Learning the by Dr. Louis A. Norton

n the Age of , a large safe and rapid splicing might be costly and difficult to obtain. Coir rope, was rigged with miles and miles of required. Sailors are notoriously su- also known as grass-line, was rough in tex- rope. Before the introduction of steam perstitious, thus perhaps they avoided the ture and weak in performance, about one engines aboard ships, wind provided Sinister (left twist) and universally chose quarter the strength of hemp rope of equal their only means of propulsion, pow- the Dexter (right-hand twist) for the open- diameter, but it could float and was used ering controlled by a complicated web ing turn. to control heavier lines. Inexpensive jute Iof lines. Whether scrambling outboard Prior to the mid-twentieth century, was weak but ideal for twines, whipping along aloft or manning the deck rope was made from plant fibers such as material, and matting. under straining canvas and , sea- hemp, sisal, manila, coir (fibers surround- strand men’s lives depended on quality rope and ing the coconut palm seed), and jute. Each

developing skills in how to manipulate it fiber imparted specific characteristics to a yarn with knots and splices to turn it into a rope. Hemp is hard and smooth; it was the working rig. With time on their hands during long fiber seagoing voyages, sailors before the — veritable experts in marlinespike seaman- ship—made good use of the available ma- terials aboard ship by fashioning their own tools, gear, clothing, and even art—un- material of choice for but The most favored ropemaking mate- knowingly creating a rich and lasting folk easily deteriorated by overuse, chafe, and rial during the Age of Sail was hemp. The art tradition much recognized and valued rot. Therefore, it was often tarred by dip- plant was cultivated thousands of years ago today. Some was practical, some decora- ping strands into vats of boiling pitch. in China for making rope, clothing, and tive—many were both. The most recogniz- Sisal, similar to hemp, was not as strong paper. Its value was so great that it was used able and perhaps abundant form of sailors’ per weight and diameter as hemp, and its as tribute to rulers. During the Middle art was decorative knotwork, developed unruly fibers did not run smoothly through Ages, this same plant became popular for from the regular knots, bends, hitches, and blocks. Strong and springy manila was making rope and cord across Europe. In splices they used in their everyday work in the operation of their ships.

Constituents Though it is so ubiquitous aboard ship that it can seem like a simple common shipboard tool, rope is a carefully thought-out and constructed product. It begins as plant fibers spun into yarn and, in turn, twisted into strands. In most examples, fibers are twist- ed to the right, yarns to the left, and strands back to the right. Individual strands are then wound into a right-handed spiral to form a given circumference, then turned together into a left-handed or clockwise “lay,” ultimately forming a length of fin- ished rope. Thus, when a line is pulled apart or begins to unravel, the next layer twists more tightly. How the direction of the twist and lay became standardized is unknown, but its consistency proved beneficial to

sailors. Regardless of what ship they were jones collection lesley commonwealth, digital on and where its rope had come from, they Dipping rope yarns in pitch helped the final product last longer in a saltwater and sea air could depend on the direction of the lay in environment. These rope yarns are being pulled through a tar trough at the Charlestown fibers, yarns, and strands without having Navy ropewalk in Boston. The quarter-mile-long granite building is the last ropewalk to study individual lines and cordage, es- of its kind in existence in the United States. Between 1838 and 1970, most of the cordage pecially important in emergencies, when for the Navy was produced here. 24 SEA HISTORY 161, WINTER 2017–18 national park service park national jones collection lesley commonwealth, digital Rope up to a quarter of a mile long could be manufactured inside the 1,325 x 45-foot ropewalk at the Charlestown Navy Yard in Boston. (left) Interior photo of a ropemaker laying up four-strand rope. (right) The exterior of the building as it looked in 1930. Production at the ropewalk was terminated in 1971. The building has been vacant since then and is being considered for redevelopment by its owner, the Boston Redevelopment Authority, within the protocols of the National Park Service and the Massachusetts Historical Commission guidelines. America, hemp was cultivated in Salem, of plant fibers and natural materials that Europe was unpredictable, and settlers were Massachusetts, in 1640. Like the Chinese, were braided or twisted by hand. Ancient keen on making their own rope, along with American colonial tax collectors would Egyptians tied the ends of papyrus to fixed other commodities for day-to-day living. accept quantities of hemp as payment. objects and then twisted a stick to provide In 1641, John Harrison, a ropemaker from Hemp fibers are strong, smooth, and resis- torsion. The resulting strands were com- Salisbury, England, built a ropewalk in tant to stiffening when wet and later dried, bined into a three-twisted aggregate and Boston, using both Salem-grown and im- a constant situation aboard ships at sea. then twisted together in a counter direction. ported hemp as raw materials. Harrison Over the eighteenth century, Kentucky, The length of rope was limited by the controlled Boston’s ropemaking business North Carolina, and Missouri became ma- length of the area in which it was being for years, as evidenced by a 1663 order from jor American hemp producers. Foreign constructed. Outdoors, racks and stands local authorities demanding that a fellow varieties from Russia and the Baltics were could be built at just about any distance “twine twister,” John Heyman, stop mak- popular, but many ship outfitters consid- apart, but this practice was, of , ing rope and promptly leave town. When ered the Italian strains the best. weather dependent. By the end of the Harrison died, his quasi-monopolistic ad- Color is an indication of age in buying twelfth century, Europeans were making vantage died with him, and the number of rope. “New is like spun gold, but as time rope indoors in long narrow buildings ropewalks rose dramatically. runs on this fades to a dull yellow, and with called “ropewalks” that allowed specially In 1792, British entrepreneur and in- age eventually it loses all color and turns a trained workers to construct ropes up to ventor Edmund Cartwright modified his dull lifeless grey.”1 Pristine rope was so 300 yards long. These purpose-built com- power loom invention to mechanically valuable that some navies wove colored jute plexes enabled yarns to be stretched in a assist making rope.2 This apparatus en- threads into the yarns to identify the com- long unbroken line between rotating hooks. abled ropemakers to produce multiple position of materials. It also discouraged As the hooks rotated, the yarns would be twists of the ropes with each turn of the theft; selling stolen navy property to mer- entwined together. Longer rope could be complex tool. The mechanism was based chant captains was made unfeasible by this made by splicing lengths together. Splices, upon an oversized wheel that linked small- practice. however, typically doubled the diameter of er wheels via leather or rope belts. For each the rope at the join, thus making it useless revolution of the center wheel, smaller Production for passing through blocks or of wheels would turn from as few as four, to Historically, ropemaking evolved through running rigging. as many as ten, revolutions simultane- four major stages: twisting or braiding; Shortly after the first Europeans ar- ously, allowing the ropemaker to twist manipulating components by way of simple rived in North America, they began mak- strands faster and tighter. Cartwright’s mechanical tools; using compound ma- ing hemp cordage. Rope was used to rig machine included a clutch mechanism, chine-like tools; and employing powered their vessels, but also for myriad uses ashore. which could be used to reverse direction machinery. The earliest ropes were made The frequency of supplies arriving from for right or left-hand turnings. As the

1 Hervey G. Smith, The Marlinespike Sailor, (New York, NY: The Rudder Publishing Company, 1952). 2 The device was called the “Cordelier” after the knotted cord that girded the Franciscan friars’ habit. SEA HISTORY 161, WINTER 2017–18 25 Industrial Revolution progressed, wooden wheels and pulleys were replaced with metal-geared machines that rarely slipped, were less prone to breaking, and required only minor adjustments during the manu- facturing process. Once the operation had been moved indoors, the maximum length rope that could be made in one piece was determined by the length of the ropewalk building. The only intact American ropewalk still in ex- istence is at the Charlestown Navy Yard in Boston, near where USS Constitution is docked. The quarter-mile-long granite and brick building produced most of the rope for the US Navy between 1837 and 1971, when the ropewalk was officially closed. The Charlestown Navy Yard’s ropewalk has survived all these years, in part because of its stone construction, which has survived fires, which destroyed many a ropewalk from that era. The majority of commercial courtesy mystic seaport museum mystic seaport courtesy ropewalks were not made of stone, nor were Ropemaking machinery at the Plymouth Cordage Company ropewalk, now on display at they as long. The practice of dipping hemp Mystic Seaport Museum. Yarns were wound onto wooden bobbins, which were put onto a fibers in hot pine tar to slow rope’s dete- large rack. The yarns were then pulled from the bobbins through a metal plate called a reg- rioration in the harsh sea environment ister, and twisted into a long strand. The forming machine (pictured above on its track and proved beneficial in the quality of the fin- a close-up view, below) traveled along a track in the floor, twisting the yarns to make a strand ished product, but flammable fibers and as long as the ropewalk. Three strands were put on a laying machine—a cart that also ran wooden buildings were a volatile mix. The along a track. As the cart moved down the track, it twisted the strands into rope.3 risk of fire was significant enough that ropewalks were often built outside of town or right along the waterfront. While demand for cordage of all sizes during the Age of Sail remained high, there was a large market for rope in many other trades. This generated a robust competition and, in time, corporate consolidation for production and cost efficiency. The business of ropemaking in the United States required substantial capital and large inventories of Plymouth Cordage Company courtesy mystic seaport museum mystic seaport courtesy museum mystic seaport courtesy

3 Twisted Strands: Simple Machines and Rope Making in the Charlestown Navy Yard (Boston National Historical Park, 2005), 19. 26 SEA HISTORY 161, WINTER 2017–18 stock to meet demand on short notice. One vessels had gunnery crews that would knot cable, marline, and cast-off resources in- of the nation’s leading producers, the Plym- and weave pliable potholders that could be delicately called “junk,” would be picked outh Cordage Company in Massachusetts, used in handling heated cannon shot. Fish- apart strand by strand to make baggywrin- often sold its products below cost to main- ermen were adept at making and mending kle, anti-chafing gear seen high up in the tain production. This contributed to the nets and crafting personal items for their shrouds of sailing ships. Retired lines from demise of businesses that at one time were comfort while at sea. Deepwater sailors the rigging could be weaved into rope mats, as common on the coast as boatbuilding usually had the most idle time on their used as “thump mats” to protect the deck and chandleries. These business issues, the hands; their handiwork included knitting, from heavy blocks. A wide variety of knots constant threat of fire, and the decreased crocheting, needlepoint, and macramé. and hitches were used for lanyards, grips demand after steam replaced the wind as Few scraps of any material went un- on rails, beckets for sea chest handles, or the main propulsion for ships, likely explain used. Remnants of old and sheets, sennits for belts to hold up one’s breeches. why this once familiar coastal building is so uncommon today.4

Ship Rigging Through the centuries, the complex web of a ship’s rigging has taken on its own roman- ticism. According to seafaring lore, every- thing on board a ship has a heart and soul, and the rigging was no exception. The mainstay was said to have the heart-yarn, the maritime symbol of constancy, as in, “Do you think your girl’s playing true to you Bill? True! As true as the heart-yarn of the mainstay.” But a hard-hearted person could be described as having “the heart [like]…a marlinspike, which instrument… is made of iron.”5 A ship’s rig was installed either at dock- collection author’s A variety of needle hitches and turk’s heads on everyday tools: side or in shipyards. At sea, it needed con- (top to bottom) utility knife, seam iron, needle case, fid. stant maintenance, and the ship’s crew was tasked with its upkeep. A good seaman took pride in his work, and while any component of a ship’s rigging must first be functional and strong, it must also look neat and well crafted. While quick jury-rigged repairs fell into a different category, other repairs and rigging work done under more calm condi- tions often included intricate and compli- cated handiwork, both functional and beau- tiful. Sailors often turned a splice and its accompanying knots into fancywork known as a “flash packet.” While not exclusively a maritime practice, decorative knots and fancywork, nonetheless, became closely as- sociated with life at sea.

Knotting as an Art Form

Diverse maritime occupations spawned eagle uscgc burckell, e. t. by photo subsets of specialized rope workers. Naval Making baggywrinkle is perhaps the simplest knotwork to do and makes good use of worn-out rope that cannot be used in the rig anymore. A bit tedious, but good to do on 4 Mike Crowe, “Tons of Rope,” Fisherman’s Voice, a rainy day or when you have inexperienced deckhands looking for something to do, it vol. 15, no. 4, 2010. involves a series of simple cow-hitches and a stretch of marline to tie it to. It is then 5 G. Biddlecombe, The Art of Rigging (Salem, MA: wrapped around to prevent chafe on the sails. In this photo, you can Marine Research Society, 1925) introduction. see a long section of baggywrinkle on the mainstay of the USCG Eagle. SEA HISTORY 161, WINTER 2017–18 27 courtesy new bedford whaling museum bedford new courtesy Knot board: Born of necessity, the skill of working with rope, cord, and twine ultimately evolved into a sophisticated and attractive art form. In seaside communities, knot boards became a maritime equivalent of stitch samplers. The range of a sailor’s creativity in the con- objects, such as tools that they used daily, tions of many of these items, which serve fines of a ship at sea knew few limits. but they also spent plenty of off-watch hours as keepsakes and remembrances of those Fancy knotting is a traditional art form making items purely for pleasure. Decora- who lived and labored at sea and the care that is still considered an integral part of tive knotwork, scrimshaw, ships in bottles, and pride they took in developing their seafaring and persists today. Naval vessels, yarn paintings, corded baskets, and em- marlinspike seamanship. merchant ships, yachts, and yacht club walls broidered goods are just some of the ex- With the development of synthetic display prize examples of this virtuosity. amples of folk art made by deepwater sail- rope in the 1950s and the subsequent de- Sailors liked to make knots on practical ors. Maritime museums have large collec- velopment of braided rope, knotting and splicing has become less universally taught and mastered by those who spend time on the water, but it still maintains popularity among sailors. To try your hand at the art, or just learn more about its intricacies, you can do no better than to pick up a copy of the bible of knotting by Clifford Ashley, The Ashley Book of Knots; Hervey Garrett Smith’s Marlinspike Sailor; and The Art of Knotting and Splicing by Cyrus Lawrence Day, amongst many other books published on the subject. If you are visiting Massa- chusetts this winter or spring, be sure to plan a trip to the New Bedford Whaling Museum before next June (2018) to catch their exhibition, Thou Shalt Knot: Exhibition to Celebrate Clifford W. Ashley.

Rope vs. Line: To mariners, rope refers to cordage that has no specific use or job onboard (still on the spool, perhaps), whereas line is a rope that has a specific purpose. (left) Coiling a massive 12-inch cable made at the Charles- digital commonwealth, lesley jones collection lesley commonwealth, digital town Navy Yard ropewalk was a group effort. 28 SEA HISTORY 161, WINTER 2017–18 Dr. Louis Arthur Norton is a maritime his- torian and frequent contributor to Sea His- tory. He is the author of Joshua Barney: Hero of the Revolution and 1812 (2000) and Captains Contentious: The Dysfunc- tional Sons of the Brine (2009). He is a professor emeritus of the University of Con- necticut Health Center in Farmington.

Thou Shalt Knot: Clifford W. Ashley: A new exhibition at the New Bedford Whaling Museum, now through June 2018. The exhibition displays Clifford Ashley’s personal collection of knots and knotwork, which was donated to the mu- seum in 2016 by Ashley’s daughters. Many of the knots in the collection were used for the almost 7,000 illustrations in The Ashley Book of Knots, in print since 1944. Also at the museum is a permanent ex- hibit on New Bedford native Clifford Ashley, who, in addition to his work with knots, was an accomplished artist and

illustrator. (New Bedford Whaling Mu- collection author’s seum, 18 Johnny Cake Hill, New Bedford, Sea chest becket and toggle grip showing multi-strand round sennits, MA; www.whalingmuseum.org) manrope knots, turks heads, and other decorative ropework.

New Bedford, MA rwrope.com 800-260-8599 Traditional line & fittings, expert advice and professional rigging service from Beetle Cats to Tall Ships.

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SEA HISTORY 161, WINTER 2017–18 29