INTRODUCTION
’ P”(Bha.t.tikāvya) is one of the boldest “B experiments in classical literature. In the formal genre of “great poem” (mahākāvya) it incorprates two of the most powerful Sanskrit traditions, the “Ramáyana” and Pánini’s grammar, and several other minor themes. In this one rich mix of science and art, Bhatti created both a po- etic retelling of the adventures of Rama and a compendium of examples of grammar, metrics, the Prakrit language and rhetoric. As literature, his composition stands comparison with the best of Sanskrit poetry, in particular cantos , and . “Bhatti’s Poem” provides a comprehensive exem- plification of Sanskrit grammar in use and a good introduc- tion to the science (śāstra) of poetics or rhetoric (alamk. āra, lit. ornament). It also gives a taster of the Prakrit language (a major component in every Sanskrit drama) in an easily ac- cessible form. Finally it tells the compelling story of Prince Rama in simple elegant Sanskrit: this is the “Ramáyana” faithfully retold. e learned Indian curriculum in late classical times had at its heart a system of grammatical study and linguistic analysis. e core text for this study was the notoriously difficult “Eight Books” (A.s.tādhyāyī) of Pánini, the sine qua non of learning composed in the fourth century , and arguably the most remarkable and indeed foundational text in the history of linguistics. Not only is the “Eight Books” a description of a language unmatched in totality for any language until the nineteenth century, but it is also pre- sented in the most compact form possible through the use
xix of an elaborate and sophisticated metalanguage, again un- known anywhere else in linguistics before modern times. is grammar of Pánini had been the object of intense study for the ten centuries prior to the composition of “Bhatti’s Poem.” It was plainly Bhatti’s purpose to provide a study aid to Pánini’s text by using the examples already provided in the existing grammatical commentaries in the context of the gripping and morally improving story of the “Ramáyana.” To the dry bones of this grammar Bhatti has given juicy flesh in his poem. e same could be said for poetics, prosody and Prakrit. e intention of the author was to teach these advanced sciences through a relatively easy and pleasant medium but not so easy as to provide the reader with no opportunity to extend his learning. In his own words: is composition is like a lamp to those who perceive the meaning of words and like a hand mirror for a blind man to those without grammar. is poem which is to be understood by means of a commentary, is a joy to those sufficiently learned: through my fondness for the scholar I have here slighted the dullard. (“Bhatti’s Poem” .–) e traditional story given to account for the technical or shastric nature of the poem goes that Bhatti’s class on grammar was one day disturbed by an elephant ambling be- tween him and his pupils. is bestial interruption neces- sitated an interdiction of study for a year as prescribed by the solemn law books. To ensure that no vital study time was lost our poem was composed as a means of teaching grammar without resorting to an actual grammatical text. xx All that we can reliably know of Bhatti himself is what he tells us at the end of the book: I composed this poem in Válabhi which is protected by Naréndra, son of Shri·dhara, hence may the fame of that king increase, since the king causes joy among his subjects. (“Bhatti’s Poem” .) Even this eulogy is unreliable since variant readings of the verse show that his patron may instead have been Shri Dhara·sena. Either way, the composition of the poem is placed at about . In form the “Bhatti’s Poem” is a “great poem” (mahā- kāvya). It fits well within the definition of this genre given later by Dandin in his “Mirror of Poetry” (Kāvyādarśa): It springs from a historical incident or is otherwise based on some fact; it turns upon the fruition of the four- fold ends and its hero is clever and noble; By descriptions of cities, oceans, mountains, seasons and risings of the moon or the sun; through sportings in garden or water, and festivities of drinking and love; rough sentiments-of-love-in-separation and through marriages, by descriptions of the birth-and-rise of princes, and likewise through state-counsel, embassy, advance, battle, and the hero’s triumph; Embellished; not too condensed, and pervaded all through with poetic sentiments and emotions; with cantos none too lengthy and having agreeable meters and well- formed joints, And in each case furnished with an ending in a differ- ent meter—such a poem possessing good figures-of-speech
xxi wins the people’s heart and endures longer than even a kalpa. (Kāvyādarśa .–, trans. B) Its subject matter is the life of a single hero, both a mem- ber of the warrior caste and a god. Each canto has a uniform meter and there is one canto (canto ) deploying a variety of meters. e end of each canto suggests the topic for the next. e main sentiment or rasa of the poem is “heroic” (vīrya). e poem through its form and subject matter is conducive to the attainment of the four aims of human life (puru.sārthas): “righteousness” (dharma), “wealth and power” (artha), “pleasure” (kāma) and “spiritual liberation” (mok.sa). “Bhatti’s Poem” contains descriptions of cities, the ocean, mountains, seasons, the rising and setting of the sun and moon, and the sports of love and sex. Five such po- ems are traditionally enumerated in addition to which our work is sometimes named the sixth. e five are the “Lin- eage of Raghu” (Raghuvam. śa) and the “Birth of Kumára” (Kumārasambhava) of Kali·dasa, the “Slaying of Shishu· pala” (Śiśupālavadha) of Magha, “Árjuna and the Mountain Man” (Kirātārjunīya) of Bháravi and the “Adventures of the Prince of Níshadha” (Nai.sadhacarita) of Shri Harsha. e multitude of manuscripts found in libraries demonstrates the popularity of the Bha.t.tikāvya and the thirteen extant and eight further attested commentaries instantiate its im- portance to the tradition (N ). How does “Bhatti’s Poem” illustrate Páninian grammar? is is done in three distinct sections. From the end of canto up to the end of canto the verses exemplify in sequence long series of aphorisms (sū- tras) from the “Eight Books” of Pánini. ese aphorisms xxii are short coded rules, almost algebraic in form. As an ex- ample, consider Pánini’s rule ..: iko yan. aci. is trans- lates as “When followed by any vowel, the vowels i, u, .r and .l in any length are respectively replaced by the semivowels y, v, r and l.” is is quite a mouthful of translation for five syllables of Sanskrit. How does Pánini do it? To start with, the three words of the rule in their uninflected form are ik, yan. and ac which are a type of acronym for their respec- tive series of letters: the simple vowels i, ī, u, ū, .r, .¯r, .l; the semivowels y, v, r, l; and all the vowels a, ā, i, ī, u, ū, .r, .¯r, .l, e, o, ai, au. e cases are used to indicate the operation which is to take place: the genitive of ik indicates “in place of ik;” the locative of ac indicates “when ac follows” and yan. in the nominative indicates “there should be a yan. ” or “yan. is the replacement.” Pánini gives metarules to explain the formation and use of these acronyms and the special uses of the cases within the rules. It is thus a rule for the simple sandhi which would occur for example between the words iti and evam, smoothing the juncture between their vowels into ity evam. is is but a tiny taster of the economy, in- tricacy, beauty and intellectual power of the “Eight Books,” surely one of the greatest wonders and perhaps the supreme intellectual achievement of the ancient world. It is to the layman a treasure chest whose key is locked deep inside it- self. However, the reader does not have to be familiar with this system to enjoy the Bha.t.tikāvya. By using the refer- ences to the “Eight Books” given at the end of this volume, the reader may refer to the rules as he reads and become familiar with them in advance of reading each verse. e examples used in “Bhatti’s Poem” are not included in the
xxiii actual aphorisms of the “Eight Books” themselves but are ones given by later commentators to facilitate discussion. e most widely used traditional examples are included in the two editions of the “Eight Books” cited in the bibliog- raphy. e table below shows how “Bhatti’s Poem” is structured as a pedagogic text.
Verse Rule (Sūtra) Topic Illustrated e Illustration of Diverse Rules (Prakīrna. ) .–. Miscellaneous rules e Illustration of Particular Topics (Adhikāra) .– Pā. ..– e affix Ta. .–. Pā. ..– e suffix ām in the periphrastic perfect .– Pā. .. Double accusatives .– Pā. ..– Aorists using sĪC substitutes for the affix CLI .– Pā. .. e affix ŚnaM for the present tense system of class verbs .– Pā. ..– e future passive participles or ger- undives and related forms formed from the k.rtya affixes tavya, tavyaT , anīyaR, yaT , Kyap, and NyaT. .– Pā. ..– Words formed with nirupapada k.rt affixes NvuL. , t.rC, Lyu, NinI. , aC, Ka, Śa, Na. , SvuN. , thakaN , Nyu. T. and vuN .– Pā. ..– Words formed with sopapada k.rt af- fixes aN. , Ka, TaK. , aC .– Pā. ..– Words formed with affixes KHaŚ and KhaC .– Pā. ..– Words formed with k.rt affixes xxiv
.– Pā. ..– k.rt (tācchīlaka) affixes t.rN , i.snuC. , Ksnu, Knu, GHinUN. , vuÑ , yuC, ukaÑ , S. ākaN , inI, luC, KmaraC, GhuraC, KuraC, KvaraP, ūka, ra, u, najIN˙ , āru, Kru, KlukaN , varaC and KvIP .– Pā. ..– niradhikāra k.rt affixes .– Pā. ..– e affix GhaÑ .– Pā. ..– Nit-Kit˙ .– Pā. ..– Ātmanepada affixes .– Pā. ..– e use of cases under the adhikāra ‘kārake’ .– Pā. ..– Karmapravacanīya .– Pā. ..– Vibhakti .– Pā. ..– e suffix sIC and v.rddhi of the paras- maipada aorist .– Pā. ..– e prohibition of iT. .– Pā. ..– e use of iT. .– Pā. ..– visarga sandhi in compounds .– Pā. ..– Retroflexion of s .– Pā. ..– Retroflexion of n Aesthetics (Prasanna) .– Figures of sound, śabdālamk. āra .– Figures of sense, arthālamk. āra Sweetness, mādhurya guna. Intensity of Expression, bhāvikatva Simultaneous Prakrit and Sanskrit, bhā.sāsama Finite Verb Forms (Ti˙nanta) e perfect tense e aorist tense e simple future e imperfect tense e present tense
xxv
e optative mood e imperative mood e conditional mood e periphrastic future
In the first section of the poem, the “Diverse Rules Sec- tion” (Prakīrna. Khan. da. ), where the intention appears to be the illustration of miscellaneous rules, it is not obvious how to determine which specific rule if any is intended to be ex- emplified in any particular verse. Hundreds of rules could in theory be applicable. e commentators assist somewhat where they cite those rules which they think to be worth quoting in that context. e other guide is the Sanskrit language itself: it is likely that the most unusual or aber- rant forms would have been exemplified. e frequent co- incidence of these two heuristic principles is also helpful. Where the word in the verse is also given as an example in the grammatical texts then we can be almost certain about the topic. Such rules have not been mentioned in the notes unless reference to the grammatical text in question appears to be most useful for understanding the form of the word in the verse. I would conjecture that within this section of “Diverse Rules” those verses which were intended to illustrate the grammar would be those without figures of speech or at least with very simple figures. at supposition would be consistent with the lack of ornament in some sections of the poem and would also explain why there is such a marked distinction between Bhatti’s high style in canto and much of and his plainer style in much of the rest of the poem. It may be that “Bhatti’s Poem” was first intended to be a xxvi typical courtly epic or “high kāvya” and that the idea of creating this new genre of educational poem (śāstra| kāvya) evolved as the poem was being composed. is is supported by the progression in styles from highly ornate poetry in the first two cantos, through unadorned verse with no ap- parent systematic exemplification of grammar, the so-called “Diverse Rules Section” (Prakīrna. Khan. da. ), to the second major section from near the end of canto until the end of canto : “Particular Topics Section” (Adhikāra Khan. da. ) in which the verses exemplify in sequence long series of rules from the “Eight Books.” Here again poetry is subjugated to the pedagogic purpose of exemplification: the meter is the humble anu.s.tubh or śloka and there are few figures of speech to decorate the tale. is change of meter from the longer syllable upajāti for the first three cantos to the shorter and simpler syllable anu.s.tubh for the next six may also be indicative of a gradually evolving intention. A detailed study of the examples given in the Bha.t.tikāvya compared with those of the earlier “Great Commentary” (Mahābhā.sya) of Patánjali and later works such as the “Kashi Commentary” (Kāśikā) and “Moonlight on the Tradition” (Siddhāntakaumudī) still needs to be done. It would be of particular interest to see to what extent examples of usage may have been introduced into the grammatical tradition by “Bhatti’s Poem.” Might the poem itself then have be- come an authority on usage? e figures of speech are illustrated in canto . is section of the poem has been the most studied in mod- ern times. It constitutes an important text in its own right in the history of Sanskrit poetics. at said, its impor- tance lies in its raising far more questions than it answers.
xxvii Chronologically it stands between the “Science of eater” (Nā.tyaśāstra) as the earliest surviving text on Sanskrit poet- ics and the first great systematic treatments of the subject in the “Mirror of Poetry” (Kāvyādarśa) of Dandin (– ) and the “Ornament of Poetry” (Kāvyālamk. āra) of Bhá- maha ( ). Tantalizingly, we have the examples only and not the explanations or contemporary commentaries. A major problem of Sanskrit poetics is the lack of agreement on any system of nomenclature for the figures. e figures are given names in some manuscripts of the Bha.t.tikāvya but this is no proof that these were the names that Bhatti knew. e fact that this naming of figures is quite different to that of the writers on poetics suggests that they might well pre- date them. If this is the case then in these we have the frag- mentary residua of a missing link in the tradition of poetics alamk. āra. It is most likely that Bhatti based his treatment of the figures of speech on a text now lost. Other questions about this canto present themselves. Why is there only one example of alliteration (anuprāsa)? Was this figure not fully elaborated until Dandin? Why do those verses said to ex- hibit the figure “illuminator” (dīpaka) in the manuscripts show nothing of the sort according to later theorists? Given that many of the verses contain more than one figure, does this mean that they were not intended to be a systematic il- lustration of figures but rather a collection of verses showing diverse poetic traits? Since the order of the names given in the manuscripts corresponds to the order of figures treated by Dandin, did Dandin base his own work on this order or were the names applied retrospectively to “Bhatti’s Poem” in an attempt to match it up to later systems? at “Bhatti’s xxviii Poem” canto is a major work on Sanskrit poetics is am- ply demonstrated by S () in her examination of “doubling” (yamaka) of .– showing that the treat- ment of this figure in Dandin’s “Mirror of Poetry” and Bhámaha’s “Ornament of Poetry” is influenced by “Bhatti’s Poem.” Cantos and are held to display respectively the quality (guna. ) of “sweetness” (mādhurya) and the sentiment (rasa) of “intensity of expression” (bhāvikatva). e texts describing these qualities post-date Bhatti so again we can- not be sure that what he intended to illustrate is what hap- pens to be described by later authors. Assuming that Bhatti did intend to show these qualities, their precise character- istics described in his source text would be best discovered from careful analysis of the language of his own work rather than from the pronouncements of later writers on poetics. Canto is written in what is called “like the vernacu- lar” (bhā.sāsama), that is, it can be read in two languages si- multaneously: Prakrit and Sanskrit. e Prakrit used here is of course no real vernacular but a literary version al- most as highly codified as Sanskrit. Because of this Prakrit’s similarity to Sanskrit it can be read in that elevated lan- guage by someone with no knowledge of Prakrit. With mi- nor exceptions the vocabulary and grammar used are com- mon to both languages. Where the grammar is not com- mon the differences are disguised by sandhi. As many of the Prakrit terminations originate in Sanskrit forms gener- alized to their most common forms in sandhi, this is not impossible. As an example, the nominative singular of sub- stantives in -a in Sanskrit is -ah. and in Prakrit it is -o. In xxix verse . we have three nominative singulars in -a: bhīmah. , rasah. and samah. . In Prakrit they would be bhīmo, raso and samo. Because the following words all begin with voiced consonants, in Sanskrit sandhi the ending -ah. is in all these cases changed to -o, thus making the form indistinguishable from the Prakrit. Where the Sanskrit termination is undis- guisably altered in Prakrit as for example with the instru- mental plural -bhih. which becomes -hi, these terminations are concealed within compounds. It is for this reason that long compounds are so extensively used in this canto. e reader will also notice a lack of finite verb forms. It is more common for participle forms to be the same in the two languages. On occasion the commentators need a deal of learning and ingenuity to explain how forms are defensible in both languages. For instance in verse . the Sanskrit sabhā “hall” would normally become sahā in Prakrit by the rule khaghathadhabhām. hah. ,“h is the replacement for kh, gh, th, dh and bh”(Prāk.rtaprakāśa .). Malli·natha de- fends the retention of sabhā in Prakrit by saying that there is the continued operation (anuv.rtti) of prāyah. , “generally,” from an earlier rule. With the exception of verse . which is irregular and verses .– which are in the upajāti me- ter, the entire canto is composed in the āryāgīti meter which is the older lyric meter most commonly used for Prakrit texts. Cantos through to the end at canto are each writ- ten in a particular tense or mood. Given that this is a rather broad restriction it is surprising that Bhatti does not in- dulge in more ornamentation in these verses. He does in- clude many obscurer roots here but in other respects his language is simple and uncluttered. xxx e influence of “Bhatti’s Poem” has extended beyond the geographical bounds of the Indian Subcontinent to Java where it became the source text for the Old-Javanese “Ramáyana” which is the oldest surviving example of clas- sical Javanese epic poetry (Kakawin, from kāvya). e Ja- vanese “Ramáyana” follows “Bhatti’s Poem” closely as far as canto , sometimes to the extent of directly translating a verse, but begins to diverge thereafter. It would seem that the form of “Bhatti’s Poem” as a “great poem” (mahākāvya) was important to the Javanese author as many of his ad- ditions make more complete the conformity of the Old- Javanese “Ramáyana” to the genre as described by Dandin, indicating that his “Mirror of Poetry” or its precursor as followed by Bhatti was also available to him (H ). Moreover H has also shown that the Old- Javanese “Ramáyana” uses “doubling” (yamaka) under Bhatti’s influence. e Bha.t.tikāvya also has “e Death of Rávana” (Rāvana-. vadha) as an alternative title. It is improbable that this was the original title as Rávana’s death is only one short episode in the whole poem. It may have acquired this title to distin- guish it from other works concerning themselves with the deeds of Rama. Our poem is the earliest example of an “instructional poem” (śāstra| kāvya). at is not a treatise written in verse but an imaginative piece of literature which is also intended to be instructive in specific subjects. To modern tastes this creates an unpardonable artificiality in the composition. To the critics of late classical times in India technical virtuos- ity was much admired. Much of the Bha.t.tikāvya’s popular
xxxi success could also be ascribed to the fact that it must have been useful as a textbook. As modern readers we have to let go our acquired aesthetic sensibilities, put ourselves into the mindset of seventh-century India and enjoy this poem on its own terms as the masterpiece it is.
e Sanskrit Text e edition used for this translation is that of J S (). Typographical emendations and emenda- tions on philological grounds are given in the notes at the end of the book.
Note itihāsa|kath’’|ôdbhūtam, itarad vā sad|āśrayam, catur|varga|phal’|āyattam,. catur|udātta|nāyakam, nagar’|ârnava. |śaila’|rtu|candr’|ârk’|ôdaya|varnanai. h,. udyāna|salila|k.rīd. ā|madhu|pāna|rat’|ôtsavaih,. vipralambhair vivāhaiś ca, kumār’|ôdaya|varnanai. h,. mantra|dūta|prayān’. |āji|nāyak’|âbhyudayair api alam. |k.rtam, a|samk. .siptam,. rasa|bhāva|nirantaram, sargair an|ativistīrnai. h,. śravya|v.rttaih. su|samdhibhi. h,. sarvatra bhinna|v.rttāntair upetam,. loka|rañjanam kāvyam. kalp’|ântara|sthāyi jāyate sad|alamk. .rti.
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Manusm.rti.O,P, . Manu’s Code of Law: a criti- cal edition and translation of the Mānava-Dharmaśāstra. Oxford University Press. Nā.tyaśāstra of Bharata. R K, M. –. Nā.tyaśāstra; with the Commentary of Abhinavagupta. vols. Gaekward Ori- ental Series, , . Baroda. Raghuvam. śa of Kālidāsa. G,D and I,H- , . e Raghupañcikā of Vallabhadeva, being the earliest commentary on the Raghuvam. śa of Kālidāsa, Critical Edition with Introduction and Notes, Volume . Groningen : Egbert Forsten. G,D and I,H, forthcoming. Raghu’s Lineage. Two volumes. New York: New York University Press (Clay Sanskrit Library). Rāmāyana. of Vālmīki. G, R. et al. –. e Rāmāyana. of Vālmīki. vols. Princeton: Princeton University Press. G- , R. et al. –. Ramáyana. Books One to Five. New York: New York University Press (Clay Sanskrit Library). Rgveda . N,B A. and H,G B. . Rig Veda: a Metrically Restored Text. Harvard University Press. Siddhāntakaumudī of Bhat.toj. ī Dīksita.. V, S.C. . Siddhanta Kaumudi of Bhattoji Dikshita, edited and translated into English. vols. Allahabad: e Panini Office. Śiśupālavadha of Māgha. D. . Śiśupālavadha of Magha. Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, K.S.S. no. .D,P, forthcoming. e Slaying of Shishu·pala. New York: New York University Press (Clay Sanskrit Library).
xxxvi Abbreviations
Ag. = Agnipurāna. G = G (), “A Glossary of Indian Figures of Speech” Jay. = commentary of Jayamangala˙ KB = Kāvyālamk. āra of Bhāmaha KD = Kāvyādarśa of Dan. din. KM = Kāvyaprakāśa of Mammata. KR = Kāvyāla˙nkāra of Rudrata. KU = Kāvyāla˙nkārasārasa˙ngraha of Udbhata. KV = Kāvyāla˙nkārav.rtti of Vāmana Mall. = commentary of Mallinātha MW = M W, “A Sanskrit-English Dictionary.” Nāt.. = Nā.tyaśāstra Pā. = A.s.tādhyāyī of Pānini. WR = W (), “e Roots, Verb Forms and Primary Deriva- tives of the Sanskrit Language”
Ā. = Ātmanepada (middle) intens. = intensive acc. = accusative loc. = locative aor. = aorist masc. = masculine caus. = causative nom. = nominative cond. = conditional P. = Parasmaipada (active) conj. = conjugation pass. = passive desid. = desiderative perf. = perfective du. = dual fem. = feminine pl. = plural fut. = future pres. = present imp. = imperative pt. = participle impf. = imperfect s. = singular inst. = instrumental
xxxvii