Qur’anic narratives him some great harm.7 phetic appointment; that is, to call them to the array of opinions.2 the story of Sodom and Gomorrah begins first Islamic tradition maintains that angels do worship of the One God as his uncle Abraham The Biblical narrative alone does not add with the “guests of Abraham”; three angels who not eat food, so this is really why they did not had done in Ur. any more clarity; leaving Christian scholars to have appeared at Abraham’s door in the form reach for the meal. Interestingly, it was only The Qur’an also narrates the difficulty Lot rely more heavily upon the final events that lead of travelers. The famous Qur’anic exegete al- after the angels perceived from their host his had with the people of Sodom prior to the ar- to the people of Lot’s demise. Genesis 18 speaks Tabari (d. 923ce) relates that these angels were growing suspicion of them, and after he had rival of the three angels: of Sodom and Gomorrah’s sin as “very grave” Gabriel, Michael, and Israfil3 while some Chris- shown them the fullness of his hospitality, that The people of Lot denied the messengers. and the people as “wicked,” but as for which tians believe that among them was the Son of they then revealed who they were. When their brother Lot said to them, “Will you evil sin is being spoken of Christian scholars, God, the “Angel of the covenant”.4 Then they said to him, “Where is Sarah your not fear Allah? Indeed, I am to you a trustwor- The Bible specifically mentions that the wife?” So he said, “Here, in the tent.” And [then thy messenger. So fear Allah and obey me. And I like their Muslim counterparts, convey differ- guests “appeared to him by the terebinth trees the angels] said, “I will certainly return to you do not ask you for it any payment. My payment ent interpretations. A possible solution to this according to the time of life, and behold, Sar- is only from the Lord of the worlds. Do you ap- will be presented below, however let us first be- of Mamre,” which apparently had been a well- ah your wife shall have a son” (Gen. 18:9-10). proach males among the world’s [inhabitants] gin with a combined reading of Genesis 18. known meeting spot. The fact that Abraham [Standing nearby, Sarah had already overheard and leave what your Lord has created for you pitched his tent here may have been to better the news (either of the destruction of the people as mates? But you are a people transgressing (Q. welcome guests and wayfarers; a stark contrast of Lot, or a son) and smiled], then We gave her 26:160-166). The Guests of Abraham good tidings of Isaac and after Isaac, Jacob. [To Indeed, you commit such immorality as no to how the people of Sodom will wish to enter- And inform them about the guests of Abra- 5 this she] said, “Woe to me! Shall I give birth while one has preceded you with from among [all] the tain the same visitors. The length of the pas- ham (Q. 15:51), when the LORD appeared to I am an old woman and this, my husband, is an [nations]. Indeed, you approach men and ob- him by the terebinth trees of Mamre, as he was sage may give further emphasis to this point, old man? Indeed, this is an amazing thing!” (Q. struct the road and commit in your meetings sitting in the tent door in the heat of the day. especially since it details that promptness in 11:71-72). Abraham and Sarah were old, well every evil.” And the answer of his people was He lifted his eyes and looked, and behold, three which Abraham acted to host his guests. When advanced in age; and Sarah had passed the age not but they said, “Bring us the punishment of men were standing by him; and when he saw of childbearing. Therefore Sarah laughed within Allah, if you should be of the truthful.” He said, he beheld the men he ran from the tent door to them, he ran from the tent door to meet them, herself, saying, “After I have grown old, shall I “My Lord, support me against the corrupting meet them, and so as not to delay in bringing and bowed himself to the ground,and said, “My have [the] pleasure [of bearing a child], my lord people” (Q. 29:28-30). They said, “If you do Lord, if I have now found favor in Your sight, them a roasted calf he hurried into the tent to [Abraham] being old also?” (Gen. 18:11-12). not desist, O Lot, you will surely be of those do not pass on by Your servant. Please let a lit- Sarah, advising her to quicklymake ready some [And then Abraham asked of his guests], “Have evicted.” He said, “Indeed, I am, toward your tle water be brought, and wash your feet, and food, and then ran to his herd to find a tender you given me good tidings although old age has deed, of those who detest it. My Lord, save me rest yourselves under the tree. And I will bring come upon me? Then of what wonder do you and my family from the consequence of what calf which he gave to a young man to hasten in a morsel of bread, that you may refresh your inform?” They said, “We have given you good they do” (Q. 26:167-169). preparing. hearts. After that you may pass by, in as much as tidings in truth, so do not be of the despairing.” The people of Lot did not believe in the you have come to your servant.” They said, “Do It certainly seems that Abraham was ready [And Abraham responded], “And who despairs messenger that had been sent to them. Though as you have said” (Gen. 18:1-5). and pleased to entertain any weary wayfarer, as of the mercy of his Lord except for those astray?” he sought to save them from their own trans- And certainly did Our messengers come to was the custom of the time.6There were no inns, (Q. 15:54-56). Abraham with good tidings; they said, “Peace.” nor hotels, that a traveler may rest or find com- And the LORD said to Abraham, “Why gressions, they mocked him and asked him for did Sarah laugh, saying, ‘Shall I surely bear the wrath of their Lord. The admonishment He said, “Peace,” and did not delay in bringing fort in while upon a long journey, so travelers them a roasted calf (Q. 11:69). Abraham hur- a child, since I am old?’ Is anything too hard of Lot to his people contains within it clear ried into the tent to Sarah and said, “Quickly, sought the hospitality of local inhabitants along for the LORD? At the appointed time I will re- evidence for Muslim readers of Sodom’s most make ready three measures of fine meal; knead it their way. However, these were not normal turn to you, according to the time of life, and prominent sins; that is, other than the denial and make cakes.” And Abraham ran to the herd, travelers and, as the Qur’an relates, after Abra- Sarah shall have a son.” But Sarah denied [that she laughed], for she was afraid [but Abraham] of their messenger. These were the heinous ac- took a tender and good calf, gave it to a young ham promptly set before them the meal he saw man, and he hastened to prepare it. So he took said, “No, but you did laugh!” (Gen. 18:13-15). tions for which God will later bring upon them their hands not reaching for it, and so he dis- [Then the angels added], “Are you amazed at the T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought

decree of Allah? May the mercy of Allah and ham, give up this plea. Indeed, the command His blessings be upon you, [O] people of [this] of your Lord has come, and indeed, there will house. Indeed, He is Praiseworthy an Honor- reach them a punishment that cannot be re- 80 able” (Q. 11:73). pelled” (Q. 11:74-76). 81 Now having received Abraham and Sarah’s After hearing the awe-inspiring news of hospitality, and revealing themselves as angels, both a child and a grandson, God then con- they conveyed the good news that Sarah was veyed to Abraham his plan for Sodom and to bear a son, Isaac, who later will father for Gomorrah causing Abraham to worry for his them a grandchild, Jacob. The news undoubt- nephew Lot and his family. The Biblical passage edly came as a great shock to Sarah who had then presented a beautiful reminder of Abra- already accepted that she could not bear Abra- ham’s station with his Lord, and God’s plan for ham any children, and had grown too old for Abraham’s descendents. This reminder also re- conception. However God wished to bless and veals what may be a lesson to derive from the multiply his descendents, but had other plans visit of the three angels; that Abraham should for the people of Sodom. take warning from this visit so as to command his children and his household after him to Abraham Intercedes for Sodom keep the way of the Lord, and to act in accor- dance with righteousness and justice. [Then Abraham asked], “What is your busi- Abraham’s compassion and kindhearted- ness here, O messengers?” They said, “Indeed, we have been sent to a people of criminals, (Q. ness moved him to remind the angels that his 15:57-58) we will destroy the people of Lot’s nephew Lot still lived in Sodom, to which they city, and indeed, its people have been wrongdo- reassured him that Lot would not be harmed. ers.” [Abraham] said, “Within it is Lot.” They However, Lot’s wife, who was inclined towards said, “We are more knowing of who is within it. the ill-customs of her people and approved We will surely save him and his family; except his wife (Q. 29:31-32), Allah decreed that she is of their crimes and perversions, would not be 8 of those who remain behind” (Q. 15:60). Then spared from the destruction. the men rose from there and looked toward Sod- Then the men turned away from there and “Let not the Lord be angry, and I will speak: Abraham did not seek to excuse the customs om, and Abraham went with them to send them went toward Sodom, but Abraham still stood Suppose thirty should be found there?” So He of the people of Lot, nor did he ask for respite. on the way. And the LORD said, “Shall I hide before the LORD. And Abraham came near said, “I will not do it if I find thirty there.” And Rather, he asked of his Lord that they all might from Abraham what I am doing, since Abraham and said, “Would You also destroy the righteous he said, “Indeed now, I have taken it upon my- shall surely become a great and mighty nation, with the wicked? Suppose there were fifty righ- self to speak to the Lord: Suppose twenty should be spared for the sake of a few righteous living and all the nations of the earth shall be blessed teous within the city; would You also destroy the be found there?” So He said, “I will not destroy among them. in him? For I have known him, in order that he place and not spare it for the fifty righteous that it for the sake of twenty.” Then he said, “Let not may command his children and his household were in it? Far be it from You to do such a thing the Lord be angry, and I will speak but once after him, that they keep the way of the LORD, as this, to slay the righteous with the wicked, more: Suppose ten should be found there?” And Sodom’s Depravity to do righteousness and justice, that the LORD so that the righteous should be as the wicked; He said, “I will not destroy it for the sake of A famous tradition, though not men- far be it from You! Shall not the Judge of all the ten.” So the LORD went His way as soon as He may bring to Abraham what He has spoken to tioned in the Qur’an, has become widely ac- him.” earth do right?”So the LORD said, “If I find in had finished speaking with Abraham; and Abra- And the LORD said, “Because the outcry Sodom fifty righteous within the city, then I will ham returned to his place (Gen. 18:22-33). cepted by Muslims to convey a unique vision of against Sodom and Gomorrah is great, and be- spare all the place for their sakes.”Then Abra- After two of the angels take leave of Abra- the arrival of the angels to Sodom. It has been cause their sin is very grave, I will go down now ham answered and said, “Indeed now, I who am ham’s tent and begin their journey to Sodom, a related that after the angels left Abraham they and see whether they have done altogether ac- but dust and ashes have taken it upon myself to traveled until they arrived at the river of So- speak to the Lord: Suppose there were five less third remains behind to speak alone with Abra- cording to the outcry against it that has come to dom where they met one of the daughters of Me; and if not, I will know” (Gen. 18:16-21). than the fifty righteous; would You destroy all of ham. Here Abraham pleas for the safety of the When the fright had left Abraham and the good the city for lack of five?” So He said, “If I find whole city. Some Christian scholars consider Lot drawing water for her family. They said to tidings had reached him, he began to argue with there forty-five, I will not destroy it.” And he this to be the first solemn prayer upon record her: “O maiden, is there a dwelling nearby?” Us concerning the people of Lot. Indeed, Abra- spoke to Him yet again and said, “Suppose there in the Bible; and it is one for the sparing of She said: “Yes, but stand your ground and do should be forty found there?” So He said, “I will ham was forbearing, grieving and frequently all of Sodom and Gomorrah.9 In this instance not enter until I come back.” Fearing for their returning to Allah. [The angels said], “O Abra- not do it for the sake of forty.” Then he said, T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought

safety she informed her father of the men she from the patriarch of the monotheistic faiths bring them out to you, and you may do to them ing your daughters any claim, and indeed, you had left at the city’s gate saying, “I have not seen may have inspired the writer of Proverbs 13:20 as you wish (Gen. 19:6-8) if you would be doers know what we want (Q. 11:79), [so] stand faces of people as handsome as theirs. Do not to put to verse “He who walks with wise men of lawful marriage (Q. 15:71); only do nothing back!” (Gen. 19:9). to these men, since this is the reason they have In distress to save his guests, Lot offers to 82 let your people take them and rape them.” Lot’s will be wise”.11The situation for guests was of 83 come under the shadow of my roof.” the mob his two virgin daughters. The act it- people had forbidden him from hosting any course far different in Sodom then it was near And his people came hastening to him, and self is almost, if not more striking, to the reader guests, telling him, “Leave them to us, and we the terebinth trees of Mamre where Abraham before this they had been doing evil deeds. He than the raging mob declaring their intention will host the men.” This did not dissuade Lot lived; here Lot’s hospitality was not just a de- said, “O my people, these are my daughters; they are purer for you. So fear Allah and do to sexually assault Lot’s guests. While the Bible from quickly attending to the men, though he lightful comfort for wayfarers, but also a refuge not disgrace me concerning my guests. Is there makes it seem as if he is offering them over to was anguished for them and felt for them great from the evils committed throughout the city. not among you a man of reason? (Q. 11:78). satisfy their desire to rape, the Qur’an adds a discomfort, saying, “This is a trying day (Q. While the Islamic tradition seems to pres- Do you commit immorality while you are see- condition upon them that they must be failin 11:77); indeed, you are people unknown” (Q. ent a clear explanation as to why Lot was sit- ing? Do you indeed approach men with desire (doers); which has been understood by some 15:62). Out of fear for their safety Lot tried to ting by the city’s gate after sunset, the Bible ap- instead of women? Rather, you are a people be- having ignorantly.” But the answer of his people Muslim commentators, as translated above, to persuade them to continue on until they came pears to be silent. It is possible, however, that was not except that they said, “Expel the family mean “doers of lawful marriage.” As to how ex- to another town, though he desired to offer it was the only way left for Lot to greet guests of Lot from your city. Indeed, they are people actly a lawful marriage to a mob, or a member them the hospitality that is due to guests. When and wayfarers. Lot had already been harassed who keep themselves pure” (Q. 27:54-56). You therein, was to be performed I have not come they showed no intention of staying anywhere by the Sodomites for hosting travelers, which have already known that we have not concern- else Lot asked them to wait just outside the city they forbade him from doing (Q. 15:70) and until nightfall when they all should meet again even threatened him with exile (Q. 26:167). at the city’s gate. He would then provide them Sitting at the gate in the darkness of night may hospitality at his home.10 have been the only opportunity Lot had to not The meeting of the angels first with the only host travelers, but also save them from daughters of Lot may be the only example we the “grave sin” of his city. Lot’s people were the have of their righteousness, and their deserv- most reprehensible and immoral of any of the ing to be saved along with their father. Their generations to follow Adam,12and Lot had the carefulness in tending to the travelers, by ask- daunting task, as the Qur’an relates, of calling ing them to remain beyond the city’s gate while them to the worship of God. He also forbade they sought for them their fathers’ aid, was the them from their evil acts which they even com- best hospitality they could have offered. Lot’s mitted publicly in their meeting places; like asking the angels to remain outside until night- their “public square”. When the guests suggest- fall also blends well into Genesis 19: ed that they would spend the night there Lot The two angels came to Sodom in the eve- strongly insisted they return home with him. ning, and Lot was sitting in the gate of Sodom. Now before they lay down, the men of the When Lot saw them, he rose to meet them, city, the men of Sodom, both old and young, and he bowed himself with his face toward the all the people from every quarter, surrounded ground. Here now, my lords, please turn in to the house (Gen. 19:2-4) and the people of the your servant’s house and spend the night, and city came rejoicing. [Lot] said, “Indeed, these wash your feet; then you may rise early and go are my guests, so do not shame me. Fear Allah on your way.” And they said, “No, but we will and do not disgrace me” (Q. 15:67-69). [But] spend the night in the open square.” But he they called to Lot and said to him, “Where insisted strongly; so they turned in to him and are the men who came to you tonight? Bring entered his house. Then he made them a feast, them out to us that we may know them carnally and baked unleavened bread, and they ate (Gen. (Gen. 19:5). Have we not forbidden you from 19:1-3). protecting people?”(Q. 15:70). So Lot went out When the angels entered the city Lot in- to them through the doorway, shut the door vited them to be his guests and treated them behind him, and said, “Please, my brethren, do much the same as his uncle Abraham had done not do so wickedly!See now, I have two daugh- ters who have not known a man; please, let me before him. Having learned such generosity T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought

struck the men who were at the doorway of the night and let not any among you look back - house with blindness, both small and great, so except your wife; indeed, she will be struck by that they became weary trying to find the door that which strikes them. Indeed, their appoint- 84 (Gen. 19:9-11) and they were, in their intoxi- ment is for the morning; and is not the morning 85 cation, wandering blindly (Q. 15:72). near?” (Q. 11:81). It is interesting to note how the Sodomites So Lot went out and spoke to his sons-in- refer to Lot and his family as those who keep law, who had married his daughters, and said, “Get up, get out of this place; for the LORD themselves pure as if it is something derogatory. will destroy this city!” But to his sons-in-law In most, if not all cultures, purity is actually an he seemed to be joking. When the morning honorable state for one’s mind, body, and soul. dawned, the angels urged Lot to hurry, saying, It is unclear what sense of purity the Sodomites “Arise, take your wife and your two daughters criticized them for having, though it may be who are here, lest you be consumed in the pun- ishment of the city.” And while he lingered, the any one of those; if not all of them. One of the men took hold of his hand, his wife’s hand, and early commentators of the Qur’an and succes- the hands of his two daughters, the LORD be- sor (tabai) to the companions of the Prophet, ing merciful to him, and they brought him out Qatadah (d. 735ce), used to say of this verse: and set him outside the city. So it came to pass, when they had brought them outside, that he across any discussion. However, the subsequent excessive arrogance, xenophobia, and contempt “They shamed them with what is not shameful 15 said, “Escape for your life! Do not look behind rejection to this proposal, as related in the of hospitality; which figures well with Edwards’ at all’’. Whatever the case may be the Sod- you nor stay anywhere in the plain. Escape to Qur’an, that they had “no claim to them” has theory. A quote in the book of Ezekiel seems omites’ hearts had become blind due to their the mountains, lest you be destroyed.” Then Lot been used to further advance an interpretation to support the idea that Sodom’s greatest sin evil and defiant disobedience, and they turned said to them, “Please, no, my lords! Indeed now, that the mob was too overwhelmed with ho- maybe its own hubris and the mistreatment of away from the sound wisdom and knowledge your servant has found favor in your sight, and that God had granted to Lot (Q. 21:74-75). you have increased your mercy which you have moerotic desires to seek satisfaction from Lot’s the poor (Ezek. 16:49). This and the lengthy shown me by saving my life; but I cannot escape virgin daughters; but there is another way to emphasis in good hospitality performed first by to the mountains, lest some evil overtake me view this. Abraham, then later his nephew Lot, certainly Sodom and Gomorrah Destroyed and I die. See now, this city is near enough to 14 flee to, and it is a little one; please let me escape George R. Edwards, a Professor at Louis- gives greater evidence to this claim. One can [Lot then] said [to his people], “If only I had ville Presbyterian Theological Seminary, defines even say that Lot’s care for his guests peaked there and my soul shall live.” And [the LORD against you some power or could take refuge in a or an angel] said to him, “See, I have favored the Sodomites activity rather as phallic aggres- when he offered his virgin daughters over to the strong support.” [The guests then revealed them- you concerning this thing also, in that I will not sion perpetuated by xenophobic arrogance.13 mob so as to protect them. It is also this final selves as angels of the Lord saying], “O Lot, in- overthrow this city for which you have spoken. The purpose in which he sees it this way is that act of reasoning with the mob, followed by a deed we are messengers of your Lord; therefore, Hurry, escape there. For I cannot do anything they will never reach you (Q. 11:80-81). We until you arrive there.” Therefore the name of phallic aggressions, or male rapes, have been final admonition, which immediately preceded have come to you with that about which they documented in other ancient cultures as a way their doom. the city was called Zoar (Gen. 19:14-22). were disputing, And we have come to you with It is reported that the Prophet Muhammad of disgracing one’s enemy or subjugating an- [Lot responded], “Do you commit such im- truth, and indeed, we are truthful (Q. 15:63- once said of Lot, “May Allah’s mercy be upon other group or person. In these instances ori- morality as no one has preceded you with from 64). Have you anyone else here? [Be they] sons- among the world’s [inhabitants]? Indeed, you Lot, for verily, he betook himself to a powerful entation of the assailant is not as much of an in-law, your sons, your daughters, and whom- approach men with desire, instead of women. ever you have in the city—take them out of this support”.16 Indeed it was a powerful support issue as feminizing the assaulted in a patriarchal Rather, you are a transgressing people.” But the place! For we will destroy this place, because the for Islamic tradition then narrates that God society. Rape, whether it is homosexual or het- answer of his people was only that they said, outcry against them has grown great before the commanded the angel Gabriel to lift with his erosexual, is ultimately about dominating the “Evict them from your city! Indeed, they are face of the LORD, and the LORD has sent us wings all the cities of Lot; which housed over subjugated. men who keep themselves pure” (Q. 7:80-82). to destroy it (Gen. 19:12-13). So set out with Then they said, “This one [that is, Lot] came in 100,000 people in each. Each city was then To the contemporary reader the “great- your family during a portion of the night and to stay here, and he keeps acting as a judge; now follow behind them and let not anyone among raised to the sky so high that even the people est sin of Sodom” is none other than that act we will deal worse with you than with them.” So you look back and continue on to where you of the heavens could hear their roosters cawing which has been notoriously named after the they pressed hard against the man Lot, and came are commanded.” And We conveyed to him the at the rise of morn. Then, as the sun rose, the destroyed city; that is, sodomy. Ancient texts near to break down the door. But [his guests] decree of that matter: that the sinners will be cities were turned upside down and brought however, in both the Biblical canon and apoc- reached out their hands and pulled Lot into the eliminated by early morning (Q. 15:65-66). “So house with them, and shut the door. And they crashing down upon the earth.17Islamic tradi- rypha, seem to give greater emphasis to their set out with your family during a portion of the T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought

In both the Bible and the Qur’an the sto- ENDNOTES

ry of Lot and the destruction of Sodom and 1 Kugel, James L. The Bible As It Was (London: Belknap Gomorrah is undoubtedly one brimming with Press, 1997), 184. 86 lessons in social and religious ethics. Though 2 Ibn Kathir, Isma’il. Tafsir Ibn Kathir. 24 January 2010 87 scholars may disagree about some of these les- . 3 Wheeler, Brannon W. Prophets in the Quran: An In- sons, they accept that a wasteland remains of troduction to the Quran and Muslim Exegesis (New York: what was once called a “garden like that of the Continuum, 2002), 122. tion also states that there were four other cit- life she was leaving behind.20 Interestingly, the LORD’s” (Gen. 13:10), to forever testify to 4 Henry, Matthew. Mathew Henry’s Commentary on the Bible. BibleGateway. 20 January 2010.. though the Bible states that Zoar is where Lot life will lose it, and whoever loses his life will from recognizing the good,” as the book of 5 Kugel, James L. The Bible As It Was. London: Belknap attempted to relocate.18 preserve it” (Luke 17:32-33). This may have Wisdom says, “they have been left for mankind Press, 1997. Pages 189-190. 6 The shriek seized them at sunrise (Q. 15:73). inspired the Christian theologian Augustine as a reminder of their folly, so that their faults Henry, Matthew. Mathew Henry’s Commentary When Lot entered Zoar the LORD rained brim- would not be passed by unseen” (Wisd. 10:6- on the Bible. BibleGateway. 20 January 2010.. Jesus what may be an overarching lesson from 7 And We made the highest part of the city its no one who starts out on the path of salvation Qutb, Sayyid. In the Shade of the Qur’an. Leicester- lowest and rained upon them stones of hard clay should ever yearn for the things that he has left the story of Lot, and with his words I will agree shire: The Islamic Foundation, 1999. Page 277. 8 Qutb, Sayyid. In the Shade of the Qur’an. Leices- (Q. 15:74) and evil was the rain of those who 21 and conclude. behind”. tershire: The Islamic Foundation, 1999. Pages 319-320. were warned. Indeed in that is a sign, but most While instructing his disciples to travel More about Lot’s wife and the sin she may have been pun- of them were not to be believers. And indeed, into the cities of the lost sheep of the tribe of ished for, particularly in the Christian tradition, is related your Lord - He is the Exalted in Might, the Aftermath Israel, Jesus commands them to journey with- below. Merciful (Q. 26:173-175). He overthrew those And Abraham went early in the morning to 9 Henry, Matthew. Mathew Henry’s Commentary cities, all the plain, all the inhabitants of the cit- out any provision that they may trust solely in the place where he had stood before the LORD. on the Bible. BibleGateway. 20 January 2010.. pillar of salt (Gen. 19:25-26); she was of those and behold, the smoke of the land which went receive you nor hear your words when you de- 10 Ibn Kathir, Isma’il. Stories of the Prophets. Kalamullah. who remained [with the evildoers] (Q. 7:83). up like the smoke of a furnace. And it came to part from that house or city, shake off the dust 25 January 2010 . that God remembered Abraham, and sent Lot more tolerable for the land of Sodom and Go- Biblical scholars have debated over what out of the midst of the overthrow, when He 11 Kugel, James L. The Bible As It Was. London: Belknap exact evil deed Lot’s wife had committed to overthrew the cities in which Lot had dwelt morrah in the Day of Judgment than for that Press, 1997. Page 191. earn her the punishment of her Lord, while the (Gen. 19:27-29). The people of Lot denied the city!” (Matt.10:5-15). Jesus’ words seem not 12 Wheeler, Brannon W. Prophets in the Quran: An In- troduction to the Quran and Muslim Exegesis. New York: Qur’an and Islamic tradition has managed to warning. Indeed, We sent upon them a storm only to instruct believers to receive guests with of stones, except the family of Lot - We saved Continuum, 2002. Page 121. answer this with some greater clarity. Lot’s wife hospitality, but also to treat well those who 13 Nissinen, Martti. Homoeroticism in the Biblical World. them before dawn as favor from us. Thus do We provide religious instruction. In this instance was a disbeliever and, like the wife of Noah, had reward him who is grateful. And he had already Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1998. Page 48. 14 Ibid. betrayed her righteous husband (Q. 66:10). It warned them of Our assault, but they disputed he means his disciples; however his analogy al- 15 Ibn Kathir, Isma’il. Tafsir Ibn Kathir. 24 January 2010 the warning. And they had demanded from him ludes to Sodom’s mistreatment of Lot, believed has also been reported in the Islamic tradition his guests, but We obliterated their eyes, say- by Muslims to have been a prophet and trust- that when the angels arrived it was Lot’s wife 16 Ibid. ing, “Taste My punishment and warning.” And who informed the city of their arrival, saying, worthy messenger (Q.26:162). We see by his 17 Wheeler, Brannon W. Prophets in the Quran: An In- there came upon them by morning an abiding words that it is not merely Sodom’s lack of hos- troduction to the Quran and Muslim Exegesis. NewYork: “In the house of Lot are men. I have not seen punishment (Q. 54: 33-38). Indeed in that are 19 Continuum, 2002. Page 125. faces as handsome as theirs ever before”. The signs for those who discern. And indeed, those pitality that was their doom, nor was it their 18 Ibid. Page 126. cities are situated on an established road. Indeed homosexual acts (for he did not even mention Christian tradition has laid greater focus upon 19 Ibid. Page 124. her looking back at the destruction of the city in that is a sign for the believers (Q. 15:75-77). it). Rather it is a culmination of all of these 20 Kugel, James L. The Bible As It Was. London: Belknap suggesting that she turned around in a flagrant And indeed, you pass by them in the morning which included the mistreatment of the righ- Press, 1997. Page 191. and at night. Then will you not use reason? (Q. disregard of the command to not do so, or out teous, who sought to help them from within 21 Ibid. Page 192. 37:137-138). Then see how was the end of the 22 Ibid. Page 182. of a great attachment to her family and way of criminals (Q. 7:84). their own community. T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought

Introduction 88 The manuals of Islamic jurisprudence, a considerable body of prophetic traditions, and the 89 references to death and afterlife in the Qur’an itself, depict death not as the end of life or a point of no return, but as the end of a phase, a marker signifying departure from this passing world to another of far higher significance and worth. The deceased are not dead but liberated from the mundane dimensions of life here and now. The very moment of death is also the supreme moment of submission to Divine Will. The numerous accounts of men of piety dying while performing their prayers is a direct reflection of several verses of the Qur’an on the theme of death, fortitude, and submission (Q.7:126);1 while in the case of those who give up their life in the cause of God, the word “dead” does not even apply (Q.2:154).2 It is the unbelievers and those immersed in evil deeds who are truly dead even when alive. This paradoxical language and the breaking of boundaries between concepts of life and death manifest themselves in a variety of ways in the life of Muslim communities in different periods and places. Examples of the dead acting as intercessors are well documented in the literature on dreams and dream interpretation. The tradition of summoning souls from beyond the grave is still practiced within some Islamic societies. On a broader and more institutional level, the very idea of charity and endowment (waqf) is indicative of a firm belief that all benefits from such a venture will reach the spirit of the deceased benefactor on an everlasting basis. The contemporary elaborate funeral rituals, particularly of the Shi‘ite world, also merit attention as both a reflection and celebration of the interdependence be- tween the living and the dead. Religious beliefs, as much as literary and cultural legacies, are often divided into high and low, popular and elitist, and other such clear cut binary divisions culled from other cultures and systems of belief. In dealing with notions of the ever-present departed, this paper will try to show how blurred these lines can be and how texts and traditions constantly impinge upon each other.

Departed But Not Dead: The Rituals of Contact with the Deceased in the Islamic Tradition

By: Mohammad Jafar Mahallati Oberlin College, Ohio T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought

rary work on exegesis namely Al-Mizan, dis- terial world. tances himself from the above exaggerations 90 and asserts that Q.40:11, leaves no doubt, by The Literatures of Contacting the Deceased 91 referring to two lives and two deaths, that be- tween the first death from the mundane life The above nucleus of thought has grad- and Hereafter, there must be another stage of ually developed an extensive literature on con- life and death that occurs in the Intermezzo ditions, ways, means, and results of contacts and applies universally to all the deceased.12He between the populations on earth and the one The Qur‘anic View of the Deceased Futuh al-Razi, there are several prophetic had- emphatically rejects the classical exegeses that presently living in Intermezzo. This literature ith showing that a second form of life begins Early Islamic texts provide ample sup- pertain the ‘living after death,’ only to the liv- becomes quite extensive when it reaches the immediately after the first death. Most of this port for a view that considers the deceased are ing of the name (reputation) or to a form of a Shi‘i Islam where the concept of intercession hadith literatures refer to the Prophet’s frequent merely transferred to the spiritual world. Based heavenly bird’s life. has received deep elaborations in connection assertions that martyrs’ souls will be received, on this view, theses texts also provide special By referring to Q.40:46 and 39:42, with the Shi‘i concept of infallible leadership immediately after their departure from the means, in the form of prayers and rituals by Tabataba’i concludes that the Intermezzo stage (imama). According to Shi‘ism, all prophets, the mundane life, by angels and hur al-‘ins (heav- which onecould virtually, contact the spirits of of life (as opposed to the eternality of life in Twelve Shi‘a Imams, Prophet’s daughter Fati- enly female companions).8 Al-Razi also refers, the deceased, send them spiritual gifts, receive Hereafter) has times (days and nights), and ma, and other saints (friends of God or Owlia’ without refutation, to a few hadith (one nar- their spiritual intercession, and receive infor- the word twaffa used in the Qur’an for death Allah) may enjoy intercessions power and save rated by ‘Abdullah ‘Abbas) that have used a mation from them about future events or cur- of human beings denotes a mode of transfer- groups of sinners who may have a chance for symbolic language by asserting the souls of the 15 rent mundane problems. Three Qur‘anic verses ence rather than annihilation.13 Furthermore, forgiveness by God in Hereafter. Thus comes martyrs will settle in the body of “heavenly of Q.2:154, Q.3:169 and 170 provide specific a great majority of the Muslim exegetes main- the source of the reverence of shrines for the green birds.”9 One view maintains that that unequivocal assertions that martyrs may not be tain, based on Q.3: 170 that the deceased hu- Shi‘i community and the reason that in no oth- in fact it is the “good reputation” of the de- considered as dead, rather they are alive and re- man beings not only have a second life in the er part of the Islamic community, the literature ceased that will continue living. Another view ceive their sustenance from Almighty: “And do Isthmus stage, but they are also quite informed for contacting the deceased in general and with refutes the corporeal presence of the deceased not say about those who are killed in the way and cognizant of the lives of others they left the sacred in particular has developed as much in heaven and supports only in the spiritual of Allah, ‘they are dead.’ Rather, they are alive, in the mundane life. This thought, of course as it did in the Shi‘i community. presence.10 Al-Razi rejects the latter proposition but you perceive it not.”3“And never think of opens the possibility of a two-way or a one-way One of the most influential contemporary and holds that since spirits are not in need of those who have been killed in the cause of Allah contacts between human souls living on the prayer manuals that reflect an elaborate body food, such an interpretation renders Q.3:169 as dead. Rather, they are alive with their Lord, opposite sides of the mundane border. of the abovementioned literature is Mafatihal- (where there is an assertion that God provides receiving provision, rejoicing in what Allah Overall the above arguments and a very Jinan edited byShaykh Abbas Qummi (d.1359 for the martyrs their subsistence) baseless. Al- has bestowed upon them of His bounty, and rich on the principle of ‘the AH). This manual is a collection of special Razi then refers to some others genre of hadith, they receive good tidings about those (to be eternality of soul,’ (asl-e baqa’-e or tajarrod-e prayers composed by some of the Shi‘i Imams the martyrs appear in the heaven with full glory martyred) after them who have not yet joined nafs)14 have established a firm belief, within the and their companions based on the Qur’anic being accompanied by a hundred and forty two them- that there will be no fear concerning Muslim community since classical times, about verses, Prophetic hadith, and their own view of female companions while enjoying a power to them, nor will they grieve.”4 the continuance of life after departing the ma- life on both sides of what we know as the death save about seventy of his immediate relatives in These and a few other Qur’anic verses5have the next world. A few hadith of the latter type been taken by the classical and modern exegetes maintain that life after death in the Isthmus of the Qur’an6 as proofs of and references to the stage solely belongs to the martyrs, and the rest independence of human’s soul from body, as of the deceased are dead until the are revived in well as the presence of a form of life in the In- the day of judgment.11 termezzo (in-between temporal space) that is a Mohammad Hosein Tabataba’i (d. 1985) stage between the mundane life and Hereafter.7 the author of the most renowned contempo- According to the classical exegete Abu al- T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought

towards yourself, let them meet your content- dents of graves.22 edness (a heavenly residence) and accompany Qummi refers to a number of hadiths em- them with your mercy so that it saves them from 92 phasizing that the deceased are expecting their 93 loneliness and gives them relief from fear, indeed 23 you are Almighty.17 loved ones to send them prayers. Additionally Qummi refers to a few Pro- phetic hadith where the Prophet advises his Devotional Rituals and the Rights of the community to regularly send prayer-gifts to Deceased the deceased. He (the prophet) is quoted to Mafatih al-Jinan frequently offers elabo- have recommended that if the following prayer rate and graphic descriptions for how the devo- would be uttered three times over any grave, it tional rituals done on behalf of the deceased will will never be rejected: be received by them instantly and in the most Oh Lord! I beg you on the truthfulness of Muhammad and his followers that you do not glorious and auspicious manner. “According to punish this deceased person.18 a hadith,” Qummi mentions, “once a person Another hadith from Ja ‘far al-Sadiq, as gives alms on behalf of a deceased, The Angel referred to by Qummi, reflects the depth of Gabriel accompanied by seventy thousand oth- this trilateral relationship between god, the de- er angels descend to his grave each carrying a ceased person and his living friends and rela- blessing from God, submitting all the blessing border. In the next section we will focus on var- them, and that they can respond, if God per- tives. According to this hadith al-Sadiq points to him, shedding lots of light upon him…and ious aspects of the life in the Intermezzo and its mits them to do so, in various spiritual ways. In that if forty believers would be present in the all his wishes subsequently will come true.”24 relations to our world as seen through the lines showing the importance of paying respects to funeral of the deceased and utter the following Almost all of the modern jurisprudential and the vocabularies of this specific manual. the shrines and the spirit of the sacred, Qummi testimony, he will be saved in Hereafter: manuals of day to day and A to Z devotional denotes the following hadith: Oh Lord! We do not know of him (her) ex- rituals contain chapters specifying the duties of “He who visits them while being cognizant cept good and you are more knowledgeable than the heirs to the deceased in detail. For example, Mafatih al-Jinan (Keys to the Heavens) 16 19 of their rights, will deserve heaven.” us about him. according to these manuals, the elder son of the and Methods of Contacting the Deceased. According to the hadith, once this prayer The prayer for the deceased, as Qummi deceased is obligated to personally perform or is performed, God will say that “I accepted your The first striking feature of this manual reports is not confined to the sacred figures. In to hire someone else to perform for the paren- testimony and forgave all his sins which you are is that it employs the idea of intercession in a fact Mafatih points emphatically that according tal obligatory prayers that have been neglected ignorant about and I am fully aware of.”20 very comprehensive manner. The whole text is to a number of hadiths (Prophetic or from the by them in their life without any justified ex- The ritual of praying for the deceased has 25 fraught with special prayers addressing various Shi‘i Imams), it is incumbent upon all Mus- cuse. In fact the duties of the heirs towards Muslim saints (specifically the Shi‘i Imams), in lims to regularly visit cemeteries, pray for the received so much attention within the Islamic the deceased compose a major part of all the the hope that while they receive these prayers deceased, and take lessons from the fact that tradition and specifically within the Shi‘i tradi- juridical rulings in the official manuals of the instantly, they may reciprocate in kind and soon they will join them too. Qummi narrates tion that it has become a supplementary part Islamic jurists.26 adhan in heavenly terms should God permit this in- two hadith from Ja ‘far al-Sadiq (d.148/765) of daily prayer calls ( ) and obligatory All such manuals also permit and encour- tercession. These special prayers even provide where he stresses on the importance of visiting prayers as well as the standard for terminating age the living to do recommended (mustahabb) fully elaborate rituals for the entrance of one’s and praying for the deceased on the account any prayers or official sermon: devotional rituals such as performing the pil- Oh Lord! Bestow your forgiveness upon me, that they (the deceased) hear and respond to 27 shrine. There are also special prayers designed my parents, and all believers on the Day of Judg- grimage on behalf the deceased. for specific mundane or heavenly purposes. All the prayers. As for the specific prayer that may ment.21 It is important to note that the introduc- such prayers are based on three Qur’anic con- be performed for the deceased al-Sadiq suggests Mafatih points to a special prayer for all tory part of many manuals on jurisprudence cepts already mentioned: That the deceased are the following: the deceased recommended for daily utterance emphatically denote and define a basic tripar- alive in the Intermezzo, that they are aware of Oh Lord! Take away hardship (literally earth) from their sides, and ascend their souls during the fasting month of Ramadan: tite sections of rights that must be observed the acts of people on earth in trying to reach Oh God! Bestow happiness upon the resi- by and are duty-bound for all individuals: The T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought

94 95 about enquirers and scientists trying to reach of Intermezzo have suggested, the above rela- through to the knowledgeable deceased for tion between the two sides is immediate. This help in finding solutions for specific scientific immediacy removes the last possible elements questions. of the concept of death, and substantiates the view that according to Islamic tradition not rights of God, the rights of other human fel- living acquaintances within the Shi‘i literature Conclusion only the life of the individual is eternal, but so lows, and the rights of the deceased. and tradition is mutual. According to this tra- is the life of the society or social life. The legal invention of endowments (waqf) dition the deceased usually uses the medium of This paper provided a brief glance at a few aspects of the relations between the living that appeared first in the Islamic society around dreams to pay visit, express appreciations, and ENDNOTES eight century CE was indeed the extension of convey specific messages to the living friends and the deceased, a subject that has deep roots and many ancillaries within various realms of 1 Q.7:126: “ …Oh our Lord! Pour upon us pa- such well defined rights of the deceased within and relatives. A story narrated by the Persian tience and let us die as Muslims [in submission to 28 Islamic theory and practice. This is indeed an the Islamic legal structure. translator of Tabataba’i’s Al-Mizan is very tell- you].” See Saheeh International, Trans. The Qur’an, all too brief a treatment of the subject-matter; ing. He narrates that once Tabataba’i finished Arabic text with Corresponding English Meanings, (Ri- however, the author’s hope is that even this Companionship (hashr) with the Deceased his 20 volume exegesis, a friend came to him yadh: Abulqasim Publishing House, 1997), 213. concise account has provided a clear indication 2 in the Qur’an and Prayer Manuals with a dream he had about the father of the Q.2:154: “And do not say about those who are author, expressing deep dismay that they (both that the concept of death as a human being’s killed in the way of Allah, ‘they are dead.’ Rather, they are alive, but you perceive it not.” The term hashr (companionship/gather- parents) have had no share in heavenly rewards total annihilation is totally alien to Islamic cul- 3 Saheeh International, Trans. The Qur’an, Arabic ing) and many of its various forms and syn- that their son has accrued for himself by his tures. From the small evidence provided by this onyms (such as jam‘) have frequent usage in the paper, it is clear that the relations between the text with Corresponding English Meanings, (Riyadh: work. The narrator then witnessed Tabataba’i’s Abulqasim Publishing House, 1997) 29. Qur’an29 They denotes the concept of compan- deceased and the living in Islam are systematic, tears and how he responded to the dream by 4 Ibid., 91. mutual, multi-facetted, affectionate, yet legally ionship of various groups of people with iden- dedicating (gifting) the heavenly rewards (tha- 5 Verses such as Q.29: 64: “And this worldly life tical beliefs. Q.3:12, 19:68 and many other wab) of his exegesis to his parents.31 bound, and deeply embedded in the very struc- is not but diversion and amusement. And indeed, verses refer to the disbelievers being in each Mafatih refers to a few traditions that pro- ture of Islamic eschatology and worldview. Ap- the home of the Hereafter is the real life if only they knew.” Q.32: 9: “Then He proportioned him and other’s company in Hereafter. These terms has vide detailed instruction for the ones who wish parently this system is designed to keep a chain breathed into him from His soul and made for you also found extensive usage in prayer manuals to meet a deceased (be it a saint, a friend, a of connections between the two sides of the and supplications encouraging the readers to border. In fact, it can be argued that where the hearing, vision, and hearts; little are you grateful.” relative or others) in dreams. According to this Q.32:11: “Say, The angel of the death will take you deceased and the living could send gifts to each ask for the companionship of the saints, good- instructions a combination of the ritual ablu- who has been entrusted with you. Then to your Lord doers (salihun) and the loved ones in Hereaf- tions, recitations of certain Qur’anic verses, other, save each other’s spirit, convey messages, you will be returned.” Q.23:99, 100: “[For such is ter. The following is a recommended phrase by and a set of special prayers performed before visit each other in dreams, and perform inter- the state of disbelievers], until, when death comes to prayer manuals whenever one visits the shrine going to sleep will bring the desired deceased cession for each other, there is no real border in one of them, he says, “My Lord, send me back. That I might do righteousness in that which I left behind. of a saint or tombs of the loved ones: to the dream of the performer.32According to between at all. Moreover, as various Qur’anic May God make us known to each other in exegesis and their arguments about the stage No! It is only a word he is saying; and behind them is the heaven and enter us into your companion- Qummi, the summoning of a deceased may ship.30 play the useful function of finding a solution to a problem from which the seeker could not find an escape through mundane means. When the Deceased Visits the Living Indeed the Islamic dream and soul-sum- The relations between the deceased and his moning literature is replete with anecdotes T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought

18 Ibid.,1029. 1997) 63. 19 Ibid., 1011. 30 Abbas, Qummi. Mafatih al-Jinan, with Persian 20 Ibid., 1012. Trans. (Qum: Nubugh Publisher. 1986), 1023. 96 21 This is a standard Qur’anic phrase. 31 Al-Mizan, vol.20, 692. 97 22 Abbas, Qummi. Mafatih al-Jinan, with Persian 32 Abbas, Qummi. Mafatih al-Jinan, with Persian Trans. (Qum: Nubugh Publisher. 1986), 310. Trans. (Qum: Nubugh Publisher. 1986), margins of 23 Ibid., 363. 887-892. 24 Ibid.,margins of 366-67. 25 See for example, Fadel, Lankarani, Towdih al- Masa’el, (the fatwas or rulings), (Tehran: Daftar-e a barrier until the Day they are resurrected.” Q.39:42: verses of Q.23:100, 25:53, and 55:20 is more neutral Nash-e Farghang-e Islami, 1998), 265. “ Allah takes the souls at the time of their death, and than a ‘raf, but it is mostly translated as ‘barrier’ in the 26 See the section on rules of inheritance: Fadel, those that do not die during their sleep. Then He keeps Qur’anic interpretations. The stage we are addressing Lankarani, Towdih al-Masa’el, (the fatwas or rulings), those for which He has decreed death and releases the here is before the Day of judgement where all people (Tehran: Daftar-e Nash-e Farghang-e Islami, 1998), others for a specified term. Indeed in that are signs for are kept according to exegeticall understanding. Thus 537. people who give thought?” Q.40:11: “They will say, a need for a term other than the usually negatively 27 Ibid., 391. ‘Our Lord, you made us lifeless twice and gave us life used term of purgatory, perhaps Intermezzo (or per- 28 See EI 2nd ed. s. v. “Waqf,” by Doris Behrens- twice, and we have confessed our sins. So is there to an haps Isthmus) out of its musical context. Abouseif. Also see Fadel, Lankarani, Towdih al- exit any way?’” Q.40: 46: “The fire, they are exposed 8 Abu al-Futuh al-Razi, Rawh al-Jinan wa Ruh al- Masa’el, (the fatwas or rulings), (Tehran: Daftar-e to it morning and evening. And the Day the Hour Janan,Abulhasan Sha ‘rani ed. (Tehran: Islamiya Pub- Nash-e Farghang-e Islami, 1998) 527. appears [it will be said], ‘Make the people of Pharaoh lications, 1382AH) vol.3, 251-253. 29 See for example Q.3:12: “Say to those who dis- enter the severest punishment.” All translations are 9 Abu al-Futuh al-Razi, Rawh al-Jinan wa Ruhal- believe, ‘you will be overcome and gathered together from: Saheeh International, Trans. The Qur’an, Ara- Janan,Abulhasan Sha ‘rani ed. (Tehran: Islamiya Pub- to Hell, and wretched is the resting place.’” Also see bic text with Corresponding English Meanings, (Riyadh: lications, 1382AH) vol.1, 337. 19:68 with similar notions. Saheeh International, Abulqasim Publishing House, 1997). 10 Ibid., 378. Trans.The Qur’an, Arabic text with Corresponding Eng- 6 For classical exegesis see Abu al-Futuh al-Razi, 11 Ibid., 378, 379. lish Meanings, (Riyadh: Abulqasim Publishing House, Rawh al-Jinan wa Ruhal-Janan,Abulhasan Sha ‘rani 12 Mohammad Hosein, Tabataba’i. Tafsir al-Mizan, ed. (Tehran: Islamiya Publications, 1382AH) vol. 1, trans. Naser Makarem Shirazi, (Tehran: Nashr-e Far- pp. 377-79, and vol.3, pp 243-252. hangi-e Raja, nd), vol.1, 492. 7 The word Intermezzo is author’s choice for it con- 13 Ibid.,494, 495. veys a neutral notion as opposed to purgatory used in 14 Ibid., 493-523. religious text for a stage between Heaven and Hell. 15 Note must be taken that the concept of interces- Purgatory (a ‘raf ) carries a negative sense for it is a sion is not merely a Shi‘i concept, rather it is Qur’anic. place where those people are kept, according to vari- 16 Abbas, Qummi. Mafatih al-Jinan, with Persian ous religious texts, who neither deserve Heaven nor Trans. (Qum: Nubugh Publisher. 1986), 1016. Hell. Another Qur’anic term barzakh used in the three 17 Ibid.,1028. T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent

The Arabic term jizya is generally understood to be a kind of tax, in particular, a tax his- a l T hought torically levied on non-Muslims, often but not always, Christians and Jews, living in Muslim a l T hought lands. Some scholars have suggested associations between the Arabic word jizya and the Ara- maic word gizit/gizyat1or even to the Persian word gizyah2, which refer to forms to taxation prevalent in neighboring empires prior to the appearance of the Qur’ān and the rise of Islam 3 98 in Arabia. These associations have helped to further the historical traditional understandings 99 and applications of the term jizya, which define it as a tax levied non-Muslims by Muslim state in return for being allowed to maintain their religion and for protection provided them by the state.4 The most odious understanding of jizya portrays it as one of three choices of- fered to Christians and Jews: convert, pay the tax, or die. Indeed, this conceptualization of jizya is a popular point from which modern-day detractors of Islam attack the religion itself as inherently intolerant and oppressive.5 However, the long and complex history of jizya shows such a wide variety of understandings and implementations that it becomes clear that there has been no general agreement among Muslims on what just what the term means.6 This ambiguity of definition in both history and tradition has led individual Muslim jurists and scholars throughout history to define and understand the term according to the particular circumstances of their own milieus. In certain times and places, jizya as it was applied, was indeed an oppressive tax burden that led some to convert to Islam.7 Nonetheless, the wide variety of understandings and implementations of jizya indicates that both the meaning and the significance of the term for Muslims are not fixed.8 Indeed, jizya as a poll tax applied to non-Muslims disappeared with the emergence of the modern nation-state and changing at- titudes toward religious diversity.9 Focusing an historic view rather a Qur’ānic view is problematic in several ways. While an historical examination of how various taxation systems used similar terms may be able to offer valuable insights into influences on the emerging Muslim empire and its development Towards a Qur’ānically-based of its own taxation structure, such an examination does not necessarily suggest an essentially Qur’ānic understanding of the term jizya. Likewise, an examination of the various ways in Understanding of a Historically which different Muslim authorities understood and implemented jizya reflects the values of those authorities rather than values of the Qur’ān. Indeed, the Qur’ān, as any scripture, is Problematic Term refracted through the values of its readers. Changes in understanding and interpretation have, throughout history, led to changes in societies. As Amina Wadud has observed: To avoid potential relativism, there is continuity and permanence in the Qu’ranic text itself as exem- plified even through various readings by their points of convergence. However, in order for the Qur’an By: Aisha Musa to achieve its objective to act as a catalyst affecting behavior in society, each social context must under- Colgate University, New York stand the fundamental and unchangeable principles of that text, and then implement them in their own unique reflection.10 This article proposes a literal and holistic analysis of the text from a contemporary per- spective and applying the exegetical principle of tafsīr al-qur’ān bil-qur’ān (explaining the Qur’ān with the Qur’ān)11 without refracting the Qur’ānic usage through the lens of history and tradition. Considering the semantic field of the root, together with the ways in which words of this root are used throughout the Qur’ān and the context in which the specific word jizya itself is used, together with the Qur’anic discussion of other key issues, suggests a signifi- cantly different meaning than “a poll tax levied on non-Muslims.” T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent

QUR’ĀNIC CONTEXT take into account the preposition min (from a l T hought Reading verse 9:29 in the broader Qur’ānic among), which precedesal-ladhīna ‘ūtū al-kitāb a l T hought context suggests a very different understand- (those who have been given the book). This ing of what it calls for, without ignoring other is the partitive min, which designates a subset potentially relevant social and political con- of something. Therefore, only a part of “those 100 texts. A more holistic reading of the Qur’ānic who have been given the book” fit the descrip- 101 text offers answers a number of questions that tions in the verse. Indeed, the Qur’ān makes it are crucial to a clear understanding of jizya in clear that there are Christians and Jews who do 9:29. What is the significance of “acknowledg- “appreciate God and the Last Day.” ing God and the Last Day”? What does it mean inna alladhīna āmanū wa alladhīna hādū wa al- JIZYA IN THE QUR’ĀN To better comprehend the background to “make sacrosanct that which God and His ābi’ūna wa al-na ārā man āmana billāhi wa al- yawm il-ākhiri wa amila āli an fa-lā khawfun / The Arabic word jizya comes from the of the traditional understanding of the term, messenger have made sacrosanct”? What is “the root j-z-y, which carries the basic meaning of and to lay the groundwork for an alternate un- alayhim wa lā hum ya zanūn religion of truth”? Just who, according to this [Surely, those who appreciate, and those who to pay, give, or render satisfaction, and also derstanding, we must examine exactly how the verse, does not do these things--that is, who are Jewish, and the Sabians, and the Christians- repay, requite, compensate or recompense term is used in the Qur’ān. The word jizya ap- must be fought until they pay the jizya? -whoever has appreciated God and the Last Day 12 someone for something one has done. The pears only in Qur’ān 9:29: Qur’ānic context provides the answer. and does good, will have nothing to fear nor qātilū alladhīna lā yu’uminūna billāhi wa lā bil- will they grieve.]18(Qur’ān 5:69) various Qur’ānic usages confirm this semantic Verse 9:29 itself identifies several characteris- field. The word jizya appears only once in the yawm il-’ākhiri wa lā yu arrimūna mā arrama This same sentiment is expressed with allāhu wa rasūluhu wa lā yadīnūna dīn al-aqq tics: Qur’ān, in chapter 9 verse 29; however, other slightly different wording in Qur’ān 2:62. min al-ladhīna ‘ūtū al-kitāb attá yu`ţū al-jizyata 1. lā yu’uminūna billāhi wa lā bil-yawm il- inna alladhīna āmanū wa alladhīna hādū related words from the same root appear 117 an yadin wa hum şāghirūn. ’ākhiri (they do not appreciate God and 13 17 wa al-na ārāwa al-ābi’īn man āmana billāhi times in 108 other verses. [Fight those who do not appreciate God and the Last Day) wa al-yawm il-’ākhiri wa amila āli an fa- Before looking at the word jizya itself, let the Last Day and do not make sacrosanct what lahum’ajruhum inda rabbihim wa lā khawfun God and His messenger have made sacrosanct 2. lā yu arrimūna mā arrama allāhu wa us consider some of the other occurrences both rasūluh (they do not make sacrosanct alayhim wa lā hum ya zanūn and do not follow the religion of truth, from [Surely, those who have appreciated (the truth verbal and nominal, of the root as they appear among those who have been given the book, what God and His messenger have in the Qur’ān. Of all instances of the root j-z-y of Muhammad’s message), those who are Jew- until they give compensation according to their made sacrosanct) ish, the Christians, and the Sabians, whoever used in the Qur’ān roughly two thirds are verbs, means, when they have been subdued.] 3. wa lā yadīnūna dīn al-aqq (they do not has appreciated God and the Last Day, and does while one third are nouns. Most frequently, The idea that the jizya is a tax levied on Jews follow the religion of truth) good, will have their reward with their Lord,. the root refers to God’s rewarding punishing, and Christians who do not convert to Islam is Let us begin with the third characteristic. They have nothing to fear, nor will they grieve.] in the case of verbal usage and of the reward based primarily on reading the phrase, “those As mentioned earlier, the idea that the jizya Jane Dammen McAuliffe’s careful analysis or punishment itself, in the case of nominal who have been given the book” (alladhīna ‘ūtū must be paid by Christians and Jews who do of a range of Muslim exegetes from the classical usage. For example: “That God may reward al-kitāb) as synonymous with “do not follow not convert to Islam (as the religion of empire) to the modern period reveals discomfort related 14 (li-yajzi) each soul what it has earned;” and the religion of truth” (lā yadīnūna dīn al-aqq), is based on the phrases “those who have been to these verses. Each of the exegetes queried by “these, their punishment (jazā’uhum) is that where “the religion of truth” is seen the offi- given the book” (alladhīna ‘ūtū al-kitāb) and “do McAuliffe goes to great lengths to explain the God’s curse will be upon them as well as that cially recognized schools of Islam. However, not follow the religion of truth” (lā yadīnūna relationship between alladhīna āmanū (those 15 of the Angels and all humanity,” and “these, this interpretation comes to us, not from a lit- dīn al-aqq), which are read as if they are synon- who have appreciated) in the first part of the their reward (jazā’uhum) will be a forgive- eral and holistic reading of the Qur’ān itself, verse and man āmana (whoever has appreciat- ymous. However, this reading is problematic 19 ness from their Lord and gardens with rivers but from an atomistic approach to the text at a even at the level of the verse because it does not ed) in the latter part. At face value, this appears flowing underneath, eternally abiding in it, a time when Islam had become a religion of em- blessed wage of the workers.”16 These examples pire. The atomistic approach to interpretation are generally representative of the way in which removes a verse from the overall context of the words from the root j-z-y is used throughout book, reading it within other contexts instead. the text and serve to support the basic meaning The variety of different historical understand- of something that is given or received - either a ings and manifestations of jizya throughout reward or penalty - because of something one Muslim history reflect the variety of social and has done. Even the traditional understanding political conditions in different Muslim em- of the term jizya fits this broad understanding pires at different times. These differing condi- in that non-Muslims are seen as somehow com- tions provide the contexts in which the term pensating the Muslim state for allowing the has been used, with little or no reference to the non-Muslims to maintain their own religion. broader Qur’ānic context. T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought

am nothing new among the messengers).27 Ad- fīhi hudan wa nūr (and we gave him [Jesus] the 102 ditionally, the Qur’ān asserts: mā yuqālu laka Gospel in which there is guidance and light).31 103 illā mā qad qīla lil-rusul min qablika (nothing The communities who received “the book” are is said to you that has not already been said to not asked to abandon what they received in fa- the messengers before you).28 The Qur’ān also vor of the Qur’ān. Quite the opposite, they connects “those who have been given the book” are admonished to rule according to “what God (al-ladhīna ‘ūtū al-kitāb) with “right religion” has sent down therein” (bimā anzala allahu (dīn al-qayyima) in Chapter 98: fīhi).32 The Qur’ān further explains: wa mā tafarraqa al-ladhīna’ūtū al-kitāb illā min li-kullin ja alnā minkum shir atan wa minhājan ba d mā jā’athum al-bayyinahu wa mā umirū wa law shā’a allāh la-ja alakum ummatan wā ‘illā liya budū allāh mukhli īn lahu al-dīn unafā’ idatan wa lākin li-yabluwakum fī mā ātākum fa- wa yuqīmū al-şalāt wa yu utū al-zakāt wa dha- astabiqū al-khayrāt ilā allāh marji ukum jamī an lika dīn al-qayyimati fa yunabbi’ukum bimā kuntum fīhi takhtalifūn [Those who have been given the book did not [To each among you we have ordained a law to promise all the mentioned communities a argue, on the basis of chronology, that Qur’ān become divided except after clear evidence had and a way of doing things. If God had willed, divine reward for believing and behaving righ- 3:85 abrogates Qur’ān 2:62, which is believed come to them. They were only commanded to He would have made you a single community, teously. However, as McAuliffe demonstrates, to have been revealed much earlier, the claim serve God, being sincere to Him in religion, but He tests you according to what He has giv- none of the commentators she has examined that 3:85 abrogates 5:69, which is believed to and to establish prayer, and give alms--that is en you. So, compete with each other in good right religion.]29 works. You will all return to God, and then He are “content to allow the second phrase un- have been revealed later, is problematic. Yet Qur’ān 3:113-4 offers further elucidation: will inform you of that about which you dis- 20 33 trammeled inclusivity.” Some Muslims argue there seems to be a conflict between the senti- laysū sawā’an min ahl al-kitāb ummatun agree.] 21 that this verse was abrogated by Qur’ān 3:85. ment expressed in 2:62 and 5:69 and that ex- qā’imatun yatlūna āyāt allāh ānā’ al-layl wa hum The Qur’ān thus directs Christians and wa man yabtaghi ghayr al-islāmi dīnan fa-lan pressed in 3:85. This apparent contradiction yasjudūnyu’uminūna bi-llāhi wa al-yawm il- Jews to follow the guidance that God has sent yuqbala minhu wa huwa fil-ākhirati min al- arises, as does the traditional interpretation of ākhir wa ya’murūna bil-marūf wa yanhawna `an khāsirīn down in the Torah and the Gospel and prom- jizya, from a definition of Islam as the religion al-munkar wa yusāri ūna fī al-khayrāt wa’ūlā’ika [Whoever seeks a religion other than al-islām it min al-āli īn ises that those who do so: “will have nothing 34 will not be accepted from him, and on the Last of empire, rather than a definition of Islam as [They are not all the same. Among the people to fear, nor will they grieve.” Reading the all Day, he will be among the losers.] the religion of the Qur’ān. of the book there is an upright community. these verses together and literally, it becomes However, the idea of abrogation here is They recite the signs of God during the night clear that islām, as defined by the Qur’ān, is ISLĀM AND DĪN IN THE QUR’ĀN also problematic. First, as McAuliffe has shown, while prostrating.They appreciate God and the submission or surrender to the will and author- Applying the exegetical principle of tafsīr Last Day. They enjoin good conduct and forbid this idea has been rejected by some of the most ity of God, which God has revealed to human- 22 al-qur’ān bil-qur’ān (explaining the Qur’ān wrongdoing, and they hasten to do good works. respected commentators. Moreover, as John ity in “the book” that He has sent down to the with the Qur’ān) and the jurisprudential prin- These are among the righteous.] Burton and Abu Yousuf al-Corentini have various prophets throughout history. Those ciple al-fil-kalām al-aqīqa (the fundamental “The book” that previous communities re- demonstrated, there a number of serious issues who submit to God and follow “what He has rule of speech is literalness) shows that there ceived is also clearly identified in the Qur’ān; related to the question of abrogation itself, not innā anzalnā al-tawrāħ fīhā hudan wa nūr sent down,” in the Torah and the Gospel are do- is, in reality, no conflict between Qur’ān 2:62, the least of which is that there has never been ing what the Qur’ān calls them to do and can, 3:85, and 5:69. Such a reading also alleviates (surely, we sent down the Torah in which there agreement among Muslim scholars on the exis- is guidance and light);30 and, ataynāhu al-injīl therefore, be seen as muslim, from a Qur’ānic tence of abrogation within the Qur’ān, let alone the difficulties that many exegetes have had on the issue of specific verses are abrogating with the wording of 2:26 and 5:69. Indeed, and which are abrogated.23 Moreover, for those applying these two principles reveals the har- scholars who accept the existence of abrogation mony that exists between these verses. The issue within the text of the Qur’ān, a key criterion hinges on the Qur’ānic usage of the terms islām is the chronological order of revelation: earlier (lit. “submission” or “surrender”) and dīn (usu- verses are abrogated by later verses.24 According ally translated as “religion”). Solomon, Abra- to both Muslim and non-Muslim chronolo- ham, Moses, and Jesus, together with those gies of the Qur’ān, chapter 5 was revealed af- who followed them are defined as muslim in 26 ter chapter 3.25 So, while Muslim scholars may the Qur’ān. The Qur’ān also orders Muham- mad to declare: mā kuntu bid an min al-rusul (I T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent

fa in intahaw fa inna allāha ghafūrun rahīm wa ed by chapter 60, verses 8-9, which sets the a l T hought qātilūhum attā lā takūna fitna wa yakūna al- Qur’ānic standard for community relations: a l T hought dīnu lillāhi fa in intahawā fa lā udwāna ilā alā lā yanhākumu allah an alladhīna lam al-ālimīn yuqātilūkum fī al-dīn wa lam yukhrijūkum min [But if they desist, God is Forgiving, Merciful; diyārikum an tabarrūhum wa tuqsi ū ilayhim and fight them until there is no more unrest and inna allah yu ibb al-muqsi īn oppression and religion is for God. But if they 104 [God does not prohibit you from being kind 105 desist, let there be no hostility except against and just to those do not fight against you be- oppressors.] (2:192-193) cause of religion, and do not expel you from Thus, the Qur’ān indicates whom to your homes. Indeed, God loves the just.] fight and details specific behaviors in which innamā yanhākum allāh an al-ladhīna qātalūkum point of view; although they are not Muslim tainly, persecution is worse than killing. Do they engage that justify fighting them. These not fight them at the sacrosanct place of wor- fī al-dīn wa akhrajūkum min diyārikum wa from a confessional point of view. Such a lit- same conditions are reiterated throughout the zāharū ala ‘ikhrājikum an tawallawhum wa man eral and holistic reading eliminates the alleged ship unless they fight you there. If they fight you there, kill them, that is the reward of the Qur’ān in all its discussions of qitāl. The same yatawallahum fa ūlā’ika hum al-zālimūn. contradiction between 3:85, 2:62, and 5:69. It deniers]. conditions are also described in 9:12-3: [God only prohibits you from allying with those who fight you on account of religion and also calls into question the idea that jizya is a Qur’ān 8:30 offers more specific informa- wa in nakathū aymānahum min ba d ahdihim penalty imposed on Christians and Jews in gen- wa a anū fī dīnikum fa qātilū a’immat al-kufr expel you or support expelling you. Whoever tion about the behaviors that justify fighting allies with them, these are the unjust.]36 eral for refusing to convert to Islam. innahum lā aymāna lahum la allahum yantahūn an enemy: yamkuru bika alladhīna kafarū li A literal reading 9:29 in light of the over- If jizya is not a penalty imposed on Chris- alā tuqātilūna qawman nakathū aymānahum wa yuthbitūka aw yaqtulūka aw yukhrijūk [the un- hammū bi-ikhrāji al-rasūl wa hum bada’ūkum all Qur’ānic discussions of religion, revelation, tians and Jews for failure to convert, then what believers plot to disable you, or kill you or, expel awwala marratin a takhshawnahum fa-allāh righteousness, communities, and fighting and is it? Once again, a holistic contextual reading you...].Verse 56 of the same chapter adds break- aĥaqqu an takhshawhu in kuntum mu›uminīn using the various parts of the text to explain suggests an answer. As we have seen, the verse [When they violate their pledges after their ing treaties to the list of behaviors: alladhīna each other suggests an understanding of the that mentions jizya opens with the command treaty and attack your religion, then fight the ahadta minhum thu-ma yanqu ūna ahdahum fī term jizya that is quite different than any of to fight people who fit certain defined catego- leaders of the unappreciative; surely, they have kulli marra [they are those with whom you made no pledges; perhaps they will desist.] the variety of poll taxes that were historically ries, and we have seen that according to a literal a treaty, but they break their treaty every time...]. a lā tuqātilūna qawman nakathū aymānahum imposed on Jews and Christians in Muslim and holistic reading, continuing adherence to Chapter 22:39-40 offers further elucidation: wa hammū bi ikhrāj ir-rasūl wa hum bada’ūkum lands. The earlier verses in chapter 9 make it Christianity and Judaism does not put people awwala marratin…. U ina li-lladhīna yuqātalūna bi-annahum ulimū clear that those against whom the Muslims are in those categories. Clarification of what does wa-inna allāha alā na rihim la-qadīr alladhīna [Will you not fight a people who broke their ukhrijū min diyārihim bi ghayri aqqin illā an treaties, planned to expel the messenger, and fighting have started the war in the first place: so comes from the overall Qur’anic discussion 37 yaqūlū rabbunā allāh wa law lā daf u allāhi al- began hostilities in the first place…?]35 hum bada’ūkum awwala marration. Because, of fighting, what justifies fighting and against nās ba dahum bi ba din la-huddimat awāmi u These verses clearly demonstrate that the according to the Qur’ān, aggression is for- whom it is justified, together with a close ex- wa biya un wa alawatun wa masājid yuthkaru purpose of fighting, from a Qur’anic perspec- bidden and God does not love aggressors,38 amination of the discussion of fighting in chap- fīhā ism allāhi kathīran wa la-yan uranna allāhu tive, is not to conquer and convert people, but people who have received scripture from God ter 9 itself. man yan uruhu inna allāha la-qawiyyun azīz [Permission (to fight) is given to those who are to defend the Muslim community against ag- (al-ladhīna ‘ūtū al-kitāb) who commit such ag- gression on the part of others who attack first, gression would fall into the category of “those FIGHTING IN THE QUR’ĀN being fought, because they have been oppressed. Certainly, God is able to help them. Those and when they enter treaties, they violate them who do not appreciate God and the Last Day Qur’ān 2:190 establishes a core who have been expelled from their homes with- and attack the Muslims because of their reli- and do not make sacrosanct what God and principle: wa qātilū fī sabīl allāhi alladhīna out justice only because they say: “Our Lord is gion. This understanding is further support- His messenger have made sacrosanct and do yuqātilūnakum wa lā ta tadū inna allāha lā yu God.” If God did not repel some people with ibb ul-mu tadīn (fight in the way of God those others, monasteries, churches, synagogues and mosques in which God’s name is commemorat- who fight you, but do not aggress. Certainly, ed frequently would be destroyed, and God will God does not love the aggressors). Qur’ān surely help those who help Him; surely, God is 2:191 suggests conditions under which fight- Powerful, Mighty. ](22:39-40) ing is justified: Together, these verses establish an overall wa-aqtulūhum haythu thaqiftumūhum wa principle of fighting in response to aggression, akhrijūhum min haythu akhrajūkum wa al-fitna together with a clear prohibition of aggression ashadd mina al-qatl wa lā tuqātilūhum inda al- masjid il-harām hatta yuqātilūkum fī-hi fa in on the part of Muslims: yuqātilūnakum wa lā ta qātalūkum fa-aqtulūhum kadhālika jazā›u al- tadū inna alllaha lā yu ibbu al-mu tadīna [But kāfirīn do not aggress. Certainly, God does not love [Kill them wherever you encounter them and the aggressors]. This is supported by the verses expel them from where they expelled you; cer- immediately following: T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent

15 Qur’ān 3:87. 1977, 207. Ahmed von Denffer, Ulūm al-Qur’ān: An In-

a l T hought 16 Qur’ān 3:136. troduction to the Sciences of the Qur’ān. Leicestershire, UK: a l T hought 17 I have chosen to translate āmana/yu’minu as “appreci- The Islamic Foundation, 2000, 87. ate,” rather than the more common “ believe” or “have 26 Qur’ān 2:128-133; 3:52; 10:84; 27:44; 38:34. faith” because the Arabic terms carries important con- 27Qur’ān 46:9. notations not carried by either of these common English 28 Qur’ān 41:43. renditions. In particular, āmana carries the meanings of 29 Qur’ān 98:4-5. 106 107 acknowledging and appreciating the truth of something. 30 Qur’ān 5:44. Moreover, the Qur’ān contrasts āmana with its opposite, 31 Qur’ān 5:45. kafara, which means to deny and be unappreciative of the 32 Qur’ān 5:47. truth of something. Therefore, the Arabic term āmana is 33 Qur’ān 5:48. not follow the religion of truth.” Verse 9:29 4 E.W. Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon. Vol I (Cambridge, most accurately rendered in these verses as “appreciate.” 34 Qur’ān 2:62 and 5:69. 18 Qur’ān 5:69. 35 Qur’ān 9:12-13. orders Muslims to fight such people until they UK: Islamic Texts Society, 1984), 422b. 5 Robert Spencer, The Myth of Islamic Tolerance (New 19 Jane Dammen McAuliffe, Qur’ānic Christians: an 36 Qur’an 60:8-9. been subdue and pay compensation. In light York: Prometheus Books, 2005), 62. analysis of classical and modern exegesis (Cambridge: Cam- 37 Qur’ān 9:13. of the overall Qur’ānic principles discussed 6 “Djizya,” Encyclopaedia of Islam. 2nd Edition. vol. II bridge University Press, 1991), 99ff. 38 Qur’ān 2:190. above, this compensation is not a fine for fail- (Leiden: Brill 1965), 559a-567b. 20 Ibid. 127. 39 Qur’ān 9:13. 21 ing to convert to the official religion of Islam; 7 Milka Levy-Rubin, “New Evidence Relating to the John Burton, The Sources of Islamic Law: Islamic Theo- Process of Islamization in Palestine in the Early Muslim ries of Abrogation (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, rather, it is compensation to be paid by those Period: The Case of Samaria,” Journal of the Economic and 1990), 1. “people who broke their treaties, planned to ex- Social History of the Orient, Vol. 43, No. 3. (2000), 266. 22 McAuliffe, 119. pel the messenger, and began hostilities in the 8 Daniel C. Dennet, Conversion and Poll Tax in Early Is- 23 John Burton, The Sources of Islamic Law: Islamic Theo- first place.”39 Understanding the term jizya as lam (Delhi: Idarah-i Adabiyat-i, 2000); Frede Løkkegaard, ries of Abrogation (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1990); Abu Yousuf al-Corentine, “The Concept of Abro- a form of war reparations paid by those who Islamic taxation in the classic period: with special reference to circumstances in Iraq. (Philadelphia: Porcupine Press, gation in the Qur’an.” Journal of Religion and Culture (10) started the war may represent a dramatic break 1978). 1996, Concordia University: 63-76. from past interpretations. However, previous 9 “Djizya,” Encyclopaedia of Islam. 2nd Edition. vol. II. 24 John Burton, The Sources of Islamic Law: Islamic Theo- scholarship has demonstrated that past un- (Leiden: Brill 1965), 559a. ries of Abrogation (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 10 1990), 20. derstanding and implementation of the term Amina Wadud-Muhsin, Qur’an and Woman (Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Fajar Bakti Sdn Bhd, 1992), 5 25 Richard Bell and W. Montgomery Watt, Introduction has varied widely throughout Muslim history. 11 Muhammad Alī al-ābūnī, Mukhtaar Tafsīr Ibn to the Quran. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, Moreover, as the above analysis demonstrates, Kathīir. v. 1.28 al-Muhaddith Program. v. 11.36. available it is an understanding that is supported by a from www.muhaddith.org. reading in which the other relevant Qur’ānic 12 E.W. Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon. Vol I (Cambridge, discussions are taken together to explain and UK: Islamic Texts Society, 1984), 422a-b. 13 Qur’ān 2:48,85,123,191; 3:87,136,144-5; 4:93,123; clarify the term. 5:29,33,38,85,95; 6:84,93,120,138-9,146,157,160; 7:40-1,147,152,180; 9:26,29,82,95,121; 10:4,13,27,52; ENDNOTES 12:22,25,74-5,88; 14:51; 16:31,96-7; 17:63,98; 18:88,106; 20:15,76,127; 21:29; 23:11; 24:38; 25:15,75; 1 Harsh Narain, “The Role of Jizyah in the Spread of 27:90; 28:14,25,84; 29:7; 30:45; 31:33; 32:17; 33:24; Early Islam,” Essays in Indian History and Culture. New 34:4,17,33,37; 35:36; 36:54; 37:39,80,105,110,121,131; Delhi: Indian History and Culture Society, 1986, 48. 39:34-5; 40:17,40; 41:28; 42:40; 45:14,22,28; 2 E.W. Lane, Arabic-English Lexicon. Vol I (Cambridge, 46:14,20,25; 52:16; 53:31,41; 54:14,35; 55:60; 56:24; UK: Islamic Texts Society, 1984), 422b. 59:17; 66:7; 76:9,12,22; 77:44; 78:26,36; 92:19; 98:8. 3 Narain, 48. 14 Qur’an 14:51. T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought

108 109

There have always been great murder, which was committed on the men of faith, who have lived well basis of “religious intolerance,” which and they have also advised others to was the murder of Abel at the hands do so, like Hafiz, Saadi, Khawja Mo- of zealot brother, Cain. inud Din Cheshti of Ajmir, Kabir of The Abel vs. Cain Religious India, Gandhi, Martin Luther King, Intolerance The True Man of Faith: and many others. But no one has put The story is well recorded in the the essence of the Interfaith Dialogue religious texts especially in the Bible into simple words, and yet deeply and the Holy Qur’an. The two sons A New Look at the touching words, almost impossible of Adam (A.S) were to present their to duplicate, as did the blessed Sa-ib religious offerings to God Almighty, of Tabriz, the Great Persian poet and who would accept or reject anyone, Interfaith Dialogue mystics who lived in India three cen- depending on His wish. Abel, who turies ago. was a shepherd, chose the best sheep “Live your life so well O, Sa’ib of Tabriz! in his flock, and he brought it for the That should you die one day offering. His brother, Cain, who was a And surely you will! farmer, on the other hand chose some The Muslims wash your body In the wheat, but in fact not the best, but Zam Zam water of Mecca the worst, and brought his lowly pro- By: Mahmood S. Tajar And The Hindus burn you Al-Mustafa International College, Manila, Philippines In the Holy Banaras!” duce as an offering as well. The rule was that there shall come a fire, from The Religious Intolerance the heaven, to consume that offer- To know what Sa-ib of Tabriz was ing which was accepted by the Lord, saying better, we have to put it into and to leave untouched the onewhich the right perspective, in order to un- was rejected. When the “fire” came, derstand the context. Since the early it consumed the sheep of Abel, but days of “religion” (a term that means it left untouched the wheat of Cain! “re –joining” or “Back-to-God, in Lat- The Holy Qur’an describes what hap- in) there has always been the conflict pened next: between the “believers”, especially the He (Cain) said: I shall kill you (Abel)! Why me? Truly, God accepts the work ones who were “self-righteous/better of the sincere!1 than thou /self-centered, fundamen- The story has been going on in talist, crusaders, jihadis, and the oth- the form of the “Good vs. Evil” in the ers. The result of this self centeredness Magian Traditions, and in the Holy has been the first crime, i.e. the first Books of the Persians, later to be fol- T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought

110 111

Muslims, not by the force of the in- They were often mistakenly called “Ar- vaders, but rather by the tolerant at- abs” just because they came from the titude of the Muslim Sufis. Middle East (see for example, Sheikh lowed by the Avesta of the Zo- what Osama bin Laden and yourself”.6 Later on, Paul the This tolerance of the Persian Su- Ahmad Qommi], the Sheikhul Is- roaster, as well as the “Artang” his ilk of followers are practic- Apostle, who as a Jewish zeal- fis was also a remnant of their illus- lam and once the Prime Minister of by Maani (3rd century A.D.). ing: “It’s either us or you! Or ot used to “terrorize” the non- trious tolerant leaders, like Cyrus the Thailand, 1600 A.D.). Seyyed Hasan In the Zoroastrian teach- my way or the Hi-way!” Jews, and especially the Chris- Great of Persia, who some 2500 years Astar Abadi of Persia, the first Sheikul ings, the concept of Ahura tians, came to see the light/ ago freed the Jews from the captiv- Islam of Aceh, Indonesia in 7th cen- Mazda vs. Ahriman/Spenta The True Religion is truth, on the road to Damas- ity of Babylon, and even rebuilt their tury, during the reign of Sultan Malek Mainyu vs. Angra Mainyu is “SILM”4 or Peace cus, when he changed totally, synagogues and temples with his own Salek, and also the Persian scholar very expressive of this belief. The true religion has al- from an intolerant zealot into money.10 He also made a universal Malik Ibrahim Kashani (1399 A.D) And the most famous princi- ways been based on peace, a very tolerant believer, he declaration of the Human Rights (see who was the the first Islamic preacher ple of the Zoroastrian religion and non-violence as Rumi 5, said, “If I speak in the tongues “The Cyrus Cylinder” in the British in Java, Indonesia.12 is “think right, speak right, (1207-1273 A.D) the greatest of men and of angels, but Museum) and he officially declared, The first and probably the most and do right.”2 In Judaism, it Sufi in Islam has mentioned, have not love, I am only a re- “in our empire there shall be no slaves, celebrated Persian Sufi Muslim who was between Prophet Moses in his monumental work sounding gong or a clamming nor any slave masters.”11 Something migrated to India is Khawja Moinud (A.S) and the cursed Samery. “Mathnawi.” cymbals” Corinthian 13:1.7 that took the Romans up to their Deen Chishti (d.1236), from Chisht In Christianity, it was be- “When one- colored-ness, European descendants and American of the Iranian province of Sistan- tween the Pharisees and Jesus Turned into two, or three Islamic Sufis in India Whitemen, some 2000 more years Baluchestan also known as Ajmiri.13 Or even more and more colors! the Messiah (A.S) and finally Then the and the Jesuits There are close to 600 before learning to abolish slavery in His Shrine in Ajmir of India is visited th th between him and the traitor Ended up in fighting! million Muslims in the Indian the 18 and the 9 centuries A.D. by all the sects and religious groups. Judas, who sold him for 30 But, if you were to remove subcontinent today, including The Persian Sufis is the most im- Khawja Moinud Deen Chishti is Shekels. In Islam, it was be- Those temporary colors India, Pakistan, Bangladesh portant group in the spreading the one of the pioneers of the interfaith tween Prophet Muhammad And became ‘color blind!’ and some island of the Indi- message of Islam, even more effective dialogue along with Ganj-Bakhsh Then you would clearly ‘see’ 8 .).14 (S.A.W.) and the Oligarchs of That the two or the three an Ocean. Those are former than the conquering armies of Sul- (d.1072 A.D Sufi Ali Al-Hujwiri Mecca, and later, the Hypo- Are actually but one!” Hindus or Animist, who were tan Mahmood of Ghaznay and other of Lahore, who wrote the first book crites of Madinah. And the converted to Islam, after the “Ghazis.” They were the teachers of of Sufi Islam, in Persian language, list goes on and on until now, The Scriptures coming of Mohammad Bin “understanding of others and the love titled “Kash-ful Mah-Jub.”15 Baba which seems to be worsen- There are many other Qasim in the 7th century, fol- of God by loving His creatures.” Ganj-Shakarof Sind (d. 1265) whose ing day by day, when even a examples for this idea of “tol- lowed by many others Mus- Aside from the Persian Sufis, the full name is Faridud Din Mas-ud or leader of the “free world” like erance” in the Holy Books. lim “invaders” like Mahmood Persian Muslim sailors and business- “Baba Farid.”16 Amir Khusrow of the former President George The best example of it is what of Ghaznay(971-1030 A.D).9 men were able to spread the peaceful Delhi (1252-1325 A.D.),17 the great- W. Bush of America (2001) Jesus of Nazareth (A.S.) him- But, what many people of- Islam in the Indian subcontinent, and est poet of the Indian subcontinent, openly announced that “you self has clearly instructed his ten do not realize is that the even in the Southeast Asia region-in whose parents migrated from the are either with us or against followers, and I quote: “Love majority of the people of the Malaysia, Indonesia, and Brunei, later Central Asia (Ancient Persia) who was us.”3 He was actually saying your neighbor, as you love Indian sub-continent became in the Philippines and up to China. not only the Grand master of Persian, T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought

112 113

believes in God, and in the Day of nian Government at the United Na- Judgment, and does good deeds, tions’ General Assembly, and it was they will receive their rewards from approved by the U.N. As a result, the Urdu, and Hindi , but who was so tolerant of differ- After the death of the Holy their lord, and there is no worry for year 2001 was declared by the United also the founding father of the ent religions that both Hin- Prophet, however, Islam was them, nor shall they grieve. (2:62) Nations as the year of the dialogue art of “ Qaw-wali”Barzanji dus and Muslims claim him hijacked by militant groups, of civilization.Unfortunately, this Music in India. Sayyid Ali as their own, and he himself who not only were violent The Interfaith Dialogue Now “medicine reached too late for the 18 Hamadani (of Hamedan says in a poem, “Am I a Hin- against the non-Muslims, but After the Islamic Revolution of sick body of the world“(As Ferdausi of Persia) in Kashmir India, du? Am I a Muslim? That I also the peace loving family Iran in 1979, while the Islamic gov- in his Shahnamah, said27). Because, in who played a great role in the do not know, yet, but I surely members and the descendants ernment was harshly critical of the just a few months afer its adaptation 22 25 spiritual life of the Kashmiri believe in love.” Rabindara of the Holy Prophet. superpowers of the east and the west by the United Nations, the tragedy of people. Khawza Nizamud Nath Tagore (1861-1941 (the USSR and the US). Yet it was the September 9/11/2001 took place, 19 The Qur’anic Message of Din Aulia who had great in- A.D.) who was greatly influ- very supportive of all the oppressed Peace and the world changed beyond recog- fluence among the different enced by the Persian Sufis in people around the world—the Mus- nition. religions group in India. And India, as well the great Iranian Four Qur’anic verses that lims as well as the non-Muslims in virtually a host of other Per- poets like Hafizand Sa’di of so clearly promote the better the Middle East, Africa, the Americas, The End of the World Theory sian Sufis of India and of Per- Shiraz.23And last, the great understanding of the other Europe. religions, and apeaceful co- An American professor, by the sian poets in India especially Mahatma Gandhi, who was This could be clearly seen from name of Francis Fukuyama in his fa- the most religiously tolerant so tolerant of the other faiths existence with their followers. the moral, political and even the mate- 1. mous book titled, “The End of His- among them, the great Sa-ib that he even started to fast till Let there be no compul- rial support that were given for them, sion in religion or terror. tory and the Last Man, 1992”. He of Tabriz whose poem of reli- death. Gandhi went so far as regardless of their color or creed. In quotes Hegel and Marx to explain th The truth is made clear gious tolerance has dignified to declare, “the 7 century the year 2000 the then President of how the world is going end by pass- the Interfaith Dialogue today. Muslim Saint Imam Al-Ho- from the error. (2: 256) Iran, Dr.Mohammad Khatami, came 2. ing through these stages – the primi- As far as the native Indi- sain, the grandson of the Holy (Tell those who don’t be- up with the idea of the “Dialogue of lieve) To your religion, and tive to advanced and traditional or an Sufis and the religious and Prophet Mohammad, is the Civilizations“ in answer to the clash modern societies ‘till their fall, as is the intellectual leaders, who best example to be followed, to mine (no impositions). of civilization that Samuel Hutington (109:6) shown with cracks that are appearing were definitely influenced by in order to liberate India from were predicting, or actually preach- on the walls of the American empire. 24 3. Say (O’ Muhammad!) O’ the Persian Sufis as well are the colonial rule of Britain.” ing, which ended up with the right The Holy Qur’an also talks about the Guru Nanak20 (1464-1539 People of the Book. Come, wing extrimists or the “Neo-Cons” Islamic Tolerance and Peace let us unite in those things rise and fall of the societies, nations as A.D.), the founder of Sikh- who lead the U.S. President George well as the mankind as a whole. Look ism in India, who established with Others which are common be- W. Bush in 2003 to invade Iraq with a The world “Islam” it- tween us. (3:64) at the following verses for examle: a form of understanding be- claim of the weapon of mass destruc- 1. self means “Peace” and it was 4. Surely, those who believe Everything on this (earth) shall tween Hinduism and Islam tion, and cause one of the greatest vanish, only the ‘face’ of your Lord based on peace by the Holy (in Islam) as well as the st 26 with over 20 million follow- tragedies of the 21 century. This shall stay intact. Holy Qur’an .21 , Prophet Mohammad (S.A.W) Jews, and the Christians ers around the world Kabir idea of “Dialogue of Civilizations (55:26/27) a 15th Century Indian mystic as long as he himself still alive. and the Sabeans – whoever “was officially presented by the Ira- T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent

and undertanding of the other rather jeebabadi, Akbar Shah. History of Islam: Volume a l T hought than confrontation and conflicts. Two. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Dar-us-Salam, a l T hought 2001. A poem from the world re- 10 Hale, Tom and Thorson, Stephen. Applied Old Testament Commentary: Applying God’s nowned Sufi poet, the Great Hafiz Word to Your Life. Great Britain: David C. of Shiraz said, Cook Publishing, 2007. 114 115 11 Ibid. “The peace of the both worlds 12 Tajar, M.S. “Contribution of Persia to the Is int he right accords: World Civilization,” Easy Wasy to Learn Persian Be Kind to your friends with Filipino Text. Manila: National Book Store And faith with your enemies.”30 Inc. & Mahmood Sadeghi Tajar, 2003. 13 Chaurasia, Radhey Shyam. History of ENDNOTES Medieval India from 1000 A.D. to 1707 A.D. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distribu- 1 See the Holy Qur’an: 27-32. tion, 2002. 2 Lockard, Craig A. Societies, Networks, and 14 Sharib, Zahurul Hassan. The Sufi Saints of Transitions: A Global History, Vol. A: To 600. the Indian Subcontinent. New Delhi: Munshi- Boston: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2009. ram Manoharlal Publishers, 2006. 2. Every nation has its end, stop and nothing can stop Is this Century the End of 3 “You are either with us or against us,” see 15 Ibid. http://edition.cnn.com/2001/US/11/06/gen. 16 and when the end comes, its progress forward towards the American Empire? Ibid. attack.on.terror/ (accessed 6 September 2011). 17 29 Ibid. it won’t be delayed.” Holy a classless society. But what As the last century the 4 “Ud-kholu fis-SILM-e kaaf-fah!” (Enter 18 Ibid. Qur’an (7:34) they could not see or explain Rise of the Great Britain and Into Peace Altogether). See Surah Al-Baqarah 19 Ibid. 3. These days (of the world) was what will happen after it then its fall, and before that 208-209. 20 Ibid. 5 Jalalud’din Rumi is one of the world’s 21 we will divide among the becomes communist? It sure the Spanish and Portuguese “Sikhism: the World’s Fifth Largest Reli- most revered mystical poets. During his life- gion,” see http://www.associatedcontent.com/ peoples (of the world)” would move forward to the Empire, the Russian Tsars, time he produced a prolific range of inspir- article/6261846/sikhism_the_worlds_fifth_ Holy Qur’an (4:140) anti-thesis of communism. and before the Monguls, the ing and devotional poetry which encapsulates largest_religion.html?cat=34 (accessed 3 Sept- the sufi’s experience of union with the divine. mber 2011). 28 The Islamic Holy Book Muslims, the Romans and the Huntington and These timeless classics have enjoyed a renais- 22 (the Manifesto of Islam, if we Persians, Babylonians, the As- Tagore, Rabindranath and Underhill, Ev- Fokuyama who saw the end sance in recent years, as Rumi has become one elyn. One Hundred Poems of Kabir. Whitefish, used the materialistic terms) syrians, etc. Surely there is an of the Cold War and Com- of our most popular poets. Although Rumi was MT: Kessinger Publishing, 2004. not only predicts that change, end to the super power status a Sufi and a great scholar of the Qu’ran, his 23 munism, as the end of an era Chandra, S.S. and Sharma, Rajendra Ku- the rise and the fall of nations of the USA. This is a natural appeal reaches across religious and social divi- mar. Philosophy of Education. New Delhi: At- (but then they are wrong in and the ideologies, but it even law that cannot be altered. sions. Even during his lifetime he was noted for lantic Publishers and Distributors, 2004, 2006. picking a fight with the Mus- his cosmopolitan outlook. His funeral, which 24 Bari, S.A. Gandhi’s Doctrine of Civil Resis- tells us how the old structures The rise of China, India, Bra- lim Ummah as a new boogi lasted 40 days, was attended by Muslims, Jews, tance. New Delhi: Kalamkar Prakashan, 1971. start to cramble, as well. zil, Russia, South Africa, also Persians, Christians and Greeks. See Maulana 25 that the West has to fight with See Tajar, M.S. “Islam: A Message of Peacful A verse from the Holy know as the BRICKS, is one Jalalu-’d-din Muhammad Rumi. The Masnavi I Coexistence.” – a new crusade) are thinking Qur’an: indicator of what is to come. Ma’navi of Rumi: Complete. Trans. E.H. Win- 26 Round Table: Dialogue Among Civilizations of the clas of the civilizations field. Forgotten Books , 2008 republished. “And when we (God Going back to the “Dia- United Nations, New York, 5 September 2000, and conflict between nations. Almighty) decided to de- 6 SeeHoly Bible (NAS, Mark 12:28-31). Provisional Verbal Transcipriton,” see http:// logue of Civilization,” not the 7 “On the Road to Damascus,” The reality is clearly show- stroy any nations, we make seehttp:// www.unesco.org/dialogue/en/khatami.htm their leaders to indulge in “Clash of Civilizations” as the www.keyway.ca/htm2002/roaddam.htm (ac- (accessed 1 September 2011). ing the demise of the Soviet cessed 1 September 2011). 27 excessive luxuries, and then Westernes is predicting, while ______. Knight’s Quarterly Magazine, Union and the world commu- 8 “Will India ever have a Muslim Code?” see we catch them unguard- the rise and fall are eminent Volume 2. London: W. Clowes, 1824. http://mjakbarblog.blogspot.com/2009/05/ 28 nism in the Eastern Europe ed (and destroy them).” Huntington, Samuel. The Clash of Civili- and the fall cannot be stopped will-india-ever-have-muslim-code-bill.html and even in South East Asia Qur’an 17:16. zations and the Remaking of World Order. New forever, yet the rising and the (accessed 1 September 2011). York: Simon & Schuster Inc., 1997. like Cambodia, Vietnam and As far as the Islamic con- 9 fallign nations can have good The Masnavi is the great masterpiece of 29 Hegel, Friedrich. Dialectical Materialism. China, that it has been vansi- cept of life and death of the Mawlana Jalaluddin Rumi, who lived in the relations and the “dialogue” Trans. John Sturrock. Minnesota: University of hed except in the name only individual, as well as the na- 13th century. The Masnavi consists of mainly Minnesota Press, 2009. with each other to make this of their own “succeful ideol- tions are conecrned – defi- of sufi teaching stories with profound mystical 30 Hafiz. The Gift: Poems by the Great Sufi transitions more smooth rath- interpretations. This site also has information ogy” that was based on the nitely there is an end to every- Master. Trans. James Ladinsky. New York: Pen- er than confrontational and about the Whirling Prayer Ceremony (Sema) guin Group, 1999. German philospher Hegel’s thing in this world, as there destructive. and the International Mevlana Foundation led Dialectical Materialism – that was a beginning for them. by the hereditary leader of all Mevlevi sufis, the In short, the solution to the world is changing non- 22nd generation direct descendent of Mawlana all of these clashes in dialogue Rumi and the 33rd Maqâm-i Chelebi. See Na- T r a nscen d ent T r a nscen d ent a l T hought a l T hought

ABOUT AL-MUSTAFA INTERNATIONAL COLLEGE The AIC Objectives • To train scholars, researchers, lecturers and pious individuals; 116 Al-Mustafa International College (AIC) is named after the Last • To have an in-depth Qur’anic contemplation and to expand 117 Messenger of God, Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W.). AIC aims to pro- Islamic theories; mote montehistic and Islamic thought alongside other religion-orient- • To introduce and teach Islam based on scientific thought and ed academic and research institutions. AIC is one of the 80 worldwide reasoning. branches of Al-Mustafa International University in Qom, Iran. AIC offers religious studies and research opportunities on Islamic AIC Education sciences to respond to the present needs of society. AIC invites scholars In addition to rendering services that endeavor to fulfill the throughout the world to explore academic, cultural and spiritual coop- needs of the Islamic world, AIC offers degrees based on international erations. In this manner, AIC could create a foundation for intellectual standards for its diverse courses. growth for students, men and women of thought and scholars. • Bachelor’s Degree in Jurisprudence and Islamic teachings With this initiative, AIC hopes to witness an increase in spiritu- • Bachelor’s Degree in Qur’anic and Hadith Sciences ality and God-entered knowledge in today’s disverse society. • Bachelor’s Degree in Islamic Law • Master of Arts in Jurisprudence and Islamic teaching • Master of Arts in Qur’anic and Hadith Sciences • Master of Arts in Islamic Law • Associate Degree in Islamic Studies • Short Courses in Islamic Studies, Qur’anic Teaching, Persian and Arabic Languages

AIC Research AIC Research is organized in order to coordinate educational and research activities, elevate students’ training, and establish scholarly resources. AIC Research seeks to offer solution and profound analyses to the needs of Philippine society with regards to issues affecting vari- ous minorities, Islamic faith and other religious beliefs. AIC Research holds scientific seminars and symposium, printing of publications and conducting research projects toward this end.

Cultural and Educational Activities AIC prioritizes ethics alongside education and strongly consid- ers purification of students’ ethics as their road-map. Thus, AIC prepare several batches of cultural and educational programs. Among these are scientific and educational fieldtrips, performing rituals, supplications and congregational prayers. TRANSCENDENTAL THOUGHT www.aic.ac