Notes:
S182 is Part I of a two-part series on wood as an engineering material. Part I of this course covers the basic properties of wood and its fundamental design theory. In this part of the course, you are required to study the following material:
Chapters 1 through 9 and Glossary of the Wood Handbook
S183 is Part II of this course, which covers the design and application of conventional and engineered wood products in construction. In this part of the course, you are required to study the following material:
Chapters 10 through 20 of the Wood Handbook
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vii
CHAPTER 1
Wood as a Sustainable Building Material 5REHUW+)DON5HVHDUFK*HQHUDO(QJLQHHU
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1–1 General Technical Report FPL±GTR±190
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1–2 Chapter 1 Wood as a Sustainable Building Material
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1–3 General Technical Report FPL±GTR±190
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1–4 Chapter 1 Wood as a Sustainable Building Material
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1–5 General Technical Report FPL±GTR±190
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1–6 CHAPTER 2
Characteristics and Availability of Commercially Important Woods
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2–2 Chapter 2 Characteristics and Availability of Commercially Important Woods
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VLRQFRQVHQVXV9LFWRULD%& &RUHDQGRWKHUV *UHJRU\ ,OLF 0LOOHUDQG &DUOTXLVW6&RPSDUDWLYH:RRG$QDWRP\QGHG 'pWLHQQH ,QDGGLWLRQWRWKHVHUHVRXUFHVVHYHUDOFRP %HUOLQ 6SULQJHUS SXWHUDVVLVWHGZRRGLGHQWL¿FDWLRQSDFNDJHVDUHDYDLODEOH DQGDUHVXLWDEOHIRUSHRSOHZLWKDUREXVWZRRGDQDWRPLFDO &KXGQRII0 7URSLFDOWLPEHUVRIWKHZRUOG$JULF EDFNJURXQGVXFKDVWKHRQOLQHVHDUFKDEOHUHVRXUFH,QVLGH +DQGE0DGLVRQ:, 86'HSDUWPHQWRI$JULFXOWXUH :RRG KWWS LQVLGHZRRGOLEQFVXHGX )RUHVW6HUYLFH)RUHVW3URGXFWV/DERUDWRU\S :RRGLGHQWL¿FDWLRQE\PHDQVRIPROHFXODUELRORJLFDOWHFK &RUH+$ &{WH:$ 'D\$& :RRGVWUXFWXUH QLTXHVLVD¿HOGWKDWLVVWLOOLQLWVLQIDQF\6XEVWDQWLDOSRSX DQGLGHQWL¿FDWLRQQGHG6\UDFXVH1< 6\UDFXVH8QLYHU ODWLRQELRORJLFDOHIIHFWVOLPLWWKHVWDWLVWLFDOOLNHOLKRRGRID VLW\3UHVVS 3–16 Chapter 3 Structure and Function of Wood &XWOHU') *UHJRU\0 $QDWRP\RIWKHGLFRW\OH /DJHQKHLP-+3ODQWUHVLQV FKHPLVWU\HYROXWLRQ GRQVQGHG1HZ 3–17 General Technical Report FPL±GTR±190 7LPPHO7( &RPSUHVVLRQZRRGLQJ\PQRVSHUPV +HLGHOEHUJ 6SULQJHUS :KHHOHU($ %DDV3 :RRGLGHQWL¿FDWLRQ DUHYLHZ ,$:$-RXUQDO ± :LHGHQKRHIW$& 0LOOHU5%%ULHIFRPPHQWVRQ WKHQRPHQFODWXUHRIVRIWZRRGD[LDOUHVLQFDQDOVDQGWKHLU DVVRFLDWHGFHOOV,$:$-RXUQDO ± :RUEHV0 +RZWRPHDVXUHJURZWKG\QDPLFVLQ WURSLFDOWUHHV DUHYLHZ,$:$-RXUQDO ± :RUEHV0 $QQXDOJURZWKULQJVUDLQIDOOGHSHQGHQW JURZWKDQGORQJWHUPJURZWKSDWWHUQVRIWURSLFDOWUHHVLQ WKH&DSDU)RUHVW5HVHUYHLQ9HQH]XHOD-RXUQDORI(FRORJ\ ± =LPPHUPDQQ0+ ;\OHPVWUXFWXUHDQGWKHDVFHQW RIVDS1HZ 3–18 CHAPTER 4 Moisture Relations and Physical Properties of Wood Samuel V. Glass, Research Physical Scientist Samuel L. Zelinka, Materials Research Engineer Wood, like many natural materials, is hygroscopic; it takes Contents on moisture from the surrounding environment. Moisture Wood–Moisture Relationships 4–1 exchange between wood and air depends on the relative hu- Moisture Content and Green Wood 4–1 midity and temperature of the air and the current amount of Fiber Saturation and Maximum Moisture water in the wood. This moisture relationship has an impor- Content 4–2 WDQWLQÀXHQFHRQZRRGSURSHUWLHVDQGSHUIRUPDQFH0DQ\ of the challenges of using wood as an engineering material Water Vapor Sorption 4–3 arise from changes in moisture content or an abundance of Liquid Water Absorption 4–4 moisture within the wood. Dimensional Stability 4–5 Density and Specific Gravity 4–7 This chapter discusses the macroscopic physical proper- ties of wood with emphasis given to their relationship with Thermal Properties 4–10 moisture content. Some properties are species-dependent; Thermal Conductivity 4–10 in such cases, data from the literature are tabulated accord- Heat Capacity 4–11 ing to species. The chapter begins with a broad overview Thermal Diffusivity 4–12 RIZRRG±ZDWHUUHODWLRQVGH¿QLQJNH\FRQFHSWVQHHGHGWR Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 4–14 understand the physical properties of wood. Electrical Properties 4–15 DC Electrical Properties 4–15 Wood–Moisture Relationships AC Electrical Properties 4–16 Moisture Content and Green Wood Friction Properties 4–17 Many physical and mechanical properties of wood depend Nuclear Radiation Properties 4–17 upon the moisture content of wood. Moisture content (MC) Literature Cited 4–18 is usually expressed as a percentage and can be calculated Additional References 4–19 from (4–1) where mwater is the mass of water in wood and mwood is the mass of the ovendry wood. Operationally, the moisture content of a given piece of wood can be calculated by (4–2) where mwet is the mass of the specimen at a given moisture content and mdry is the mass of the ovendry specimen. *UHHQZRRGLVRIWHQGH¿QHGDVIUHVKO\VDZQZRRGLQZKLFK the cell walls are completely saturated with water and ad- ditional water may reside in the lumina. The moisture con- tent of green wood can range from about 30% to more than 200%. In green softwoods, the moisture content of sapwood is usually greater than that of heartwood. In green hard- woods, the difference in moisture content between heart- wood and sapwood depends on the species. The average moisture content of green heartwood and green sapwood of some domestic species is given in Table 4–1. These values 4–1 General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190 Table 4–1. Average moisture content of green wood, by species Moisture content Moisture content (%) (%) Species Heartwood Sapwood Species Heartwood Sapwood Hardwoods Softwoods Alder, red — 97 Baldcypress 121 171 Apple 81 74 Cedar, eastern red 33 — Ash, black 95 — Cedar, incense 40 213 Ash, green — 58 Cedar, Port-Orford 50 98 Ash, white 46 44 Cedar, western red 58 249 Aspen 95 113 Cedar, yellow 32 166 Basswood, American 81 133 Douglas-fir, coast type 37 115 Beech, American 55 72 Fir, balsam 88 173 Birch, paper 89 72 Fir, grand 91 136 Birch, sweet 75 70 Fir, noble 34 115 Birch, yellow 74 72 Fir, Pacific silver 55 164 Cherry, black 58 — Fir, white 98 160 Chestnut, American 120 — Hemlock, eastern 97 119 Cottonwood 162 146 Hemlock, western 85 170 Elm, American 95 92 Larch, western 54 119 Elm, cedar 66 61 Pine, loblolly 33 110 Elm, rock 44 57 Pine, lodgepole 41 120 Hackberry 61 65 Pine, longleaf 31 106 Hickory, bitternut 80 54 Pine, ponderosa 40 148 Hickory, mockernut 70 52 Pine, red 32 134 Hickory, pignut 71 49 Pine, shortleaf 32 122 Hickory, red 69 52 Pine, sugar 98 219 Hickory, sand 68 50 Pine, western white 62 148 Hickory, water 97 62 Redwood, old growth 86 210 Magnolia 80 104 Spruce, black 52 113 Maple, silver 58 97 Spruce, Engelmann 51 173 Maple, sugar 65 72 Spruce, Sitka 41 142 Oak, California black 76 75 Tamarack 49 — Oak, northern red 80 69 Oak, southern red 83 75 Oak, water 81 81 Oak, white 64 78 Oak, willow 82 74 Sweetgum 79 137 Sycamore, American 114 130 Tupelo, black 87 115 Tupelo, swamp 101 108 Tupelo, water 150 116 Walnut, black 90 73 Yellow-poplar 83 106 are considered typical, but variation within and between LVFDOOHGWKH¿EHUVDWXUDWLRQSRLQW0&fs. Operationally, the trees is considerable. Variability of green moisture content ¿EHUVDWXUDWLRQSRLQWLVFRQVLGHUHGDVWKDWPRLVWXUHFRQWHQW exists even within individual boards cut from the same tree. above which the physical and mechanical properties of Additional information on moisture in green lumber is given wood do not change as a function of moisture content. The in Chapter 13. ¿EHUVDWXUDWLRQSRLQWRIZRRGDYHUDJHVDERXWPRLVWXUH content, but in individual species and individual pieces of Fiber Saturation and Maximum Moisture wood it can vary by several percentage points from that Content value. Moisture can exist in wood as free water (liquid water or &RQFHSWXDOO\¿EHUVDWXUDWLRQGLVWLQJXLVKHVEHWZHHQWKHWZR water vapor in cell lumina and cavities) or as bound water ways water is held in wood. However, in actuality, a more (held by intermolecular attraction within cell walls). The gradual transition occurs between bound and free water moisture content at which only the cell walls are completely QHDUWKH¿EHUVDWXUDWLRQSRLQW:LWKLQDSLHFHRIZRRGLQ saturated (all bound water) but no water exists in cell lumina 4–2 Chapter 4 Moisture Relations and Physical Properties of Wood 100 saturation point is a function of both relative humidity 90 (RH) and temperature of the surrounding air. Wood in service is exposed to both long-term (seasonal) and short- 80 term (daily) changes in relative humidity and temperature of 70 the surrounding air, which induce changes in wood moisture content. These changes usually are gradual, and short-term 60 ÀXFWXDWLRQVWHQGWRLQÀXHQFHRQO\WKHZRRGVXUIDFH0RLV- 50 ture content changes can be retarded, but not prevented, by protective coatings such as varnish, lacquer, or paint 40 Temperature (ºC) &KDS 7KHREMHFWLYHRIZRRGGU\LQJLVWREULQJWKH 30 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 20 24 PRLVWXUHFRQWHQWFORVHWRWKHH[SHFWHGYDOXHWKDWD¿QLVKHG 20 product will have in service (Chap. 13). 10 Equilibrium Moisture Content (TXLOLEULXPPRLVWXUHFRQWHQW (0& LVGH¿QHGDVWKDWPRLV- 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 ture content at which the wood is neither gaining nor losing Relative humidity (%) moisture. The relationship between EMC, relative humidity, and temperature is shown in Figure 4–1 and Table 4–2. For Figure 4–1. Equilibrium moisture content of wood (la- beled contours) as a function of relative humidity and most practical purposes, the values in Table 4–2 may be ap- temperature. plied to wood of any species. These values have been calcu- lated from the following equation: one portion all cell lumina may be empty and the cell walls partially dried, while in another part of the same piece, cell (4–5) walls may be saturated and lumina partially or completely ¿OOHGZLWKZDWHU(YHQZLWKLQDVLQJOHFHOOWKHFHOOZDOOPD\ where h is relative humidity (decimal) and the parameters begin to dry before all water has left the lumen of that same W, K, K , and K depend on temperature: cell. 1 2 For temperature T in °C, The moisture content at which both cell lumina and cell W = 349 + 1.29T + 0.0135T2 walls are completely saturated with water is the maximum K = 0.805 + 0.000736T 0.00000273T2 SRVVLEOHPRLVWXUHFRQWHQW%DVLFVSHFL¿FJUDYLW\Gb (based 2 K1 = 6.27 0.00938T 0.000303T on ovendry mass and green volume—see section on Density 2 K2 = 1.91 + 0.0407T 0.000293T DQG6SHFL¿F*UDYLW\ LVWKHPDMRUGHWHUPLQDQWRIPD[LPXP PRLVWXUHFRQWHQW$VEDVLFVSHFL¿FJUDYLW\LQFUHDVHVWKH For temperature T in °F, YROXPHRIWKHOXPLQDPXVWGHFUHDVHEHFDXVHWKHVSHFL¿F W = 330 + 0.452T + 0.00415T 2 gravity of wood cell walls is constant among species. This K = 0.791 + 0.000463T 0.000000844T2 2 decreases the maximum moisture content because less room K1 = 6.34 + 0.000775T 0.0000935T 2 is available for free water. Maximum moisture content K2 = 1.09 + 0.0284T 0.0000904T MCmaxIRUDQ\EDVLFVSHFL¿FJUDYLW\FDQEHHVWLPDWHGIURP Simpson (1973) showed that this equation provides a good ¿WWR(0&±5+±WHPSHUDWXUHGDWD (4–3) Sorption Hysteresis ZKHUHWKHVSHFL¿FJUDYLW\RIZRRGFHOOZDOOVLVWDNHQDV The relationship between EMC and relative humidity at 1.54. Maximum possible moisture content varies from 267% constant temperature is referred to as a sorption isotherm. at Gb = 0.30 to 44% at Gb = 0.90. Maximum possible mois- The history of a wood specimen also affects its EMC; this ture content is seldom attained in living trees. The moisture is called sorption hysteresis and is shown in Figure 4–2. A content at which wood will sink in water can be calculated desorption isotherm is measured by bringing wood that was by initially wet to equilibrium with successively lower values of relative humidity. A resorption, or adsorption, isotherm (4–4) is measured in the opposite direction (from the dry state to successively higher RH values). As wood is dried from Water Vapor Sorption WKHLQLWLDOJUHHQFRQGLWLRQEHORZWKH¿EHUVDWXUDWLRQSRLQW (initial desorption), the EMC is greater than in subsequent When wood is protected from contact with liquid water and desorption isotherms (Spalt 1958). Furthermore, the EMC VKDGHGIURPVXQOLJKWLWVPRLVWXUHFRQWHQWEHORZWKH¿EHU 4–3 General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190 Table 4–2. Moisture content of wood in equilibrium with stated temperature and relative humidity Temperature Moisture content (%) at various relative humidity values (°C (°F)) 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50% 55% 60% 65% 70% 75% 80% 85% 90% 95% 1.1 (30) 1.4 2.6 3.7 4.6 5.5 6.3 7.1 7.9 8.7 9.5 10.4 11.3 12.4 13.5 14.9 16.5 18.5 21.0 24.3 4.4 (40) 1.4 2.6 3.7 4.6 5.5 6.3 7.1 7.9 8.7 9.5 10.4 11.3 12.3 13.5 14.9 16.5 18.5 21.0 24.3 10.0 (50) 1.4 2.6 3.6 4.6 5.5 6.3 7.1 7.9 8.7 9.5 10.3 11.2 12.3 13.4 14.8 16.4 18.4 20.9 24.3 15.6 (60) 1.3 2.5 3.6 4.6 5.4 6.2 7.0 7.8 8.6 9.4 10.2 11.1 12.1 13.3 14.6 16.2 18.2 20.7 24.1 21.1 (70) 1.3 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.4 6.2 6.9 7.7 8.5 9.2 10.1 11.0 12.0 13.1 14.4 16.0 17.9 20.5 23.9 26.7 (80) 1.3 2.4 3.5 4.4 5.3 6.1 6.8 7.6 8.3 9.1 9.9 10.8 11.7 12.9 14.2 15.7 17.7 20.2 23.6 32.2 (90) 1.2 2.3 3.4 4.3 5.1 5.9 6.7 7.4 8.1 8.9 9.7 10.5 11.5 12.6 13.9 15.4 17.3 19.8 23.3 37.8 (100) 1.2 2.3 3.3 4.2 5.0 5.8 6.5 7.2 7.9 8.7 9.5 10.3 11.2 12.3 13.6 15.1 17.0 19.5 22.9 43.3 (110) 1.1 2.2 3.2 4.0 4.9 5.6 6.3 7.0 7.7 8.4 9.2 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.2 14.7 16.6 19.1 22.4 48.9 (120) 1.1 2.1 3.0 3.9 4.7 5.4 6.1 6.8 7.5 8.2 8.9 9.7 10.6 11.7 12.9 14.4 16.2 18.6 22.0 54.4 (130) 1.0 2.0 2.9 3.7 4.5 5.2 5.9 6.6 7.2 7.9 8.7 9.4 10.3 11.3 12.5 14.0 15.8 18.2 21.5 60.0 (140) 0.9 1.9 2.8 3.6 4.3 5.0 5.7 6.3 7.0 7.7 8.4 9.1 10.0 11.0 12.1 13.6 15.3 17.7 21.0 65.6 (150) 0.9 1.8 2.6 3.4 4.1 4.8 5.5 6.1 6.7 7.4 8.1 8.8 9.7 10.6 11.8 13.1 14.9 17.2 20.4 71.1 (160) 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2 3.9 4.6 5.2 5.8 6.4 7.1 7.8 8.5 9.3 10.3 11.4 12.7 14.4 16.7 19.9 76.7 (170) 0.7 1.5 2.3 3.0 3.7 4.3 4.9 5.6 6.2 6.8 7.4 8.2 9.0 9.9 11.0 12.3 14.0 16.2 19.3 82.2 (180) 0.7 1.4 2.1 2.8 3.5 4.1 4.7 5.3 5.9 6.5 7.1 7.8 8.6 9.5 10.5 11.8 13.5 15.7 18.7 87.8 (190) 0.6 1.3 1.9 2.6 3.2 3.8 4.4 5.0 5.5 6.1 6.8 7.5 8.2 9.1 10.1 11.4 13.0 15.1 18.1 93.3 (200) 0.5 1.1 1.7 2.4 3.0 3.5 4.1 4.6 5.2 5.8 6.4 7.1 7.8 8.7 9.7 10.9 12.5 14.6 17.5 98.9 (210) 0.5 1.0 1.6 2.1 2.7 3.2 3.8 4.3 4.9 5.4 6.0 6.7 7.4 8.3 9.2 10.4 12.0 14.0 16.9 104.4 (220) 0.4 0.9 1.4 1.9 2.4 2.9 3.4 3.9 4.5 5.0 5.6 6.3 7.0 7.8 8.8 9.9 110.0 (230) 0.3 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.6 4.2 4.7 5.3 6.0 6.7 115.6 (240) 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.3 1.7 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.5 4.1 4.6 121.1 (250) 0.2 0.4 0.7 1.0 1.3 1.7 2.1 2.5 2.9 126.7 (260) 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.4 132.2 (270) 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.4 for resorption (adsorption) is lower than for desorption. The surface tension creates a pressure that draws water up the ratio of adsorption EMC to desorption EMC varies with lumina. species, RH, and temperature, with a mean value of about The rate of liquid water absorption in wood depends on 0.8 near room temperature (Stamm 1964, Skaar 1988). EMC several factors. The rate of absorption is most rapid in the values in Table 4–2 were derived primarily for Sitka spruce longitudinal direction (that is, when the transverse section or under conditions described as oscillating vapor pressure end grain is exposed to water). The rate at which air can es- desorption (Stamm and Loughborough 1935), which was cape from wood affects water absorption, as water displaces shown to represent a condition midway between adsorption air in the lumina. Chapter 16 discusses the ability of surface and desorption. The tabulated EMC values thus provide a ¿QLVKHVVXFKDVZDWHUUHSHOOHQWVWRLQKLELWZDWHUDEVRUSWLRQ suitable and practical compromise for use when the direc- tion of sorption is not always known. International Standard ISO 15148 (ISO 2002) describes a method for measuring the rate of water absorption. One sur- Liquid Water Absorption face of a specimen is partially immersed in water. To limit Wood products in service may be exposed to liquid water absorption to this one surface and restrict moisture transport through a variety of mechanisms. Contact with liquid water to one dimension, the sides of the specimen are coated with can induce rapid changes in the moisture content of wood, a water- and vapor-tight sealant. The specimen is periodi- in contrast to the slow changes that occur due to water va- cally removed, surfaces are blotted, and the specimen is por sorption. In addition, liquid water absorption can bring weighed and again partially immersed in the water. The WKHPRLVWXUHFRQWHQWRIZRRGDERYH¿EHUVDWXUDWLRQ ZDWHU mass of water absorbed per unit area of specimen surface is vapor sorption alone cannot). As wood absorbs water above plotted against the square root of time. The initial part of the LWV¿EHUVDWXUDWLRQSRLQWDLULQWKHFHOOOXPLQDLVUHSODFHG curve is usually linear, and the slope of this linear portion by water. Absorption of liquid water may continue until the –2 –1/2 LVWKHZDWHUDEVRUSWLRQFRHI¿FLHQWAw (kg m s ). maximum moisture content is reached. Measured values of Aw for softwoods are in the range –2 –1/2 The mechanism of water absorption is called capillary ac- 10–16 g m s in the longitudinal direction and –2 –1/2 tion or wicking. Water interacts strongly with the wood cell 1–7 g m s in the transverse directions (IEA 1991; wall and forms a concave meniscus (curved surface) within Kumaran 1999, 2002). the lumen. This interaction combined with the water–air 2 –1 The liquid water diffusivity Dw (m s ) is a measure of WKHUDWHRIPRLVWXUHÀRZ NJP–2 s–1) through a material 4–4 Chapter 4 Moisture Relations and Physical Properties of Wood 32 Dimensional Stability Initial desorption Wood is dimensionally stable when moisture content is 28 JUHDWHUWKDQWKH¿EHUVDWXUDWLRQSRLQW%HORZ0&fs wood changes dimension as it gains moisture (swells) or loses Desorption 24 moisture (shrinks), because volume of the cell wall depends on the amount of bound water. This shrinking and swelling can result in warping, checking, and splitting of the wood, 20 Oscillating vapor pressure desorption which in turn can lead to decreased utility of wood products, VXFKDVORRVHQLQJRIWRROKDQGOHVJDSVLQÀRRULQJRURWKHU 16 performance problems. Therefore, it is important that the dimensional stability be understood and considered when a 12 ZRRGSURGXFWZLOOEHH[SRVHGWRODUJHPRLVWXUHÀXFWXDWLRQV in service. Moisture content (%) Adsorption 8 With respect to dimensional stability, wood is an anisotropic material. It shrinks (swells) most in the direction of the an- 4 nual growth rings (tangentially), about half as much across the rings (radially), and only slightly along the grain (lon- gitudinally). The combined effects of radial and tangential 0 shrinkage can distort the shape of wood pieces because 0 102030405060708090100 of the difference in shrinkage and the curvature of annual Relative humidity (%) ULQJV7KHPDMRUW\SHVRIGLVWRUWLRQDVDUHVXOWRIWKHVHHI- Figure 4–2. Moisture content–relative humidity relation- fects are illustrated in Figure 4–3. ship for wood under adsorption and various desorption conditions. Transverse and Volumetric Shrinkage Data have been collected to represent the average radial, tangential, and volumetric shrinkage of numerous domestic species by methods described in American Society for Test- ing and Materials (ASTM) D 143—Standard Test Meth- ods for Small Clear Specimens of Timber (ASTM 2007). Shrinkage values, expressed as a percentage of the green dimension, are listed in Table 4–3. Shrinkage values collect- ed from the world literature for selected imported species are listed in Table 4–4. The shrinkage of wood is affected by a number of variables. In general, greater shrinkage is associated with greater density. The size and shape of a piece of wood can affect shrinkage, and the rate of drying can affect shrinkage for some species. Transverse and volumetric shrinkage variabil- LW\FDQEHH[SUHVVHGE\DFRHI¿FLHQWRIYDULDWLRQRIDSSUR[L- mately 15% (Markwardt and Wilson 1935). Figure 4–3. Characteristic shrinkage and distortion of Longitudinal Shrinkage ÀDWVTXDUHDQGURXQGSLHFHVDVDIIHFWHGE\GLUHFWLRQ of growth rings. Tangential shrinkage is about twice Longitudinal shrinkage of wood (shrinkage parallel to the as great as radial. grain) is generally quite small. Average values for shrinkage from green to ovendry are between 0.1% and 0.2% for most species of wood. However, certain types of wood exhibit ex- VXEMHFWHGWRXQLWGLIIHUHQFHLQPRLVWXUHFRQFHQWUDWLRQ cessive longitudinal shrinkage, and these should be avoided (kg m–3) across unit thickness (m). An order-of-magnitude in uses where longitudinal stability is important. Reaction estimate of D can be made using the value of A as w w wood, whether compression wood in softwoods or tension wood in hardwoods, tends to shrink excessively parallel (4–6) WRWKHJUDLQ:RRGIURPQHDUWKHFHQWHURIWUHHV MXYHQLOH wood) of some species also shrinks excessively lengthwise. –3 where csat is the moisture concentration (kg m ) in water- 5HDFWLRQZRRGDQGMXYHQLOHZRRGFDQVKULQNIURPJUHHQ saturated wood (Kumaran 1999). 4–5 General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190 Table 4–3. Shrinkage values of domestic woods Shrinkagea (%) from green Shrinkagea (%) from green to ovendry moisture content to ovendry moisture content Species Radial Tangential Volumetric Species Radial Tangential Volumetric Hardwoods Oak, white—con. Alder, red 4.4 7.3 12.6 Chestnut 5.3 10.8 16.4 Ash Live 6.6 9.5 14.7 Black 5.0 7.8 15.2 Overcup 5.3 12.7 16.0 Blue 3.9 6.5 11.7 Post 5.4 9.8 16.2 Green 4.6 7.1 12.5 Swamp, chestnut 5.2 10.8 16.4 Oregon 4.1 8.1 13.2 White 5.6 10.5 16.3 Pumpkin 3.7 6.3 12.0 Persimmon, common 7.9 11.2 19.1 White 4.9 7.8 13.3 Sassafras 4.0 6.2 10.3 Aspen Sweetgum 5.3 10.2 15.8 Bigtooth 3.3 7.9 11.8 Sycamore, American 5.0 8.4 14.1 Quaking 3.5 6.7 11.5 Tanoak 4.9 11.7 17.3 Basswood, American 6.6 9.3 15.8 Tupelo Beech, American 5.5 11.9 17.2 Black 5.1 8.7 14.4 Birch Water 4.2 7.6 12.5 Alaska paper 6.5 9.9 16.7 Walnut, black 5.5 7.8 12.8 Gray 5.2 — 14.7 Willow, black 3.3 8.7 13.9 Paper 6.3 8.6 16.2 Yellow-poplar 4.6 8.2 12.7 River 4.7 9.2 13.5 Softwoods Sweet 6.5 9.0 15.6 Cedar Yellow 7.3 9.5 16.8 Yellow 2.8 6.0 9.2 Buckeye, yellow 3.6 8.1 12.5 Atlantic white 2.9 5.4 8.8 Butternut 3.4 6.4 10.6 Eastern redcedar 3.1 4.7 7.8 Cherry, black 3.7 7.1 11.5 Incense 3.3 5.2 7.7 Chestnut, American 3.4 6.7 11.6 Northern white 2.2 4.9 7.2 Cottonwood Port-Orford 4.6 6.9 10.1 Balsam poplar 3.0 7.1 10.5 Western redcedar 2.4 5.0 6.8 Black 3.6 8.6 12.4 Douglas-fir, Eastern 3.9 9.2 13.9 Coastb 4.8 7.6 12.4 Elm Interior northb 3.8 6.9 10.7 American 4.2 9.5 14.6 Interior westb 4.8 7.5 11.8 Cedar 4.7 10.2 15.4 Fir Rock 4.8 8.1 14.9 Balsam 2.9 6.9 11.2 Slippery 4.9 8.9 13.8 California red 4.5 7.9 11.4 Winged 5.3 11.6 17.7 Grand 3.4 7.5 11.0 Hackberry 4.8 8.9 13.8 Noble 4.3 8.3 12.4 Hickory, pecan 4.9 8.9 13.6 Pacific silver 4.4 9.2 13.0 Hickory, true Subalpine 2.6 7.4 9.4 Mockernut 7.7 11.0 17.8 White 3.3 7.0 9.8 Pignut 7.2 11.5 17.9 Hemlock Shagbark 7.0 10.5 16.7 Eastern 3.0 6.8 9.7 Shellbark 7.6 12.6 19.2 Mountain 4.4 7.1 11.1 Holly, American 4.8 9.9 16.9 Western 4.2 7.8 12.4 Honeylocust 4.2 6.6 10.8 Larch, western 4.5 9.1 14.0 Locust, black 4.6 7.2 10.2 Pine Madrone, Pacific 5.6 12.4 18.1 Eastern white 2.1 6.1 8.2 Magnolia Jack 3.7 6.6 10.3 Cucumbertree 5.2 8.8 13.6 Loblolly 4.8 7.4 12.3 Southern 5.4 6.6 12.3 Lodgepole 4.3 6.7 11.1 Sweetbay 4.7 8.3 12.9 Longleaf 5.1 7.5 12.2 Maple Pitch 4.0 7.1 10.9 Bigleaf 3.7 7.1 11.6 Pond 5.1 7.1 11.2 Black 4.8 9.3 14.0 Ponderosa 3.9 6.2 9.7 Red 4.0 8.2 12.6 Red 3.8 7.2 11.3 Silver 3.0 7.2 12.0 Shortleaf 4.6 7.7 12.3 Striped 3.2 8.6 12.3 Slash 5.4 7.6 12.1 Sugar 4.8 9.9 14.7 Sugar 2.9 5.6 7.9 Oak, red Virginia 4.2 7.2 11.9 Black 4.4 11.1 15.1 Western white 4.1 7.4 11.8 Laurel 4.0 9.9 19.0 Redwood Northern red 4.0 8.6 13.7 Old growth 2.6 4.4 6.8 Pin 4.3 9.5 14.5 Young growth 2.2 4.9 7.0 Scarlet 4.4 10.8 14.7 Spruce Southern red 4.7 11.3 16.1 Black 4.1 6.8 11.3 Water 4.4 9.8 16.1 Engelmann 3.8 7.1 11.0 Willow 5.0 9.6 18.9 Red 3.8 7.8 11.8 Oak, white Sitka 4.3 7.5 11.5 Bur 4.4 8.8 12.7 Tamarack 3.7 7.4 13.6 aExpressed as a percentage of the green dimension. bCoast type Douglas-fir is defined as Douglas-fir growing in the States of Oregon and Washington west of the summit of the Cascade Mountains. Interior West includes the State of California and all counties in Oregon aQG:DVKLQJWRQHDVWRIEXWDGMDFHQWWRWKH Cascade summit. Interior North includes the remainder of Oregon and Washington and the States of Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming. 4–6 Chapter 4 Moisture Relations and Physical Properties of Wood Figure 4–4. Typical moisture content–shrinkage curves. Figure 4–5. Variation in individual tangential shrinkage YDOXHVRIVHYHUDO'RXJODV¿UERDUGVIURPRQHORFDOLW\ to ovendry. Wood with cross grain exhibits increased shrink- dried from green condition. age along the longitudinal axis of the piece. Reaction wood exhibiting excessive longitudinal shrinkage can occur in the same board with normal wood. The of accuracy is not required. The following assumptions presence of this type of wood, as well as cross grain, can DUHPDGH VKULQNDJHEHJLQVDWWKH¿EHUVDWXUDWLRQSRLQW cause serious warping, such as bow, crook, or twist, and MCfs, and (2) dimensions decrease linearly with decreasing cross breaks can develop in the zones of high shrinkage. moisture content. The percent shrinkage Sx from the green FRQGLWLRQWR¿QDOPRLVWXUHFRQWHQWx can be calculated from Relationship between Moisture Content and Shrinkage )RUDVXI¿FLHQWO\VPDOOSLHFHRIZRRGZLWKRXWPRLVWXUH (4–7) JUDGLHQWVVKULQNDJHQRUPDOO\EHJLQVDWDERXWWKH¿EHUVDWX- ration point and continues in a fairly linear manner until the where S0 is percent shrinkage from the green condition to wood is completely dry. However, in the normal drying of ovendry (radial, tangential, or volumetric) from Table 4–3 lumber or other large pieces, the surface of the wood dries or 4–4. If MC is not known, 30% MC can be used as an ¿UVWFDXVLQJDPRLVWXUHJUDGLHQW:KHQWKHVXUIDFH0& fs approximation. Tangential values for S0 should be used for GURSVEHORZWKH¿EHUVDWXUDWLRQSRLQWLWEHJLQVWRVKULQN estimating width shrinkage of plainsawn material and radial even though the interior can still be quite wet and not values for quartersawn material. For mixed or unknown ring shrink. Because of moisture gradients, shrinkage of lumber orientations, tangential values are suggested. Shrinkage val- can occur even when the average moisture content of the en- ues for individual pieces will vary from predicted shrinkage WLUHSLHFHRIOXPEHULVDERYH¿EHUVDWXUDWLRQ:LWKPRLVWXUH values. As noted previously, shrinkage variability is charac- gradients, the moisture content–shrinkage relationship is not WHUL]HGE\DFRHI¿FLHQWRIYDULDWLRQRIDSSUR[LPDWHO\ linear but rather looks similar to the one in Figure 4–4. The This applies to pure tangential or radial ring orientation and exact form of the shrinkage curve with moisture gradients is probably somewhat greater in commercial lumber, where depends on several variables, principally size and shape of ring orientation is seldom aligned perfectly parallel or per- the piece, species of wood, and drying conditions used. pendicular to board faces. Chapter 13 contains additional Considerable variation in shrinkage occurs for any species. discussion of shrinkage–moisture content relationships, 7DQJHQWLDOVKULQNDJHGDWDIRU'RXJODV¿UERDUGVE\ including a method to estimate shrinkage for the relatively 140 mm (7/8 by 5-1/2 in.) in cross section, are given in small moisture content changes of wood in service. Shrink- Figure 4–5 (Comstock 1965). The material was grown in age assumptions for commercial lumber, which typically one locality and dried under mild conditions from green to is not perfectly plainsawn or quartersawn, are discussed in near equilibrium at 32 °C (90 qF) and two different Chapter 7. humidity conditions: (1) 60–65% RH and (2) 30% RH. The 'HQVLW\DQG6SHFL¿F*UDYLW\ ¿JXUHVKRZVWKDWDFFXUDWHO\SUHGLFWLQJWKHVKULQNDJHRIDQ individual piece of wood is impossible; however, the aver- The density ȡRIDVXEVWDQFHLVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWLRRILWV age shrinkage of a quantity of pieces can be predicted mass to its volume and is expressed in the international accurately. system (SI) in units of kilograms per cubic meter (kg m–3), in the inch–pound system (I–P) in units of pounds per cu- Average shrinkage data in Tables 4–3 and 4–4 can be used bic foot (lb ft–3), or in the centimeter–gram–second system to estimate shrinkage for a particular species if a great deal (CGS) in units of grams per cubic centimeter (g cm–3). The 4–7 General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190 Table 4–4. Shrinkage values of some woods imported into the United Statesa Shrinkageb from Shrinkageb from green to ovendry green to ovendry moisture content (%) moisture content (%) Tan- Volu- Loca- Tan- Volu- Loca- Species Radial gential metric tionc Species Radial gential metric tionc Afrormosia (Pericopsis elata) 3.0 6.4 10.7 AF Lauan, white (Pentacme contorta) 4.0 7.7 11.7 AS Albarco (Cariniana spp.) 2.8 5.4 9.0 AM Limba (Terminalia superba) 4.5 6.2 10.8 AF Andiroba (Carapa guianensis) 3.1 7.6 10.4 AM Macawood (Platymiscium spp.) 2.7 3.5 6.5 AM Angelin (Andira inermis) 4.6 9.8 12.5 AM Mahogany, African (Khaya spp.) 2.5 4.5 8.8 AF Angelique (Dicorynia guianensis) 5.2 8.8 14.0 AM Mahogany, true (Swietenia macrophylla) 3.0 4.1 7.8 AM Apitong (Dipterocarpus spp.) 5.2 10.9 16.1 AS Manbarklak (Eschweilera spp.) 5.8 10.3 15.9 AM Avodire (Turreanthus africanus) 4.6 6.7 12.0 AF Manni (Symphonia globulifera) 5.7 9.7 15.6 AM Azobe (Lophira alata) 8.4 11.0 17.0 AM Marishballi (Licania spp.) 7.5 11.7 17.2 AM Balata (Manilkara bidentata) 6.3 9.4 16.9 AM Meranti, white (Shorea spp.) 3.0 6.6 7.7 AS Balsa (Ochroma pyramidale) 3.0 7.6 10.8 AM Meranti, yellow (Shorea spp.) 3.4 8.0 10.4 AS Banak (Virola spp.) 4.6 8.8 13.7 AM Merbau (Intsia bijuga and I. palembanica) 2.7 4.6 7.8 AS Benge (Guibourtia arnoldiana) 5.2 8.6 13.8 AF Mersawa (Anisoptera spp.) 4.0 9.0 14.6 AS Bubinga (Guibourtia spp.) 5.8 8.4 14.2 AF Mora (Mora spp.) 6.9 9.8 18.8 AM Bulletwood (Manilkara bidentata) 6.3 9.4 16.9 AM Obeche (Triplochiton scleroxylon) 3.0 5.4 9.2 AF Caribbean pine (Pinus caribaea) 6.3 7.8 12.9 AM Ocota pine (Pinus oocarpa) 4.6 7.5 12.3 AM Cativo (Prioria copaifera) 2.4 5.3 8.9 AM Okoume (Aucoumea klaineana) 4.1 6.1 11.3 AF Ceiba (Ceiba pentandra) 2.1 4.1 10.4 AM Opepe (Nauclea spp.) 4.5 8.4 12.6 AF Cocobolo (Dalbergia retusa) 2.7 4.3 7.0 AM Ovangkol (Guibourta ehie) 4.5 8.2 12 AF Courbaril (Hymenaea courbaril) 4.5 8.5 12.7 AM Para-angelium (Hymenolobium excelsum) 4.4 7.1 10.2 AM Cuangare (Dialyanthera spp.) 4.2 9.4 12.0 AM Parana pine (Araucaria angustifolia) 4.0 7.9 11.6 AS Degame (Calycophyllum 4.8 8.6 13.2 AM Pau Marfim (Balfourodendron 4.6 8.8 13.4 AM candidissimum) riedelianum) Determa (Ocotea rubra) 3.7 7.6 10.4 AM Peroba de campos (Paratecoma peroba) 3.8 6.6 10.5 AM Ebony, East Indian (Diospyros spp.) 5.4 8.8 14.2 AS Peroba Rosa (Aspidosperma spp.) 3.8 6.4 11.6 AM Ebony, African (Diospyros spp.) 9.2 10.8 20.0 AF Piquia (Caryocar spp.) 5.0 8.0 13.0 AM Ekop (Tetraberlinia tubmaniana) 5.6 10.2 15.8 AF Pilon (Hyeronima spp.) 5.4 11.7 17.0 AM Gmelina (Gmelina arborea) 2.4 4.9 8.8 AS Primavera (Cybistax donnell-smithii) 3.1 5.1 9.1 AM Goncalo alves (Astronium graveolens) 4.0 7.6 10.0 AM Purpleheart (Peltogyne spp.) 3.2 6.1 9.9 AM Greenheart (Ocotea rodiaei) 8.8 9.6 17.1 AM Ramin (Gonystylus spp.) 4.3 8.7 13.4 AS Hura (Hura crepitans) 2.7 4.5 7.3 AM Roble (Quercus spp.) 6.4 11.7 18.5 AM Ilomba (Pycnanthus angolensis) 4.6 8.4 12.8 AF Roble (Tabebuia spp. Roble group) 3.6 6.1 9.5 AM Imbuia (Phoebe porosa) 2.7 6.0 9.0 AM Rosewood, Brazilian (Dalbergia nigra) 2.9 4.6 8.5 AM Ipe (Tabebuia spp.) 6.6 8.0 13.2 AM Rosewood, Indian (Dalbergia latifolia) 2.7 5.8 8.5 AS Iroko (Chlorophora excelsa and C. regia) 2.8 3.8 8.8 AF Rubberwood (Hevea brasiliensis) 2.3 5.1 7.4 AM Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) 7.7 11.0 18.7 AS Sande (Brosimum spp. Utile group) 4.6 8.0 13.6 AM Jelutong (Dyera costulata) 2.3 5.5 7.8 AS Sapele (Entandrophragma cylindricum) 4.6 7.4 14.0 AF Kaneelhart (Licaria spp.) 5.4 7.9 12.5 AM Sepetir (Pseudosindora spp. and Sindora spp.) 3.7 7.0 10.5 AS Kapur (Dryobalanops spp.) 4.6 10.2 14.8 AS Spanish-cedar (Cedrela spp.) 4.2 6.3 10.3 AM Karri (Eucalyptus diversicolor) 7.8 12.4 20.2 AS Sucupira (Diplotropis purpurea) 4.6 7.0 11.8 AM Kempas (Koompassia malaccensis) 6.0 7.4 14.5 AS Teak (Tectona grandis) 2.5 5.8 7.0 AS Keruing (Dipterocarpus spp.) 5.2 10.9 16.1 AS Wallaba (Eperua spp.) 3.6 6.9 10.0 AM Lauan, light red and red (Shorea spp.) 4.6 8.5 14.3 AS Lauan, dark red (Shorea spp.) 3.8 7.9 13.1 AS aShrinkage values were obtained from world literature and may not represent a true species average. bExpressed as a percentage of the green dimension. cAF is Africa; AM is Tropical America; AS is Asia and Oceania. 4–8 Chapter 4 Moisture Relations and Physical Properties of Wood Table 4–5. Expressions for specific gravity and as estimating structural loads or shipping weights. Several a density of wood methods can be used for determining ȡx, as discussed in the Symbol Mass basis Volume basis following sections. The resulting value should be considered an approximation because of the inherent variability in the G0 Ovendry Ovendry Gb (basic specific gravity) Ovendry Green properties used in calculating ȡx. G Ovendry 12% MC 12 To make comparisons between species or products, a stan- Gx Ovendry x% MC ȡ0 Ovendry Ovendry dard reference basis is desirable. Several valid choices are ȡ12 12% MC 12% MC possible for wood, including ovendry density ȡ0DQGVSHFL¿F ȡx x% MC x% MC gravity G referenced to a particular volume basis. As shown a x is any chosen moisture content. LQ7DEOH±WKHVSHFL¿FJUDYLW\RIZRRGPD\EHUHIHUHQFHG to its volume at any moisture content, but in all cases G is CGS system is convenient because of its relationship to based on ovendry mass. Commonly used bases for volume are (a) ovendry, (b) green, and (c) 12% moisture content. VSHFL¿FJUDYLW\ DOVRNQRZQDVUHODWLYHGHQVLW\ 6SHFL¿F The combination of ovendry mass and ovendry volume is gravity GLVGH¿QHGDVWKHUDWLRRIWKHGHQVLW\RIDVXEVWDQFH XVHGLQGHVLJQVSHFL¿FDWLRQVIRUZRRGVXFKDVFRQWDLQHG to the density of water ȡwDWDVSHFL¿HGUHIHUHQFHWHP- –3 in the 1DWLRQDO'HVLJQ6SHFL¿FDWLRQIRU:RRG&RQVWUXF- perature, typically 4 qC (39 qF), where ȡw is 1.000 g cm (1,000 kg m–3 or 62.43 lb ft–3). Therefore, a material with a tion (AF&PA 2005). The combination of ovendry mass and G . density of 5 g cm–3KDVDVSHFL¿FJUDYLW\RI JUHHQYROXPHLVUHIHUUHGWRDVEDVLFVSHFL¿FJUDYLW\ b 6RPHVSHFL¿FJUDYLW\GDWDDUHUHSRUWHGLQ7DEOHV±± At constant temperature, the density of materials that do and 5–5 (Chap. 5) on both the green (basic) and 12% MC not adsorb moisture is constant. For example, at room tem- volume basis. perature the densities of steel, aluminum, and lead are 7.8, 2.7, and 11.3 g cm–3, respectively. For materials that adsorb &RQYHUWLQJEHWZHHQ'LIIHUHQW6SHFL¿F*UDYLW\%DVHV moisture but do not change volume, such as stone and brick, In general, we use the symbol GxWRGHQRWHVSHFL¿FJUDYLW\ the density depends upon moisture content. For these mate- based on the volume at a given moisture content x. If the rials, the density can be calculated at any moisture content value of Gx is known for a particular moisture content, the as the ratio of mass to volume, and the relationship between value at any other moisture content can be approximated GHQVLW\DQGPRLVWXUHFRQWHQWLVOLQHDU6SHFL¿FJUDYLW\KDV using expressions for volumetric shrinkage. Explicitly, if the RQO\RQHGH¿QLWLRQIRUWKHVHPDWHULDOV EHFDXVHYROXPHLV VSHFL¿FJUDYLW\LVNQRZQDWPRLVWXUHFRQWHQWx', the value at constant): the ratio of ovendry density to density of water. x'' is ' In contrast to these materials, for wood, both mass and '' ' (4–8) volume depend on moisture content. The remainder of this '' section explains the relationships between moisture content, YROXPHWULFVKULQNDJHVSHFL¿FJUDYLW\DQGGHQVLW\ where Sx is the percent volumetric shrinkage from the green condition to moisture content x. In the case where basic spe- The density of ovendry wood ȡ YDULHVVLJQL¿FDQWO\EHWZHHQ 0 FL¿FJUDYLW\Gb is known, the value at any moisture content species. Although the ovendry density of most species falls xEHORZWKH¿EHUVDWXUDWLRQSRLQWLV between about 320 and 720 kg m–3 (20 and 45 lb ft–3), the range actually extends from about 160 kg m–3 (10 lb ft–3) for (4–9) balsa to more than 1,040 kg m–3 (65 lb ft–3) for some other imported woods. Within a given species, ȡ0 varies because The shrinkage–moisture content relationship can be reason- of anatomical characteristics such as the ratio of earlywood ably approximated using Table 4–3 or 4–4 and Equation to latewood and heartwood to sapwood. For a limited num- (4–7). However, if the total volumetric shrinkage S0 is not ber of species, minerals and extractable substances may also known for the species of interest, it can be estimated from DIIHFWGHQVLW\$FRHI¿FLHQWRIYDULDWLRQRIDERXWLV WKHEDVLFVSHFL¿FJUDYLW\ 6WDPP considered suitable for describing the variability of ovendry density within common domestic species. (4–10) Wood is used in a wide range of conditions and thus has a wide range of moisture content values in service. Deter- Using this relation, Equation (4–9) then becomes mining the density of wood (including water) at a given (4–11) moisture content, ȡx, is often necessary for applications such 4–9 General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190 0.82 Method 3—Using Figure 4–6 and Table 4–6 BasicspecificgravityG 0.78 b - (volume when green) )LJXUH±GHSLFWVWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQVSHFL¿FJUDY ity G and moisture content for different values of basic 0.74 x VSHFL¿FJUDYLW\7KLV¿JXUHDGMXVWVIRUDYHUDJHGLPHQVLRQDO 0.70 0.64 FKDQJHVWKDWRFFXUEHORZWKH¿EHUVDWXUDWLRQSRLQW DV- 0.66 sumed to be 30% MC) and incorporates the assumptions in 0.60 (TXDWLRQV ± ± DQG ± 7KHVSHFL¿FJUDYLW\RI 0.62 wood does not change at moisture content values above ap- 0.56 0.58 proximately 30% because the volume does not change. To 0.52 use Figure 4–6, locate the inclined line corresponding to the 0.54 NQRZQEDVLFVSHFL¿FJUDYLW\ YROXPHZKHQJUHHQ )URP 0.48 0.50 this point, move left parallel to the inclined lines until verti- cally above the target moisture content. Then read the spe- 0.46 0.44 FL¿FJUDYLW\Gx corresponding to this point at the left-hand (volume at current moisture content) x 0.42 0.40 side of the graph. 0.38 0.36 For example, to estimate the density of white ash at 12% moisture content, consult Table 5–3a in Chapter 5. The aver- 0.34 0.32 DJHEDVLFVSHFL¿FJUDYLW\Gb for this species is 0.55 (volume when green). Using Figure 4–6, the dashed curve for 0.30 0.28 Specific gravity G Gb = 0.55 is found to intersect with the vertical 12% 0.26 0.24 moisture content dashed line at a point corresponding to 0.22 G12 = 0.605. The density of wood (including water) at this 0.20 moisture content can then be obtained from Table 4–6 (these 0.18 values are based on Eq. (4–12)). By interpolation, the spe- 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 FL¿FJUDYLW\RIFRUUHVSRQGVWRDGHQVLW\DW0& –3 –3 )LJXUH±5HODWLRQVKLSRIVSHFL¿FJUDYLW\DQG of 678 kg m (42.2 lb ft ). moisture content. Thermal Properties Methods for Calculating Density Four important thermal properties of wood are thermal con- The density of wood (including water) at a given moisture GXFWLYLW\KHDWFDSDFLW\WKHUPDOGLIIXVLYLW\DQGFRHI¿FLHQW of thermal expansion. content, ȡx, may be determined by any of three methods: 0HWKRG²(TXDWLRQV8VLQJ%DVLF6SHFL¿F*UDYLW\ Thermal Conductivity 7KHVSHFL¿FJUDYLW\Gx based on volume at the moisture Thermal conductivity kLVDPHDVXUHRIWKHUDWHRIKHDWÀRZ content of interest may be calculated from Equation (4–9) (W m–2 or Btu h–1 ft–2 WKURXJKDPDWHULDOVXEMHFWHGWRXQLW RU ± ZLWKEDVLFVSHFL¿FJUDYLW\WDNHQIURP7DEOH± temperature difference (K or °F) across unit thickness 5–4, or 5–5 (Chap. 5). Density is then calculated by (m or in.). The thermal conductivity of common structural woods is much less than the conductivity of metals with (4–12) which wood often is mated in construction. It is about two to four times that of common insulating materials. For ex- Method 2—Equations Using Ovendry Density ample, the conductivity of structural softwood lumber Density is given by at 12% moisture content is in the range of 0.10 to 0.14 W m–1 K–1 (0.7 to 1.0 Btu in. h–1 ft–2 °F–1) compared §100 S · ()+= 0 ¸ x UU 0 x 100/1 ¨ ¸ (4–13) with 216 (1,500) for aluminum, 45 (310) for steel, 0.9 (6) ©100 Sx ¹ for concrete, 1 (7) for glass, 0.7 (5) for plaster, and 0.036 (0.25) for mineral wool. Thermal resistivity is simply the where S is calculated using Equation (4–7) and S is taken x 0 reciprocal of the thermal conductivity. Insulating materials from Table 4–3 or 4–4. If S is not known for the particular 0 of a given thickness are commonly compared by their “R- species of interest, it can be estimated using the same rela- value,” or thermal resistance, which is simply the thermal tion as in Equation (4–10), which in terms of ovendry resistivity times the thickness. density is The thermal conductivity of wood is affected by a number (4–14) of basic factors: density, moisture content, extractive con- tent, grain direction, structural irregularities such as checks 4–10 Chapter 4 Moisture Relations and Physical Properties of Wood Table 4–6a. Density of wood as a function of specific gravity and moisture content (SI) Moisture content Density (kg m–3) when the specific gravity G is of wood x (%) 0.30 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38 0.40 0.42 0.44 0.46 0.48 0.50 0.52 0.54 0.56 0.58 0.60 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.70 0 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 560 580 600 620 640 660 680 700 4 312 333 354 374 395 416 437 458 478 499 520 541 562 582 603 624 645 666 686 707 728 8 324 346 367 389 410 432 454 475 497 518 540 562 583 605 626 648 670 691 713 734 756 12 336 358 381403 426 448 470 493 515 538 560 582 605 627 650 672 694 717 739 762 784 16 348 371 394418 441 464 487510 534 557 580 603 626 650 673 696 719 742 766 789 812 20 360 384 408432 456 480 504 528 552 576 600 624 648 672 696 720 744 768 792 816 840 24 372 397 422 446 471 496 521 546 570 595 620 645 670 694 719 744 769 794 818 843 868 28 384 410 435461 486 512 538 563 589 614 640 666 691 717 742 768 794 819 845 870 896 32 396 422 449 475 502 528 554 581 607 634 660 686 713 739 766 792 818 845 871 898 924 36 408 435 462490 517 544 571598 626 653 680 707 734 762 789 816 843 870 898 925 952 40 420 448 476 504 532 560 588 616 644 672 700 728 756 784 812 840 868 896 924 952 980 44 432 461 490 518 547 576 605 634 662 691 720 749 778 806 835 864 893 922 950 979 1,008 48 444 474 503533 562 592 622651 681 710 740 770 799 829 858 888 918 947 977 1,006 1,036 52 456 486 517 547 578 608 638 669 699 730 760 790 821 851 882 912 942 973 1,003 1,034 1,064 56 468 499 530562 593 624 655686 718 749 780 811 842 874 905 936 967 998 1,030 1,061 1,092 60 480 512 544 576 608 640 672 704 736 768 800 832 864 896 928 960 992 1,024 1,056 1,088 1,120 64 492 525 558590 623 656 689 722 754 787 820 853 886 918 951 984 1,017 1,050 1,082 1,115 1,148 68 504 538 571605 638 672 706 739 773 806 840 874 907 941 974 1,008 1,042 1,075 1,109 1,142 1,176 72 516 550 585619 654 688 722 757 791 826 860 894 929 963 998 1,032 1,066 1,101 1,135 1,170 1,204 76 528 563 598634 669 704 739 774 810 845 880 915 950 986 1,021 1,056 1,091 1,126 1,162 1,197 80 540 576 612 648 684 720 756 792 828 864 900 936 972 1,008 1,044 1,080 1,116 1,152 1,188 84 552 589 626 662 699 736 773 810 846 883 920 957 994 1,030 1,067 1,104 1,141 1,178 88 564 602 639 677 714 752 790 827 865 902 940 978 1,015 1,053 1,090 1,128 1,166 92 576 614 653691 730 768 806 845 883 922 960 998 1,037 1,075 1,114 1,152 1,190 96 588 627 666706 745 784 823862 902 941 980 1,019 1,058 1,098 1,137 1,176 100 600 640 680 720 760 800 840 880 920 960 l,000 1,040 1,080 1,120 1,160 1,200 110 630 672 714 756 798 840 832 924 966 1,008 1,050 1,092 1,134 1,176 1,218 120 660 704 748792 836 880 924 968 1,012 1,056 1,100 1,144 1,188 1,232 130 690 736 782 828 874 920 966 1,012 1,058 1,104 1,150 1,196 1,242 1,288 140 720 768 816864 912 960 1,008 1,056 1,104 1,152 1,200 1,248 1,296 150 750 800 850 900 950 1,000 1,050 1,100 1,150 1,200 1,250 1,300 1,350 DQGNQRWV¿EULODQJOHDQGWHPSHUDWXUH7KHUPDOFRQGXF- several researchers on a variety of species. Table 4–7 pro- tivity increases as density, moisture content, temperature, vides average approximate conductivity values for selected or extractive content of the wood increases. Thermal con- wood species, based on Equation (4–15). However, actual ductivity is nearly the same in the radial and tangential conductivity may vary as much as 20% from the tabulated directions. However, conductivity along the grain has been values. reported as greater than conductivity across the grain by a Although thermal conductivity measurements have been factor of 1.5 to 2.8, with an average of about 1.8. made at moisture content values above 25%, measurements For moisture contents below 25%, approximate thermal have been few in number and generally lacking in accuracy. conductivity k across the grain can be calculated with a lin- Therefore, we do not provide values for moisture content ear equation of the form values above 25%. The effect of temperature on thermal conductivity is rela- (B + Cx) + A (4–15) k = Gx tively minor: conductivity increases about 2% to 3% per 10 °C (1% to 2% per 10 °F). where GxLVVSHFL¿FJUDYLW\EDVHGRQRYHQGU\PDVVDQGYRO- ume at moisture content x (%) and A, B, and C are constants. Heat Capacity For Gx > 0.3, temperatures around 24 °C (75 °F), and +HDWFDSDFLW\LVGH¿QHGDVWKHDPRXQWRIHQHUJ\QHHGHGWR x < 25% MC, the values of the constants are as follows: increase one unit of mass (kg or lb) one unit in temperature (K or °F). The heat capacity of wood depends on the tem- A = 0.01864, B = 0.1941, C = 0.004064 (k in W m–1 K–1) perature and moisture content of the wood but is practically independent of density or species. Heat capacity of dry A = 0.129, B = 1.34, C = 0.028 (k in Btu in. h–1 ft–2 °F–1) –1 –1 –1 –1 wood cp0 (kJ kg K , Btu lb °F ) is approximately re- lated to temperature T (K, °F) by Equation (4–15) was derived from measurements made by cp0 = 0.1031 + 0.003867T (SI) (4–16a) 4–11 General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190 Table 4–6b. Density of wood as a function of specific gravity and moisture content (I–P) Moisture content Density (lb ft–3) when the specific gravity G is of wood x (%) 0.30 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38 0.40 0.42 0.44 0.46 0.48 0.50 0.52 0.54 0.56 0.58 0.60 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.70 0 18.7 20.0 21.2 22.5 23.7 25.0 26.2 27.5 28.7 30.0 31.2 32.4 33.7 34.9 36.2 37.4 38.7 39.9 41.2 42.4 43.7 4 19.5 20.8 22.1 23.4 24.7 26.0 27.2 28.6 29.8 31.2 32.4 33.7 35.0 36.6 37.6 38.9 40.2 41.5 42.8 44.1 45.4 8 20.2 21.6 22.9 24.3 25.6 27.0 28.3 29.6 31.0 32.3 33.7 35.0 36.4 37.7 39.1 40.4 41.8 43.1 44.5 45.8 47.2 12 21.0 22.4 23.8 25.2 26.6 28.0 29.4 30.8 32.2 33.5 34.9 36.3 37.7 39.1 40.5 41.9 43.3 44.7 46.1 47.5 48.9 16 21.7 23.2 24.6 26.0 27.5 29.0 30.4 31.8 33.3 34.7 36.2 37.6 39.1 40.5 42.0 43.4 44.9 46.3 47.8 49.2 50.7 20 22.5 24.0 25.5 27.0 28.4 30.0 31.4 32.9 34.4 35.9 37.4 38.9 40.4 41.9 43.4 44.9 46.4 47.9 49.4 50.9 52.4 24 23.2 24.8 26.3 27.8 29.4 31.0 32.5 34.0 35.6 37.1 38.7 40.2 41.8 43.3 44.9 46.4 48.0 49.5 51.1 52.6 54.2 28 24.0 25.6 27.2 28.8 30.4 31.9 33.5 35.1 36.7 38.3 39.9 41.5 43.1 44.7 46.3 47.9 49.5 51.1 52.7 54.3 55.9 32 24.7 26.4 28.0 29.7 31.3 32.9 34.6 36.2 37.9 39.5 41.2 42.8 44.5 46.1 47.8 49.4 51.1 52.7 54.4 56.0 57.7 36 25.5 27.2 28.9 30.6 32.2 33.9 35.6 37.3 39.0 40.7 42.4 44.1 45.8 47.5 49.2 50.9 52.6 54.3 56.0 57.7 59.4 40 26.2 28.0 29.7 31.4 33.2 34.9 36.7 38.4 40.2 41.9 43.7 45.4 47.2 48.9 50.7 52.4 54.2 55.9 57.7 59.4 61.2 44 27.0 28.8 30.6 32.3 34.1 35.9 37.7 39.5 41.3 43.1 44.9 46.7 48.5 50.3 52.1 53.9 55.7 57.5 59.3 61.1 62.9 48 27.7 29.6 31.4 33.2 35.1 36.9 38.8 40.6 42.5 44.3 46.2 48.0 49.9 51.7 53.6 55.4 57.3 59.1 61.0 62.8 64.6 52 28.5 30.4 32.2 34.1 36.0 37.9 39.8 41.7 43.6 45.5 47.4 49.3 51.2 53.1 55.0 56.9 58.8 60.7 62.6 64.5 66.4 56 29.2 31.2 33.1 35.0 37.0 38.9 40.9 42.8 44.8 46.7 48.7 50.6 52.6 54.5 56.5 58.4 60.4 62.3 64.2 66.2 68.1 60 30.0 31.9 33.9 35.9 37.9 39.9 41.9 43.9 45.9 47.9 49.9 51.9 53.9 55.9 57.9 59.9 61.9 63.9 65.9 67.9 69.9 64 30.7 32.7 34.8 36.8 38.9 40.9 43.0 45.0 47.1 49.1 51.2 53.2 55.3 57.3 59.4 61.4 63.4 65.5 67.5 69.6 71.6 68 31.4 33.5 35.6 37.7 39.8 41.9 44.0 46.1 48.2 50.3 52.4 54.5 56.6 58.7 60.8 62.9 65.0 67.1 69.2 71.3 73.4 72 32.2 34.3 36.5 38.6 40.8 42.9 45.1 47.2 49.4 51.5 53.7 55.8 58.0 60.1 62.3 64.4 66.5 68.7 70.8 73.0 75.1 76 32.9 35.1 37.3 39.5 41.7 43.9 46.1 48.3 50.5 52.7 54.9 57.1 59.3 61.5 63.7 65.9 68.1 70.3 72.5 80 33.7 35.9 38.2 40.4 42.7 44.9 47.2 49.4 51.7 53.9 56.2 58.4 60.7 62.9 65.1 67.4 69.6 71.9 74.1 84 34.4 36.7 39.0 41.3 43.6 45.9 48.2 50.5 52.8 55.1 57.4 59.7 62.0 64.3 66.6 68.9 71.2 73.5 88 35.2 37.5 39.9 42.2 44.6 46.9 49.3 51.6 54.0 56.3 58.7 61.0 63.3 65.7 68.0 70.4 72.7 92 35.9 38.3 40.7 43.1 45.5 47.9 50.3 52.7 55.1 57.5 59.9 62.3 64.7 67.1 69.5 71.9 74.3 96 36.7 39.1 41.6 44.0 46.5 48.9 51.4 53.8 56.3 58.7 61.2 63.6 66.0 68.5 70.9 73.4 100 37.4 39.9 42.4 44.9 47.4 49.9 52.4 54.9 57.4 59.9 62.4 64.9 67.4 69.9 72.4 74.9 110 39.3 41.9 44.6 47.2 49.8 52.4 55.0 57.7 60.3 62.9 65.5 68.1 70.8 73.4 76.0 120 41.2 43.9 46.7 49.4 52.2 54.9 57.7 60.4 63.1 65.9 68.6 71.4 74.1 76.9 130 43.1 45.9 48.8 51.7 54.5 57.4 60.3 63.1 66.0 68.9 71.8 74.6 77.5 80.4 140 44.9 47.9 50.9 53.9 56.9 59.9 62.9 65.9 68.9 71.9 74.9 77.9 80.9 150 46.8 49.9 53.0 56.2 59.3 62.4 65.5 68.6 71.8 74.9 78.0 81.1 84.2 7KHVHIRUPXODVDUHYDOLGIRUZRRGEHORZ¿EHUVDWXUDWLRQ cp0 = 0.2605 + 0.0005132T (I–P) (4–16b) at temperatures between 280 K (44 °F) and 420 K (296 °F). Representative values for heat capacity can be The heat capacity of wood that contains water is greater IRXQGLQ7DEOH±7KHPRLVWXUHFRQWHQWDERYH¿EHUVDWXUD- WKDQWKDWRIGU\ZRRG%HORZ¿EHUVDWXUDWLRQLWLVWKHVXP tion contributes to heat capacity according to the simple rule of the heat capacity of the dry wood and that of water (cpw) of mixtures. DQGDQDGGLWLRQDODGMXVWPHQWIDFWRUAc that accounts for the additional energy in the wood–water bond: Thermal Diffusivity Thermal diffusivity is a measure of how quickly a material cp,x = (cp0 + cpw x/100)/(1 + x/100) + Ac (4–17) FDQDEVRUEKHDWIURPLWVVXUURXQGLQJV,WLVGH¿QHGDVWKH ratio of thermal conductivity to the product of density and where x is moisture content (%). The heat capacity of water heat capacity. Therefore, conclusions regarding its variation is about 4.18 kJ kg–1 K–1 (1.00 Btu lb–1 °F–1 7KHDGMXVW- with temperature and density are often based on calculating ment factor can be calculated from the effect of these variables on heat capacity and thermal conductivity. Because of the low thermal conductivity and moderate density and heat capacity of wood, the thermal dif- Ac = x(b1 + b2T + b3x) (4–18) fusivity of wood is much lower than that of other structural with materials, such as metal, brick, and stone. A typical value for wood is 1.6 × 10–7 m2 s–1 (0.00025 in2 s–1), 4 4 compared with 1 × 105 m2 s–1 (0.02 in2 s–1) for steel and b1 = 0.06191, b2 = 2.36 u 10 , b3 = 1.33 u 10 (T in K) 1× 106 m2 s–1 (0.002 in2 s–1) for stone and mineral wool. 4 5 5 For this reason, wood does not feel extremely hot or cold to b1 = 4.23 × 10 , b2 = 3.12 × 10 , b3 = 3.17 × 10 (T in qF) the touch as do some other materials. 4–12 Chapter 4 Moisture Relations and Physical Properties of Wood Table 4–7. Thermal conductivity of selected hardwoods and softwoodsa Conductivity Resistivity (W m–1 K–1 (Btu in. h–1 ft–2 °F–1)) (K m W–1 (h ft2 °F Btu–1 in. –1)) Specific Species gravity Ovendry 12% MC Ovendry 12% MC Hardwoods Ash Black 0.53 0.12 (0.84) 0.15 (1.0) 8.2 (1.2) 6.8 (0.98) White 0.63 0.14 (0.98) 0.17 (1.2) 7.1 (1.0) 5.8 (0.84) Aspen Big tooth 0.41 0.10 (0.68) 0.12 (0.82) 10 (1.5) 8.5 (1.2) Quaking 0.40 0.10 (0.67) 0.12 (0.80) 10 (1.5) 8.6 (1.2) Basswood, American 0.38 0.092 (0.64) 0.11 (0.77) 11 (1.6) 9.0 (1.3) Beech, American 0.68 0.15 (1.0) 0.18 (1.3) 6.6 (0.96) 5.4 (0.78) Birch Sweet 0.71 0.16 (1.1) 0.19 (1.3) 6.4 (0.92) 5.2 (0.76) Yellow 0.66 0.15 (1.0) 0.18 (1.2) 6.8 (0.98) 5.6 (0.81) Cherry, black 0.53 0.12 (0.84) 0.15 (1.0) 8.2 (1.2) 6.8 (0.98) Chestnut, American 0.45 0.11 (0.73) 0.13 (0.89) 9.4 (1.4) 7.8 (1.1) Cottonwood Black 0.35 0.087 (0.60) 0.10 (0.72) 12 (1.7) 9.6 (1.4) Eastern 0.43 0.10 (0.71) 0.12 (0.85) 9.8 (1.4) 8.1 (1.2) Elm American 0.54 0.12 (0.86) 0.15 (1.0) 8.1 (1.2) 6.7 (0.96) Rock 0.67 0.15 (1.0) 0.18 (1.3) 6.7 (0.97) 5.5 (0.80) Slippery 0.56 0.13 (0.88) 0.15 (1.1) 7.9 (1.1) 6.5 (0.93) Hackberry 0.57 0.13 (0.90) 0.16 (1.1) 7.7 (1.1) 6.4 (0.92) Hickory, pecan 0.69 0.15 (1.1) 0.19 (1.3) 6.6 (0.95) 5.4 (0.77) Hickory, true Mockernut 0.78 0.17 (1.2) 0.21 (1.4) 5.9 (0.85) 4.8 (0.69) Shagbark 0.77 0.17 (1.2) 0.21 (1.4) 5.9 (0.86) 4.9 (0.70) Magnolia, southern 0.52 0.12 (0.83) 0.14 (1.0) 8.4 (1.2) 6.9 (1.0) Maple Black 0.60 0.14 (0.94) 0.16 (1.1) 7.4 (1.1) 6.1 (0.88) Red 0.56 0.13 (0.88) 0.15 (1.1) 7.9 (1.1) 6.5 (0.93) Silver 0.50 0.12 (0.80) 0.14 (0.97) 8.6 (1.2) 7.1 (1.0) Sugar 0.66 0.15 (1.0) 0.18 (1.2) 6.8 (0.98) 5.6 (0.81) Oak, red Black 0.66 0.15 (1.0) 0.18 (1.2) 6.8 (0.98) 5.6 (0.81) Northern red 0.65 0.14 (1.0) 0.18 (1.2) 6.9 (1.0) 5.7 (0.82) Southern red 0.62 0.14 (0.96) 0.17 (1.2) 7.2 (1.0) 5.9 (0.85) Oak, white Bur 0.66 0.15 (1.0) 0.18 (1.2) 6.8 (0.98) 5.6 (0.81) White 0.72 0.16 (1.1) 0.19 (1.3) 6.3 (0.91) 5.2 (0.75) Sweetgum 0.55 0.13 (0.87 0.15 (1.1) 8.0 (1.2) 6.6 (0.95) Sycamore, American 0.54 0.12 (0.86) 0.15 (1.0) 8.1 (1.2) 6.7 (0.96) Tupelo Black 0.54 0.12 (0.86) 0.15 (1.0) 8.1 (1.2) 6.7 (0.96) Water 0.53 0.12 (0.84) 0.15 (1.0) 8.2 (1.2) 6.8 (0.98) Yellow-poplar 0.46 0.11 (0.75) 0.13 (0.90) 9.3 (1.3) 7.7 (1.1) 4–13 General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190 Table 4–7. Thermal conductivity of selected hardwoods and softwoodsa—con. Conductivity Resistivity (W m–1 K–1 (Btu in. h–1 ft–2 °F–1)) (K m W–1 (h ft2 °F Btu–1 in. –1)) Specific Species gravity Ovendry 12% MC Ovendry 12% MC Softwoods Baldcypress 0.47 0.11 (0.76) 0.13 (0.92) 9.1 (1.3) 7.5 (1.1) Cedar Atlantic white 0.34 0.085 (0.59) 0.10 (0.70) 12 (1.7) 9.9 (1.4) Eastern red 0.48 0.11 (0.77) 0.14 (0.94) 8.9 (1.3) 7.4 (1.1) Northern white 0.31 0.079 (0.55) 0.094 (0.65) 13 (1.8) 11 (1.5) Port-Orford 0.43 0.10 (0.71) 0.12 (0.85) 9.8 (1.4) 8.1 (1.2) Western red 0.33 0.083 (0.57) 0.10 (0.68) 12 (1.7) 10 (1.5) Yellow 0.46 0.11 (0.75) 0.13 (0.90) 9.3 (1.3) 7.7 (1.1) Douglas-fir Coast 0.51 0.12 (0.82) 0.14 (0.99) 8.5 (1.2) 7.0 (1.0) Interior north 0.50 0.12 (0.80) 0.14 (0.97) 8.6 (1.2) 7.1 (1.0) Interior west 0.52 0.12 (0.83) 0.14 (1.0) 8.4 (1.2) 6.9 1.0) Fir Balsam 0.37 0.090 (0.63) 0.11 (0.75) 11 (1.6) 9.2 (1.3) White 0.41 0.10 (0.68) 0.12 (0.82) 10 (1.5) 8.5 (1.2) Hemlock Eastern 0.42 0.10 (0.69) 0.12 (0.84) 10 (1.4) 8.3 (1.2) Western 0.48 0.11 (0.77) 0.14 (0.94) 8.9 (1.3) 7.4 (1.1) Larch, western 0.56 0.13 (0.88) 0.15 (1.1) 7.9 (1.1) 6.5 (0.93) Pine Eastern white 0.37 0.090 (0.63) 0.11 (0.75) 11 (1.6) 9.2 (1.3) Jack 0.45 0.11 (0.73) 0.13 (0.89) 9.4 (1.4) 7.8 (1.1) Loblolly 0.54 0.12 (0.86) 0.15 (1.0) 8.1 (1.2) 6.7 (0.96) Lodgepole 0.43 0.10 (0.71) 0.12 (0.85) 9.8 (1.4) 8.1 (1.2) Longleaf 0.62 0.14 (0.96) 0.17 (1.2) 7.2 (1.0) 5.9 (0.85) Pitch 0.53 0.12 (0.84) 0.15 (1.0) 8.2 (1.2) 6.8 (0.98) Ponderosa 0.42 0.10 (0.69) 0.12 (0.84) 10 (1.4) 8.3 (1.2) Red 0.46 0.11 (0.75) 0.13 (0.90) 9.3 (1.3) 7.7 (1.1) Shortleaf 0.54 0.12 (0.86) 0.15 (1.0) 8.1 (1.2) 6.7 (0.96) Slash 0.61 0.14 (0.95) 0.17 (1.2) 7.3 (1.1) 6.0 (0.86) Sugar 0.37 0.090 (0.63) 0.11 (0.75) 11 (1.6) 9.2 (1.3) Western white 0.40 0.10 (0.67) 0.12 (0.80) 10 (1.5) 8.6 (1.2) Redwood Old growth 0.41 0.10 (0.68) 0.12 (0.82) 10 (1.5) 8.5 (1.2) Young growth 0.37 0.090 (0.63) 0.11 (0.75) 11 (1.6) 9.2 (1.3) Spruce Black 0.43 0.10 (0.71) 0.12 (0.85) 9.8 (1.4) 8.1 (1.2) Engelmann 0.37 0.090 (0.63) 0.11 (0.75) 11 (1.6) 9.2 (1.3) Red 0.42 0.10 (0.69) 0.12 (0.84) 10 (1.4) 8.3 (1.2) Sitka 0.42 0.10 (0.69) 0.12 (0.84) 10 (1.4) 8.3 (1.2) White 0.37 0.090 (0.63) 0.11 (0.75) 11 (1.6) 9.2 (1.3) aValues in this table are approximate and should be used with caution; actual conductivities may vary by as much as 20%. The specific gravities also do not represent species averages. &RHI¿FLHQWRI7KHUPDO([SDQVLRQ hardwoods and softwoods, the parallel-to-grain values 6 –1 7KHFRHI¿FLHQWRIWKHUPDOH[SDQVLRQLVDPHDVXUHRIWKH have ranged from about 3.1 to 4.5 × 10 K 6 –1 relative change of dimension caused by temperature change. (1.7 to 2.5 × 10 °F ). 7KHWKHUPDOH[SDQVLRQFRHI¿FLHQWVRIFRPSOHWHO\GU\ZRRG 7KHUPDOH[SDQVLRQFRHI¿FLHQWVDFURVVWKHJUDLQ UDGLDODQG are positive in all directions; that is, wood expands on heat- WDQJHQWLDO DUHSURSRUWLRQDOWRVSHFL¿FJUDYLW\7KHVHFRHI¿- ing and contracts on cooling. Limited research has been car- cients range from about 5 to more than 10 times greater than ULHGRXWWRH[SORUHWKHLQÀXHQFHRIZRRGSURSHUW\YDULDELOLW\ WKHSDUDOOHOWRJUDLQFRHI¿FLHQWVDQGDUHRIPRUHSUDFWLFDO RQWKHUPDOH[SDQVLRQ7KHWKHUPDOH[SDQVLRQFRHI¿FLHQWRI interest. The radial and tangential thermal expansion coef- ovendry wood parallel to the grain appears to be indepen- ¿FLHQWVIRURYHQGU\ZRRGDr and Dt, can be approximated GHQWRIVSHFL¿FJUDYLW\DQGVSHFLHV,QWHVWVRIERWK 4–14 Chapter 4 Moisture Relations and Physical Properties of Wood Table 4–8. Heat capacity of solid wood at selected The literature on electrical properties of wood has been di- temperatures and moisture contents vided into measurements of either dielectric constant or re- Temperature Heat capacity (kJ kg–1 K–1 (Btu lb–1 °F–1)) sistivity. In general, dielectric constant data were measured with alternating current (AC), whereas resistivity measure- (K) (°C (°F)) Ovendry 5% MC 12% MC 20% MC ments used direct current (DC). In a way, this is a false 280 7 (44) 1.2 (0.28) 1.3 (0.32) 1.5 (0.37) 1.7 (0.41) 290 17 (62) 1.2 (0.29) 1.4 (0.33) 1.6 (0.38) 1.8 (0.43) dichotomy because the dielectric constant can be measured 300 27 (80) 1.3 (0.30) 1.4 (0.34) 1.7 (0.40) 1.9 (0.45) using DC signals for some materials, and the complex resis- 320 47 (116) 1.3 (0.32) 1.5 (0.37) 1.8 (0.43) 2.0 (0.49) tivity, which is related to impedance, can be measured from 340 67 (152) 1.4 (0.34) 1.6 (0.39) 1.9 (0.46) 2.2 (0.52) AC signals. Furthermore, given the AC dielectric constant, 360 87 (188) 1.5 (0.36) 1.7 (0.41) 2.0 (0.49) 2.3 (0.56) one can calculate the AC resistivity. The remainder of this section will review AC and DC measurements of the electri- cal properties of wood, with emphasis on clarifying the E\WKHIROORZLQJHTXDWLRQVRYHUDQRYHQGU\VSHFL¿FJUDYLW\ nomenclature that is often used in the wood literature. range of about 0.1 to 0.8: DC Electrical Properties 6 –1 Dr = (32.4G0 + 9.9)10 K (4–19a) Resistivity When an electric potential or voltage V is applied between D = (18G + 5.5)106 °F–1 (4–19b) r 0 two points on a conducting solid, the amount of current I WKDWZLOOÀRZEHWZHHQWKRVHSRLQWVGHSHQGVRQWKHUHVLV- D = (32.4G + 18.4)106 K–1 (4–20a) t 0 tance R of the material. This measured resistance depends 6 –1 on the geometry of the specimen: Dt = (18G0 + 10.2)10 °F (4–20b) L R = U (4–21) 7KHUPDOH[SDQVLRQFRHI¿FLHQWVFDQEHFRQVLGHUHGLQGHSHQ- A dent of temperature over the temperature range of 51 to where L is the distance the current travels, A is the cross- 54 qC (60 to 130 °F). sectional area through which the current travels, and ȡ is DPDWHULDOVSDUDPHWHUWKHUHVLVWLYLW\ZLWKXQLWVRIȍP,Q Wood that contains moisture reacts differently to varying some situations, it is more convenient to talk about the con- temperature than does nearly ovendry wood. When moist GXFWLYLW\ıZKLFKLVWKHUHFLSURFDORIWKHUHVLVWLYLW\ wood is heated, it tends to expand because of normal ther- ( 1 ). mal expansion and to shrink because of loss in moisture { UV content. Unless the wood is very dry initially (perhaps 3% The resistivity of wood is a strong function of moisture con- or 4% moisture content or less), shrinkage caused by mois- tent. For example, Figure 4–7 illustrates this dependence for ture loss on heating will be greater than thermal expansion, slash pine (Pinus elliottii) in the longitudinal direction be- so the net dimensional change on heating will be negative. tween 8% MC and 180% MC (Stamm 1929, 1964). As the Wood at intermediate moisture levels (about 8% to 20%) PRLVWXUHFRQWHQWRIZRRGLQFUHDVHVIURPQHDU]HURWR¿EHU ZLOOH[SDQGZKHQ¿UVWKHDWHGDQGWKHQJUDGXDOO\VKULQNWR saturation, resistivity can decrease by a factor of over 1010 a volume smaller than the initial volume as the wood gradu- (in comparison, the circumference of the earth at the equa- ally loses water while in the heated condition. tor is 4 × 1010 mm). Resistivity is about 1015–1016ȍPIRU ovendry wood and 103–104ȍPIRUZRRGDW¿EHUVDWXUDWLRQ Even in the longitudinal (grain) direction, where dimen- 6WDPP $VWKHPRLVWXUHFRQWHQWLQFUHDVHVIURP¿EHU sional change caused by moisture change is very small, such saturation to complete saturation of the wood structure, the changes will still predominate over corresponding dimen- further decrease in resistivity is smaller, generally amount- sional changes as a result of thermal expansion unless the ing to less than a hundredfold. wood is very dry initially. For wood at usual moisture lev- els, net dimensional changes will generally be negative after The conductivity of wood also depends on temperature, prolonged heating. grain angle, and the amount of water-soluble salts. Unlike conductivity of metals, the conductivity of wood increases Electrical Properties with increasing temperature. Conductivity is greater along The electrical properties of wood depend strongly on mois- the grain than across the grain and slightly greater in the ture content, exhibiting changes that span almost 10 orders radial direction than in the tangential direction. Relative of magnitude over the range of possible moisture contents. conductivity values in the longitudinal, radial, and tan- Because electrical properties of wood undergo large changes gential directions are related by the approximate ratio of with relatively small changes in moisture content below 1.0:0.55:0.50. When wood contains abnormal quantities of water-soluble salts or other electrolytic substances, such as ¿EHUVDWXUDWLRQHOHFWULFDOPHDVXUHPHQWVKDYHEHHQXVHGWR accurately predict the moisture content of wood. SUHVHUYDWLYHRU¿UHUHWDUGDQWWUHDWPHQWRULVLQSURORQJHG 4–15 General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190 response will be out of phase with the original signal. The AC dielectric constant is a complex number += jHHH "' with real component H ' , imaginary component H", and j { 1. Instead of presenting the real and imaginary com- ponents of the dielectric constant, it is customary in the wood literature to present the real component of the dielec- tric constant H ' and the loss tangent, G )tan( GH¿QHGE\ H" G )tan( = (4–23) H ' It is also customary in the wood literature to refer to the real component of the dielectric constant H ' as simply “the di- electric constant” and to represent this with H . This notation should not be encouraged, because it is ambiguous and also implies that the dielectric constant is not a complex number. Figure 4–7. Resistivity of slash pine (Pinus elliottii) Both H ' and G )tan( depend non-linearly on the frequency at as a function of moisture content. which they are measured. The frequency dependence is re- lated to the mechanism of conduction in wood, and this rela- tionship between the frequency dependence and mechanism contact with seawater, electrical conductivity can be sub- has been explored in the literature (James 1975, Zelinka and stantially increased. others 2007). DC Dielectric Constant At a given frequency, H ' increases with temperature and When an electric potential or voltage V is applied to a per- moisture content. At 20 Hz, H ' may range from about 4 fectly insulating material (V { 0 ) between two parallel for dry wood to near 1 × 106 for wet wood; at 1 kHz, from SODWHVQRFXUUHQWZLOOÀRZDQGLQVWHDGFKDUJHZLOOEXLOGXS about 4 when dry to about 5,000 when wet; and at 1 MHz, on the plates. The amount of charge per unit voltage that from about 3 when dry to about 100 when wet. H ' is larger these plates can store is called the capacitance C and for polarization parallel to the grain than across the grain. is given by Another parameter, the dielectric power factor fp given by (4–22) == H" fp G )sin( (4–24) where A and L have the same meanings as in ()+ (HH "' )22 Equation (4–21), İ is a unitless materials parameter, is used in dielectric moisture meters (James 1988). The the DC dielectric constant, and İ0 is a universal constant, the permittivity of a vacuum, and is 8.854 × 10–12 F m–1. The power factor of wood is large compared with that of inert DC dielectric constant is the ratio of the dielectric permit- plastic insulating materials, but some materials, for example some formulations of rubber, have equally large power fac- tivity of the material to İ0; it is essentially a measure of the potential energy per unit volume stored in the material in the tors. The power factor of wood varies from about 0.01 for form of electric polarization when the material is in a given dry, low-density woods to as large as 0.95 for dense woods at high moisture levels. The power factor is usually, but not HOHFWULF¿HOG$VPHDVXUHGE\SUDFWLFDOWHVWVWKHGLHOHFWULF constant of a material is the ratio of the capacitance of a ca- DOZD\VJUHDWHUIRUHOHFWULF¿HOGVDORQJWKHJUDLQWKDQDFURVV pacitor using the material as the dielectric to the capacitance the grain. of the same capacitor using free space as the dielectric. Because the power factor of wood is derived from H ' and H", it is also affected by frequency, moisture content, and tem- Because wood is not a perfect insulator (V z 0 at any mois- ture content), the DC dielectric constant of wood is not well perature. These factors interact in such a way to cause fp to have maximum and minimum values at various GH¿QHGDQGWKHRUHWLFDOO\FDQQRWEHPHDVXUHGZLWK'&WHFK- niques. Nevertheless, researchers have tried to measure this combinations of these factors. TXDQWLW\DQGKDYHIRXQGWKDWLWLVGLI¿FXOWWRPHDVXUHDQG Impedance depends on experimental technique (Skaar 1988). Just as the AC dielectric constant was represented by a AC Electrical Properties complex number to account for both magnitude and phase, the “resistance” of an AC circuit is also represented by a AC Dielectric Constant and Related Properties complex number called impedance, += jZjZZZ "' with real When an alternating current is applied, the dielectric constant can no longer be represented by a scalar, because 4–16 Chapter 4 Moisture Relations and Physical Properties of Wood except for woods that contain abundant oily or waxy extrac- WLYHVVXFKDVOLJQXPYLWDH VHH&KDS 7KHFRHI¿FLHQWVRI friction are an important safety consideration in applications such as wood decks, stairs, and sloped surfaces such as roof FW sheathing. Ff F FN 2QPRVWPDWHULDOVWKHFRHI¿FLHQWVRIIULFWLRQIRUZRRGLQ- crease continuously as the moisture content of the wood in- FUHDVHVIURPRYHQGU\WR¿EHUVDWXUDWLRQWKHQUHPDLQDERXW constant as the moisture content increases further until con- Figure 4–8. Diagram depicting the forces acting on an VLGHUDEOHIUHHZDWHULVSUHVHQW:KHQWKHVXUIDFHLVÀRRGHG object in contact with a surface. ZLWKZDWHUWKHFRHI¿FLHQWVRIIULFWLRQGHFUHDVH &RHI¿FLHQWVRIVWDWLFIULFWLRQDUHJHQHUDOO\JUHDWHUWKDQWKRVH of kinetic friction, and the latter depend somewhat on the component Z' and imaginary component Z" . Impedance is VSHHGRIVOLGLQJ&RHI¿FLHQWVRINLQHWLFIULFWLRQYDU\RQO\ related to the AC dielectric constant through slightly with speed when the wood moisture content is less WKDQDERXW DWKLJKPRLVWXUHFRQWHQWWKHFRHI¿FLHQWRI (4–25) kinetic friction decreases substantially as speed increases. &RHI¿FLHQWVRINLQHWLFIULFWLRQIRUVPRRWKGU\ZRRGDJDLQVW where Ȧ is the angular frequency and Cc is a geometrical factor needed for unit analysis and represents the capaci- hard, smooth surfaces commonly range from 0.3 to 0.5; = DWLQWHUPHGLDWHPRLVWXUHFRQWHQWWR DQGQHDU¿EHU tance of an empty cell (that is, Hoc LAC ) (MacDonald and Johnson 1987). In short, this transforms the real compo- saturation, 0.7 to 0.9. nent of the dielectric constant to the imaginary component of the impedance, and vice versa. Nuclear Radiation Properties Recently, measurements of the impedance of wood have Several techniques using high-energy radiation can be used been used to determine moisture gradients (Tiitta and Olk- to measure density and moisture content of wood. Radiation konen 2002), better understand the mechanism of electrical passing through matter is reduced in intensity according to conduction in wood (Zelinka and others 2007), and quantify the relationship the corrosion of metals embedded in wood (Zelinka and = Rammer 2005). 0 PzII )exp( (4–28) Friction Properties where I is the reduced intensity of the beam at depth z in the material, I0 is the incident intensity of a beam of radiation, )LJXUH±GHSLFWVWKHIRUFHVDFWLQJRQDQREMHFW7KH and µWKHOLQHDUDEVRUSWLRQFRHI¿FLHQWRIWKHPDWHULDOLVWKH F ZHLJKWRIWKHREMHFW W (the gravitational force acting fraction of energy removed from the beam per unit depth F downward) is opposed by the normal force N exerted by traversed. When density is a factor of interest in energy ab- F the surface supporting it. The applied horizontal force VRUSWLRQWKHOLQHDUDEVRUSWLRQFRHI¿FLHQWLVGLYLGHGE\WKH F is opposed by the friction force f parallel to the surface. density of the material to derive the mass absorption coef- ,QWKHFDVHLQZKLFKWKHREMHFWLVQRWPRYLQJEXWLVRQWKH ¿FLHQW7KHDEVRUSWLRQFRHI¿FLHQWRIDPDWHULDOYDULHVZLWK YHUJHRIVOLGLQJDFURVVWKHVXUIDFHWKHFRHI¿FLHQWRIVWDWLF the type and energy of radiation. friction Ps LVGH¿QHGDV 7KHOLQHDUDEVRUSWLRQFRHI¿FLHQWRIZRRGIRUJ radiation is = Ff (max) Ps (4–26) known to vary directly with moisture content and density FN and inversely with the J ray energy. As an example, the ir- radiation of ovendry yellow-poplar with 0.047-MeV J rays where F (max) is the magnitude of the maximum friction f \LHOGVOLQHDUDEVRUSWLRQFRHI¿FLHQWVUDQJLQJIURPDERXW force and F is the magnitude of the normal force. In the N 0.065 to about 0.11 cm–1 RYHUWKHRYHQGU\VSHFL¿FJUDYLW\ - FDVHLQZKLFKWKHREMHFWLVVOLGLQJDFURVVWKHVXUIDFHDWFRQ range of about 0.33 to 0.62. An increase in the linear absorp- VWDQWVSHHGWKHFRHI¿FLHQWRINLQHWLFIULFWLRQ P LVGH¿QHG k WLRQFRHI¿FLHQWRIDERXWFP–1 occurs with an increase as LQPRLVWXUHFRQWHQWIURPRYHQGU\WR¿EHUVDWXUDWLRQ$E- F sorption of J rays in wood is of practical interest, in part for = f (4–27) Pk measuring the density of wood. FN 7KHVHFRHI¿FLHQWVGHSHQGRQWKHPRLVWXUHFRQWHQWRIWKH The interaction of wood with E radiation is similar in wood, the roughness of the wood surface, and the character- character to that with J radiation, except that the absorption istics of the opposing surface. They vary little with species FRHI¿FLHQWVDUHODUJHU7KHOLQHDUDEVRUSWLRQFRHI¿FLHQWRI 4–17 General Technical Report FPL–GTR–190 ZRRGZLWKDVSHFL¿FJUDYLW\RIIRUD0H9E ray is content, and grain orientation. Res. Pap. FPL–RP–245. about 3.0 cm17KHUHVXOWRIWKHODUJHUFRHI¿FLHQWLVWKDW Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Ser- even very thin wood products are virtually opaque to E rays. vice, Forest Products Laboratory. 32 p. The interaction of neutrons with wood is of interest because James, W.L. 1988. Electric moisture meters for wood. Gen. wood and the water it contains are compounds of hydrogen, Tech. Rep. FPL–GTR–6. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of and hydrogen has a relatively large probability of interaction Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. with neutrons. Higher energy neutrons lose energy much 17 p. more quickly through interaction with hydrogen than with Kumaran, M.K. 1999. Moisture diffusivity of building mate- other elements found in wood. Lower energy neutrons that rials from water absorption measurements. Journal of Ther- result from this interaction are thus a measure of the hy- mal Envelope and Building Science. 22: 349–355. drogen density of the specimen. Measurement of the lower energy level neutrons can be related to the moisture content Kumaran, M.K. 2002. A thermal and moisture transport of the wood. property database for common building and insulating ma- WHULDOV)LQDO5HSRUW$6+5$(5HVHDUFK3URMHFW53 When neutrons interact with wood, an additional result is Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating the production of radioactive isotopes of the elements pres- and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. ent in the wood. The radioisotopes produced can be identi- ¿HGE\WKHW\SHHQHUJ\DQGKDOIOLIHRIWKHLUHPLVVLRQVDQG MacDonald, J.R.; Johnson, W.B. 1987. Fundamentals of im- WKHVSHFL¿FDFWLYLW\RIHDFKLQGLFDWHVWKHDPRXQWRILVRWRSH pedance spectroscopy. In: MacDonald, J.R., ed. Impedance present. This procedure, called neutron activation analysis, spectroscopy emphasizing solid materials and systems. New provides a sensitive nondestructive method of analysis for York, NY: John Wiley & Sons: 1–26. trace elements. Markwardt, L.J.; Wilson, T.R.C. 1935. Strength and related Discussions in this section assume moderate radiation levels properties of woods grown in the United States. Tech. Bull. that leave the wood physically unchanged. However, very No. 479. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. large doses of J rays or neutrons can cause substantial deg- Simpson, W.T. 1973. Predicting equilibrium moisture con- radation of wood. The effect of large radiation doses on tent of wood by mathematical models. Wood and Fiber. mechanical properties of wood is discussed in Chapter 5. 5(1): 41–49. Literature Cited Skaar, C. 1988. Wood–water relations. New York: Springer- Verlag. 283 p. $) 3$1DWLRQDOGHVLJQVSHFL¿FDWLRQIRUZRRG construction. ANSI/AF&PA NDS-2005. Washington, DC: Spalt, H.A. 1958. The fundamentals of water vapor sorption American Forest & Paper Association, American Wood by wood. Forest Products Journal. 8(10): 288–295. Council. 174 p. 6WDPP$- 7KH¿EHUVDWXUDWLRQSRLQWRIZRRGDVRE- ASTM. 2007. Standard test methods for small clear speci- tained from electrical conductivity measurements. Industrial mens of timber. ASTM Standard D143, 1994 (2007). West and Engineering Chemistry, Analytical Edition. 1(2): 94–97. Conshohocken, PA: ASTM International. Stamm, A.J. 1964. Wood and Cellulose Science. New York: &RPVWRFN*/ 6KULQNDJHRIFRDVWW\SH'RXJODV¿U Ronald Press. 549 p. and old-growth redwood boards. Res. Pap. FPL 30. Madi- son, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Stamm, A.J.; Loughborough, W.K. 1935. Thermodynam- Forest Products Laboratory. 20 p. ics of the swelling of wood. Journal of Physical Chemistry. 39(1): 121–132. IEA. 1991. Catalogue of material properties. In: Internation- al Energy Agency, Annex XIV: Condensation and Energy. Tiitta, M.; Olkkonen, H. 2002. Electrical impedance spec- Leuven, Belgium: Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Labora- troscopy device for measurement of moisture gradients in tory for Building Physics. Report Annex XIV, Vol. 3. ZRRG5HYLHZRI6FLHQWL¿F,QVWUXPHQWV ± ISO. 2002. Hygrothermal performance of building materi- Zelinka, S.L.; Rammer, D.R. 2005. The use of electrochemi- als and products—determination of water absorption coef- cal impedance spectroscopy (EIS) to measure the corrosion of metals in contact with wood. TMS Letters. 2(1): 15–16. ¿FLHQWE\SDUWLDOLPPHUVLRQ,QWHUQDWLRQDO6WDQGDUG,62 15148:2002. Geneva, Switzerland: International Organiza- Zelinka, S.L.; Stone, D.S.; Rammer, D.R. 2007. Equivalent tion for Standardization. circuit modeling of wood at 12% moisture content. Wood James, W.L. 1975. Dielectric properties of wood and hard- Fiber Science. 39(4): 556–565. board: variation with temperature, frequency, moisture 4–18 Chapter 4 Moisture Relations and Physical Properties of Wood Additional References ASHRAE. 2009. 2009 ASHRAE Handbook—fundamentals. Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. %HDOO)& 6SHFL¿FKHDWRIZRRG²IXUWKHU research required to obtain meaningful data. Res. Note FPL–RN–0184. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agricul- ture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 8 p. Kleuters, W. 1964. Determining local density of wood by beta ray method. Forest Products Journal. 14(9): 414. Kollman, F.F.P.; Côté, W.A., Jr. 1968. Principles of wood science and technology I—solid wood. New York: Springer- Verlag. 592 p. Kubler, H.; Liang, L.; Chang, L.S. 1973. Thermal expansion of moist wood. Wood and Fiber. 5(3): 257–267. Kukachka, B.F. 1970. Properties of imported tropical woods. Res. Pap. FPL–RP–125. Madison, WI: U.S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Labora- tory. 67 p. Lin, R.T. 1967. Review of dielectric properties of wood and cellulose. Forest Products Journal. 17(7): 61. McKenzie, W.M.; Karpovich, H. 1968. Frictional behavior of wood. Munich: Wood Science Technology. 2(2): 138. Murase, Y. 1980. Frictional properties of wood at high slid- ing speed. Journal of the Japanese Wood Research Society. 26(2): 61–65. Panshin, A.J.; deZeeuw, C. 1980. Textbook of wood tech- nology. New York: McGraw-Hill. Vol. 1, 4th ed. Simpson, W.T., ed. 1991. Dry kiln operator’s manual. Agric. Handb. AH-188. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agricul- ture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 274 p. 6LPSVRQ:7 6SHFL¿FJUDYLW\PRLVWXUHFRQWHQW and density relationships for wood. Gen. Tech. Rep. FPL–GTR–76. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agricul- ture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 13 p. Steinhagen, H.P. 1977. Thermal conductive properties of wood, green or dry, from 40° to +100°C: a literature re- view. Gen. Tech. Rep. FPL–GTR–9. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 10 p. TenWolde, A.; McNatt, J.D.; Krahn, L. 1988. Thermal prop- erties of wood panel products for use in buildings. ORNL/ Sub/87–21697/1. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory. 38 p. :HDWKHUZD[5& 6WDPP$- 7KHFRHI¿FLHQWVRI thermal expansion of wood and wood products. Transac- tions of American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 69(44): 421–432. 4–19 CHAPTER 5 Mechanical Properties of Wood 'DYLG(.UHWVFKPDQQ5HVHDUFK*HQHUDO(QJLQHHU Contents 7KHPHFKDQLFDOSURSHUWLHVSUHVHQWHGLQWKLVFKDSWHUZHUH REWDLQHGIURPWHVWVRISLHFHVRIZRRGWHUPHG³FOHDU´DQG 2UWKRWURSLF1DWXUHRI:RRG± ³VWUDLJKWJUDLQHG´EHFDXVHWKH\GLGQRWFRQWDLQFKDUDFWHULV (ODVWLF3URSHUWLHV± WLFVVXFKDVNQRWVFURVVJUDLQFKHFNVDQGVSOLWV7KHVHWHVW 0RGXOXVRI(ODVWLFLW\± SLHFHVGLGKDYHDQDWRPLFDOFKDUDFWHULVWLFVVXFKDVJURZWK ULQJVWKDWRFFXUUHGLQFRQVLVWHQWSDWWHUQVZLWKLQHDFKSLHFH 3RLVVRQ¶V5DWLR± &OHDUZRRGVSHFLPHQVDUHXVXDOO\FRQVLGHUHG³KRPRJH 0RGXOXVRI5LJLGLW\± QHRXV´LQZRRGPHFKDQLFV 6WUHQJWK3URSHUWLHV± 0DQ\RIWKHPHFKDQLFDOSURSHUWLHVRIZRRGWDEXODWHGLQWKLV &RPPRQ3URSHUWLHV± FKDSWHUZHUHGHULYHGIURPH[WHQVLYHVDPSOLQJDQGDQDO\VLV /HVV&RPPRQ3URSHUWLHV± SURFHGXUHV7KHVHSURSHUWLHVDUHUHSUHVHQWHGDVWKHDYHU 9LEUDWLRQ3URSHUWLHV± DJHPHFKDQLFDOSURSHUWLHVRIWKHVSHFLHV6RPHSURSHUWLHV 6SHHGRI6RXQG± VXFKDVWHQVLRQSDUDOOHOWRWKHJUDLQDQGDOOSURSHUWLHVIRU 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