H. Creese the Balinese Kakawin Tradition; a Preliminary Description and Inventory

H. Creese The Balinese kakawin tradition; A preliminary description and inventory

In: Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde 155 (1999), no: 1, Leiden, 45-96

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Downloaded from Brill.com09/23/2021 12:55:23PM via free access HELEN CREESE The Balinese Kakawin Tradition A Preliminary Description and Inventory1

Bali has a vast and rich literature that dates back many centuries but which remains largely unknown outside Bali. Many different genres are represented in the Balinese literary corpus, ranging from prose and poetic works written in Kawi - a name that encompasses a number of related idioms including Old Javanese, Middle Javanese and Javanese-Balinese - to works in literary Balinese and modern novels, short stories and poetry written in Balinese and Indonesian. Among these literary genres is kakawin literature, one of the oldest written genres in the Indonesian archipelago, with its roots deep in the earliest period of Hindu-Javanese civilization and culture.2 Kakawin are written in Old Javanese (Kawi), in verse form according to a set number of syllables per line, and in fixed metrical patterns of long and short syllables that are based on the principles of Sanskrit poetics. Most are epic tales, although a number are also concerned with didactic and religious themes. The story of kakawin literature is closely bound up with the processes by which Indian, largely Sanskrit-derived, cultural, literary and religious practices were adapted in the Indonesian world. Sanskrit literature in particular had a profound effect on Javanese literature. It provided Javanese authors

1 This article is based on research funded by an Australian Research Council Fellowship (1992-1995) and Australian Research Council Small Grant (1997-1998). I initially presented the ideas in this paper at the Simposium Internasional Kajian Kebudayaan Austronesia held in Bali in August 1994 to commemorate the one hundredth anniversary of the death of H.N. van der Tuuk. I am grateful to fellow participants in the symposium and to a number of colleagues who have provided comments on earlier drafts, particularly L. Parker, M.C. Ricklefs and R. Rubin- stein. I am indebted to Dr H.I.R. Hinzler of the University of Leiden for allowing me to make use of her Balinese Manuscript Project (HKS) databases when preparing the inventory, and to I Dewa Gede Windhu Sancaya for his assistance in locating and summarizing a number of kakawin in Balinese collections. 2 For a comprehensive description of kakawin literature, see Zoetmulder 1974.

HELEN CREESE is currently Senior Lecturer in Indonesian at the University of Queensland. She obtained her Ph.D. at the Australian National University, specializing in Old Javanese literature. She has published a number of articles on Balinese literature and history. Her most recent publication is Parthayana - The Joumeying of Partha'; An eighteenth-century Balinese kakawin, Leiden 1998. Dr Creese may be contacted at the Department of Asian Languages and Studies, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia.

BKI155-1 (1999) Downloaded from Brill.com09/23/2021 12:55:23PM via free access 46 Helen Creese with the heroes and stories for their poems, most of which draw on the great Indian epics, the Ramayana and Mahabharata, as well as with the rules of prosody and ideals of literary form. Even the word kakawin derivès from the Sanskrit kavya, denoting 'epic court literature', a genre that flourished in India from 400 to 1100 A.D. Although the first recorded epigraphic evidence of Sanskrit influence in the Indonesian archipelago dates from the fifth century A.D., the oldest extant Javanese kakawin, the Ramayana, dates only from the ninth century. Apart from a single inscription dated 825 A.D., written in metrical verse, the Ramayana is the only surviving kakawin from the Central Javanese period. However, the poet's artistry is such that it must represent the culmination of a long literary tradition. We can only assume that no other works survived the transition when the centre of political power shifted from Central to East Java in about 930 A.D. Kakawin writing continued in East Java from the tenth century until at least the end of the fifteenth century. Of this centuries-long literary endeavour only a tiny fragment - fewer than twenty-five kakawin - remains, however. Although there is some evidence of continuing interest in the pre- Islamic literary traditions in Java until at least the early eighteenth century (McDonald 1986; Ricklefs 1993,1998), no Javanese kakawin written after the fall of Majapahit at the end of the fifteenth century have been discovered. Instead, it was on the neighbouring island of Bali that the kakawin genre flourished. Bali's role in the preservation of the Javanese literary heritage has always been acknowledged, for it was in Bali rather than Java that most of the Javanese kakawin were preserved, and it was to Bali that early Dutch scholars turned in search of manuscripts for their studies of the kakawin genre. Balinese copyists soon came to be characterized as preservers of the Javanese classics, to whom was owed 'a debt of gratitude' (Zoetmulder 1974:41). How- ever, the preservation of Javanese kakawin tells only a small, though by no means insignificant, part of the kakawin story, and the Balinese contribution to kakawin literature has in fact been crucial. For the Balinese kakawin corpus comprises over 150 works, including some composed within the last decade - a figure indicative of the continuing development of kakawin literature in Bali and bearing testimony to the creative vitality of the kakawin tradition in Bali long after it had been marginalized in Java itself. My own interest, and the focus of the present article, is in the study of this Balinese kakawin tradition. The paper has two sections. It begins with a general description of the evolution of Bali's own kakawin literature, including its links with Java, and details some of the major characteristics of the works belonging to the Balinese tradition. The discussion covers both the transmission of earlier works of Javanese origin to Bali and the continuing develop-

Downloaded from Brill.com09/23/2021 12:55:23PM via free access The Balinese Kakawin Tradifion 47 ment of the kakawin genre there. The second part of this paper is a preliminary inventory of known Balinese kakawin that draws on a number of published and unpublished sources and incorporates all currently available data on the provenance and dating of individual works.

Bali and Java - Intersections

Balinese literary history has always been intertwined with that of Java, and the long-standing relationship between the two islands is an essential com- ponent of the kakawin story. There is some evidence of independent and early contact between India and Bali in the second century A.D., predating the earliest known contacts elsewhere in the archipelago (Ardika 1990; Ardika and Bellwood 1991). Epigraphic records from the early ninth century onwards show that the Balinese were literate in both Sanskrit and Old Balinese in the period before the forging of close political and dynastie ties with Java. Nevertheless, the spread of Indianized culture to the island of Bali, particularly its literary concerns, appears to have been largely, perhaps ex- clusively, mediated through Java. At the end of the tenth century, following the marriage of the Balinese ruler Dharmodayana Warmadewa to Gunapri- yadharmapatnï, a direct descendant of the founder of the East Javanese dynasty, mpu Sindok, the chancellery language changed from Old Balinese to Old Javanese, indicating that fundamental changes in political and administrative institutions had taken place. The historical record does not reveal the extent to which the East Javanese kings were involved in Bali, and there is, in fact, little evidence of direct political intervention before the Majapahit period. However, it is inconceivable that such long-term political and administrative links were not accompanied by parallel artistic and intellectual interactions. Throughout the period when kakawin writing flourished in Java, that is, from the tenth to the fifteenth centuries, the two islands appear to have belonged to the same world cul- turally and religiously, and it is probable that Javanese literary forms, including kakawin literature, were adapted and fully incorporated into Balinese cultural life. Nevertheless, the possibility cannot be ruled out that the Javanese literary heritage may have found its way to Bali only as recently as the fourteenth century. With the Majapahit period came an intensification of political, cultural and religious links with Bali. The Nagarakrtagama, the famous kakawin account of Majapahit, records two military expeditions against Bali, one in 1284, during the reign of Krtanagara (Nagarakrtagama 42.1), and a second expedition nearly sixty years later, when the renowned Majapahit prime minister, Gajah Mada, finally conquered Bali in 1343 and brought it under

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KAKAWIN PERIOD POET PATRON Ramayana 9th century - - Arjunawiwaha llth century mpu Kahwa Erlangga 1028-1042 Hariwangsa 12th century mpu Panuluh Jayabhaya 1135-1157 Bharatayuddha 1157 A.D. mpu Sëdah/Panuluh Jayabhaya 1135-1157 Ghatotkacasraya 12th century mpu Panuluh Jayakrta (= Krtajaya?) 1194-1205 Smaradahana 13th century mpu Dharmaja Kameswara c.1182-1185 Sumanasantaka 13th century mpu Monaguna Warsajaya (= Jayawarsa ?) 1204 Krsnayana 13th century mpu Triguna Warsajaya 1204 Bhomakawya 13th century (?) - - Nagarakrtagama 1365 mpu Prapafica Rajasanagara 1350-1389 Arjunawijaya 14th century mpu Tantular Ranamanggala 1367 Sutasoma 14th century mpu Tantular Ranamanggala 1367 Kunjarakarna 14th century (?) - Depicted in reliëfs on Candi Jago Parthayajna 14th century (?) - Depicted in reliëfs on Candi Jago êiwaratrikalpa 15th century mpu Tanakung Suraprabhawa 1466-1478 Wrttasancaya 15th century mpu Tanakung Suraprabhawa 1466-1478 Dharmasünya - - - Dharmaputus - Nirartha - Nirarthaprakrta - Nirartha - Jinarthiprakrti - Nirartha - Nittéastra - Nirartha - Nitisara - Nirartha - Table 1: The Javanese Kakawin Corpus direct Majapahit rule {Nagarakrtagama 49.4). By 1365, the year in which the Nagarakrtagama was composed, Bali was not only numbered amongst Maja- pahit's tributaries, but was accorded a special place and said 'to conform in every way to the customs of Java' {Nagarakrtagama 79.3)-3 Balinese traditions record that, following the military conquest of Bali, a Javanese ruler, Krsna Kapakisan, was installed as ruler of Bali and founded the Gelgel dynasty, which was to flourish until the end of the seventeenth century. Dynastie links with Majapahit, particularly descent from these Javanese conquerors, became pivotal in the definition of Balinese identity in later times. The Balinese courts, with all their rituals and their ceremonial

3 Anew translation of the Nagarakrtagama, under its original title Deéawarnana, has recently been published by Stuart Robson (1995).

Downloaded from Brill.com09/23/2021 12:55:23PM via free access The Balinese Kakawin Tradition 49 and cultural life, were modelled on a Javanese 'ideal'. Continued interest in and patronage of kakawin literature appears to have been an integral part of this process, and the continued preservation of Javanese literature in Bali undoubtedly owes much to the cultural influence of Majapahit.4

The Javanese Kakawin Classics in Bali

While little is known with certainty about the process itself, we do know that by the end of the fifteenth century, when the Javanese courts began to em- brace Islamic ideologies and practices, a small number of Javanese kakawin had made their way to Bali (see Table 1). These comprise the Javanese kaka- w in classics, works which were held in such high esteem that they have been preserved in multiple copies through the centuries, first in Java and later in Bali, until the present. A reliable chronology for the Javanese kakawin tradition has been drawn up largely on the basis of the names of patrons mentioned in the introductory stanzas of these works. These names are also known from epigraphic sources. The surviving works can only represent a tiny fraction of the total number of kakawin that would have been composed in Java.5 Questions of how and why these particular works came to be accorded such high status are intriguing, but the process of transmission can probably never be fully uncovered. There were clear political aims involved in the patronage of kakawin writing in Java, and most kakawin appear to have been written at least partly as panegyric or allegorical texts glorifying particular Javanese rulers. Royal patronage was no doubt important in ensuring the success and longevity of individual works. It seems probable that many of these works became part of the sacred royal regalia (pusaka) passed down from generation to generation. The stories of a number of them, including the Ramayana, Arjunawiwaha, Krsnayana, Parthayajna and Kunjarakarna, are also depicted on temple reliëfs throughout Central and East Java. This suggests that the kakawin that have survived were works of particular significance in their own time.

4 For a discussion of the importance of Majapahit in the formation of Balinese identity, see Creese 1997a and 1997b. 5 The didactic and religious kakawin listed at the end of Table 1 are generally attributed to the sixteenth-century poet Nirartha in the Balinese tradition. However, most are found also in Javanese manuscripts and thus are presumably of Javanese origin. The Nirarthaprakrta has been edited by Poerbarjaraka (1951). The Jinarthiprakrti is discussed in Schoterman and Teeuw 1985. The Dharmaêünya and Dharmaputus are usually found together in the same manuscript.oThe Dharmaêünya is currently the focus of the Ph.D. research of I.B.M. Palguna. See also Palguna 1993.

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Sources from more recent historical periods indicate that in both Bali and Java, settlement and resettlement customarily involved the movement not only of people but also of literary texts and other regalia (Behrend 1987; Creese 1996). The same was probably true in earlier times. The religious officials and scholars who, according to the Nagarakrtagama, oversaw the administrative affairs of Bali on behalf of the Majapahit rulers undoubtedly took textual sources with them. For this reason, many Javanese kakawin may even have been known in Bali at the time they were composed. Knowledge of the stories and traditions recorded in them was certainly widespread, as these found a voice not only in texts but also in the dramatic and other performing arts of both Java and Bali. Accounts of a mass flight to Bali of the last of the Hindu-Javanese ruling and scholarly elite, carrying their literary heritage to safety as Islam swept through Java, are undoubtedly apocryphal. Whatever may have been the case, the Javanese kakawin classics were central to the continuance of the kakawin tradition in Bali. Kakawin such as the Ramayana, Arjunawiwaha, Bharatayuddha and Sumanasantaka appear to have enjoyed great popularity. No less than works of a specifically religious or didactic character, kakawin were believed to contain the essence of Balinese religious philosophy and ideas on moral order and were held in reverence for both their antiquity and their continuing social and cultural relevance. Active interest in the Javanese classics is evident from the number of copies that have been made over the centuries, many provided with Balinese glosses, as well as from the frequent writing and rewriting of new versions of older works in the form of prose summaries (paparikan) or in new poetic forms such as geguritan and kidung. Balinese interest in the Javanese classics was also noted by early Western observers. Friederich (1959:14-26), for example, commented that in mid-nineteenth-century Badung the most revered texts were a handful of Javanese classics which comprised the Ramayana, Arjunawiwaha, Bharatayuddha, Hariwangêa, Smaradahana, Sumanasan- taka, Bhomakawya, Arjunawijaya and Sutasoma. The same was still very much the case throughout the twentieth century (Robson 1972; Rubinstein 1993). Even the most recent wave of translations and editions of kakawin published in Bali in the 1980s and 1990s largely comprises these classics of Javanese origin (Stuart-Fox 1992:431-75).6 Selections from well-known and highly regarded Javanese kakawin such as the Ramayana and Arjunawiwaha remain integral to a number of cere-

6 It seems probable that recent moves towards Hindu orthodoxy in Balinese religious thought and practice may have given added impetus to this renewed interest in works closely connected with the Balinese 'Hindu' past. Editions of Indian texts - the Sanskrit rather than Old Javanese versions of the Mahabharata, for example - as well as other Sanskrit religious and philosophical works have also begun to appear in Bali in significant numbers.

Downloaded from Brill.com09/23/2021 12:55:23PM via free access The Balinese Kakawin Tradition 51 monial and ritual functions in Balinese religion, including important rites of passage associated with marriage and death. Kakawin excerpts are also incorporated into wayang and other performing arts genres. The vocaliza- tion and interpretation of kakawin in reading groups (mabasan), particularly of the Javanese classics that are believed to encapsulate the nature of Balinese ethics, religion and philosophy, has also continued into the twentieth century.7 Their continuing viability and the re-creation of their philosophy and themes in ritual practice and dramatic arts all attest to the dynam- ic and contemporary relevance of Javanese kakawin in Bali.

The Balinese Kakawin Tradition

A veil of mystery envelops the early history of a specifically Balinese tradition of kakawin composition. If kakawin literature underwent a parallel and independent development in Bali at the time of its heyday in Java, no tracé of this now remains. Although there is a handful of earlier works possibly dating from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the earliest reliably dated Balinese works, in fact, are only from the eighteenth century, which leaves a hiatus of almost three centuries from the time of writing of the last extant Javanese kakawin, the fifteenth-century êiwaratrikalpa (Teeuw et al. 1969). Although both Balinese historical traditions and the extant textual record seem to suggest that kakawin writing in Bali dates only from the period after political and social links with Java ceased to be of central importance, on balance this seems unlikely to reflect reality, particularly in view of the centuries of close contact. That there is little overlap between the Javanese and the Balinese kakawin corpus proves little in itself. Written as the manuscripts were on fragile palm leaves, no Balinese manuscript could be expect- ed to survive the ravages of the climate and insects longer than about 150 years, and manuscripts dating back earlier than the eighteenth century are few indeed. The laborious and painstaking process of transmission ensured that only those works that were considered particularly significant were copied and recopied, so that many'works that may have been highly regarded or popu- lar in their own time probably eventually slid into obscurity and disappeared forever. The many manuscripts that must have been discarded by earlier generations of scribes and scholars are now irrecoverable. Nevertheless, there are multiple copies of a sufficient number of Balinese works as evid-

7 For a detailed account of the practice and development of mabasan in twentieth-century Bali, see Rubinstein 1993. For the study of kakawin in performance contexts, see Zurbuchen 1987,1991.

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ence to suggest that the Balinese were vitally interested in their own literary heritage. The cataclysmic political events of late seventeenth-century Bali, which saw the fall of the Gelgel dynasty, may also have contributed to the destruction and loss of much of the pre-eighteenth-century Balinese textual record, as appears also to have been the case in Java during the turbulent Kartasura period (Ricklefs 1978:156). The gap in the textual record may be directly connected with the turmoil that marked the end of the old political order. The establishment of the new Klungkung dynasty as the successor of Gelgel at the beginning of the eighteenth century coincides with an increase in textual material, and there are a significant number of sources showing that even if kakawin writing had not been part of Balinese court life in an unbroken line since the earliest period, it had undergone a remarkable revival and renaissance in later times. The idea of a renaissance is not entirely improbable. The political upheavals and continuing rivalry between the Balinese kingdoms that characterized the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, hint at strong political motives for extending patronage tö 'traditional' cultural activities- like kakawin writing as new rulers sought legitimacy through links to an ancient, Javanese, past. The accumulation of cultural capital through kakawin sponsorship is particularly evident in Klungkung, the traditional centre of the Balinese political world, in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries and in Lombok in the mid nineteenth century, a time when the Lombok rulers sought to usurp Klungkung's central position. In many cases we simply do not know when particular works were written. As in Java, Balinese kakawin authorship was largely anonymous. Kakawin poets continued to use pseudonyms to hide their identity and only rarely included information on dates. Given this lack of evidence, we will probably never know what kind of literary activity went on in Bali during Majapahit times, or even in the more recent Gelgel period (1343-1686). A few brief references to Bali's literary history are found in the Babad Dalem, the official history of the Balinese Gelgel dynasty (Berg 1927; Creese 1991a). According to the Babad Dalem, Bali experienced its literary golden age in the sixteenth century, during the reign of Baturenggong, the fourth Dalem of Gelgel. It is during his reign that the court priest Nirartha is said to have come to Bali seeking refuge from Islam, settled at court and founded Bali's leading brahmana descent groups.8

8 For a detailed discussion of the life and work of Nirartha, see Rubinstein 1988. Details of Nirartha's creative output are also given in other Balinese works, especially the Dwijendratattwa and the Babad Bhramana. I am grateful to Raechelle Rubinstein for drawing my attention to this point.

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Only a handful of Balinese kakawin can be dated to the period bef ore 1700, and each of these only tentatively, relying either on the interpretation of obscure and possibly unreliable chronograms or on references in other more recent works that preclude any certainty about their time of origin. The Hariéraya B appears to be the earliest dated Balinese kakawin. It contains a chronogram that yields a date 1496 saka, equivalent to 1574 A.D. The work was written at Lawanadipura, a name that is probably synonymous with Amlapura, the capital of the east Balinese kingdom of Karangasem (Creese 1998:86-7). It is also possible that the Hariéraya B is of Javanese origin. Supomo (1977:10-4) has argued that Lawanadipura refers to Majapahit, although, since Amlapura is itself a synonym of Majapahit, it is difficult to resolve this problem merely on the basis of the place name Lawanadipura. The sixteenth-century dating, long after kakawin writing was actively prac- tised in Java, argues for a Balinese origin. Similar problems surround the dating of a number of works ascribed to Nirartha, Bali's foremost literary figure in the Gelgel period. Works attributed to him in the Babad Dalem include the êarakusuma, Am-pik, Ewer, Gugutuk Mënur, Lëgarang, Mahisa Langu, Dharmatattwa, Waitisthaéraya, Anang Nirartha, Mahisa Mëgat Kung, Dharmaputus and Usana Bali (Berg 1927:27). Of these works, only the Anang Nirartha, a series of short lyrical poems in kakawin metres, the Ewer, the Dharmaputus and the Usana Bali are still extant. The Usana Bali has been tentatively dated to the period between 1550 and 1600, the Dharmaputus appears to be of Javanese origin (see Table 1), and the other works are undated (Hinzler 1986:134-5). Whether even these extant works actually came from Nirartha's pen is open to ques- tion, but this is less important than the significance attached to his role as the source of Bali's literary and religious heritage. Balinese tradition also assigns a number of other works to Nirartha, including the Dharmaprasada, a compilation of didactic religious verses whose author bears the closely synonymous name Nirarthaka, as well as religious moralistic kakawin like the Nirarthaprakrta and Jinarthiprakrti, which appear to be of Javanese origin. While it is difficult to pinpoint any new kakawin compositions that can be dated to the sixteenth or seventeenth century, manuscripts from both Bali and Lombok contain considerable evidence for the uninterrupted copying of literature of all kinds, including kakawin, during the Gelgel period. Hinzler (1993:459) reports two early-seventeenth-century manuscripts ascribed to Nirartha, and Damais (1958:249) suggests that the copy of the Brataéraya from the Van der Tuuk Collection should be dated 1690. A number of colophons containing sixteenth- and seventeenth-century dates are also appended to the two major nineteenth-cenrury manuscript collections of the University of Leiden, the Van der Tuuk and Lombok Collections (Pigeaud 1967-70).

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From the eighteenth century, the literary history of Bali is more easily retrievable. A number of Balinese kakawin have now been dated to the eighteenth and the nineteenth century, and some attempts at drawing up a chronology are possible. The earliest of these dated texts is the Parthayana, a work written under the patronage of Surawïrya, the second Dewa Agung of Klungkung, who died in 1736 (Creese 1991b; 1998). A second work, the Krsnantaka, must also have been written some time in the first half of the eighteenth century, as the sole extant manuscript was copied in 1769 (Ando 1991). Towards the end of the eighteenth century a 'school' of kakawin writing is in evidence, and a number of stylistically similar works can be ascribed to this period. This school does not appear to have been based in any particular geographical centre, but rather represents a specific poetic style and com- mon thematic concerns. Works belonging to this school include the Abhimanyuwiwaha (written in 1778); the Subhadrawiwaha, a reworking of the earlier Parthayana that was probably created for Dewa Agung Putra I of Klungkung (d. 1809); the Hariwijaya, whpse author was working actively as a scribe and copyist in 1815-16; the Narakawijaya; and possibly one or both versions of the Krsnandhaka (Creese 1996). All these kakawin, which were assigned by Zoetmulder (1974) and Pigeaud (1967-70; 1980) to the late Majapahit period, thus turn out to be fairly recent Balinese creations. It is not always possible to determine if individual works were written in Lombok or in Bali. In discussing a 'Balinese' kakawin tradition, we are, in fact, confronted with the same difficulties that for so long have plagued the discussion of '(Old) Javanese' literary works, the majority of which are no 'older' than the eighteenth or nineteenth century and have only tenuous con- nections with the geographical entity of Java. From 1740, Western Lombok, which had been defeated by the eastern Balinese kingdom of Karangasem, formed part of the Balinese realm. Following the Dutch military campaigns of 1848-9, in a turning of the political tables, sovereignty over Karangasem was granted to Lombok. Many works were composed and copied in the Balinese courts of Lombok, and throughout the nineteenth century there appears to have been considerable movement of texts between the two islands. Poets apparently enjoyed some mobility and may have travelled to and worked in a number of different court centres. In Bali and Lombok, literary activity remained centred on the royal courts (puri) and priestly houses igria). Extensive collections were formed and libraries and scriptoria were set up and run by clerics, scribes and members of the court. Kakawin writing, in particular, appears to have flourished at the royal courts of Klungkung in Bali, the home of the Dewa Agung, supreme ruler of Bali and direct descendant of the Gelgel rulers, and in Cakranagara, in Lombok, whose rulers in the nineteenth century persistently sought to challenge the Dewa Agung's suzerainty. This intense literary activity and its

Downloaded from Brill.com09/23/2021 12:55:23PM via free access The Balinese Kakawin Tradition 55 inherent association with ancient cultural ideals may have been linked to rival claims for the overlordship of Bali during this period. A period of literary flowering also occurred in the mid nineteenth cenrury under the patronage of the Dewa Agung Istri Kanya of Klungkung. She was renowned for both her patronage of the arts and her skill as a poet. In one kakawin attributed to her, the Astikayana (1.3), written in 1851 A.D. (1773 éaka), specific references to her literary endeavours are made (Zoetmulder 1974:494; Vickers 1982:492; Creese 1996). Vickers (1982:492) remarks that, according to one informant, during her long reign (1815-C.1868) kakawin and kidung were sung every day. To her are ascribed a number of works in addition to the Astikayana, including the êakraprajaya, Parthakarma and the Brahmanda- purana or Prthuwijaya (Vickers 1982). In nineteenth-century Lombok, the royal court at Cakranagara was also a major literary centre. Many works were written and copied there under the successive rulers of the Mataram dynasty in the second half of the cenrury. Those that have been dated include the Khandawawanadahana, written in 1854, and Kalayawanantaka, which was probably composed between 1870 and 1894, during the reign of the last ruler of Lombok, Agung Gede Ngurah Karangasem (Creese 1996). The author of the Khandawawanadahana, Sang Anten, described the Mataram capital at Cakranagara as a splendid court where poets flocked and priests of all denominations came at the king's request to debate on philosophy and poetry and to compose kakawin (Khandawawanadahana 1.6). Not surprisingly, epic poetry extolling the ancient Mahabharata heroes and their adventures seems to have flourished especially under royal patronage at court. In part, the popularity of the kakawin genre in court circles is connected with the fact that in Bali, and presumably in earlier times also in Java, kakawin formed part of a rich oral performance tradition. Kakawin were not intended to be read silently, but to be performed. At court, poets were able to find not only the necessary material assistance to have their works performed, but also the audiences to appreciate them. However, not all Balinese kakawin retold epic tales. A significant number of Balinese kakawin have not Indian heroes and their exploits but religious precepts and speculation as their themes. Many are dedicated not to royal patrons but to teachers, suggesting that priestly residences igria) were also major centres of literary activity and priests were patrons of this kind of activity. These moralistic and didactic works are often quite brief in compar- ison with kakawin on epic themes. The religious yoga that inspired generations of Javanese and Balinese poets in the practice of their craft is perhaps reflected in these thematic concerns (Zoetmulder 1974: Chapter 4). It seems likely that in Java, too, hermitages and priestly residences were traditionally sites of major libraries and scriptoria as well, although surviving didactic

Downloaded from Brill.com09/23/2021 12:55:23PM via free access 56 Helen Creese and religious works from the Javanese kakawin tradition are too few to allow a definite conclusion. There is little evidence of the kinds of literary activity that took place outside the sphere of the puri or gria, so that it is not possible to draw conclu- sions about the dissemination of texts or the extent of literacy. That texts were widely distributed at all levels of society is hinted at, however, in an edict issued in 1877 by the ruler of Lombok, aimed at regulating literary activity by restricting access to certain categories of text to particular social groups. This edict indicates that poetic works like kakawin and kidung were considered suitable for both the higher castes and commoners and that it was access to works encompassing religious and esoteric knowledge that was restricted (Rubinstein 1988:25-56). The issuing of the edict does indicate, however, that the spread of texts to all levels of society was sufficient, at least in late-nineteenth-century Lombok, to warrant royal intervention. In the twentieth century, the major collections of kakawin manuscripts continue to be preserved in the houses of priestly and noble families.9 From the wealth of eighteenth- and nineteenth-century sources it is clear that Balinese interest in kakawin literature was not confined to continuing a scribal tradition aimed solely at preserving earlier Javanese works, no matter how much they were esteemed. It also extended to a creative process responsible for the composition of many new works. During this period, it was the tenth-century Old Javanese parwa, the prose versions of the books of the Mahabharata, particularly the first book, the Adiparwa, which provided the stories from which the majority of Balinese epic kakawin derive. To the bare outlines of the parwa stories, Balinese poets added extensive descriptive detail, expanding minor episodes into lengthy stories and passing on the wisdom garnered from the ancient texts of Java and India to new generations; Later Balinese poets, who presumably no longer had direct access to Indian sources, also appear to have made a considerable effort to gain mastery of the conventions of kakawin writing, including a knowledge of Sans- krit. Facility in the use of poetic conventions was not easily acquired, and successful composition required continued study and application. There exist a considerable number of treatises on metrics and prosody and dictionaries of synonyms, all attesting to the systematic study of kakawin technique and practice. These works include the Canda, Bhasaprana and Swarawya- njana, as well as a number of lexicons, dictionaries and word lists (Rubin-

9 Hinzler (1993:460) notes that of the 227 kakawin transcribed in the Balinese manuscript transcription project between 1979 and 1992, 203 belonged to noble or priestly owners. Hinzler's data cover about half the total number of kakawin manuscripts collected between 1979 and 1992.

Downloaded from Brill.com09/23/2021 12:55:23PM via free access The Balinese Kakawin Tradition 57 stein 1988). A long period of apprenticeship was probably served under the watchful eye of more experienced poets; many Balinese poets in fact acknowledge their indebtedness to their teachers. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Balinese authors turned for guidance in acquiring mastery of the poetic conventions to earlier Javanese kakawin. The Javanese classics served Balinese poets as 'textbooks' and models for their own works. Not only did their content serve to inspire poets, but they were also practical manuals. In one undated Balinese kidung, the Anacaraka, a father exhorts his son to study the holy writings carefully and remarks that 'the best texts are from ancient Java and are written by famous authors. Copy these texts, learn how to write and spell...' (Hinzler 1993:461). In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the ninth-century Ramayana and twelfth-century Sumanasantaka stand out as works that were used as 'textbooks', and there are remarkable stylistic similarities between the earliest Javanese examples of the genre and their later Balinese counterparts (Creese 1998:42-5). This use of earlier Javanese kakawin as textbooks points to a con- centrated, systematic study of the formal aspects of the kakawin literary form at this time.10 It is also worth noting that in the transition from Java to Bali, the Old Javanese language itself did not become fossilized. Although Balinese poets seem to have been generally confined to the range of seman- tic items that came to them from earlier kakawin written in Java, and although little influence from the Balinese language is discernible, they continued to extend the range of usages and to create new lexical items by means of the kawi system of affixation. Another characteristic of the Balinese kakawin tradition appears to be the writing of new versions of some existing works. There is no record of a similar practice in the Javanese kakawin tradition, in which scribal input and later variation appear to have been proscribed. Only one detailed study of such variant versions has so far been undertaken, namely of the rewritten version of the Parthayana - the Subhadrawiwaha - from the end of the eighteenth century. This appears to represent a deliberate attempt to rewrite an earlier work for a new political and social situation (Creese 1998). Similar kinds of change are evident between the two versions of the Krsnandhaka. The Hariéraya A and B, on the other hand, appear to be different versions of the same story rather than interdependent reworkings of a single original. There are also a number of other variant kakawin that differ from each other in minor ways, including the long and short versions of the Ambaêraya, Astikaéraya and Kamalawimala and the Kangéa (Krsnandhaka). These dif- fering versions may have arisen in the process of transmission, or may

I have discussed these aspects in detail in Creese 1996 and Creese 1998.

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instead be first drafts, perhaps made to impress or please a teacher or discarded as the poet refined his technique. It is probably their relatively recent dating that has ensured their preservation in the textual record. Further research into these variant versions may shed more light on this puzzle. Although kakawin writing in Bali was intimately linked to traditional court society, the Balinese kakawin story did not end with the collapse of the last of the Balinese courts, namely that of Badung in 1906 and Klungkung in 1908. The continuing interest in studying and reading Javanese kakawin in mabasan groups has been noted above. Although there appears to be no parallel interest in the study of Balinese kakawin, kakawin composition has continued well into the twentieth cenrury. Research in this area has scarcely begun, but it is nevertheless possible to say that a shift in thematic interest away from the epic heroes of the eighteenth- and nineteenth-century works to episodes from more recent Balinese history or religious and didactic subjects is discernible. Recent kakawin include works such as the Këbo Tarunantaka, written in 1987 by I Nyoman Singgin (Supartha 1991); the Gajah Mada, written between 1952 and 1958 by Ida Cokorda Ngurah of Puri Saren Kauh, Ubud (Pradotokusumo 1986); the Kusumawicitra, written in 1930 by Ida Bagus Gede Tegeg; and the works of Ida Pedanda Made Sidemen, a leading twentieth-cenrury Balinese kakawin poet and scholar, which include the Cayadijaya (1941), Candrabherawa (1942), Kalpasanghara (1944) and Singhalanggyala (1963).11

The Balinese Kakawin Tradition and Kakawin Studies

In view of the richness of the kakawin tradition, both historically and in contemporary Bali, it is interesting to consider.the reasons why so little research has been done in this area. The neglect of the Balinese kakawin tradition is, in fact, intimately connected with the development of Old Javanese studies in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Balinese ties with Java's ancient past have tended to obscure the dynamism of Bali's poetic and literary life, and the consequence of an early scholarly focus on Javanese kakawin has been a marked lack of interest in its Balinese counterpart.12 The study of kakawin literature by Western scholars dates back to the

11 I am grateful to Raechelle Rubinstein, who provided, me with information conceming Ida Pedanda Made Sidemen. For a further discussion of his life and work, see Rubinstein 1996. 12 Even in recent general surveys of Balinese literature, kakawin continue to be depicted only as remnants of earlier Javanese culture. See, for example, Hooykaas 1979a, Marrison 1986, 1994.

Downloaded from Brill.com09/23/2021 12:55:23PM via free access The Balinese Kakawin Tradition 59 beginrüng of the nineteenth century. In 1817, Raffles brought the attention of the Western world to the existence of Javanese literature with the publication of a long extract from the twelfth-century Bharatayuddha, telling of the war between the Pandawas and Korawas. Raffles' excerpt was based on two manuscripts, one Javanese and the other a Balinese manuscript presented to him by the ruler of the northern Balinese kingdom of Buleleng (Raffles 1817:410-68). From then on, Bali's role was defined in Javanese rather than Balinese terms in kakawin studies. Like the majority of his scholarly succes- sors, Raffles saw in Balinese culture the vestiges of a once great Javanese culture that had fallen into decline. This early, nineteenth-century assessment was to have a considerable influence on the subsequent study of kakawin literature. Even now our knowledge of the Javanese and Balinese literary corpus is based largely on the nineteenth-century manuscript collections that found their way into European libraries and catalogues, and thence to the attention of generations of scholars. None of these scholars was specifically interested in Balinese literary activity, let alone in the Balinese kakawin tradition. Thus, a considerable part of what was collected, and therefore much of what has survived until the late twentieth century, is a reflection less of the totality of the Balinese literary corpus at any given historical point than of the acquisi- tion policies and idiosyncrasies of Europeans in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, whether independent collectors or Dutch government officials. Even the Gedong Kirtya collection, the first major Balinese collection, set up in 1928 in Singaraja (MKLVT 1, 1929), throws more light on European textual concerns than on Balinese ones,, as it, too, was started under Dutch control and sponsorship. The equation of literary merit with antiquity became the hallmark of early kakawin scholarship. Pioneering collectors of Balinese manuscripts like Friederich, Van der Tuuk, Kern, Gunning and Brandes sought out works for specific scholarly, largely philological and lexicographic, purposes. Steeped as they were in the methods of European classical philology, their main interest lay in the establishment of the earliest possible original text. For this reason, the early Dutch or Dutch-trained scholars worked systematically through the extant Javanese kakawin corpus in more or less chronological order. The first printed edition of a complete kakawin text, that by Friederich of the Wrttasancaya, appeared in 1849, closely followed by his editions of the Arjunawiwaha (1850) and Bhomakawya (1852). Prior to the Second World War a considerable number of the extant Javanese kakawin were edited and translated into Dutch. Post-war kakawin studies then saw a number of later Javanese Majapahit works published in English, including the Nagarakrtagama (Pigeaud 1960-3; Robson 1995), èiwaratrikalpa (Teeuw et al. 1969), Sutasoma (Soewito Santoso 1975), Arjunawijaya (Supomo 1977)

Downloaded from Brill.com09/23/2021 12:55:23PM via free access 60 Helen Creese and Kunjarakarna (Teeuw and Robson 1981).13 It should also be borne in mind that from the mid nineteenth century, Western interest in Balinese texts has shaped Balinese perceptions of their own works. From the Dutch, the Balinese absorbed classifications of textual genres that cut across their own categories (most notably the opposition between 'religious' and 'secular' works), together with notions of the relative merits of these texts, and new 'scientific' (philological) ways of approaching their literary heritage. The loss of many earlier Balinese works may have occurred relatively recently and been accelerated by this Western academie discourse, which has consistently placed far greater value on Javanese examples than their later, Balinese 'imitations'. The active study and use of kakawin texts in ritual and religious contexts by the Balinese themselves only rarely overlapped with the academie discourse surrounding Balinese literary activity and its products. In post-independence Indonesia, the Balinese have also been profoundly influenced by decades of nationalist cultural politics whereby the search for authentic, ancient cultural forms has been juxtaposed with efforts töwards modernization and the influence of new electronic media. The lack of interest in Balinese kakawin amongst members of mabasan groups may also reflect these more recent twentieth- century influences and may in fact mask the interest in or popularity of Balinese works in earlier historical periods. In his major study of Old Javanese literature, Kalangwan (1974), Zoet- mulder too focused on the kakawin classics that had been written in Java between the tenth and fifteenth centuries, confining his discussion of the entire Balinese kakawin tradition to a single chapter, entitled 'Minor Kaka- wins of Later Times'. Of the numerous Balinese kakawin, Zoetmulder (1974) considers only works dealing with epic subjects and categorized as 'belles- lettres' that had found their way into public collections prior to 1970. In many cases, he makes no more than a passing reference to the title of a work. However, he does include the introductory stanzas and epilogues of thirty- five of these Balinese kakawin in Appendix IV (Zoetmulder 1974:473-505). Although Zoetmulder's somewhat perfunctory treatment of the Balinese kakawin corpus may have been unavoidable given the lack of research into this 'offshoot of kakawin literature' (Zoetmulder 1974:383) at the time, his remarks indicate that it was also partly motivated by the same sense of the greater intrinsic value of the Javanese examples of the genre. He did not entirely dismiss the possibility that some of the works belonging to this 'mot-

13 Zoetmulder (1974) deals exhaustively with kakawin scholarship prior to the 1970s. Recently new editions and translations of several Javanese kakawin in English, Indonesian and Balinese have begun to appear, including new editions of the Arjunawiwaha (Wiryamartana 1990) and Bharatayuddha (Supomo 1993). See also Stuart-Fox (1992:443-9).

Downloaded from Brill.com09/23/2021 12:55:23PM via free access The Balinese Kakawin Tradition 61 ley collection of kakawins' might have been written in Java, since some were 'still close to the kakawins of the East Javanese tradition' (Zoetmulder 1974:383). A number of these have subsequently been shown to be Balinese, written three or four centuries after the last of their Javanese counterparts. Despite Zoetmulder's rather gloomy prognosis 'that the poor quality of many of the Balinese kakawin can hardly be said to stimulate the interest of prospective editors' (Zoetmulder 1974:383), research on the Balinese kakawin tradition has made considerable progress in recent years. Rubinstein's work on the craft of kakawin composition in Bali (1988) and on mabasan (1993) has provided new insights into the importance of the kakawin genre in Balinese literary life down through the centuries until the present. Several editions and translations of Balinese kakawin have now also been completed, including those of the Dimbhiwicitra (Suastika 1985,1986), Candrabherawa (Suas- tika et al. 1986-7), Kakawin Gajah Mada (Pradotokusumo 1986), Subhadra- wiwaha (Creese 1981), Krsnantaka (Ando 1991), Këbo Tarunantaka (Supar- tha 1991), and Parthayana (Creese 1998). This new research has done much to enrich our knowledge of the social, historical and intellectual context of Balinese literature.

The Balinese Kakawin Corpus

There is still no overview of the Balinese kakawin corpus in any of the sec- ondary literature, whether in Dutch, Indonesian or English. Nor is there a single source which shows at a glance just what this literary category encompasses, in terms of either content or scope. In fact, the extent of indigenous Balinese literary activity has only recently begun to be realized. In compiling the following inventory of the Balinese kakawin corpus, my purpose is both to highlight the depth of the Balinese kakawin tradition and to demonstrate that the traditional view of kakawin literature as a largely Javanese tradition is somewhat distorted. The main source of iniormation about the Balinese kakawin corpus is the Balinese Manuscript Project, or Hooykaas - Këtut Sangka (HKS) Project, set up by Professor Hooykaas in the early 1970s for the purpose of producing Romanized transliterations of Balinese manuscripts.14 Copies of the transliterations were sent to several libraries around the world, including the Uni- versity of Leiden, Cornell, School of Oriental and African Studies, London, the University of Sydney, Universitas Udayana, Denpasar, and the Perpus- takaan Museum Nasional, Jakarta. The project, which was conceived by

Pigeaud (1980:94-6) provides a general description of the project. See also Hinzler 1983.

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Hooykaas (1979b) as a way to preserve the Balinese literary heritage before it was irretrievably lost, is still continuing. It has made clear the vast extent and wide dispersion of religious, epic and secular literature throughout the Balinese world. To date, 6475 individual manuscripts from all over Bali have been transliterated and many previously unknown kakawin have come to light. The kakawin corpus, of course, comprises only a tiny part (7%) of the overall transliteration project. Of the 467 kakawin copies that have been made, 358 (76%) are Balinese. Each of the major Javanese kakawin is also represented, but as the Balinese Manuscript Project is primarily concerned with Balinese rather than Javanese literature, these figures are unlikely to reflect the overall provenance of the manuscripts or the ratio between Balinese and Javanese works. Nevertheless, it is reasonable to assume that most extant Balinese kakawin have been included, though not necessarily every copy of each. The kakawin that have been copied under the auspices of the Balinese Manuscript Project come from collections all over Bali. Every district is represented and the manuscripts have been collected from dozens of different owners. The majority of kakawin are from collections belonging to noble or brahmana households. Most collections contain both Javanese and Balinese kakawin. The provenance and distribution of Balinese kakawin is narrower than this large number of collections would seem to imply, however.15 The eight collections with the largest concentrations of Balinese kakawin are listed in Table 2. These account for over half the total number of kakawin copies that have been made since the Balinese Manuscript Project began. No other collection includes more than six Balinese kakawin. Four collections stand out as major sources of Balinese kakawin. These are the collections from Gria Gede in Blayu in Tabanan and those of Puri Kawan, Puri Gobraja and the Kirtya in Singaraja. These four collections account for over thirty-five per cent of all the kakawin copies. It is perhaps no coincidence that each of these four collections has links with the early documentation of Balinese literature in the 1920s. Three of them - the Puri Kawan, Puri Gobraja and Kirtya collections - are connected with a single individual, I Gusti Putu Jlantik, regent of Buleleng, whose family home was Puri Kawan. I Gusti Putu Jlantik was a close adviser to the Dutch in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, travelling with the Dutch army during its conquest of the Balinese kingdoms and collecting and acquiring manuscripts from the royal collections of Lombok, Tabanan, Badung and Klungkung. The places of origin of the many manuscripts in

15 There is still a great deal of research to be done on the provenance and the use of the manuscripts collected in the Balinese Manuscript Project. For practical reasons of space, I have not included iniormation on the collections from which the individual manuscripts come in my inventory.

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Collection Balinese Javanese Total Kirtya, Singaraja 58 5 63 Gria Gede, Blayu, Tabanan 32 5 37 Puri Gobraja, Singaraja 32 5 37 Puri Ka wan, Singaraja 24 7 31 Ni Ketut Menuh, Jadi, Tabanan 11 12 23 Gria Pidada, Sidemen 10 7 17 Gria Taman Sari, Intaran, Sanur 9 5 14 Gria Puseh, Sanur 8 0 8 Total 184 46 230

Table 2: Largest Collections of Balinese Kakawin Represented in the Balinese Manuscript Project Gusti Putu Jlantik's collection have therefore long been lost. He later became the founding curator of the Kirtya when it was established in 1928, and many of his own manuscripts were copied for the Kirtya library at that time. Puri Gobraja is part of the Puri Ka wan complex, and it appears that the puri library was moved from one part to the other sometime during the 1980s. As a result of this complex textual web, many manuscripts originating from the Jlantik collection have been copied twice in the Balinese Manuscript Project, first in the early 1980s, when they were listed as manuscripts originating from Puri Kawan, and later, since 1989, as manuscripts from Puri Gobraja. As the Kirtya manuscripts themselves have also been copied for the Balinese Manuscript Project, the same original manuscript may have been copied independently on up to three different occasions. The collection of Pedanda Ngurah of Blayu was also influential when Dutch officials began to document Balinese literature in the 1920s. In the twenty-five-year history of the Balinese Manuscript Project, his collection too has been included as one of the major collections from Tabanan as well as in the Kirtya collection. As a result of the interaction between these two leading Balinese figures and the official documentation of Balinese literature, not only in the 1920s and 1930s, but through the Kirtya also into the present, the Balinese Manuscript Project can only really shed light on the Balinese kakawin tradition from the 1920s onward. It is therefore necessary to be cautious about extrapolating back- ward from the corpus at the end of the twentieth century to draw conclu- sions about the provenance and distribution of Balinese manuscripts in earlier periods.16

16 Lists of the manuscripts belonging to the collections of Pedanda Ngurah and Gusti Putu Jlantik were first published in the reports of the Dutch Archaeological Service of 1921 and 1922 (Oudheidkundig Verslag 1921 and 1922).

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A PRELIMINARY INVENTORY OF BALINESE KAKAWIN

The inventory of Balinese kakawin presents an overview of the Balinese kakawin corpus. Listed in it are all the Balinese kakaw in that have been registered in cataloguing and manuscript projects since Van der Tuuk's pioneering efforts in the second half of the nineteenth century.17 With so few scholars working in the area, progress has been slow. Little is known about the individual works, and it is sometimes impossible to do more than record the title. The entries therefore range from the mere statement of a name and manuscript number to lengthy descriptions. Each entry contains the title of the work, with some indication of its meaning wherever possible, a brief description of its content, and any additional available data concerning its authorship and date of composition or copying.18 In many cases it has been necessary to rely on the published catalogues for this information. Cross-references are given for alternative and variant titles. The alphabetical register of Balinese kakawin that follows is not intended to replace the published catalogues with their more detailed information. Much of the information on individual kakawin in the Standard reference works, especially Pigeaud's Supplement (Pigeaud 1980) and Brandes' four- volume description of Javanese and Balinese manuscripts (Brandes 1901-26), remains valid. My intention here is to provide a succinct but comprehensive guide to the available manuscripts. Those interested in particular works or groups of works should therefore still consult the relevant entries in Literature of Java (Pigeaud 1967-70,1980). Much useful information is also to be found in the general descriptions under the headings 'Didactic religious and moralistic poetry' (Pigeaud 1967-70 1:69-75, 1980:16), 'Old Javanese kakawins, minor poems, group B' (Pigeaud 1967-70 1:191-2), 'Javariese-Bali- nese kakawins' (Pigeaud 1967-70 1:194-7), and 'Kakawins from Bali' (Pigeaud 1980:27). The registers of Kirtya manuscripts published between 1928 and 1937 (MKLVT 1-5) also provide useful supplementary information.19 Some additional information that was not included by Pigeaud in his Literature of

17 For practical reasons I have not listed separately the many individual titles in compilations such as the Anang Nirartha, Bhasa Tanakung, Dharmaprasada, Lambang Salukat and Malawi, unless they also occur as individual works, including these titles instead in the entries for each of these compilations. 18 I am indebted to I Dewa Gede Windhu Sancaya for collecting and summarizing a number of titles not previously recorded in the published catalogues and allowing a number of gaps to be filled. 19 The first detailed list of manuscripts in the Kirtya collection was published in MKLVT 4 (1935). It comprises an alphabetical register of K 1 - K 1220. K 1221 - K 1313 were listed in MKLVT 5 (1937). For K 1314 - K 2413,1 have used an undated list of the Kirtya collection, which contains no information on its origin but appears to be reliable. Later Kirtya manuscripts are included in the reference list of Kirtya-Leiden codex numbers in Pigeaud 1980 (pp. 368-86).

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Java (Pigeaud 1967-70), particularly relating to the colophons of particular manuscripts, has also been taken from Brandes' Beschrijving (1901-26) and from Damais' more detailed work on the dating of various Balinese manuscripts and documents (Damais 1958). Only in the case of transliterations from the Balinese Manuscript Project have I added substantially to the information of the published sources. I have included references to all Balinese Manuscript Project (HKS) manuscript numbers so as to bring together information concerning the kakawin hold- ings in the collection that is scattered over a number of sources.20 The HKS transliterations made before 1976 are individually registered and described in Pigeaud's supplementary catalogue, under the headings 'Bali Project I' (Pigeaud 1980:96-198), and 'Bali Project II' (Pigeaud 1980:212-41). However, the systematic numbering of the HKS manuscripts began only in June 1974, starting with HKS 1201; the earlier HKS manuscripts, dispatched prior to June 1974, do not have HKS numbers. These, too, are described under 'Bali Project I' in Pigeaud 1980, but because this section of the Leiden collection also incorporates a considerable amount of other material from Hooykaas' personal collection, it is not always obvious which manuscripts formed part of the collection of the Balinese Manuscript Project. These early HKS transliterations were dispatched in consecutively numbered individual bundies (Bundies 1-19), each of which comprised a number of transliterations. As a number of Australian scholars generally refer to the early HKS manuscripts by Bundie numbers (Bundies 1-19), I have provided cross-references between the Bali Project I Leiden codices and the HKS Bundie numbers received at the University of Sydney in the same period. For HKS 1201-1871, Pigeaud 1980 (pp. 386-90) provides a list of references to the corresponding Leiden codex numbers. There is no published catalogue for HKS 1872 onward. For these numbers, I have made use of two sources. For HKS 1872-3050,1 have relied on the packing lists sent with the transliterations to the University of Sydney between 1 April 1976 and 25 June 1980.21 For the remaining codices, HKS 3051-6457, I have been able to supplement my own data with information from the databases compiled by H. Hinzler and therefore to provide cross-references to Leiden University codex numbers for the almost 200 kakawin manuscripts transliterated since mid 1980.

20 The cataloguing of the entire HKS collection is being undertaken by Dr H.I.R. Hinzler of the University of Leiden, and the result will hopefully be published soon. 21 I have not been able to provide cross-references to the Leiden collection for these manuscripts.

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Arrangement of the Entries

As the most readily accessible and detailed catalogue available, I have used Pigeaud's Literature of Java as the basis for the manuscript entries. The manuscripts, cross-referenced to both the Kirtya and HKS manuscripts where applicable, are listed in the following order: . 1. LOr: Leiden Codices. These comprise several major relevant Leiden collections, two dating from the late nineteenth century, two from the twentieth century.22 The LOr numbers themselves therefore provide an indication of the time of origin of individual manuscripts. • LOr 3265-4818: manuscripts in the Van der Tuuk Collection, collected from all over Bali between 1870 and 1896; see Pigeaud 1967-70 1:9. • LOr 5012-5435: the Lombok Collection of manuscripts taken from the library of the royal palace of Cakranagara, Lombok, at the time of its f all to the Dutch in 1894; see Pigeaud 1967-70 1:9. • LOr 9075-10.391: the Kirtya Collection, started in 1928, containing manuscripts collected from all over Bali between the late 1920s and 1980 (see Pigeaud 1967-70 1:11). Cross-references to the Ro- manized copies of the Van der Tuuk and Kirtya collections made by Soegiarto (LOr 10.395-10.781) are also included. • LOr 12.657-13.658: Bali Project I manuscripts (HKS Bundies 1-19); see Pigeaud 1980:96-169. • LOr 13.659-15.015: Bali Project I and II manuscripts (HKS 1201- 1871); see Pigeaud 1980:196-241. • LOr 16.195-24.626: manuscripts included in the Hinzler database (HKS 3051-6475). 2. Manuscripts from other minor collections listed in Pigeaud 1967-70 and 1980, the most important of which are the Berg Collections (Collection Berg, CB 39-124, and the Berg portfolios, BCB prtf 1-221), which comprise mainly copies of manuscripts in the collection of Gusti Putu Jlantik and the Kirtya; see Pigeaud 1967-70 1:13-14. 3. K: manuscripts from the Kirtya collection not referenced in Pigeaud 1967- 70 and 1980. 4. HKS: manuscripts from the Balinese Manuscript Project (HKS 1872-3050) for which no LOr numbers are currently available.

22 Detailed information concerning the Leiden collections is included in Pigeaud 1967-70 2:5- 20.

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ListofAbbreviations

AdKIT Amsterdam, Koninklijk Instituut voor de Tropen BCB prtf Bundels C. Berg in portfolios, Leiden Brandes Brandes 1901-26 CB Collection Berg, Leiden HKS Hooykaas - Këtut Sangka Collection (Balinese Manuscript Project) JBMG Javanese and Balinese Manuscripts in Germany (Pigeaud 1975) K Gedong Kirtya Collection KITLV Or Oriental manuscripts of the Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, Leiden LOJ 1 Th.G.Th. Pigeaud, Literature of Java, Vol. 1, 1967 LOJ 2 Th.G.Th. Pigeaud, Literature of Java, Vol. 2,1968 LOJ 3 Th.G.Th. Pigeaud, Literature of Java, Vol. 3, 1970 LOJ 4 Th.G.Th. Pigeaud, Supplement to Literature of Java, 1980 LOr Codex Orientalis of the Library of the University of Leiden MKLVT Mededelingen van de Kirtya Liefrinck - Van der Tuuk, Vols 1- 5 (1929-37) RtMLV Rotterdam, Museum voor Land- en Volkenkunde

Inventory

Abhimanyuwiwaha ('Abhimanyu's Marriage') The story of the marriage of Arjuna's son Abhimanyu and Uttarl, Princess of Wirata. Dates from the late 18th century. Canto 75.2 contains a chronogram giving the year of composition as 1778 A.D. (sampat (0) ring pati (0) sapta (7) janma (1) = 1700 éaka; Creese 1996:167). Stylistically similar to works such as Subhadrawiwaha, Hariwijaya and Krsnandhaka (see Creese 1998:141-6). For a summary of the story, see Zoetmulder 1974:385; for the texts and translations of the introductory stanzas and epilogue, see Creese 1998:357-60. See also LOJ 1:191-2; MKLVT 4:1. LOr 21.256 (= HKS 5112); CB 40 (= BCB prtf 26, K 80). Adhyatmikan ('Supreme Spirit') A mystical religious kakawin. There are also a number of prose works with this title, including LOr 9124 (= K 76), 9122 (= K 73), 10.286 (= K 2375). See also LOJ 1:69. K 1065. Aji Canda ('Treaüse on Prosody') Treatise on poetics and metres, containing kakawin stanzas. See LOJ 3:112. See also Canda. LOr 11.185 (= K 791, HKS 1876), 16.428 (= HKS 3284).

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Aji Këmbang (Treatise on Flowers') An incantation written in Indian metres referring to flowers, corresponding with parts of the body. LOr 3192 contains a colophon dated '16 éaka (= 1894 A.D.). See Brandes 1:23; see also Pigeaud (LOJ 2:111), who gives the date as '13 êaka. See also LOJ 1:69. LOr 3859 (= 10.518, BCB prtf 24), 3192 (= BCB prtf 164), 13.464 (= K 467, HKS Bundie 15/15); K 1502 (= HKS 2126). Aji Palayon Treatise on the journey of the soul to heaven both before and after the appro- priate ceremonies have been conducted. Text also contains short works dealing with Durga (Tutur Gong Besi), the kanda pat rare, and the fate of the soul in heaven in accordance with one's deeds in this world. LOr 19.132 (= HKS 3988), 24.075 (= HKS 5924), 24.076 (= HKS 5925), 24.149 (= HKS 5997). Ambaramadya ('The Story of Ambaramadya') The story of the Pandawas' war against King Ambaramadya. Mentioned briefly in Zoetmulder 1974:406; see also LOJ 1:196. LOr 15.000 (= K 646, HKS 1856); CB 93 (= BCB prtf 26, K 646). Ambaéraya ('Amba's Quest for Help') The tale of Bhïsma, Amba and Paraéu Rama, found in the final part of the Udyogaparwa. For a summary, see Zoetmulder 1974:399-400. On the basis of the length of the HKS transliterations, there appear to be two versions - a long version of between 75 and 85 typescript pages, and a short version of approximately 30 pages. The manuscripts listed in LOJ 2:744 and LOJ 4:27 all appear to contain the short version. For the introductory stanzas and epilogue, see Zoetmulder 1974:496. See also LOJ 1:196; MKLVT 4:3. Short version: LOr 13.597 (= HKS Bundie 18/27), 16.975 (= HKS 3831), 16.989 (= HKS 3845), 19.218 (= HKS 4074), 21.230 (= HKS 5086), 24.438 (= HKS 6187); CB 94 (= BCB prtf 26, K 454); HKS 2826. Long Version: LOr 16.527 (= HKS 3423), 19.551(= HKS 4407); HKS 2144, 4168. Aiiang Nirartha ('Nirartha's Love Poems') Short lyrical poems ascribed to Nirartha. The HKS transliterations vary widely in length from 11 to 83 pages. Individual manuscripts may incorpor- ate several related works, incïuding the Nirarthaprakrta, Nirartha Sangu Sëkar, Bhasa Aiiang Nirartha, Lambang Puspasancaya, Bhasa Anja-Anja Turida and (Bhasa) Anja-Anja Sungsang. Most manuscripts have Balinese glosses. LOr 3913 (LOJ 2:159) has two colophons, one dated 1743 êaka, equivalent to 28 September 1821, the other 1756 éaka, equivalent to 25 January 1835 (see Brandes 2:13; Damais 1958:232-3). LOr 12.691 contains a colophon dated éaka 1784 (= 1862 A.D.) referring to local events up to 1855. Short lyric kakawin are also found in LOr 5380, 5382, 8665. See LOJ 1:192-3; LOJ 4:99; MKLVT 4:3. See also Bhasa Tanakung, Anja-Anja Sungsang. LOr 3881 (=10.520, BCB prtf 24), 3913 (= 10.519, BCB prtf 24), 5023 (= 12.692), 12.689,12.690,12.691,12.692,12.693,12.694,12.695,13.237 (=

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HKS Bundie 12/2), 13.886 (= HKS 1438), 14.759 (= K 284, HKS 1611), 14.808 (= HKS 1662), 16.258 (= HKS 3114), 21.647 (= HKS 5500), 21.733 (= HKS 5584); CB 153 (= BCB prtf 25); AdKIT 2751/2; K 555; HKS 2304. Anggabancana ('Seduction') Also called Bancanaraga. An allegorical work dealing with the ongoing struggle between passion and holiness for supremacy in the human soul. There also exists a prose version (LOr 5373; see LOJ 2:309). See also LOJ 1:194- 5; MKLVT 4:3. LOr 4050, 4051 (= 10.510, BCB prtf 22); K 928 (= HKS 1888). Aniharana Story of the Pandawas after the return of Arjuna from his sojourn in heaven following his defeat of the demon Niwatakawaca. The nymph Menaka tries to persuade Arjuna to remain in heaven. The four younger Pandawa brothers are slain in the battles against the demons, and Yudhisthira revives them with his prayers. The meaning of the title is unclear. Some connection with Ziarana.'abduction, marriage' (Sanskrit nirharana?) is possible (see MKLVT 4:4). Pigeaud (LOJ 4:185) indicates that this is the same work as the Arani- arana (or Aranyarana, q.v.), but this is not certain. See also Hari-Harana. LOr 14.858 '(= HKS 1714), 21.568 (= HKS 5422), 21.607 (= HKS 5460); K 729. Anja-Anja Sungsang ('Upside-down Ghost') Short lyrical verses. See Pigeaud 1975 (JBMG No. 427). See also Anang Nirartha and êaéangkaéarana. LOr 21.574 (= HKS 5428); HKS 4206. With Balinese gloss HKS 2994. Aranyakaparwa ('The Book of the Forest Teachings') This is the name of the first part of the Sanskrit Wanaparwa. There is no Old Javanese prose version of the Wanaparwa extant. Only one manuscript of this kakawin version is known, belonging originally to the collection of the Zoological Gardens in Rotterdam. Pigeaud (LOJ 2:862) notes that it concerns Yudhisthira's troubles after the loss of his kingdom. The younger Pandawa are slain. It is not clear if it is the same work as the Aranyarana and/or Aniharana, but this seems likely. See also LOJ 1:195. LOr 10.757 (= RtMLV 28857). Aranyarana ('The Forest Battle') According to Pigeaud (LOJ 4:185), this is an alternative title for the Aniharana. See also Aranyakaparwa. LOr 13.849 (= HKS 1390). Arjunantaka ('The Death of Arjuna') See Ramaparaêuwijaya. LOr 3887.

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Arjunapramada ('The Madness of Arjuna') This is also the title of a prose tale (LOr 9077) telling of the Pandawas' battle against Durga Kalamuka, with interpolated religious passages. See LOJ 1:197. The kakawin version appears to be of recent origin. LOr 21.153 (= HKS 5009), 24.440 (= HKS 6189). Astikaéraya ('Astika's Help') The story of the snake sacrifice that is recounted in the Adiparwa. For a summary and thé introductory stanzas and epilogue, see Zoetmulder 1974:395-6, 493. According to Zoetmulder (1974:396) there are two versions, a long and a short one. He notes that the longer version has 37 extra stanzas, but that everything in the short version is found in the longer one. However, only one of these versions appears to be registered in MKLVT and LOJ. LOr 13.874 (= K 576, HKS 1415), 21.588 (= HKS 5442). Astikayana ('Astika's Adventures') Based on the Astikaparwa section of the Adiparwa, it tells the story of the churning of the ocean of milk, followed by the story of Garuda. Astika is not mentioned at all, and the title probably derives from the parwa title. For a summary and the introductory stanzas and epilogue, see Zoetmulder 1974:396, 493. The poem is offered to êrï Wlryasakanta, who can probably be identified as the Dewa Agung Istri Kanya of Klungkung (Vickers 1982). A chronogram in Canto 25,4b indicates the year of composition as 1851 A.D. (tiga (3) sapta (7) pandita (7) tumunggulakën (1) = 1773 éaka; see Creese 1996:146). See also MKLVT 4:6. K 979 (= HKS 1909). Atlas Bumi ('World Atlas') A recent kakawin dealing with world geography, including Europe and America. Registered under the heading 'Travels and Geography' in LOJ 1:318, LOJ 4:177. See also MKLVT 4:6. LOr 13.749 (= K 496, HKS 1292), 21.349 (= HKS 5204); CB 64 (= BCB prtf 26, K 496). Awi-Awian Manuk Dadali ('The Story of the Swallow') See Manuk Dadali. LOr 19.798 (= HKS 4654). Bala-ugu Deals with the ceremonies for the dead, indicating auspicious days and requisites for the ceremonies. It comprises 47 stanzas in 4 cantos. The first part of this kakawin is usually sung during the washing of the corpse. Also listed as one part (K 369b) of a bundie of three works that includes the Dharma Pawayangan (K 369) on wayang and the Dharma Sangging, an artists' handbook (K 369a); see MKLVT 4:18. LOr 16.753 (= HKS 3609); K 369b, 8788. Bancanaraga ('Seduction') See Anggabancana. K 982 (= HKS 1888).

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Baywalaksana Didactic kakawin on religious concepts. See LO] 4:16. LOr 14.805 (= HKS 1659). < Bhargawaéiksa ('The Teachings of Bhargawa') A didactic work, containing the teachings of the rsi Rama Bhargawa and detailing the imminent destruction of the world as a result of human mis- deeds and immorality. For the introductory stanzas and epilogue, see Zoet- mulder 1974:500. Also called Kalisanghara (q.v.). See also LO] 1:74-5; LO] 4:16. LOr 5136 (= 10.523, BCB prtf 24, BCB prtf 164), 13.600 (= K 437, HKS Bundie 18/30), 13.850 (= HKS 1391). With Balinese gloss LOr 16.256 (= HKS 3112), 21.687 (= HKS 5540), 21.711 (= HKS 5564); K 1374 (= HKS 2077). Bhargawawijaya ('Bhargawa's Victory') See Ramaparaéuwijaya. K 586 (= HKS 1414). Bhasa Pituwëlas ('The Seventeen Words') See Dharmasawita. LOr 3625, 4154. Bhasa Sangu Tangis ('With Tears as Provisions') A lover's lament, one section of the Bhasa Tanakung (q.v.). LOr 24.032 (= HKS 5881); K 524c. Bhasa Tanakung This is the title given to a collection of short kakawin poems contained in a single manuscript, K 524a-g. See MKLVT 4:11. The works are Bhasa Sadhanayoga (= K 524a), Bhasa Amrtamasa (= K 524b), Bhasa Sangu Tangis (= K 524c), Bhasa Kinalisan (= K 524d), Bhasa Tanakung (= K 524e), Bhasa Gumiringsing (= K 524f) and Banawa Sëkar (= K 524g). The title of a particular manuscript is usually taken from the initial or final poem in each compilation. Some sections occur also as separate works. Because of the conflation of the name of this kakawin with that of the fifteenth-century Majapahit poet mpu Tanakung, the Bhasa Tanakung is usually assigned to the Javanese kakawin tradition (Zoetmulder 1974:365-6). There is actually little firm evidence for equating the epithet tan akung ('he who is without love') with a particular historical figure. Similar pen-names describing the authors as 'love- less', 'worthless', 'confused', and so on, were widely used by both poets and copyists to describe their meagre efforts in both Java and Bali. The section entitled Bhasa Tanakung is actually the fifth in the compilation (K 524e). The dating of the Wrttasancaya, which forms part of the same manuscript as the Bhasa Tanakung (K 524), to the Majapahit period is also doubtful. A transla-, tion of a number of these verses is given in Hunter 1998:62-85. For a discussion of the Banawa Sëkar ('Flower Boat') that describes a sraddha ceremony, see Zoetmulder 1974:365-6, 506-7. See also Anang Nirartha, Lambang

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Salukat, Puja ning Smara, Putraêasana. K 524 (included also in CB 153 = BCB prtf 25). Bhawanabhawa Sëkar ('Abode of Flowers') See Puja ning Smara. Bherawa See Candrabherawa. HKS 2234. Bhlmakirti ('Bhïma's Deeds') Based on the small section of the Adiparwa (Juynboll 1906:136-51) in which Bhlma plays a leading role, this kakaivin relates the story of Duryodhana's jealousy of the five Pandawas and his attempts to kill them by burning them in the house of lac, Bhlma's rescue of his brothers by leading them to safety through a tunnel, Bhïma's marriage to Hidimbï, and the birth of Ghatotkaca and finally his defeat of the demon Baka in Ekacakra. The original lontar comes from the collection of Cokorda Gede Agung of Puri Smarabhawa, Klungkung. The introductory stanzas (1.2c) mention that the poet's patron is Prabhu Wlrya. There is a chronogram in the final line (22.4d), ri êaka bhuwana (1) winasang (0), to be read tentatively as (18)01, which is equivalent to 1879. If this reading is correct, the poet's patron may have been Dewa Agung Putra III, ruler of Klungkung from 1851 to 1903. A colophon attached to the Van der Tuuk copy of the Hariêraya A (q.v.) refers to the year 1812 êaka also as a time of destruction. The êaka year 1812 covers the period March 1890 to February 1891, and Damais (1958:238) dates this copy of the Hariêraya A to 30 January 1891. This suggests that the Bhïmaklrti chronogram should perhaps be read from left to right as (18)10 êaka rather than in the more usual right to left chronogram word order. The two chronograms may even refer to the same series of events. Between 1889 and 1891 the kingdoms of South Bali, including Klungkung, were caught up in an escalating series of armed conflicts that eventually saw the destruction of the kingdom of Mengwi (Schulte Nordholt 1996:175-89). At the same time, moments of cri- sis seem to have of ten led to poetic endeavour. For example, the Bhïmaklrti chronogram itself is reminiscent of the geguritan entitled Bhuwana Winasa ('Destruction of the World'), completed in 1918, which tells of the Dutch conquest of Klungkung in 1908 (see Wiener 1995:310-1). HKS 2161, 6353.

Bhuwanakosa Didactic kakawin. There is also a prose work with the same title. LOr 21.440 (= HKS 5295). Bhuwanalaksana ('The Course of the World') A didactic kakawin concerning the religious life of priests and wiku. LOr 9984 contains a short colophon identifying Tapa Raga Runting of Mount Kawi as the author. See also LOJ 1:75. LOr 9984 (= K 1842), 21.218 (= HKS 5074), 21.386 (= HKS 5241).

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Bhuwanasangksepa ('World Compilation') Akakawin dealing with divination and chronology. There is also a prose version (LOr 14.867 = HKS 1723) containing Sanskrit êloka. LOr 12.961 (= HKS Bundie 4/34). Brahmandapurana Also called Prthuwijaya ('Prthu's Victory'). A didactic kakawin detailing the story of King Prthu. This is the kakawin version of the prose text edited by Gonda (1932). For a discussion, see Zoetmulder 1974:380. The introductory stanzas and epilogue are included in Zoetmulder 1974:486. Pigeaud (LOJ 1:186-7; LOJ 4:26) classifies it as a major kakawin and assigns it to the Singhasari-Majapahit period, but it appears to date from the early 19th century. The patron, érï Prakrtiwirya, is probably the Dewa Agung Istri Kanya (Vickers 1982), and there appears to be a chronogram in the closing stanza equivalent to 1738 êaka or 1816 A.D. (Creese 1996:146). LOr 3730 (= 4159), 4160, 4161, 4162, 14.947 (= K 634, HKS 1803), 16.302 (= HKS 3158), 19.642 (= HKS 4498), 19.929 (= HKS 4785); CB 90; K 1115. Brataéraya ('Brata's Aid') The story of the battle between Jina Wikrama and King Wighnotsawa. This is the same story as that found in the Wighnotsawa. According to Pigeaud (LOJ 1:191), the Brataéraya is the younger version. There appears to be only one extant manuscript. It contains a colophon giving the year of copying as 1665 éaka (= 1743 A.D.). See also Damais (1958:249), who suggests tentatively that the manuscript should be dated 28 October 1690. LOr 4163 (= BCB prtf 23). Bratiéasana See Wratiéasana. Canda ('Treatise on Prosody') Treatise on kakawin prosody, partly written in kakawin metres. This work is discussed in detail in Rubinstein 1988:169-217. Parts of it may date from as early as the fourteenth century. See also Aji Canda, Candaksara and Canda- wargaksara. LOr 5109 (= BCB prtf 3), 16.729 (= HKS 3585), 16.734 (= HKS 3590); HKS 2122. Candaksara ('Prosody and Letters') Akakawin on Indian metres, similar to the Canda, included in a compilation with the Bhasa Tanakung (q.v.). Listed under the title Candraksara in MKLVT 4:14. See also Rubinstein 1988:172. LOr 10.551 (= CB 54, BCB prtf 43A, K 279), 13.560 (= HKS Bundie 17/21), 14.732 (= K 279, HKS 1584). Candawargaksara Rules of kakawin prosody, related to the Canda. See Rubinstein 1988:172. LOr 10.550 (= BCB prtf 43A, K 213), 13.038 (= K 213, HKS Bundie 6/7).

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Candrabherawa ('The Tale of Candrabherawa') Also called Dharmawijaya ('The Victory of Dharma'). Lessons on religion given to Yudhisthira and the Pandawas by Candrabherawa and other teachers. Written by Ida Pedanda Made Sidemen of Sanur in 1942 (Rubinstein 1996:187). Transliterated and discussed in Suastika et al. (1986-7). A number of other works (in prose and tengahan metres) share the same title. See LOJ 3:203. LOr 13.522 (= HKS Bundie 16/16), 13.738 (= HKS 1281), 13.780 (= HKS 1323), 14.701 (= HKS 1553), 19.081 (= HKS 3937), 19.159 (= HKS 4015), 21.316 (= HKS 5171); HKS 1891, 2234. Candrabhümi ('Earth and Sky') Treatise on the origin of the cosmos and chronological systems. There is also a prose text entitled Kawruhan Candrabhümi (K 631) and a Tutur Candrabhümi (LOr 21.252 = HKS 5108). According toMKLVT (4:14), K 603 is akakawin. LOr 13.293 (= K 603, HKS Bundie 9/38), 14.888 (= HKS 1744). Candrasangkalan ('Chronograms') An explanation of chronograms with interlinear gloss. LOr 16.774 (= HKS 3630). Caritan Gunung Kawi ('The Story of Gunung Kawi') See Gunung Kawi. LOr 21.028 (= HKS 4897). Cayadijaya A twentieth-century kakaw in written by Ida Pedanda Made Sidemen in 1941, at the time of the Japanese invasion of Bali. See Rubinstein 1996:187. There are also prose works that have this title. See also MKLVT 4:16. Dang Hyang Dwijendra ('The Twice-born Lord') A kakawin version of Dwijendra's (Nirartha's) life and travels. Not known from elsewhere. The original is from Fakultas Sastra, Udayana University, Denpasar (UNUD No. 252, Kropak 117). LOr 13.088 (= HKS Bundie 6/6). Dang Hyang Nirartha ('Lord Nirartha') See Dharmaprasada. Dewatmaka (The Tale of Dewatmaka') A partly didactic kakawin on the adventures of Dewatmaka. The Kirtya manuscript (K 1620), Tëgësing Kakawin Dewatmaka, contains a Balinese prose summary of the kakawin. See also LOJ 1:194-5. LOr 4194 (= 10.515, BCB prtf 23), 4195 (fragment), 4196 (fragment), 4197 (fragment), 9883 (= K 1620); HKS 2880. Dharmakusuma ('Flower of Dharma') The story of the Pandawas in exile before going to Wirata. Yudhisthira and his brothers go in search of Arjuna. They encounter and defeat a number of demons. Finally they decide to go to Wirata in disguise. See also Zoetmulder

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1974:174, 183, 406. The introductory stanzas and epilogue are included in Zoetmulder 1974:501. There are also prose versions of this story (K706 = HKS 1886, HKS 4039). See also LOJ 1:197. LOr 9982 (= K1840), 14.895 (= HKS 1751), 16.249 (= HKS 3105), 16.901 (= HKS 3757); HKS 2567, 2603. Dharmaprasada ('The Temple of Dharma') A compilation of a number of short lyric works dealing with such subjects as the true nature of existence, meditation, and moral teachings. Contains the Bhargawaêiksa (q.v.), Pratiloma (q.v.), Ekasara, Nirartha, Bhasa Dharmasara, Süksmalingga, Bhasa Hrdaya, Triêulacapa, Bhasa Tutur Nirmala, Gohmu- trika, Bhasa Panghimur Tangis, Lokanatha, Bhasa Witaranga, Bhasa Wiha- raja, Bhasa Mrtasadhana and Nagabandha. The author calls himself Nirathaka (28.1). The last stanza contains a chronogram (urddha satu swani- ta nem) possibly to be read 1660 saka (= 1738 A.D.). This manuscript is closely related to the Lombok Collection manuscript LOr 5137, although the order of the stanzas within some of the poems differs. This is also the case in a 1993 copy in my private collection made from a notebook belonging to I Made Bija of Banuning in Buleleng, which gives the work the title Kakawin Dang Hyang Nirartha. See LOJ 2:271-2; 786. LOr 5137 (= CB 153, BCB prtf 25); K 4197; HKS 1984. Dharmaéarana ('The Refuge of Dharma1) Didactic kakawin on religious life and priesthood. See also LOJ 1:74; MKLVT 4:18. LOr 14.950 (= K 672, HKS 1806); CB 58 (= BCB prtf 26, K 672). Dharmasawita ('The Service of Dharma') Alternative title Bhasa Pituwëlas ('The 17 Words'). The lessons of mpu Sura given to his disciple, Sadrasa, concerning dharma and proper conduct. See LOJ 1:75. LOr 3625 (= 4184), 4183 (= 10.516, BCB prtf 23), 16.954 (= HKS 3810), 21.227 (= HKS 5083); K 730 (= HKS 1901); HKS 2825. Dharmawijaya ('The Victory of Dharma') See Candrabherawa. HKS Bundie 16/16. Dharmawimala ('Pure Dharma') A kakawin based on the Swarga Rohanaparwa, the last of the eighteen parts of the Mahabharata, it tells the story of the journey of the Pandawas to heaven after Yudhisthira has surrendered the throne to Abhimanyu's son, Pariksit. LOr 14.755 (= K 410, HKS 1607), 14.854 (= HKS 1710), 16.849 (= HKS 3705), 21.533 (= HKS 5387). Dimbhiwicitra ('The Story of (Hi)dimbi') The story of Bhïma and Hidimbï. For a summary, see Zoetmulder 1974:397. The introductory stanzas and epilogue are also included in Zoetmulder 1974:494. An edition of this work has been made by Suastika (1986). See also LOJ 1:196.

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LOr 21.450 (= HKS 5304); CB 57 (= BCB prtf 25, K 700, HKS 1917). Erawantaka See Irawantaka. Gajah Mada A modern kakawin, written by Ida Cokorda Ngurah of Puri Saren Kauh in Ubud between 1952 and 1958. Deals with Gajah Mada's conquest of Bali in the fourteenth century. It has been edited by Pradotokusomo (1986). HKS 2843. Garuda The story of Garuda, son of Winata, as told in the Adiparwa. Only one copy, which Pigeaud describes as a fragment, is known. See LOJ 1:195. LOr 4698 (= 10.525, BCB prtf 24). Gendoksawa No details are available concerning this kakawin. Both HKS copies appear to be of the same original manuscript from Gria Gede at Blayu in Tabanan. LOr 19.511 (= HKS 4367); HKS 2214. Gunung Kawi ('The Story of Mount Kawi') The history of the establishment of the Gunung Kawi temple complex in Tampak Siring, Gianyar and Gwara Gong in Jimbaran. Mentions as the author Sri Wadwahaywan or (and?) the rsi Nglurah Amudhaniha. The use of first-person narrative is striking. Apparently written in 1918. There are two different stories. The first story, dealing with Gunung Kawi, ends with Canto 8.2d and contains a chronogram equivalent to 1918 A.D. (akaêa (0) samudra (4) asti (8) candrama (1) = 1840 éaka). A colophon at the end of the work is also dated 1918, indicating that both poems were completed as a single project. At the conclusion are three single kakawin verses {Padma Sarï) by Bagus Gede Tegeg, the author of the Kusumawicitra (q.v.). The same original lontar manuscript from Gria Gede Blayu in Tabanan appears to have been copied twice. LOr 21.028 (= HKS 4897); HKS 1995. Gunung Rinjani ('Mount Rinjani') Short kakawin written in the first person detailing the journey of a priest to Mount Rinjani and Taman Narmada in Lombok. The Kirtya manuscript comes from the collection of Sagung Putri of Singaraja; the second is from Lombok. The text finishes abruptly and appears to be unfinished. LOr 21.387 (= HKS 5242); K 2252 (= HKS 2411). Guru Laghu ('Long and Short Syllables') A short kakawin on Indian prosody, comprising two cantos of twelve and five stanzas respectively illustrating two Indian metres. Also forms part of the Canda (q.v.). See LOJ 3:115. There are also other treatises on kakawin metrics with this title, all of which contain kakawin stanzas, namely LOr 10.518 (= K 2177), 14.710 (= K 31, HKS 1562). See LOJ 1:299-300: LOr 11.224 (= K 1371).

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Hari-Harana See Aniharana. LOr 21.568 (= HKS 5422). Harféraya ('Hari's Aid') Based on the Uttarakanda, it contains the story of Wisnu's defeat of the demons Malyawan and his brothers. There are two versions, a long and a short one. A summary and the introductory stanzas and epilogues of each version are given in Zoetmulder 1974:401, 497. Version A has 195 stanzas in 20 cantos; version B has 297 stanzas in 53 cantos. LOr 3888 contains a short colophon that refers to a time of destruction in the year 1812 éaka (= 1900 A.D.). Damais (1958:238) dates the manuscript to 30 January 1891. A Balinese summary version (parikan) is registered as HKS 4561. See Bhïmaklrti. See also LOJ 1:190-1. Version A: LOr 3888 (= 10.878 = BCB prtf 164), 4234; K 1123. Version B: LOr 4235 (= BCB prtf 23), 15.008 (= K 635, HKS 1864), 16.328 (= HKS 3184). Hariwijaya ('Hari's Victory') The Hariwijaya contains the Adiparwa story of the churning of the ocean of milk by the gods to obtain the water of life (amrta). It is also known as Pamutëran Ksirarnawa ('The Churning of the Ocean of Milk'). For a summary see Zoetmulder 1974:386-7. A translation of the introductory stanzas and epilogue is included in Creese 1998:359-60. The author, Pinaputra of Wijawidruma, was actively working as a scribe in the early part of the nineteenth century. He is also named as the copyist of two manuscripts from the Lombok collection, dated 1815 and 1816 respectively. The Van der Tuuk copy of the Hariwijaya (LOr 4239) was made in Kurarhas, Bali, in 1826 (Brandes 2:26; Damais 1958:119-23). This 1826 copy must have been made close to the time of the original composition of the Hariwijaya, and may even be Pinaputra's autograph. See also LOJ 1:190-1; Creese 1996:165-6. LOr 4239 (= 10.723), 12.993 (= KI64, HKS Bundie 5/38), 19.947 (= HKS 4803), 21.075 (= HKS 4944); HKS 2140. Indonesia Merdeka (Tree Indonesia') A recent kakawin telling of the struggle for independence. LOr 24.145 (= HKS 5993). Indrabandhana ('Indra in Bondage') Based on the Uttarakanda, it tells of Indra's defeat at the hands of the demon Indrajit. For a summary and the introductory stanzas and epilogue, see Zoetmulder 1974:400-1, 497. See also LOJ 1:196. The Kirtya manuscript K 688 has a colophon dated 1833 éaka (1911 A.D.). CB 55 has a colophon dated 1827 éaka or 1905 A.D. LOr 9410 (= BCB 25, K 688), 10.189 (= CB 55, K 2228), 13.954 (= HKS 1506), 21.251 (= HKS 5107), 21.582 (= HKS 5436). Indrawijaya ('Indra's Victory') The story is taken from the Udyogaparwa, and relates Indra's victory over the demon Wrta, followed by Indra's expulsion from his palace by Nahusa,

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who is then defeated in his turn by Indra. For a summary, see Zoetmulder 1974:398-9. See also LOJ 1:194-5. The same story is also told in the Wrtanta- ka. LOr 5102 (= BCB prtf 22), 10.262 (= K 2346), 16.275 (= HKS 3131), 21.531 (= HKS 5385), 21.767 (= HKS 5617), 21.877 (= HKS 5993). Irawan(an)taka ('The Death of Irawan') Also known as Parthawijaya ('Arjuna's Victory'). Relates the death of Arjuna's son, Irawan, in the great war between the Pandawas and Korawas. See also Zoetmulder 1974:400, 497; LOJ 1:196. LOr 10.210 (= K 2259), 21.365 (= HKS 5220), 21.554 (= HKS 5408); HKS 2822. Jayendriya ('Victory Over the Senses') A lyric erotic poem in Indian metres. There is only one known copy. There is also a kidung (K 480) entitled Jayendriya. See Robson 1979. LOr 9612 (= K 1075). Kalantaka ('Kalantaka') Zoetmulder (1974:387) indicates that this is an alternative title for the Krsnakalantaka (q.v.), in which the story of the death of the demon Krsnakala is related. According to MKLVT4:33, however, the Kalantaka relates the story of Krsna who takes on the form of Kalantaka and visits Mount Kailaéa, where he receives instruction from éiwa, and then, assuming his Wisnu form, teaches the Pandawas how to fight the Korawas. K 871 (= HKS 2236); LOr 21.435 (= HKS 5290). Kalayawanantaka ('The Death of Kalayawana') Also called Krsnawijaya ('Krsna's Victory'). The tale of Krsna's defeat of the demon Kalayawana. The second half of the poem deals with Arjuna's abduction of Subhadra, which is also the subject of the Parthayana, Subhadra- wiwaha and Khandawawanadahana. For a summary and the introductory stanzas and epilogue, see Zoetmulder 1974:387-8, 489. Although Pigeaud (LOJ 1:190) suggests on the basis of reliëfs of Kalayawana's death on Candi Jago that it dates from the same period as the Parthayajna, this kakawin appears to have been written during the reign of the last ruler of Lombok, Anglurah Gede Karangasem (r. 1870-94) (see Creese 1996). There is only one known manuscript extant. Pigeaud's statement (LOJ 2:265-6) that the text contains a reference to the Dharmaéünya is an error. The reference is, in fact, to Dharmasunu (Yudhisthira). LOr 5104 (= BCB prtf 23). Kalëpasan ('Deliverance') A didactic kakawin. The HKS copies from Puri Kawan and Puri Gobraja are probably independent copies of the same original lontar. A number of other prose works share the same title. See LOJ 1:75; MKLVT 4:34. CB 55 (= BCB prtf 25, K 698). With Balinese gloss LOr 16.311 (= HKS 3167), 21.420 (= HKS 5275); HKS 2158.

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Kalisanghara ('The End of the Era') See Bhargawaéiksa. K 1374 (= HKS 2077). Kalpasanghara ('The Destruction of the World') A twentieth-century kakawin, written by Pedanda Made Sidemen in 1944 (Rubinstein 1996:187). Tells of the destruction of the world because of the fail- ure of priests and wiku to perform religious rites and meditation. LOr 21.011 (= HKS 4867), 21.189 (= HKS 5045). Kamalawimala ('Pure Lotus') Based on the last part of the Adiparwa, it deals with Yudhisthira's wise rule of the world in accordance with dharma and the close relationship between Krsna and Arjuna, who together help Agni destroy the Khandawa forest. Has a colophon dated 1845 éaka (1923 A.D.). In the final stanza (16.12d), the author calls himself Niraéraya ('Without Succour'). It is followed by a second poem telling of the amorous wanderings of a king and his beloved, 55 stanzas in length. It is also called Kandawimala (q.v.). LOr 21.315 (= HKS 5168).' Kamandaka See Tantri. CB 43 (= BCB prtf 26). Kandawimala This is the same work as the Kamalawimala, although there are slight differ- ences between the two. The Kandawimala ends with Canto 16.22 and does not contain the colophon found in the Kamalawimala. The second work, with its scenic descriptions, is much longer (105 stanzas). Both come from the collection of Anak Agung Istri Adi, Blayu, Tabanan. LOr 16.624 (= HKS 3480), 21.168 (= HKS 5024); HKS 2247. Kangéa ('The Tale of Kangéa') (short version) Kangêa is also the title given to one version of the Krsnandhaka, which relates the story of Krsna's youth and the defeat of Kangéa. In his discussion of the latter, Zoetmulder (1974:392-5) does not mention the existence of a third, short version. The HKS transliterations of this version of the Kangéa are approximately 15 pages in length, so this must be either a fragment of or a different work from the Krsnandhaka (q.v.). LOr 13.888 (= HKS 1440), 21.235 (= HKS 5091), 21.447 (= 5302). Kangéayana ('The Adventures of Kangéa') The original lontar is from Gria Gede, Banjarangkan, in Klungkung. It appears to be the same work as Krsnandhaka Version B. LOr 21.234 (= HKS 5090). Karya Ligya ('The Ligya Ritual') The original lontar manuscript comes from Gria Cucukan in Klungkung (20 pages). There also exists a Kidung Karya Ligya (HKS 1675,2468,3783), which relates the post-cremation ceremonies held in Klungkung in 1842. See Vickers 1991.

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LOr 21.746 (= HKS 5597). Kasturi See Malawi. Këbo Tarunantaka ('The Death of Këbo Taruna') The story of the events leading to the fall of Bali to Majapahit in the fourteenth century. The Balinese ruler Sri Astasura Ratna Bhümi Banten, whose power derives from his patih Këbo Taruna, refuses to submit to Majapahit demands. Gajah Mada lures Këbo Taruna to the Majapahit capital and kills him in order to fulfil his vow of conquering the whole of the archipelago. Written by I Nyoman Singgin Wikarman of Bangli in 1987. It has been edited and translated by Supartha (1991). LOr 21.747 (= HKS 5598). Khandawawanadahana ('The Burning of the Khandawa Forest') The final part of the Adiparwa, from the tale of Sunda and Upasunda to the burning of the Khandawa forest. It includes the story of Arjuna's exile related in the Parthayana and Subhadrawiwaha. Composed in Lombok in 1854 by Sang Anten. According to the author's epilogue, it was written to mark the departure of the crown prince of Lombok to rule Karangasem. Sang Anten appears to have been a younger brother of the ruling king of Mataram Lombok. Sang Anten is also named as the copyist. of an 1854 copy of the Arjunawijaya. See Creese 1996. Zoetmulder (1974:397-8) includes a summary and the introductory stanzas and epilogue (1974:495). See also LOJ 1:196. LOr 13.367 (= K 338, HKS Bundie 9/69), 21.877 (= HKS 5726); CB 60 (= BCB prtf 25, K 338); RtMLV 17544. Krsnakalantaka ('The Death of Krsnakala') The story is set in the period of the war between the Pandawas and Korawas and relates Krsna's defeat of the demon Krsnakala. Zoetmulder (1974:390-1, 490) has a summary and the introductory stanzas and epilogue. Although Zoetmulder (1974:387) indicates that the Krsnakalantaka and Kalantaka are the same work, this may not be the case. See also Kalantaka. LOr 13.403 (= HKS Bundie 13/23), 13. 495 (= K 236, HKS Bundie 15/46), 13.671 (= K 236, HKS 1213), 19.857 (= HKS 4713). Krsnandhaka (Kangéa) ('Krsna of the Andhakas') There are two different versions of this kakawin. For a summary of the Krsnandhaka A (also known as Kangéa) and Krsnandhaka B, and a description of their interrelationships, see Zoetmulder 1974:392-5. The introductory stanzas and epilogues are also given in Zoetmulder 1974:491-2. See also Creese 1996. It is not clear what relationship exists between the Kangéa (q.v.), which comprises 15-19 pages in transliteration, and either of the longer versions. Version A: LOr 13.672 (= K 709, HKS 1214, HKS 1830), 13.892 (= HKS 1444), 13.934 (= HKS 1486), 14.974 (= K 709, HKS 1830), 21.447 (= HKS 5303). Version B: LOr 12.972 (= Bundie 5/17), 13.126 (= Bundie 11/29); K 884 (= HKS 2235).

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Krsnantaka ('The Death of Krsna1) Probably composed in the first half of the 18th century. Based on the last three parwa of the Mahabharata, including the story of Krsna's death. See Zoetmulder 1974:388-9,490. The text has been edited and translated by Ando (1991). The sole manuscript, LOr 4258 (LOJ 2:204-5), has a colophon giving the date of copying as Wednesday, 29 November 1769. According to Pigeaud (LOJ 4:26, 129), LOr 13.126 (= HKS Bundie 11/29) is also a copy of the Krsnantaka, whereas it is in fact a copy of the Krsnandhaka. LOr 4258. Krsnapancawiwaha The story of the marriage of Dropadï (Krsna) to the five Pandawa brothers. LOr 21.363 (= HKS 5218); HKS 1874. Krsnawijaya ('Krsna's Vïctory') See Kalayawanantaka. Kurkutalaksana A didactic work. The Kirtya manuscript, which can no longer be located, also contains two other didactic kakawin, the Sadrëtu and Putraêasana, as well as three prose works: Hara ning Lagu, Dasaéïla and Rsiéasana. K 1333c. Kusumawicitra ('Various Flowers') A kakawin comprising mainly descriptions of Balinese mountain scenery. The title is also the name of a metre. The author is Ida Bagus Gede Tegeg, who is also known as the author of the Padma Sari, and the date of composition is given as 1930 (1852 êaka). A copy of the Wrttasancaya is also listed under this title in the Korn Collection (KITLV Or 436). See Gunung Kawi. See also LOJ 4:248. LOr 13.747 (= K 472, HKS 1290). Lambang Paukiran ('Song of the Hills') Short lyric kakawin, containing mainly descriptions of the natural beauty of mountain scenery. See also LOJ 1:193. LOr 10.032 (= K 1929), 16.471 (= HKS 3327), 21.219 (= HKS 5075); HKS 2776. Lambang Salukat ('Song of Salukat') A collection of short lyric kakawin ascribed to mpu Salukat. The work comprises seven kakawin in 35 cantos entitled Bhasa Sangupati Salukat (a), Bhasa Wilapa, Bhasa Duta Raga, Bhasa Anang, Bhasa Madanodaya Salukat, Bhasa Sangupati Salukat (b), and Lambang Salukat. The title derives from the last of these poems. LOr 3992 has a colophon dated 1764 êaka, equivalent to 6 November 1842 A.D. (Brandes 2:118; Damais 1958:234). See also LOJ 1:193. LOr 3810 (= 3992, 10.526, BCB prtf 24), 3912, 13.966 (= K 391, HKS 1518), 14.756 (= K 391, HKS 1608), 14.768 (= HKS 1622); K 3238 (= HKS 2580). With Balinese gloss HKS 2993.

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Malawi A series of short didactic kakawin on various subjects. This work bearing the title Malawi contains three sections, Saptaungkara, Malawi Nismrti, and Malawi Kasturi. See also Malawi Jayendriya and Malawi Kasturi. See MKLVT 4:46. LOr 13.009 (= K 544, HKS Bundie 3/3), 13.502 (= HKS Bundie 15/53), 21.358 (= HKS 5213). Malawi Jayendriya One section of the Malawi Kasturi (q.v.) with Balinese interlinear gloss. The two copies are from Puri Kawan and Puri Gobraja and therefore probably copies of the same original. See also Malawi. LOr 21.366 (= HKS 5221). With Balinese gloss LOr 16.308 (= HKS 3164). Malawi Kasturi A series of ten short didactic kakawin, comprising Malawi Kasturi, Malawi Barang, Malawi Nismita, Malawi Rang, Malawi Jayendriya, Saptaungkara, Bhasa Amrta Sadhana, Sang Hyang Jnana, Waluh Rumabat ing Këlir and Purusangarang. See MKLVT 4:46. K 237 (= HKS 1988). Manuk Dadali ('The Swallow') Religious poem of four cantos dealing with meditation {samadhi). K 1466 contains a colophon with the date 1743 éaka (= 1821 A.D.). HKS 4654 has the title Awi-Awian Manuk Dadali. See also LOJ 4:94. LOr 13.949 (= K1466, HKS 1501), 19.807 (= HKS 4663), 19.798 (= HKS 4654), 24.558 (= HKS 6307). Manukabha ('Abha's Birds') The tale of Abha's search for his loves, who are all birds. LOr 4327 has a colophon dated 1673 éaka, equivalent to 2 April 1751 (Brandes 2:166; Damais 1958:230). There are also two kidung versions (LOr 13.122 = HKS Bundie 11/25,13.901 = HKS 1453). See LO] 1:203. LOr 3783 (= 10.527, BCB prtf 24), 4326, 4327, 4328 (fragment), 16.323 (= HKS 3179); K 1094 (= HKS 2150). Mayadanawantaka ('The Death of Mayadanawa') This is the kakawin version of the Usana Bali, detailing the early history of Bali, attributed to Nirartha. It is also known as Usana Bali and Mayantaka. See Hinzler 1986. LOr 3646 (= 4624), 9082 (= CB 45, K 15), 14.981 (= HKS 1837), 16.416 (= HKS 3272), 16.909 (= HKS 3765), 21.165 (= HKS 5021), 21.599 (= HKS 5452); CB 75; HKS 2635, 2869. With Balinese gloss LOr 16.405 (= HKS 3261). Mayantaka ('Death of Maya') See Mayadanawantaka.

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LOr 14.981 (= HKS 1837). Narakawijaya ('Naraka's Victory') Naraka's (Bhoma's) victory over Druma, who takes refuge with Krsna. Also includes the story of Yajnawati and Samba. For a summary and the introductory stanzas and epilogue, see Zoetmulder 1974:404-6, 500. See also LOJ 1:196. LOr 13.125 (= HKS Bundie 11/28), 13.462 (= HKS Bundie 15/13), 19.707 (= HKS 4563); BCB prtf 26 (= K 591). With Balinese gloss LOr 16.745 (= HKS 3601). Padma Sari ('Lotus Blossom') Three stanzas included in the same codex as the Éakakala (q.v.). This codex also contains an untitled moralistic kakawin on gambling and opium dated 1810 éaka, or 1888 A.D. See LOJ 2:855. The three stanzas are also included at the end of the Gunung Kawi (q.v.). LOr 21.168 (= HKS 5024); BCB 164 (= AdKIT 1382/2). Pamutër(an) Ksirarnawa ('The Churning of the Ocean of Milk') See Hariwijaya. LOr 19.947 (= HKS 4803); HKS 2140. Pandan Mati ('The Dead Lotus') Lyric poem with Balinese gloss. LOr 5268 (= 10.524 = BCB 24,10.592 = BCB 67). Pandawawiwaha ('The Marriage of the Pandawas') The story of the Pandawas' exile in the forest, including the marriages of Bhlma to Hidimbi and of the Pandawas to Dropadï. Possibly related to the Krsnapancawiwaha (q.v.). LOr 19.605 (= HKS 4461), 21.350 (= HKS 5205); K 1816; HKS 2913. Pangawi ('The Poet') Advice to authors and lovers of kakawin from Ida Pedanda Made Sidemen. It is also known as Kakawin Patitip. A second manuscript listed as Gaguritan mwang Kakawin Pangawi also contains a geguritan version. LOr 19.673 (= HKS 4529), 21.061 (= HKS 4930). Pariksit ('The Story of Pariksit') The story of Pariksit, the son of Abhimanyu, who inherits the kingdom of Hastina after the Great War and the return of the five Pandawas to heaven. LOr 13.602 (= K 481, HKS Bundie 18/32). Parthakarma ('Partha's Destiny') Deals with the Pandawas in heaven. Dates from the mid nineteenth cenrury and is attributed to the patronage of the Dewa Agung Istri (Vickers 1982). See Zoetmulder 1974:174, 504; LOJ 4:26. LOr 13.366 (= K 303, HKS Bundie 9 / 70), 21.430 (= HKS 5285), 24.629 (= HKS 6378).

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Parthawijaya ('Partha's Victory') See Irawantaka. LOr 21.554 (= HKS 5408); HKS 2822. Parthayana ('The Journeying of PSrtha') The story of Arjuna's pilgrimage and marriages to the snake princess Ulupuy, Citragandha of Mayüra, and Krsna's sister Subhadra. It was composed in the early eighteenth century under the patronage of the second Dewa Agung of Klungkung, Surawirya (d. 1736). Later, in the late eighteenth or early nineteenth century, it was rewritten as Subhadrawiwaha. Not described in existing catalogues. Edited and translated by Creese (1998). See also Creese 1991b, 1996. LOr 13.324 is mistakenly identified as a copy of the Subhadrawiwaha in LOJ 4:144. See also Subhadrawiwaha. LOr 13.324 (= HKS Bundie 9/7), 19.139 (= HKS 3995), 21.347 (= HKS 5202); HKS 2694, 2715. Pasasangkalan ('Chronograms') An explanation of chronograms comprising three leaves. See MKLVT 4:55. K 1000. Patibrata ('The Virtuous Wife') See Udyalaka. Pawatëkan ('Dating') Contains authors' names and chronogram dates for most of the extant Javanese kakawin, including Ramayana, Arjunawiwaha, Bharatayuddha, Bhomakawya, Parthayajna, Ghatotkacaêraya, Lubdhaka, Krsnayana, Arjunawijaya, Sutasoma and Nusa Bali. See also Wawatëkan. LOr 21.708 (= HKS 5561). Prakampa ('Upheaval') Deals with divination and cosmogony. There are prose works with the same title (LOr 9286 = K 309, K 869). See LO] 2:544; MKLVT 4:57. K 894. Prakrëta ning Paksi ('Of Birds') A kakawin dealing with the marks on the wings of birds, especially turtle- doves, and their auspiciousness for the owner. See also MKLVT 4:57. LOr 13.905 (= K 705, HKS 1457), 21.159 (= HKS 5015). Pralambang Salukat ('The Verses of Salukat') See Lambang Salukat. Pralaya ning Bhümi Banten ('The Destruction of Bali') See Këbo Tarunantaka. Pratiloma ('Against the Grain') Short lyric poem of eleven stanzas in five cantos. LOr 13.932 (= K 445, HKS 1484), 21.573 (= HKS 5427), 21.593 (= HKS 5448).

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Prthuwijaya ('Prthu's Victory') See Brahmandapurana. LOr 14.947 (= K 634, HKS 1803). Puja ning Smara ('In Praise of Love') Lyric poem containing references to sexual intercourse on each of the four- teen nights of the full moon. Attributed to Tanakung, so possibly of Javanese rather than Balinese origin. It has the alternative title Bhawanabhawa Sëkar. See LOJ 4:217. LOr 14.753 (= K 340, HKS 1605). Putraéasana ('Precepts for Children') A moralistic kakawin comprising 34 stanzas ascribed to Tanakung. There also exists a number of prose versions. See also LOJ 1:75. In K 1333, it follows the Sadrëtu and Kurkutalaksana (q.v.). See also Bhasa Tanakung, Sutaêasana. LOr 13.582 (= HKS Bundie 18/11); CB 42 (= BCB prtf 26, K 32), 153; K 1333d; HKS 2934. With Balinese gloss LOr 19.195 (= HKS 4051). Rama Bhargawaéiksa ('The Teachings of Rama Bhargawa') Also known as Bhargawaêiksa (q.v.); with Balinese gloss. LOr 16.256 (= HKS 3112). Ramakanda ('The Tale of Rama') See Satrughna. LOr 13.948 (= HKS 1500), 14.893 (= HKS 1749), 19.502 (= HKS 4358). R5ma(paraéu)wijaya ('The Victory of RamaparaSu') A story concerning Arjuna Sahasrabahu, the hero of the Uttarakanda and Arjunawijaya, and his defeat at the hands of Rama Bhargawa, who is allied with the god Indra. LOr 3887, for which Brandes (4:3-6) suggests the title Arjunantaka, has a colophon dated 1813 éaka, equivalent to 1 March 1891 A.D. (Damais 1958:238). Displays stylistic similarities with a number of other Balinese kakawin that date from the turn of the nineteenth century, such as Subhadrawiwaha, Hariwijaya and Abhimanyuwiwaha. Zoetmulder (1974: 402-4, 499) has a summary and the introductory stanzas and epilogue. See also LOJ 1:197. LOr 3887 (= CB 43, BCB prtf 25, K 586), 12.930 (= HKS Bundie 4/3), 13.873 (= K 586, HKS 1414), 24.104 (= HKS 5952). With Balinese gloss LOr 16.256 (= HKS 3112). Ramayajna ('Rama's Sacrifice') The life of Rama, based partly on the Old Javanese Ramayana. LOr 13.863 (= HKS 1404); HKS 4611. Ratna Paukiran ('The Bejewelled') An allegorical poem concerning the exorcism of an evil visitor to a mountain hermitage and the purification of a raped princess. Differs from Lambang Paukiran (q.v). See LOJ 1:193.

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LOr 10.208 (= K 2257), 16.470 (= HKS 3326), 21.260 (= HKS 5115); HKS 2780. Ratnawijaya ('Ratna's Vïctory') Relates the story of the death of the demons Sunda and Upasunda as a result of their jealous rivalry for the love of the nymph Tilottama. It immediately precedes the story of Arjuna's exile that is related in the Parthayana, Subhadrawiwaha and Khandawawanadahana. For a summary and the introductory stanzas and epilogue, see Zoetmulder 1974:397-8, 494. See also LOJ 1:191. LOr 3888 (= BCB prtf 23,10.878 = BCB prtf 164), 16.320 (= HKS 3076); HKS 1884. Sabha Langö Pesta Seni ('Hall of Poetry at the Arts Festival') A kakawin of eight pages from the collection of Ida Bagus Ketut Rai of Bungaya, Karangasem. The Indonesian Pesta Seni in the title indicates that it is of very recent origin, possibly composed for the competitions held at the annual Bali Arts Festival. LOr 21.938 (= HKS 5787). Sabhaparwa ('Book of the Assembly') A kakawin version of the second book of the Mahabharata. It was written in 1966 by Anak Agung Gede Oka, who also wrote a kakawin and kidung version of the Wanaparwa (see Agung 1991:266). See also Pigeaud LOJ 4:149. LOr 13.389 (= HKS Bundie 13/8), 21.262 (= HKS 5117), 24.042 (= HKS 5891). Sadrëtu ('Six Seasons') Akakawin that deals with divination and auspicious times for weddings. See also Kurkutalaksana and Putraêasana. LOr 13.979 (= HKS 1531); K1333. Sadripu ('Six Enemies') Moralistic kakawin. See LOJ 1:75. LOr 9421 (= K 704), 13.906 (= HKS 1458); K 3264 (= HKS 2492). éakakala ('Sakakala') Akakawin relating thebattlebetween Rawana and Maruta. There is only one known copy. Two other short kakawin are included in the same codex. See Padma Sari. See also LOJ 1:197. AdKIT 1382/2 (= BCB prtf 164). Sakraprajaya ('éakra's (Indra's) Conquest') Rawana decides tö destroy heaven and Indra seeks the assistance of Wisnu. Wisnu refuses and Indra faces Rawana's forces alone and is defeated by Indrajit. Zoetmulder (1974:174, 503) mentions this kakawin briefly and includes the introductory stanzas and epilogue. The poet mentions that the patron of the work is the princess Ratneswara, who Vickers (1982) suggests is the Dewa Agung Istri Kanya. The work therefore probably dates from the mid nineteenth century. See MKLVT 4:32. K 1124.

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Sarkayakusuma ('Posies') The lament of a poet filled with longing to capture poetic beauty, who achieves his goal after finding his tutelary deity. K 1549. Sang Hyang Klla ('Lord Kala') Myth of the man-eater Kala being exorcised by Guru and érï. See also LO} 1:197. LOr 10.118 (= K 2101). Sang Wrddha Pandita ('The Wise Priest') A short kakawin by Pedanda Subrata of Gria Puseh, Intaran, in praise of Ida Pedanda Made Kamenuh. LOr 21.275 (= HKS 5130). Sangupati Salukat A series of verses concerned with natural beauty, part of the Lambang Salukat (q.v.). LOr 21.001 (= HKS 4857). Sarakusuma Relates the unsuccessful search by the demon Nilagnirudra for two children after Narada tells him that he will die at their hands. See MKLVT 4:32. K926. Sarasangkata Didactic kakawin on religious concepts. See LO} 1:75. LOr 9354 (= K 540), 14.802 (= HKS 1656), 21.158 (= HKS 5014). Saraswatl ('Goddess Saraswatï') Hymns to the goddess Saraswatl. According to the colophon of LOr 24.219, it was written when the (unnamed) author was 50 years old and was his fifth work. The author's other works were Puspareka, Padmasana, Sangkhyayoga and Wedantawiwaha. See also LO} 1:69. See also Saraswatipüja. LOr 16.819 (= HKS 3675), 21.250 (= HKS 5106), 21.999 (= HKS 5848), 24.219 (= HKS 6068); CB 65 (= BCB prtf 26, K 989). Saraswatipüja ('Praise to Saraswatï1) A poem in praise of Saraswatï, Goddess of Learning. Appears to differ from the work entitled Saraswatl (q.v.). The sole manuscript comes from Puri Gede, Singaraja (6 pages). HKS 2965. Saéangkaéarana ('The Protection of the Moon') Religious didactic work. There is considerable variation in the length of the transliterations. HKS 5415 also mentions the Pratiloma and Ekaksara in the title. The Èaéangkaêarana is also included with the Anja-Anja Sungsang (q.v.) in HKS 5428. LOr 19.012 (= HKS 3868, 6 pages), 21.526 (= HKS 5415, 11 pages), 21.572 (= HKS 5426, 5 pages), 21.574 (= HKS 5428, 18 pages); HKS 2200 (48 pages).

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Sasawangan A poet's expression of the need for the blessings of Sang Hyang Widhi in achieving success. There is also a geguritan with the same title (HKS 2685). LOr 19.187 (= HKS 4043), 21.274 (= HKS 5129). Satrughna ('Satrughna') The story of the final part of Rama's life as related in the Uttarakanda, on which this kakawin shows very strong dependence. It is also known as Ramakanda. See also èrl Atmaéüddha. See Zoetmulder 1974:402, 498; LOJ 1:197. LOr 13.567 (= HKS Bundie 17/28), 13.948 (= K 628, HKS 1500), 14.893 (= K 628, HKS 1749), 16.527 (= HKS 3383), 16.568 (= HKS 3424), 16.713 (= HKS 3569), 19.485 (= HKS 4340), 19.502 (= HKS 4358), 21.089 (= HKS 4958); CB 41 (= BCB prtf 26, K 628). Senapati Salya ('Commander Salya') The story of éalya as commander óf the Korawa army. The original lontar are from Puri Kawan and Puri Gobraja, Singaraja, respectively, and are probably copies of the same original. With Balinese gloss LOr 16.320 (= HKS 3176), 21.488 (= HKS 5303). Si Wrta ('Si Wrta') Probably the same story, based on the Udyogaparzva, that is related in the Indrawijaya and Wrtantaka, telling of Indra's battle with the demon Wrta. Zoetmulder (1974:504) devotes a separate introductory passage to the Si Wrta, so it is apparently not the same work as the Wrtantaka (Zoetmulder 1974:496). See LOJ 4:237. See also Wrtantaka and Si Wrtantaka. LOr 14.975 (= K 968, HKS 1831). Si Wrtantaka ('The Death of Si Wrta1) See Si Wrta and Wrtantaka. LOr 19.690 (= HKS 4546). Siddharthayana ('The Journey of Siddhartha') LOr 24.562 (= HKS 6311). éilakrama Sang Wiku ('The Ways of Priests') Concerns the correct behaviour for priests in conducting rituals and increas- ing dharma. LOr 21.339 (= HKS 5194). Singhalanggala ('The Lion Ploughshare') The story of the Princess Kama Rüpini who is desired and attacked by two brothers. There is only one known manuscript, from the Keyzer Collection, of 1868. There is also a prose version with the alternative title Kamaropinï. See also LOJ 1:191; MKLVT 4:34. LOr 1913 (= 10.517, BCB prtf 23).

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Singhalanggyala A kakawin written by Ida Pedanda Made Sidemen in 1963. See Rubinstein 1996. LOr 14.720 (= HKS 1572). Smaratantra (Treatise on Love') Describes the union of male and female primeval forces {purusa and pradana) to create life. Pigeaud lists several works with the same title (HKS 4114, 4399) under 'cosmogony' and 'erotidsm' (LOJ 1:57, 274). LOr 19.001 (HKS 3867). Sri Atmaéüddha ('Lord Atmaéüddha') Apparently the same story (work?) as the èatrughna (Ramakanda), dealing with Rama's life af ter he returns from defeating Rawana. Pigeaud (LOJ 4:27), who lists it under the title èatrughna, notes that it was probably written in Buleleng in the late nineteenth or early twentieth century. The original manuscript is from Singaraja. See LOJ 4:27. LOr 12.818. Sri Udayana or Srudayana ('Lord Udayana') Udayana of Indraprastha is a descendant of Pandu. The king is an incarna- tion of Kama, and the kakawin deals mainly with his marriage to and love for his wife, a princess of Kusambi. Referred to as Udayanacarita by Zoetmulder 1974:406, 502. LOr 14.927 (= HKS 1783), 19.887 (= HKS 4736). With Balinese gloss LOr 16.430 (= HKS 3286). Subhadrawiwaha ('The Marriage of Subhadra') This is the later reworking of the Parthayana, probably written under the patronage of Dewa Agung Putra I of Klungkung (d. 1809). See Creese 1996. It has been edited and translated by Creese (1981). Zoetmulder (1974:383-5, 487-8) includes a summary and the introductory stanzas and epilogue. See also LOJ 1:191-2. For a discussion of the interrelationships between the Subhadrawiwaha and Parthayana, see Creese 1998. A Balinese summary of the Subhadrawiwaha is found in HKS 4213, Gagimpësan Parthayana. LOr 13.324 is a copy of the Parthayana (q.v.), not the Subhadrawiwaha (see LOJ 4:144). See also Parthayana. LOr 14.715 (= K 141, HKS 1567); BCB prtf 25 (= K 141). Sumantri ('The Story of Sumantri') The story of Sumantri, a member of the Bhargawa family, and his younger brother Sukasarana. He becomes the patih of Arjuna Sahasrabahu. See Zoetmulder 1974:402. The introductory stanzas and epilogue are also given in Zoetmulder 1974:499-500. LOr 13.917 (= HKS 1469). Surantaka ('The Death of Sura') A Pandawa story, from the time of their exile in the forest. Attributed to Pedanda Ngurah of Blayu (Oudheidkundig Verslag 1922). See Zoetmulder

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1974:406. See also LOJ 1:196. LOr 13.399 (= HKS Bundie 13/18), 16.599 (= HKS 3455), 16.835 (= HKS 3691), 21.169 (= HKS 5025), 21.577 (= HKS 5431); BCB 26. Sutaéasana ('Precepts for Children') Didactic kakawin concerning the proper behaviour for children. There are two manuscripts, both from Karangasem, presumably of the same text. See also Putméasana. LOr 21.559 (= HKS 5413). With Balinese gloss LOr 21.558 (= HKS 5412). Tantri A kakawin version of the Tantri tales. Most Tantri stories are in prose. The prose Tantri Kamandaka has been edited by Hooykaas (1931). Pigeaud (LOJ 2:766) lists one kakawin manuscript entitled Kamandaka Tantri, which appears to be the same work and contains a colophon dated 1728 éaka (1806 A.D.). See also MKLVT 4:73. CB 43 (= BCB prtf 26); K 679; HKS 2666. Tutur Silakrama ('Precepts on Behaviour') Didactic kakawin concerning the proper behaviour to ensure the welfare of the world. LOr 19.211 (= HKS 4067). Udayanacarita ('Story of Udayana') See Sri Udayana. Udyalaka ('Udyalaka') Also known as Patibrata A short moralistic poem referring to conjugal fidel- ity ascribed to mpu Tanakung. It concerns the wife of Udyalaka, who is raped by a stranger. Pigeaud (LOJ 1:189) assigns it to the group of major kakawin. LOr 10.130 (= K 2148), 13.706 (= HKS 1250). Usana Bali ('Ancient History of Bali') See Mayadanawantaka. LOr 21.599 (= HKS 5452); HKS 2020, 2069. Wadulaksana ('Womanly Attributes') Moralistic kakawin detailing a wife's obligations to her husband. Begins with prescriptións for auspicious days for marriage to ensure the best offspring. The author is mpu Nirnaya Wimudha. LOr 21.385 (= HKS 5240). Wawatëkan A series of verses giving the dates of several Javanese kakawin, from the Ramayana to the Usana Bali. Brandes (3:331) reproduces the entire text. K 699 is twice the length of K 1201 and possibly contains additional details or a Balinese gloss. See MKLVT 4:84. Probably the same work as the Pawatëkan. There is also a work entitled Pralambang Bhasa Wawatëkan (LOr 16.749 = HKS 3605), ascribed to Dewa Agung Istri Kanya (Narayana et al. 1987).

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LOr 4672; K 699,1201. Wïdhi Pawarangan ('The Rites of Marriage') A poem concerning auspicious days for marriage. See MKLVT 4:84. K895. Wighnotsawa ('Wighnotsawa') A Buddhist tale telling of the victory of Jina Wikrama (Suprasena) over the yaksa King Wighnotsawa (Rudra). He is defeated and becomes a disciple of the Jina. According to Zoetmulder, it is related to the Brataéraya. See Zoetmulder 1974:406, who also includes the introductory stanzas and epilogue (1974:502). There is also a prose version (LOr 14.816 = HKS 1671) related to the kakawin. See also LO] 1:191. LOr 3631 (= 4679, BCB prtf 23), 13.927 (= HKS 1479), 13.957 (= HKS 1509), 15.011 (= HKS 1867), 21.381 (= HKS 5236). Wijayaéraya ('Wijaya's Succour') A Pandawa story, based in the wayang tradition, in which the adventures of Wijayanarka, one of Arjuna's sons, are described. Briefly mentioned in Zoetmulder (1974:174), who also includes the introductory stanzas and epilogue (1974:505). LOr 15.012 (= K 647, HKS 1868), 21.027 (= HKS 4896), 21.179 (= HKS 5035); HKS 2178, 2829, 4175. Wiragasalaga ('Wiragasalaga') The story of the nymph Wiragasalaga and her human suitors. The author is I Gusti Demung from Tabanan. See also LO] 1:196. LOr 9710 (= K 1272), 13.371 (= HKS Bundie 9/65), 21.101 (= HKS 4970), 21.932 (= HKS 5781), 21.951 (= HKS 5800); HKS 2553, 2714. Wirasat ing Wong Kakung ('The Physiognomy of the Beloved') Concerns the physiognomy of women. The Arabic wirasat of the title is note- worthy. See LO]4:186. The original lontar is from Kadiri, Tabanan (10 pages). There is also a geguritan entitled Wirasat (HKS 2364). LOr 13.866 (= HKS 1407). Wirata Probably the same work as the Wirataéraya (q.v.). LOr 13.993 (= HKS 1545), 24A70 (= HKS 6219). Wirataksara See Wiratawijaya. LOr 16.995 (= HKS 3851); HKS 2823. Wirataéraya ('Wirata's Help') The story of the Pandawas in exile in Wirata. Forms part of a compilation (6b- 38b) and is followed by a copy of the Parihayajna (39a-59b = HKS 3936). LOr 19.079 (= HKS 3935), 21.871 (= HKS 5720). Wiratawijaya ('The Victory of Wirata1) Tells the same story as the Abhimanyuwiwaha. Also known as Wirataksara. It displays texrual dependence on the text of the Wirataparwa. The author is

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named Waktroruju. See Zoetmulder 1974:386. For the introductory stanzas and epilogue, see Zoetmulder 1974:502. See also LOJ 1:195. LOr 13.993 (= HKS 1545), 16.995 (= HKS 3851); CB 66 (= BCB prtf 25, K 648); HKS 2823. Wïryaguna ('The Heroic Wise Rulér') An allegorical poem referring to a wise ruler. The original is fro'm Puri Agung, Karangasem. There is also a geguritan with this title (LOr 13.368 = HKS Bundie 9/68,13.938 = HKS 1490 = 4824). LOr 14.869 (= HKS 1725). Wiéalagni ('Great Fire') An Arjuna Sahasrabahu tale. According to Pigeaud (LOJ 1:196), it is unfïn- ished. CB 44 (= BCB prtf 26). Wratiéasana There are a number of other prose texts (LOr 13.980 = HKS 1532, LOr 14.775 = HKS 1629, LOr 14.824 = HKS 1679) with the same title, containing Sanskrit éloka dealing with ecclesiastical law. See also LOJ 3:307. LOr 19.226 (= HKS 4082), 21.340 (= HKS 5195); HKS 4187. Wrtantaka ('The Death of Wrta1) The tale of Indra's fall and return to heaven. The same story is related in the Indrawijaya (q.v.). For a summary, see Zoetmulder 1974:398-9. The introductory stanzas are included in Zoetmulder 1974:496. See also LOJ 1:195. See also Si Wrta and Si Wrtantaka. LOr 12.712 (= K 125), 19.840 (= HKS 4696), 21.152 (= HKS 5008); BCB prtf 26 (= K 125); HKS 2221, 2827. Wrttayana (Treatise on Metres') Metrical treatise. The complete text is reproduced in Zoetmulder 1974:444-50. See also Zoetmulder 1974:108,114-6.

REFERENCES

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