OMAN’S MARITIME DOCTRINE Submitted by Khamis Salim Sulaiman Aljabri to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Arab and Islamic Studies on 18 June 2012 This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University. Signature: ………………………………………………………….. 1 ABSTRACT The economic and security significance of maritime and political interests around the world has altered with the changing international security environment, as has the importance of secure sea routes to meet global demand. Oman increasingly relies on the sea for maritime trade and exploitation of marine resources, but without a common maritime policy and strategy to align its commercial and maritime interests, its offshore resources will remain under-developed. Oman’s primary interest is to ensure national maritime security by maintaining an effective navy and other agencies to guard its sea areas, and protect its maritime trade. However, it still lacks a formal maritime doctrine to underpin its policies This study argues that a maritime doctrine will assist Oman to utilise its maritime power and protect its national interests. In the absence of archive material, this study has drawn upon personal interviews with maritime experts and practitioners, and reviewed and analyzed a wide range of official publications and secondary sources on maritime policy and doctrine. It highlights the relationship between economic growth and maritime trade in Oman, examines the role of Oman’s shipping industry and related activities, and compares the experiences and expertise of several nations that have established maritime doctrine. Oman’s need for a maritime doctrine in order to protect its national interests and sovereignty is pressing. It should connect and coordinate its maritime power, military strategy, policies, and standing operating procedures through a single maritime doctrine that will provide the basis for mutual understanding between units of the Sultan’s Armed Forces, related government agencies, and national policy-makers, ensuring operational familiarity and efficiency. In proposing a discrete administrative body to oversee the codification of principles and procedures, the study fills a significant gap in Oman’s national maritime policy and strategy, since the expression of maritime doctrine will help protect the integrity and interests of the state and its people. 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, my gratitude to ALLAH- the most merciful and all-mighty- who has given me the inspiration and strength to complete this programme, and who has kept my life more or less free of drama over the last four years. I would like to express my deepest appreciation to Dr Abdul Aziz bin Yahya Al-Kindi who has been a constant source of inspiration; I also thank Professor Tim Niblock for his kindness in facilitating my enrolment at the Institute of Arab and Islamic Studies (IAIS), University of Exeter. My sincere thanks also to Rear Admiral Abdullah bin Khamis Al-Raisi, Commander Royal Navy of Oman for granting me the scholarship to undertake this study. I am most very grateful to my supervisor Dr James Onley of the IAIS for his invaluable guidance, and consistent support and suggestions throughout. Colleagues at the IAIS, through their support and accommodation, also encouraged me to dwell in the vastnesses of the maritime realm. The expertise and experience of Commander Bob Wilson in the field of maritime and naval history is most gratefully acknowledged, and I would also like to record the very real help extended to me by Eric Morris, who facilitated access to interviews, materials and other resources in the UK. I am grateful to the many officials in Oman and in the UK whom I met in the course of my visits and interviews, and with whom I discussed various parameters and issues relating to the subject of my study. I must also acknowledge my debt to a number of people and institutions who provided me with valuable written material and current data on aspects of my research. My special thanks to Mrs Lindy Ayubi for her editorial advice and assistance. To all of my friends who have given me strength and said the right things at the right time –especially those who have been enduring the same arduous process, yet have found the time to also counsel me, I sincerely thank you. Last but not least I give my heartfelt thanks to my family, especially my wife, Aliya, and my children, Zaid, Meera and Maryam, for their constant support throughout this undertaking. I could not have done any of this without their encouragement and care. 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract .………………………………………………………..........................................2 Acknowledgements …………………………………………………………………..…..3 Detailed Table of Contents ……………………………………………………………....5 List of Tables and Figures ………………………………………………………..……...9 Abbreviations ……………….……………………………………………………………11 Appendices Appendix 1- GLOSSARY OF TERMS........................................................................307 Appendix 2- QUESTIONS CONCERNING: DOCTRINE, POLICY AND STRATEGY ..............................................................................................309 Bibliography ...................................................................................................................331 4 DETAILED TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter One - Introduction 1.1. Purpose and Significance of the Study ...................................................................13 1.2. Argument ...................................................................................................18 1.3. Definitions (Literature Review) ...............................................................................23 1.3.1. Defining Doctrine ...............................................................................23 1.3.2. Purpose of a Doctrine ...................................................................24 1.3.3 The Nature and Development of Maritime Doctrine ...............................26 1.3.4. Significance of Maritime Doctrine .......................................................28 1.4. Geographical Overview ...........................................................................................31 1.5. Note on Methodology and Sources ...................................................................33 1.6. Organization of the Study ...............................................................................34 Chapter Two - Maritime Trade and Shipping 2.1. Introduction ..........………………………………………………………….............38 2.2. Commercial Aspects of Oman’s Maritime Trade ………………….............39 2.3. Shipping ……………………………………………………………......................45 2.3.1. Oman’s Shipping Industry ………………………………….............45 2.3.2. The Foreign Shipping Industry ………………………………...................50 2.4. Economic Significance of Oman’s Maritime Trade and Shipping .……………….54 2.5. National Security Issues in Maritime Trade and Shipping……………….................57 2.6. Oman’s Maritime Trade and Shipping Policy and Strategy …………...............64 2.6.1. Oman and the Law of the Sea ………………………………...................64 2.6.2. Overview of Regional Maritime Policies …………………...............66 2.6.3. National Legislation………………………………………….......................67 2.6.4. The Notion of Ocean Governance ……………………………….................69 2.7. Assessment of Oman’s Maritime Trade and Shipping……………………...............73 2.8. Conclusion…………………………………………………………..........................75 Chapter Three - Ports 3.1. Introduction …………………………………………………………...............80 3.2. Ports in general …...…………………………………………………....................81 3.3. Oman’s Ports and their National Economic Significance ………...................85 3.4. Port Facilities..............................................................................................................96 3.4.1. Sohar Industrial Port…………………………………………………….…96 3.4.2. Port of Salalah………………………………………………………………97 3.4.3. Port Al-Duqm …………………………………………………………....99 3.4.4. Port Sultan Qaboos ………………………………………………………...100 3.4.5. Port Khasab……………………………………………………………........101 3.4.6. Port Shinas……………………………………………………….. ...............102 3.4.7. Port Sur …………………………………………………………................102 3.5. Ports and National Security……………………………………………….................103 3.6. Policy Issues …………………………………………………………................109 5 3.7. Strategy Management and Implementation………………………………….............113 3.7.1. Environmental Protection and Pollution Control…………………..............114 3.7.2. Tourism …………………………………………………………................114 3.7.3. Passports and Customs …………………………………………................115 3.8. Assessment of the Ports…………………………………………………...................116 3.9. Conclusion………………………………………………………………...................123 Chapter Four - Oman’s Offshore Resources 4.1. Introduction ...........................................................................................................127 4.2. Oil and Gas, and the National Interest …………………………………................131 4.2.1. The Economic Importance of Maritime Resources …………................131 4.2.2. Oil and Gas Policy and Strategy …………………………............................138 4.2.3. Description and Assessment …………………………………................139 4.2.4. Environmental, Development,