African Metropolitan Report Contents Foreword P

african metropolitan report contents foreword p. 4

executive summary p. 6

overview p. 10

background of African metropolisation p. 12

analysis of metropolitan indicators in Africa p. 20 context and governance p. 21 economic development p. 33 social cohesion p. 39 environmental sustainability p. 44 quality of life p. 47

conclusions p. 52

appendices p. 57 bibliography p. 58 metropolitan indicators p. 59 foreword CASABLANCA . Photo by Alice Andreea Georgescu on Unsplash

4 ————— african metropolitan report Metropolitan expansion is one of the trends of the 21st century: as urbanisation continues, cities grow in interdependence with surrounding territories. The current pace of urban growth exacerbates issues such as the shortage of access to services, the degradation of the environment, the alienation of the poor to peripheries, and the spread of slum conditions, to name a few. Women, youth and other less powerful citizens are especially vulnerable in the metropolises, with limited access to decent jobs, public space, housing, public transport, and other services and goods. Gender inequalities are reflected in low protection from human rights violations and inadequate inclusion of disadvantaged groups in urban planning, design and legislation.

To face such acute challenges, global agendas stress the importance of monitoring mechanisms that disclose disaggregated data at local levels. Because traditional boundaries are less fixed, though, many shocks on urban areas transcend municipal boundaries, and must be examined at the metropolitan scale. At Metropolis, our efforts on understanding metropo-lisation and the responses from our members, the governments of major cities and metropolitan areas, whose diverse institutional profiles show ways to achieve sound metropolitan governance for a more sustainable development. For this reason, in 2016, encouraged by the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona, we launched the Metropolis Observatory, a project that promotes reflection about metropolisation globally and offers frameworks to include the metropolitan perspective in urban governance. In 2019, the Metropolis Observatory took a big step forward, with the launch of a system of metropolitan indicators, which allow to compare various metropolises across the world. Resulting from pioneering research carried out by LSE-Cities, the initial sample of indicators contains a total of 2,789 data points about 58 metropolitan spaces from Africa, Asia, the Americas and Europe. They cover economic, environmental and social dimensions in each metropolitan space, and were finalised in consultation with Metropolis members. As we tried to frame metropolitan spaces and not specific subnational jurisdictions, data is provided for territories often made up of one or more administrative units – this is why we find 69 Metropolis members Octavi de la Varga in the 58 spaces studied. Metropolis Secretary General In ever-changing metropolises, data is a very important tool for November 2019 public policy, but we need to understand its context in order to effectively use it. Moreover, because worldwide comparisons may be biased, specific analysis of each region become necessary. This report is the first of a series that reviews the metropolitan indicators in regional contexts, building on the information provided by the metropolitan indicators and analysing the results for 18 Metropolis members in Africa. Africa was chosen to start the series not only because it is one of the fastest urbanising regions, but also because it hosts this year the World Summit of Local and Regional Leaders convened by United Cities and Local Governments (UCLG), whose metropolitan section is operated by Metropolis. Taking place this month in Durban, the event welcomes the Forum of African Metropolises where this publication is being released. I hope that this report brings new insights about urbanisation in Africa, drives the continuous improvement of our common database of metropolitan indicators, and contributes to building a shared metropolitan narrative across the globe.

african metropolitan report ————— 5 executive summary

6 ————— african metropolitan report This report describes the results for the initial sample of 38 metropolitan indicators launched by Metropolis in June 2019, focusing on just 17 out of the 58 metropolitan spaces originally researched: namely, the ones located in the African continent. It analyses them in relation to one another, as well as to the Metropolis members from other parts of the world for which disaggregated data is available. Although the 2,789 data points available through the Metropolis’ indicators represent the main source of data and information used, the research was complemented by other sources which provided further information about urban spaces in Africa, such as publications from United Cities and Local Governments (UCLG), the United Nations (UN) agencies and the European Union’s Global Human Settlement Layer Urban Centre Database (GHS-UCDB). The latter showed that, in 2015, there were 65 African urban conurbations that accommodated, each, over one million residents. Together, these house a population of approximately 192 million people. Some of the key defining features of these settlements include their high growth rate, high densities, low levels of access to services, and high levels of poverty. The first part of this report provides the background for metropolisation in Africa, outlining some of the main trends and factors impacting on metropolitan governance. The second part goes into the analysis of indicators in the 17 African metropolitan spaces, following the structure of five out of six categories in which the metropolitan indicators were initially grouped: 1) context and governance, 2) economic development, 3) social cohesion, 4) environmental sustainability, 5) quality of life. Gender equality, originally a separated category of the full set of metropolitan indicators, has been incor- porated into each of the five aforementioned categories, representing the effort to achieve tangible gender mainstreaming across the research process.

The average population of the 17 African metropolises studied is 4.3 million, context and smaller than the international average of 7.5 million. Cairo and Johannes- burg are the largest urban areas in the database. Population density is governance relatively high compared to world averages, but varies significantly across African metropolises. Whilst rates of growth are slowly declining amongst African metropolises, they are still significantly higher than those in urban areas in the rest of the world. The total number of people living in African urban areas is steadily increasing and is expected to continue to do so. This is anticipated to be a particular feature of East Africa which, by 2050, is expected to have Africa’s second highest number of people living in urban areas, after West Africa which has the largest urban population. The speed of this growth presents a significant governance challenge for African urban governments in keeping up with the required provision of basic services, infrastructure, health, social and transport services. Metropolisation, or the process of urban areas growing together into a larger functional urban unit,1 is underway in a number of African urban areas. The increasing interdependency between component areas requires the development of governance models which can operate across jurisdic- tional boundaries. The management of multi-sector governance is a particular challenge although African metropolises have a slightly higher degree of coordination compared to other world regions, and a lower level of fragmentation. Urban growth is leading to higher residential densities across the continent. This makes the provision of services more cost effective and can result in urban dividend, but must be managed by metropolitan governments as higher density living requires increased service levels as well as higher levels of access to open space. However, the African metropolises analysed have significantly low levels ofeconomic density – less than half of the worldwide 1 Metropolis, (2017) The averages for metropolises in the database. metropolitan scale of resilience, Issue Paper 03, November 2017, On average, across Africa, the sum of the budgets for local governments in Barcelona the metropolises is significantly lower than the international average.

african metropolitan report ————— 7 However, powers and functions differ markedly across contexts and, in comparison to the worldwide averages, African metropolises have a relatively strong degree of influence over the development of policy in sectors influencing metropolitan development. This decision-making authority is essential to the effectiveness of urban governance. African metropolises have a slightly lower level of fiscal autonomy than other regions, with just three metropolises raising almost their entire revenue themselves and receiving very little from the national fiscus. And, although they have a slightly higher score on leadership of policy sectors than the worldwide average, they show a lower fiscal decentralisation average, often without the necessary fiscal power for implementation, which prevents them to have a greater say over what gets done. In terms of gender equality, African metropolises have a lower share of elected women in local government than the world average, although there are large differences across different contexts. There are also lower reported levels of tools to promote gender equality in African metropolises compared to other world regions. Whilst many metropolises have made significant strides in moving towards gender parity, much still remains to be done.

African metropolises have significantly lower levels ofGDP per capita com- economic pared to all other regions. In addition, poverty rates are more than double the world average. This puts African metropolises under great pressure to development perform their duties and provide services within severe economic constraints. A strong case can be made for metropolisation in comparing levels of fragmentation and budget per capita. Municipal fragmentation can increase the costs of service provision and reduce the equity of access to services. The African metropolises have made significant progress in addressing some areas of gender inequality, with lower levels of gender pay gap than the world average. However, the data shows that women have lower employment compared to men and there are lower levels of women in workforce. This does not however measure the non-wage activities women are engaged in, such as agricultural activities and household welfare. These activities are generally not fully acknowledged nor formally counted in measures such as GDP or formal employment figures. Theinformal economy indicator provides some indication, but is self-reported and therefore cannot provide the depth of information that the formal statistical data does. Generally, there are high levels of unemployment in African metropolises: almost twice that of the international average. This is a significant contributing factor in the low levels of financial resources that are available to local governments to put in place measures to address basic needs. There is a significant gap between total unemployment and youth unemployment (a feature observed in other world regions as well), making women and youth increasingly marginalized in many African metropolises. This has a negative impact on GDP and jeopardises economic growth on the continent. In addition, economic growth is also compromised by the relatively high dependency on work in the primary sector.

Economic development indicators can be further understood by low wages social cohesion and high levels of income inequality, which hinder social cohesion in Africa. Murder rates are generally high in African metropolises. Murder rate is not related to the size of the metropolitan population or territory, but the trend shows a slight decrease in murder rates as metropolitan density increases. Beyond physical safety and wellbeing, literacy rates in Africa lag behind that of other regions. Literacy rates are impacted upon by, amongst other factors, poverty, inequality and access to educational facilities. In turn, higher literacy rates are generally related to increased employment, lower poverty and longer life expectancy, although there are some exceptions to this trend. There is also a gender difference, with women having lower levels of literacy.

8 ————— african metropolitan report A key task of local and metropolitan governments is to provide or facilitate environmental the provision of basic services, including water, electricity, sanitation and waste management. Between and within metropolises, levels of access to sustainability basic services can vary significantly, with residents of informal settlements and slums having very low levels of access. Less than half of the population in African metropolises is served by wastewater collection. This is significantly lower than the international average and can have significant health implications for residents. Africa is also highly vulnerable to climate change due to its dependency on climate related activities and low adaptive capacity. The most significant expected changes impacting on Africa’s metropolises include water scarcity, the increase in the magnitude and frequency of extreme weather events, sea level rise, lower food security and the rise of climate sensitive diseases such as malaria and cholera. In Africa, the rights and needs of women and girls are disproportionately affected by climate change’s disasters, due to the role of care that is socially attributed to them. Providing targeted livelihood and protection support to women in humanitarian settings has a direct effect on the wellbeing and recovery prospects of their families and communities. The average carbon emissions from African metropolises are relatively low. Metropolises with increased levels of car ownership and higher GDP

levels have increased CO2 emissions, whereas higher residential densities, and better access to public transportation are associated with lower levels

of carbon emissions. Whilst CO2 levels are relatively low, concentrations are higher in African metropolises than in other world regions.

Average life expectancy in African metropolises is lower than that quality of life for other worldwide metropolises. Greater internal inequalities in life expectancy are concentrated, with more than 23 years between the extremes. Life expectancy is highest in North Africa, whereas in all sub-regions of the continent, women have longer life expectancy than men. Moreover, life expectancy is generally higher in urban areas than in more rural areas due to increased access to a range of government services. However, within a metropolis it can differ by significant amounts depending on access to services and quality of the environment. Regarding higher education enrolment, there are almost only national data available; Antananarivo, Nouakchott and Bamako show the lowest values. In general, it is true for all African metropolises that women have a lower value than men. Compared to other world regions, African metropolises have, on average, the lowest level of enrolment of female population not only in higher education, but also in primary and secondary school. Underdeveloped public transport networks in African metropolises is another factor that increases inequality and reduces accessibility across their territories, discriminating particularly against the poor. The combination of low density living and a lack of access to public transport can significantly increase a household’s monthly costs. Just 32% of residents of Africa’s metropolises have access to a recognized public transport stop, compared to a global average of 53%. Last but not least, African metropolises rank high on the Fragile Cities Index. Key vulnerabilities include fire risks, water scarcity and flooding.

african metropolitan report ————— 9 overview

based on metropolitan indicators, this report analyses the status of metropolisation of the African territories where 18 of Metropolis members operate, namely:

Accra Metropolitan Assembly Cairo - Egypt’s Ministry of Housing, Utilities and Urban Communities City Government of Addis Ababa City of Harare City of Johannesburg Communauté Urbaine de Douala Commune de Casablanca Commune de Rabat Commune de Tunis Commune Urbaine d’Antananarivo Conseil Régional de Nouakchott District d’Abidjan Ethekwini Municipality (Durban) Gauteng Provincial Government Mairie de Brazzaville Mairie de Libreville Mairie du District de Bamako Ville de Dakar

10 ————— african metropolitan report 17 16 8

9 5

1 2 10

12 Abidjan 1 4 Accra 2 Addis Ababa 3 Antananarivo 4 13 Bamako 5 Brazzaville 6 11 Cairo 7 Casablanca 8 Dakar 9 Douala 10 Durban 11 Harare 12 Johannesburg 13 ■ North Africa Libreville 14 ■ Central Africa Nouakchott 15 ■ West Africa Rabat 16 ■ East Africa Tunis 17 ■ Southern Africa

african metropolitan report ————— 11 background of African metropolisation

12 ————— african metropolitan report african metropolitan report ————— 13 There are over 10 000 urban spaces Although the total number of peo- of at least 50 thousand residents ple living in urban areas is increasing, across the world, and 2805 of these the rate, tempo or speed, at which in Africa.2 it is taking place – the urbanisation Although the focus of this report rate – has slowed down in both is on African urban metropolises of Africa and the world – although over one million people, the distri- Africa’s urbanisation rate is still bution of the full range of urban almost double that of the rest of settlements across Africa provides the world. The UN urbanisation an indication of how conurbations prospects show that urbanisation and agglomerations of multi-centric rates worldwide have declined from settlements are growing in different around 4% in the 1960’s to 2.6% in parts of the continent. For example, 2015, and these are predicted to de- the greater Ibadan-Lagos-Accra ur- cline further to 1.4% in 2050. African ban corridor in West Africa, the Cairo urbanisation rates have also declined Giza region urban growth along from 6.4% in 1960 to 4.7% in 2015 the Nile, the Moroccan coastal belt and are predicted to further slow to (which includes El Jadida, Casablan- 3.5% by 2050.5 ca, Rabat, Salé and Kenitra), and the However, even with this decline Gauteng region in South Africa which in the rate of urbanisation, African includes the metropolises of Johan- cities will need to accommodate nesburg and Pretoria. almost an additional one billion peo- An important feature of African ple in the next 35 years.6 It is impor- urban areas is the high level of tant too to recognise that whilst the population growth.3 Africa has transition to a prominently urban increased its urban population society took 150 years in Europe, it from 32.6 million people in 1950 to is set to take only 60 years in Africa. 491.5 million in 2015. The projection By 2035, Africa is expected to be for 2050 is of almost 1.5 billion predominantly urban. urban dwellers in Africa, which will The following maps show, for correspond to one-quarter of the urban areas with populations over world’s urban population then.4 500 000 people, the 2015 average

the urbanisation rate is the tempo or speed at which this percentage is changing over a particular time period

2 European Union, Global 3 2018 Revision of World Urba- 5 Africa’s urbanisation rate in 6 Source: UN DESA (2018) Hman Settlement Layer nization Prospects (UN DESA) 2015 was 4.7% per annum, Urban Centre Database compared with a global rate (GHS-UCDB) of 2.6%. Source: UN DESA 4 Ibid (2018)

14 ————— african metropolitan report Figure 1 african urban areas categorised by population size )source: GHS-UCDB(

Urban areas by population size ■ 50,000 - 100,000 ■ 100,000 - 500,0 00 ■ 500,000 - 1million ■ 1 - 2 .5 million ■ 2 .5 - 5 million ■ 5 - 10 million ■ Over 10 million

african metropolitan report ————— 15 density and the density change Overall, this means that over between the 2000 and 2015 periods.7 the next 30 years there will be a Currently, North Africa has the high- reconfiguration of the African urban est percentage of urban population context. Whilst the West African at 54.9%, and East Africa the lowest, region will remain the region with at 26.3%. However, in particularly the largest urban population, the West and East Africa this figure is East African region will become growing very rapidly and given that the region with the second highest they are relatively large in terms of urban population. numbers of people likely to urbanise, Between 2000 and 2015, average the significant growth in urbanisation annual density increased overall on in Africa will come from these areas.8 average by 3.41%. There are significant

Figure 2 size of urban population and urban population growth per annum for Africa and the world 2015 and 2050 )source: UN DESA(

2015 - World: 3 981 498 4M

2M 2015 - Africa: 491 531 Urban Population (000) Population Urban

6.00% 2015 - Africa: 4.73%

4.00%

2.00% Growth p.a. Rate

2015 - World: 2.59% 0.00% 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030

■ Africa ■ World

7 Source of data: European 8 UN’s World Urbanization Union, Global Human Sett- prospects report for 2018 lement Layer Urban Centre Database (GHS-UCDB)

16 ————— african metropolitan report Figure 3 population growth in large cities in Africa 1975 – 2015 )source: GHS-UCDB(

Total population 2015

502,007 5,000,000 10,000,000 15,000,000

19,734,086

% por change 1975-2015

23% 500%

Region South Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 312% Easth Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ 297% West Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ 232% Central Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ 229% North Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ 134%

0% 100% 200% 300% % population change

african metropolitan report ————— 17 variations within this average, rang- this growth mainly occurs in urban ing from 17% increase to a decrease conurbations, where adjacent of 1.3%. urban areas grow together,10 Urban growth in Africa presents, outside of formal administrative therefore, significant settlement and boundaries, the process results in a governance challenges in order to blurring of legal boundaries and an ensure that the population is accom- increasing interdependency between modated in decent living areas. While the component urban units.11 these areas are characterized by high This requires new approaches population densities, increased em- to planning, administrative ployment opportunities and larger coordination, funding and service labour forces,9 they must also cater provision, to manage cooperation for housing, infrastructure, trans- between adjacent administrative portation, energy and employment, bodies and meet the needs of as well as for basic services such as greater metropolitan units. education and health care. And, as

Figure 4 map of annual density change for metropolises between 2000 and 2015 and average density in 2015 )source: GHS-UCDB(

annual density annual change density average metro density 2015 change 2000 - 2015 density 2015 -1.3% 17.7% people / km2 2,649 17,945

density change -1.3 % density 2015 5.0 % 2,649 10.0 % 10,000 15.0 % 15,000 15.0 % 17,945

9 United Nations (2015) Mon- 10 Ibid 11 Metropolis, (2017) The me- tréal Declaration on Metro- tropolitan scale of resilience, politan Areas, October 2015, Issue Paper 03, November Montréal 2017, Barcelona

18 ————— african metropolitan report DURBAN. Photo by Fitnish Media on Unsplash african metropolitan report ————— 19 analysis of metropolitan indicators in Africa

Cairo ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 2,1969,528 Johannesburg ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 10,534,785 Accra ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 4,943,075 Abidjan ■ ■ ■ ■■ 4,473,441 Casablanca ■ ■ ■■ ■ 4,046,707 Addis Ababa ■ ■ ■■ 3,559,995 Durban ■ ■■ ■ 3,442,361 Dakar ■ ■■ ■ 3,137,197 Douala ■ ■ ■ 2,768,436 Tunis ■ ■■ ■ 2,643,692 Antananarivo ■ ■■ 2,307,720 Harare ■■ ■ 2,123,132 Rabat ■ ■ 2,118,305 Bamako ■ ■ 1,810,366 Brazzaville ■■ 1,503,803 Nouakchott ■ 1,077,171 Libreville ■ 703,940

20 ————— african metropolitan report The map and chart below indicate is higher than the average densities the location and population size of the metros in the other world context and of each of the seventeen African regions. Bamako has the highest metropolises analysed. density, followed by Addis Ababa. governance Cairo is significantly larger At a regional level, the metros in than the other metropolises, and Central, East and West Africa have Johannesburg is double the size of densities that are double those in the the next biggest metro. At the other North and Southern African Regions. end of the spectrum, Libreville is the The two biggest metros, Cairo only metropolis with a population of and Johannesburg, both have some under a million. of the lowest urban densities, The average size of the African compared to the densities of the metropolises is smaller than the relatively smaller cities. Low density international average, where Asian settlement patterns are associated metropolises are the largest on with higher costs and lower average and European metropolises economic growth patterns. are on average the smallest. Population density is a significant On average, the population factor to be considered in the density of the African metropolises analysis of a metropolis. It can

Figure 5 population per metropolitan space12

metropolitan population — Africa metropolitan population — map metropolitan population — all regions

Cairo ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 2,1969,528 Asia ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ 14,489,040 Johannesburg ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 10,534,785 Latin A./ Caribbean ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ 7,478,816 Accra ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 4,943,075 Ave All Regions ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ 7 ,460,093 Abidjan ■ ■ ■ ■■ 4,473,441 North America ■■ ■ ■ ■ 5 ,338,550 Casablanca ■ ■ ■■ ■ 4,046,707 Africa ■ ■ ■ 4,303,744 Addis Ababa ■ ■ ■■ 3,559,995 Europe ■ ■■ ■ 3,947,446 Durban ■ ■■ ■ 3,442,361 Dakar ■ ■■ ■ 3,137,197 Douala ■ ■ ■ 2,768,436 Tunis ■ ■■ ■ 2,643,692 metropolitan population — African regions Antananarivo ■ ■■ 2,307,720 Harare ■■ ■ 2,123,132 North Africa ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 6,371,081 Rabat ■ ■ 2,118,305 South Africa ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■■ ■■ ■ ■ 5,366,759 Bamako ■ ■ 1,810,366 Ave Africa ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ 4,303,744 Brazzaville ■■ 1,503,803 West Africa ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 3,591,020 Nouakchott ■ 1,077,171 East Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 2,933,858 Libreville ■ 703,940 Central Africa ■ ■ ■ 1,658,726

12 Data source for figures 5 to 22: indicators.metropolis.org

african metropolitan report ————— 21 be used as a proxy measure for a technical level some of the areas in number of factors which make urban which capacity is missing include wa- areas attractive places to live.13 It is ter resource management and water also closely linked to how the area supply, sanitation and electrification. is governed. With increasing sprawl The requirements of some of these and land coverage, the governance of areas are also changing rapidly with a metropolis becomes more frag- new technology as well as challenges mented and complicated. such as climate change.18 The emphasis on the role of local Managing multi-sector gov- government and decentralisation is ernance is a particular challenge, relatively recent in Africa: prior to the requiring metropolitan political and 1980s there was very little empha- administrative staff to manage local sis on roles of local government,14 development within a regional and yet in the decades since then, the national cooperation framework.19 prominence of decentralisation has This requires working across differ- grown significantly. However, imple- ent scales, global, continental, large mentation has not always seen the national interests, regional and of anticipated benefits. Part of this has course, local. Working across admin- been caused by responsibilities that istrative boundaries and over the are shifted downwards, without suf- jurisdiction of different territories as is required in many metropolis- although the prominence es is also highly demanding.20 This cooperation takes place within very of decentralisation in Africa has grown significantly different contexts in each of the in the last decades, the shift of responsibilities has seventeen metropolitan regions not been accompanied by sufficient funding or formal analysed. In some, there are highly formal systems regulating roles and delegation frameworks responsibilities and mechanisms of cooperation, and in others a less formal system has been forged.21 This becomes even more diffi- cult where this cooperation must be achieved across political lines. Smit22 notes that there is a common ficient funding and without a formal phenomenon in Africa of large cities delegation framework.15 Processes being politically led by parties in have also been rushed and insuffi- opposition to national governments, cient time has been given to building many of whom have their support sufficient local capacity to manage bases in rural areas. devolved functions.16 UCLG and the Cities Alliance have Weak governmental capacity is analysed enabling provisions for lo- a commonly discussed concern for cal governance across a number23 of metropolitan governments world- African countries.24 The study finds wide and particularly developing that there is increasing evidence that countries. Capacity gaps include a governance arrangements are lag- lack of planning skills, the ability to ging, with most countries not having manage rapid population growth and conducive enabling environments for the skills to manage complex urban local government. There are however functions and relationships.17 At a significant variations across Africa,

13 Cohen, in Steering the Online since 01 October 2018, Lanfranchi, eds. Steering the 16 Katz, p 15 in Gómez-Álvarez, Metropolis connection on 14 August 2019. metropolis: metropolitan David, Robin Rajack, Eduardo URL: http://journals.openedi- governance for sustainable López-Moreno and Gabriel 14 Warren Smit, « Urban Gover- tion.org/poldev/2637 ; DOI : urban development. Washing- Lanfranchi, eds. Steering the nance in Africa: An Overview 10.4000/poldev.2637 ton: IDB, 2017. metropolis: metropolitan », International Development The publication can be down- governance for sustainable Policy | Revue internationale 15 Katz, p 15 in Gómez-Álvarez, loaded from: www.iadb.org/ urban development. Washing- de politique de développe- David, Robin Rajack, Eduardo metrogov ton: IDB, 2017. ment [Online], 10 | 2018, López-Moreno and Gabriel The publication can be down-

22 ————— african metropolitan report with countries such as the Demo- as planning for longer-term impacts cratic Republic of Congo, Egypt and such as climate change. Tunisia scoring relatively low and The metropolitan coordination South Africa and Morocco having indicator assesses the number higher scores. of sectors where a coordination Governance challenges impact on arrangement exists, and ranges a wide variety of issues including not between a score of 5 indicating only the ability to govern effectively, that there is a formal metropolitan efficiently and economically through governance structure, to 0 the delivery of services, but also on indicating no coordination at the degree of participation of the all. African metropolises have public and private sectors as well an average score of 3.9 for Crédito fotográfico ACCRA. Photo by Virgyl Sowah on Unsplash

loaded from: www.iadb.org/ Habitat International, urban development. Washing- Lanfranchi, eds. Steering the metrogov Volume 46 ton: IDB, 2017. metropolis: metropolitan The publication can be can be governance for sustainable 17 Smith, Jenkins (2015) 18 Katz, p 15 in Gómez-Álvarez, downloaded from: www.iadb. urban development. Washing- Trans-disciplinary research David, Robin Rajack, Eduardo org/metrogov ton: IDB, 2017. and strategic urban expansion López-Moreno and Gabriel The publication can be can be planning in a context of weak Lanfranchi, eds. Steering the 19 Katz, p 15 in Gómez-Álvarez, downloaded from: www.iadb. institutional capacity: Case metropolis: metropolitan David, Robin Rajack, Eduardo org/metrogov study of Huambo, Angola, governance for sustainable López-Moreno and Gabriel

african metropolitan report ————— 23 metropolitan coordination, slightly Creating a metropolitan structure or higher than the international average administrative body to enhance of 3.5. Of the African metropolises, this cooperation is an increasing Abidjan, Accra, Addis Ababa, Bamako, trend, with around two thirds of Brazzaville, Dakar, Douala, Durban, metropolises having a metropolitan Harare, Libreville and Nouakchott governance body.26 all have high levels of coordination. The Metropolis indicator The largest metropolis, Cairo, has a on territorial fragmentation score of 0, indicating that there is no measures this trend, by providing coordination at all across the sectors an indication of whether there is across the metropolis. a single administrative structure Mechanisms to improve horizon- or a number of administrative tal coordination and cooperation structures, across which alignment between municipal structures have would need to occur. On average, become more common over the past African metropolises have a lower 15 years, with many putting in place territorial fragmentation score, legal frameworks and policies to en- compared to the world average. hance inter-municipal cooperation.25 Within Africa, Southern Africa has

Figure 6 metropolitan coordination

metropolitan coordination — Africa metropolitan coordination — map metropolitan coordination — all regions

Abidjan ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 5.00 Europe ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 4.09 Antananarivo ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■■■■■ ■■■ ■ 2.12 Accra ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 5.00 Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 3.88 Tunis ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ 1.97 Addis Ababa ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 5.00 Ave All Regions ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■■ ■ ■■ 3.50 Libreville ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 0.99 Bamako ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 5.00 North America ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 3.33 Nouakchott ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ 0.84 Brazzaville ■■ ■■■■■■■ ■■■■■■■■■■ 5.00 Latin America/ Caribbean ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ 3.08 Addis Ababa ■■■■■■■■ 0.79 Dakar ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 5.00 Asia ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 3.00 Rabat ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 0.71 Douala ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 5.00 Brazzaville ■■ ■■■■ 0.66 Durban ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 5.00 Dakar ■■■■■■■■■■ 0.61 Harare ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 5.00 Accra ■■■■■■ 0.59 Libreville ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■■■ ■ 5.00 Casablanca ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 0.44 metropolitan coordination — African regions Nouakchott ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■■■ ■ 5.00 Bamako ■ ■ ■■■ 0.33 Casablanca ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ 3.00 Central Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 5.00 Abidjan ■ ■ ■ ■ 0.29 Johannesburg ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 3.00 West Africa ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 5.00 Cairo ■ ■ ■■ 0.29 Rabat ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 2.00 Southern Africa ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■■ ■ ■■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 4.33 Douala ■■■■ 0.29 Tunis ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ 2.00 Ave Africa ■■ ■■■ ■■■ ■■■ ■■■ ■ ■ .3.88 Harare ■ ■ ■ 0.19 Antananarivo ■■■■■ 1.00 East Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 3.00 Johannesburg ■ ■ ■ 0.19 Cairo ■ 0.00 0.00 5.00 North Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 2.40 Durban ■ 0.03

20 Katz, p 15 in Gómez-Álvarez, The publication can be can be coordination. Governance. nance for sustainable urban David, Robin Rajack, Eduardo downloaded from: www.iadb. 2019; 32: 63– 81. https://doi. development. Washington: López-Moreno and Gabriel org/metrogov. org/10.1111/gove.12346 IDB, 2017. Lanfranchi, eds. Steering the Gómez-Álvarez, David, Robin The publication can be can be metropolis: metropolitan 21 Kaufmann, D, Sager, F. How Rajack, Eduardo López- downloaded from: www.iadb. governance for sustainable to organize secondary capital Moreno and Gabriel Lanfranc- org/metrogov urban development. Washing- city regions: Institutional hi, eds. Steering the metro- ton: IDB, 2017 drivers of locational policy polis: metropolitan gover- 22 Smit, 2018

24 ————— african metropolitan report the lowest level of fragmentation. women’s participation in decision- Beyond the decentralisation, making within a metropolitan fragmentation and coordination government is an important factor factors, it is important to consider in ensuring responsiveness to the how representative a metropolitan needs of women and children in the government is of the population urban environment. it governs. One measure of this Across all the African regions, an is the extent to which women average of 24% of locally elected are represented in governance representatives are women. This is structures. The share of elected slightly higher than the Asian average women indicator measures the of 23% but lower than that for the gender inclusivity of governance. other world regions where the world Given that women make up average is 28.7%. Addis Ababa and 50% of the population in Africa’s Tunis are the metropolises with the metropolises, if government is to be highest percentage of women in representative of the population, elected positions. they should contribute half of the elected representatives. In addition,

Figure 7 territorial fragmentation

territorial fragmentation — Africa metropolitan coordination — map territorial fragmentation — all regions

Antananarivo ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■■■■■ ■■■ ■ 2.12 Europe ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 3.65 Tunis ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ 1.97 Ave All Regions ■■ ■■ ■■ 1.09 Libreville ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 0.99 North America ■■ ■ ■■ 0.96 Nouakchott ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ 0.84 Africa ■ ■■ ■ 0.67 Addis Ababa ■■■■■■■■ 0.79 Latin America/ Caribbean ■ 0.38 Rabat ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 0.71 Asia ■ 0.29 Brazzaville ■■ ■■■■ 0.66 Dakar ■■■■■■■■■■ 0.61 Accra ■■■■■■ 0.59 Casablanca ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 0.44 territorial fragmentation — African regions Bamako ■ ■ ■■■ 0.33 Abidjan ■ ■ ■ ■ 0.29 East Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 1.45 Cairo ■ ■ ■■ 0.29 North Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 0.85 Douala ■■■■ 0.29 Ave Africa ■■ ■■■ ■■■ ■ 0.67 Harare ■ ■ ■ 0.19 Central Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ 0.65 Johannesburg ■ ■ ■ 0.19 West Africa ■■ ■ ■ ■■■ 0.45 Durban ■ 0.03 0.00 2.50 South Africa ■ 0.14

23 The fourteen countries are 24 Assessing the Institutio- 25 OECD/UCLG (2019), 2019 Re- 26 OECD/UCLG (2019), 2019 Re- those where the 17 Metropolis nal Environment of Local port of the World Observatory port of the World Observatory members are located and for Governments in Africa 2015, on Subnational Government on Subnational Government which indicators have been 2nd Edition, The Cities Alliance Finance and Investment – Key Finance and Investment – Key developed and which are and United Cities and Local Findings Findings discussed in the next section Governments of Africa

african metropolitan report ————— 25 The political empowerment of metropolises have made significant women is, worldwide, an area of strides in moving towards gender significant disparity.27 The World parity, much still remains to be Economic Forum Gender Report done. Many of the indicators notes that worldwide there is discussed in the following sections a 77% gap in women’s political are disaggregated by gender – such empowerment. Many metropolises as education, employment and have taken measures to actively income – and provide an indication promote gender equality. Harare of areas where the gender gap is has the highest indicator of widening or growing. measures to promote gender Ahrend et al (2018) show equality, followed by Dakar and that metropolises which have a Johannesburg. metropolitan authority tend to have Promoting greater gender higher densities in built up areas equality and accountability is a than areas without metropolitan powerful tool in creating socially governance.28 Increasing density sustainable, vibrant and equitable requires significant governance economic urban areas. Whilst many challenges, and development

Figure 8 share of elected women

share of elected women — Africa share of elected women — map share of elected women — all regions

Addis Ababa ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 47.83 Europe ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 38.09 Tunis ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ 47.00 North America ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 33.23 Durban ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■■■■ 37.28 Latin America/ Caribbean ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ 30.49 Dakar ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 36.84 Ave All Regions ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■■ 28.68 Johannesburg ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 34.22 Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■■ ■■ ■ 24.91 Nouakchott ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 30.56 Asia ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 23.18 Douala ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 26.12 Bamako ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 23.81 Casablanca ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ 22.58

Harare ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■■ 20.51 share of elected women — African regions Antananarivo ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■■■ 19.20 Rabat ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 18.39 East Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 33.51 Libreville ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ 17.10 South Africa ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■■ ■ ■■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 30.67 Cairo ■■■■■■■■■ 15.38 North Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 26.78 Brazzaville ■■■■■ 11.30 Ave Africa ■■ ■■■ ■■■ ■■■ ■■■ ■ 24.91 Abidjan ■ ■ ■ ■ 7.69 West Africa ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ 19.01 Accra ■■■ 7.69 7.00 50.00 Central Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ 18.17

% of women elected over the total number of elected representatives

27 WEF_GGGR_2018 – World 28 Why Metropolitan Gover- (OECD), and Abel Schumann Economic Forum, Global nance Matters and How to (OECD) citing Ahrend et al. Gender Gap Report 2018, Achieve It, RudigerAhrend (2014) Geneva (OECD), Soo Jin Kim (OECD), Alexander C. Lembcke

26 ————— african metropolitan report ABIDJAN. Photo by Eva Blue on Unsplash

increasing density requires shows the weight of the budget significant governance challenges, and development for all local governments within opportunities, in the provision of metropolitan public the metropolis compared to the services and infrastructures national government budget. Unlike the measure of population size, the national prominence indicator is not based on population size, so is not a traditional measure of city primacy, opportunities. Managing a but instead measures its relative population living in higher densities financial muscle. requires a higher level of service The national prominence indica- provision, urban management must tor ranges between 14% for Addis be intensified, and infrastructure Ababa to 0.04% in Cairo. Cairo is an maintenance must be completed interesting case in this regard, as it to a high standard to service the is the largest metro in Egypt and its increasing population. In addition, primary city (Alexandra is the next public transport, public amenities, biggest city being only 30% of Cairo’s safe open space and recreational size). Yet, because Cairo has a very facilities become increasingly vital for low ability to raise its own revenue, the well-being of citizens. its financial strength is significantly Metropolitan governance lower than would be expected, given should be contextualized within its prime status. The average across the standing of the metropolis in all the African metropolises is com- its national context to understand parable to the average of the North the role it plays in the national American metros but is considerably financial and political economy. The lower than the average for Asian national prominence indicator metropolises.

african metropolitan report ————— 27 The leadership of policy sectors of all the metropolises in the data- indicator29 illustrates that the size base for this indicator. Of the African of a metropolis’s population and metropolises, Cairo, Africa’s largest budget does not necessarily give it metropolis, has a policy leadership increased weight to guide the devel- score of zero, and Johannesburg, the opment of critical policy. However, second largest of the metropolises in this power is an important factor for Africa,has a leadership score of 0.25, improving metropolitan governance while Dakar and Antananarivo have outcomes. Where metropolises are relatively high scores(respectively, able to develop, shape or influence 0.67 and 0.58). the policy for sectors such as urban A recent report on sub-national transport, planning, economic devel- government by OECD and UCLG opment, social services, health and (2019)30 notes that many sub-na- housing,outcomes are more sustain- tional governments “do not have able, effective and efficient. Leader- full autonomy and decision-making ship of policy is also key element of authority in their fields of responsi- decentralisation. Generally, African bility, functioning sometimes more metropolises rank second highest as agencies funded and regulated by

Figure 9 national prominence

national prominence — Africa national prominence — map national prominence — all regions

Addis Ababa ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ 14.24 Asia ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ 6.57 Harare ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 5.78 Ave All Regions ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ 3.95 Durban ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ 3.24 Europe ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 3.65 ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ Johannesburg ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ 3.21 Latin American / Caribbean 3.26 Africa ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 2.63 Brazzaville ■ ■■ ■ 1.95 North America ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 2.45 Casablanca ■■ ■ ■ 1.65 Abidjan ■ ■ ■ 1.59 Dakar ■ ■■ 1.58 Bamako ■■ ■ 1.51 national prominence — African regions Douala ■ ■■ 1.31

Libreville ■■ ■ 1.02 East Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 7.59 Accra ■■ 0.97 South Africa ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 4.08 Antananarivo ■ 0.93 Ave Africa ■■ ■■ ■■■ 2.63 Tunis ■ 0.46 Central Africa ■■ ■ ■ ■ 1.43 Cairo ■ 0.04 West Africa ■■ ■ 1.41 0.00 15.00 North Africa ■ 0.72

% of national government budget

29 For this indicator, data is 30 OECD/UCLG (2019), 2019 available for seven of the Report of the World Ob- African metropolises and is servatory on Subnational self-reported. Government Finance and Investment – Key Findings

28 ————— african metropolitan report the central government rather than The total budget per capita as independent policy makers.” (p24). provides an indication of the budget The report finds that the assignment per person, measured in USD. This of key responsibilities assigned to indicator does not measure the total local government is essential to de- amount spent by all spheres of gov- centralisation effectiveness. ernment at a local level, but rather In understanding the econom- just the amount spent by the local ic context in which metropolitan government. governments operate, the total Africa’s average score is signif- funding available for a metropolitan icantly lower than that for other government to spend per capita regions, where the world average is provides insight into the amount of $1358 per capita budget. Within Afri- resources available. Worldwide, an ca, the figures for metropolises such estimated 24% of total public spend- as Antananarivo and Cairo are very ing is undertaken by sub-national low and imply a highly centralized governments,31 although this is lower budgeting system and a very limited in Africa (15,7%) and Latin America ability for the municipal government (18,3%) than in other regions. to develop infrastructure. This is JOHANNESBURG. Photo by Angelo Moleele on Unsplash

31 2019_SNG-WOFI_REPORT_ Key_Findings(1).pdf

african metropolitan report ————— 29 Durban ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 911.24 Johannesburg ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 680.84 Addis Ababa ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ 472.32 Harare ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 145.00 Tunis ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ 116.39 Casablanca ■ ■■ ■ 108.35 Libreville ■■ ■ 63.65 Douala ■ 35.44 Dakar ■ 32.15 Brazzaville ■ 21.94 Accra ■ 21.88 Bamako ■ 19.98 Abidjan ■ 17.34 Antananarivo ■ 5.52 Cairo ■ 3.98 ADDIS ABABA. Photo by Sami Jsp on Unsplash

30 ————— african metropolitan report Figure 10 total budget per capita

total budget per capita — Africa total budget per capita — map total budget per capita — all regions

Durban ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 911.24 North America ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 3,171.66 Johannesburg ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 680.84 Europe ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 2,875.22 Addis Ababa ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ 472.32 Ave All Regions ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ 1,358.81 ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ Harare ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 145.00 Asia 1,358.81 Latin America/ Caribbean ■ ■■ ■■ 1,052.96 Tunis ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ 116.39 Africa ■ 177.07 Casablanca ■ ■■ ■ 108.35 Libreville ■■ ■ 63.65 Douala ■ 35.44 total budget per capita — African regions Dakar ■ 32.15 Brazzaville ■ 21.94 Accra ■ 21.88 South Africa ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 579.03 Bamako ■ 19.98 East Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 238.92 ■■ ■■■ ■ Abidjan ■ 17.34 Ave Africa 177.07 North Africa ■ 76.24 Antananarivo ■ 5.52 Central Africa ■ 40.34 Cairo ■ 3.98 0,00 900,00 West Africa ■ 22.84

US$ par habitant

especially the case where a can increase the costs of service metropolis is comprised of a number provision and reduce the equity of different municipal bodies, where of access to services. However, base administrative costs take up a the authors warn that a balance significant portion of the budget. must be sought between economic A comparison of territorial efficiency and effective governance, fragmentation and the total noting that some municipal mergers metropolitan budget per capita have not produced the anticipated shows a correlation between lower benefits and, where the resulting fragmentation and increased municipality is too large, can have budget per capita, providing a resulted in diseconomies of scale and strong argument for increasing the congestion. metropolisation of African cities. This The fiscal autonomy indicator- issue is also reflected in the 2019 shows the ability of a metropolitan Report of the World Observatory on government to raise and spend its Subnational Government Finance revenue on its own priorities, as and Investment,32 citing OECD opposed to national priorities.The 2017 and 201933 research which OECD/ UCLG 2019 study discussed finds that municipal fragmentation above found that worldwide, most

32 OECD/UCLG (2019), 2019 33 OECD (2017), Making decen- Handbook for Policy-Makers, 34 OECD/UCLG (2019), 2019 Report of the World Ob- tralisation work in Chile: OECD Multi- level Governan- Report of the World Ob- servatory on Subnational towards stronger municipali- ce Studies, OECD Publishing, servatory on Subnational Government Finance and ties, OECD Publishing, Paris, Paris Government Finance and Investment – Key Findings and OECD (2019), Making Investment – Key Findings Decentralisation Work: A

african metropolitan report ————— 31 metropolitan governance bodies GDP. The African metropolises have have less fiscal capacity, autonomy the lowest score of all the world and power than individual munic- regions. ipalities, challenging the effective- This indicator must also be under- ness of metropolitan governance.34 stood in the context of the responsibilities that a local government has and, as discussed above, the powers and responsibilities of the metro and the conditionality of the grant system. Birch35 notes that, in some coun- if not channelled through tries, increased fiscal decentralisa- a metropolitan structure, fiscal decentralisation may tion can lead to increased fragmen- lead to increased fragmentation, higher costs and tation, higher costs and decreased efficiency, where not channelled decreased efficiency through a metropolitan structure.36 This is particularly important to show that better coordination has the potential to improve equity and cohesion. The indicators above show that African metropolises have a slightly The level of fiscal autonomy is very higher policy leadership score than dependent on how local government the worldwide average, but with a can raise its own revenue and the lower fiscal decentralisation average, mechanism through which transfers effectively allowing metropolises to are made from national government. have a greater say over what gets Unconditional transfers would give a done, but often without the neces- metropolis greater autonomy, whilst sary fiscal power to implement it. conditional transfers would reduce The growth of urban populations has its autonomy. Worldwide, across all added to this challenge, requiring Libreville ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ 22,746 the metropolises in the database, more sophisticated and effective Johannesburg ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 12,683 an average of 66% of metropolitan service delivery methods, transport Addis Ababa ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 10,164 revenue is self-generated. Africa’s av- and communication networks and Durban ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 6,563 erage is slightly lower than the world a greater focus on improving the Cairo ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ 5,009 average. quality of life of urban dwellers. Tunis ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ 4,725 Southern Africa and East Africa Ensuring that this is achieved across Casablanca ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ 4,516 both have relatively high scores and the metropolis requires a significant Rabat ■ ■ ■ ■ 3,510 West Africa has the lowest. Hara- degree of coordination across the Abidjan ■ ■ ■ ■ 3,170 re, Addis Ababa, Douala and Tunis urban area. Bamako ■■■ 2,533 receive very little funding from other Douala ■■■ 2,518 spheres of government. The Cairo ■■■ metropolis has the lowest level of Dakar 2,355 own-source funding of any other Nouakchott ■■ 1,969 metro in the Metropolis Observatory Harare ■■ ■ 1,930 worldwide database. Brazzaville ■ 1,457 The fiscal autonomy indicator is Accra ■ 1,446 closely linked to the fiscal decentral- Antananarivo ■ 1,169 isation indicator, which measures local government expenditure as a percentage of the total country’s

35 2017, in Gómez-Álvarez, Da- urban development. Washin- 36 Peters, BG. 1998. ce of Metropolitan Regions vid, Robin Rajack, Eduardo gton: IDB, 2017. in Federal Systems, Forum López-Moreno and Gabriel The publication can be down- 37 EU. (2011). Governance of of Federations, Brussels, Lanfranchi, eds. Steering the loaded from: www.iadb.org/ metropolitan regions Euro- 20-21 June, cited in Ortiz and metropolis: metropolitan metrogov pean and global experiences. Kamiya in Gómez-Álvarez, governance for sustainable Workshop on the Governan- David, Robin Rajack, Eduardo

32 ————— african metropolitan report The GDP per capita per African me- governance systems and investment tropolis are the lowest for any of the in infrastructure. economic world regions in the database. Re- The opportunities of increased gionally, West Africa has the lowest urban density mean that service development GDP per capita levels compared to provision can become more cost metropolises in central and southern effective and efficient.38 Public Africa which are significantly higher. transport systems, for instance, There is a correlation between become more viable if sufficient higher levels of urbanisation, increas- densities are achieved. In addition, ing economic density and economic increasing density increases growth, with metropolises seen as proximity and the agglomeration the “engines of innovation, economic effect, playing a fundamental role in growth, and development.37” (P22). economic development.39 In the period since 1990, metrop- In understanding the economic olises within Africa have on aver- development context of the metrop- age doubled their GDP (PPP). This olises, the issues such as the total increase brings significant benefit amount of financial resources and em- to metropolitan dwellers and the ployment must be understood in the country as a whole, but it is vital context of how evenly these resources that it is accompanied by increasing are distributed across the population.

Figure 11 GDP per capita

GDP per capita — Africa GDP per capita — map GDP per capita — all regions

Libreville ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ 22,746 North America ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 51,389 Johannesburg ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 12,683 Europe ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 33,424 Addis Ababa ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 10,164 Ave All Regions ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ 16,551 Durban ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 6,563 Asia ■ ■■ ■ ■ 13,307 Cairo ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ 5,009 Latin American / Caribbean ■ ■■ ■ 12,567 Tunis ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ 4,725 Africa ■ 5,204 Casablanca ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ 4,516 Rabat ■ ■ ■ ■ 3,510 Abidjan ■ ■ ■ ■ 3,170 GDP per capita — African regions Bamako ■■■ 2,533 Douala ■■■ 2,518 Dakar ■■■ 2,355 Central Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ 8,907 Nouakchott ■■ 1,969 South Africa ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■■ ■■■ ■■■■ ■ 7,059 Harare ■■ ■ 1,930 East Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 5,667 Brazzaville ■ 1,457 Ave Africa ■■ ■ ■ ■■■ ■■■ ■■■■■ 5,204

Accra ■ 1,446 North Africa ■■■■■ 3,946 Antananarivo ■ 1,169 1,000 20,000 West Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ 2,376

US$ per capita

López-Moreno and Gabriel 38 United Nations (2015) Mon- 39 See, for example Ortiz and tan governance for sustai- Lanfranchi, eds. Steering the treal declaration outcome Kamiya in Gómez-Álvarez, nable urban development. metropolis: metropolitan document of the Habitat III David, Robin Rajack, Eduar- Washington: IDB, 2017 governance for sustainable thematic meeting on metro- do López-Moreno and Gabri- urban development. Washin- politan areas, October 2015, el Lanfranchi, eds. Steering gton: IDB, 2017 Montreal the metropolis: metropoli-

african metropolitan report ————— 33 Whilst the prominence (GDP) in- The 2019 African Economic Outlook dicator measures the concentration notes that economic growth on the of economic growth in metropolises continent continues to strengthen, by comparing their GDP to that of increasing to 3.5% in 2017 and 2018, the country, larger metropolises are up from 2.1% in 2016.41 likely to have larger GDP’s. To provide Unemployment in African metrop- a comparable measure between olises is significantly higher than that small and large municipalities, the for other world regions. Across Afri- economic density indicator allows for can regions, Southern Africa stands comparison of smaller metropolises out with, on average, unemployment to larger ones. The indicator shows of 23%. Johannesburg and Durban the total metropolitan GDP divided have the highest total unemploy- by the land area. ment levels for any metropolis in African metropolises in the data- the database. In aiming to address base have an average economic den- unemployment, a randomized sity of $15.9m/Km2. This is the lowest experiment in Addis Ababa in 2015 density of all worldwide regions in provided unemployed participants the database. European economic with a transport subsidy to allow densities are five times higher and them to travel to seek work in the the worldwide average is twice this central city. The results saw increased levels of employment and improved increansingly marginalized, quality of employment (with higher salary levels and increased full-time women and the youth face unemployment rates employment) amongst the target which are, respectively, 7% higher than that for men, group.42 This demonstrates the im- and 9% higher than total levels pact that accessible public transport and the active role a metropolitan government can play in addressing unemployment. Disaggregating the levels of Johannesburg ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 34.4 unemployment by age and gender Harare ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ 22.8 provides further insight into levels of Addis Ababa ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 22.1 inequality and wasted potential. In Durban ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 21.9 the African metropolises, youth un- Tunis ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ 20.7 amount. Libreville and Addis Ababa employment is, on average, 9% more Brazzaville ■■■■■■■■■ 20.2 have significantly higher economic than total unemployment levels, and Accra ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ 18.3 densities than the other metropolis- women’s unemployment is on aver- Nouakchott ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 17.8 es. In comparison, Rabat, Nouakchott age 7% greater than that for men. Rabat ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 16.3 and Accra have the lowest economic These inequalities, together with the Dakar ■■■■■■■■■■■■ 15.8 densities. There is a positive correla- income inequalities discussed above ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ tion between population and eco- mean that women and the youth are Libreville 15.7 nomic density. increasingly marginalized. The African Cairo ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 15.2 African cities provide both chal- Union’s most recent strategic frame- Bamako ■■■■■■■■■■ 14.6 lenges and opportunities to address work recognises these inequalities as Casablanca ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 12.1 poverty. The 2018 UN State of African an area requiring intervention, calling Douala ■■■■■■■■■ 11.4 Cities report calls for African cities for “an Africa where development is Abidjan ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 10.3 to “seize a more prominent position people-driven, unleashing the poten- Antananarivo ■■■ 5.4 in the world economy, by enhanc- tial of women and youth43”. ing their accessibility, connectivity, Youth unemployment rates range markets and urban attractiveness40”. between 13% in Abidjan to 49% in

40 UN-Habitat and IHS-Erasmus Spaliviero M). United Nations mic Outlook:, AFDB: Abidjan: 43 African Union, Agenda 2063: University Rotterdam (2018) Human Settlements Program- Cote d’Ivoire. the Africa we want “The State of African Cities me (UN-Habitat) 2018: The geography of Afri- 42 Franklin 2015 can investment.” (Wall R.S., 41 African Development Bank Maseland J., Rochell K. and Group, 2019, “African Econo-

34 ————— african metropolitan report gender inequality in all world regions in the database. jeopardises the continent’s efforts for inclusive Europe has 13% more youth unemployment than total employment. In human development and economic growth Latin America it is 9% greater. Many declarations have been made by the African Union and other bodies that gender equality must be a priority.44 Women’s high unemploy- Johannesburg. With the exception of ment levels and lower levels of remu- Abidjan, youth unemployment in all neration have a significantly negative countries, is greater than total un- impact on the economy, lowering employment. The greatest difference the region’s GDP by an estimated av- between youth and total unemploy- erage 6% of GDP. The Africa Human ment is in Tunis, where youth unem- Development Report of 2016 notes ployment is almost double the total that gender inequality jeopardises unemployment rate. The differences the continent’s efforts for inclusive between youth unemployment and human development and economic total unemployment are a feature growth.45

Figure 12 Total Unemployment

unemployment — Africa unemployment — map unemployment — all regions

■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ Johannesburg 34.4 Africa ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 15.3 Harare ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ 22.8 Ave All Regions ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ 10.0 Addis Ababa ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 22.1 Europe ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 9.6 Durban ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 21.9 Latin American / Caribbean ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 8.3 Tunis ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ 20.7 North America ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 6.3 Brazzaville ■■■■■■■■■ 20.2 Asia ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 6.2 Accra ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ 18.3 Nouakchott ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 17.8 Rabat ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 16.3 unemployment — African regions Dakar ■■■■■■■■■■■■ 15.8 Libreville ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ 15.7 Cairo ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 15.2 South Africa ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■■ ■■■■ ■ 27.9 Bamako ■■■■■■■■■■ 14.6 Ave Africa ■■ ■ ■ ■■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■■■ ■■■ 17.5

Casablanca ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 12.1 North Africa ■■■■■■■ 16.8 Douala ■■■■■■■■■ 11.4 Central Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ 15.8 Abidjan ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 10.3 West Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 14.9 Antananarivo ■■■ 5.4 5.0 35.0 East Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 14.7

Units in %

44 See the 2004 African Union 45 Africa Human development “Solemn declaration on report: Accelerating Gender gender equality in Africa” Equality and Women’s Empowerment in Africa

african metropolitan report ————— 35 The majority of the countries in Yet, despite lower levels of the worldwide Metropolis database formal employment, the African have higher levels of unemployment Development Bank46 notes that for women, compared to men. Afri- women are more active as economic ca’s average of 7% difference be- agents in Africa than anywhere tween male and female employment else in the world. They perform the is the highest average difference for majority of agricultural activities, all regions. In Europe, unemploy- and, over and above their income- ment for women is on average 1% earning activities, are central to the lower than that for males and in Asia household economy and the welfare it is 2% lower. In Africa, Cairo has of their families. These activities are the highest discrepancy, with a 15% generally not fully acknowledged difference between the employment nor formally counted in measures levels of males compared to females. such as GDP or formal employment Only Accra has a higher level of un- figures. employment in males as compared The women in the workforce to females. indicator measures the number of

Figure 13 unemployment disaggregated by gender and youth

unemployment by gender difference between total and youth unemployment male & female unemployment

Johannesburg -4.95 ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ 49 Antananarivo ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 40.2 Durban ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ Bamako ■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 13.7 Addis Ababa -17.61 ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 25 Libreville ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 8.0 ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ Brazzaville -5.20 27 Abidjan ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 7.7 Harare -4.10 ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ 39 Cairo ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ 7.4 Nouakchott -2.73 ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 23 Accra ■■ ■■ 5.3 Rabat -8.60 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ Rabat ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 4.9 Libreville -10.30 ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Brazzaville ■■■ 4.2 Accra ■■ ■ ■ 2.30 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 30 Dakar ■■■■■ 4.0 Dakar -11.50 ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ 19 ■■ ■ ■ ■ Tunis -7.80 ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 40 Nouakchott 3.7 Bamako -6.10 ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 23 Douala ■■■ ■ 2.9 Abidjan -5.20 ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 13 Johannesburg ■ ■ ■ ■ 2.8 Cairo -15.50 ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ Harare ■■ ■ ■ 2.6 Casablanca -4.30 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ Tunis ■ ■ ■ 2.6 Douala -7.70 ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 17 Durban ■■ ■ ■ 2.3 ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ Antananarivo -4.00 Casablanca ■ 1.3 0 10 20 30 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 0 10 20 30 40 50 Addis Ababa ■ 0.8

■ Male unemployme ■ Female unemployme -17.61 2.30 Youth Units in %

46 Empowering African Women: An Agenda for Action, The Africa Gender Equality Index 2015, African Development Bank group, Cote d’ivoire

36 ————— african metropolitan report women who are either working or The World Bank48 notes that the actively looking for work. Africa’s growth of urbanisation is linked to ratio of women in the workforce is, the shift in the dominating type of at 0.7, lower than the world average employment in urban centres, with of 0.8. Within Africa, generally East a change away from primary sector Africa has the highest proportion of employment, such as agriculture, women in the workforce, and North towards increasing tertiary sector em- Africa the lowest. Accra has the ployment, such as the services sector. highest proportion with 1.1 women Regarding employment share employed for each man employed. by sector, although lower than the Antananarivo, Addis Ababa and international averages, the tertiary Brazzaville all have relatively high sector dominates employment proportions of women employed. in African metropolises, except At the other end of the spectrum, in for in Dakar and Antananarivo. Cairo, Rabat and Casablanca women Antananarivo has the largest share make up less than one third of the of employment in the primary sector workforce.47 compared to any other metropolis.

Figure 14 employment by sector – Primary sector

employment in primary sector — Africa unemployment — map employment in primary sector — all regions

Antananarivo ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 40.2 Africa ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 6.7 Bamako ■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 13.7 Ave All Regions ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■■ ■ ■ ■■ 3.0 Libreville ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 8.0 Asia ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 2.9 Abidjan ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 7.7 Latin American / Caribbean ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 1.2 Cairo ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ 7.4 Europe ■■ ■ ■ 0.5 Accra ■■ ■■ 5.3 North America ■ 0,3 Rabat ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 4.9 Brazzaville ■■■ 4.2 Dakar ■■■■■ 4.0 Nouakchott ■■ ■ ■ ■ 3.7 employment in primary sector — African regions Douala ■■■ ■ 2.9 Johannesburg ■ ■ ■ ■ 2.8 East Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 20.5 Harare ■■ ■ ■ 2.6 West Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 7.7 Tunis ■ ■ ■ 2.6 Ave Africa ■■ ■ ■ ■■■ ■■■ ■ ■■■ 6.7 Durban ■■ ■ ■ 2.3 Central Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 4.9 Casablanca ■ 1.3 North Africa ■■■ 4.1 Addis Ababa ■ 0.8 0.0 40.0 South Africa ■ ■ ■■■ ■■■ 2.6

Units in %

47 It should be noted that the given, it shows a higher level 48 Lall, Somik Vinay; Henderson, data for some metropoli- of women in the workforce J. Vernon; Venables, Anthony J. ses including Cairo, Rabat 2017. Africa’s Cities : Opening and Casablanca is national Doors to the World. Washing- level data. Generally where ton, DC: World Bank. © World metropolitan level figures are Bank

african metropolitan report ————— 37 Compared to other regions, adequately accommodated in employment in Africa’s metropolises formal employment, but instead shows a significantly higher can only find opportunities in the proportion of people working in the informal sector. The State of African primary sector compared to other Cities 2018 report notes that the regions. Primary sector employment agricultural and informal sectors is characterized by relatively low how a higher degree of participation wages and high levels of inequality. by women than do the secondary Metropolitan governments can and tertiary sectors.49 play a significant role in supporting Employment in the informal a move towards secondary and sector is a significant source of tertiary sectoral employment employment in African cities. The through, for example, improved informal economy is also responsible provision of transport and network for the generation of between 25% infrastructure. However, the and 50% total value in the urban economic strategy of metropolitan economy. Formal estimates of total governments must be carefully employment in the informal sector developed to ensure that they lead in African cities range between 66%50 to decreased levels of inequality, and 76%51. In Douala, Antananarivo and factors such as congestion and Harare, 70 to 80% of the jobs are and pollution must be carefully held in the informal sector. managed. Increasingly, new entrants to African urban areas are not

Durban ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 0.63 Johannesburg ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 0.63 Bamako ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 0.62 Addis Ababa ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 0.61 Dakar ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 0.59 Antananarivo ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ 0.53 Abidjan ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ 0.50 Douala ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ 0.46 Brazzaville ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ 0.45 Rabat ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 0.44 Accra ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 0.43 Libreville ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 0.41 Harare ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ 0.38 Tunis ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ 0.38 Casablanca ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ 0.37 Cairo ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 0.36 Nouakchott ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 0.31 DOUALA. Photo by Edouard Tamba on Unsplash

49 The State of African Cities understanding-the-in- 51 https://www.brookings. 2018 formal-economy-in-afri- edu/blog/africa-in- can-cities-recent-eviden- focus/2018/06/01/figu- 50 Estimates by ILO, cited ce-from-greater-kampala res-of-the-week-informal-em- on https://blogs.wor- ployment-in-african-cities/ ldbank.org/africacan/

38 ————— african metropolitan report The previous section provided de- symbiotic relationship between tails on the economic context of Afri- economic and social development social can metropolises, whilst this section is challenged, particularly as social provides information on the social spending is, worldwide the biggest cohesion context within which residents live. area of government spending. Economic development must serve Across the metropolises in to build social inclusion and capital Africa, poverty rates decrease with and to support sustainable social increasing GDP per capita, and development, cities should know income inequality increases. The when to invest and in which sectors. income inequality trend is opposite However, not all metropolises, and to that of the world trend, where the sub-national governments within income inequality decreases with them, take responsibility for edu- increasing GDP. cation, basic services, social support and social protection services, healthcare, cultural and sporting facilities, safety and housing. This means that the ability for metropolises to strengthen and develop a more

Figure 15 income inequality

income inequality — Africa income inequality — map income inequality — all regions

Durban ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 0.63 Africa ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ 0.48 Johannesburg ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 0.63 Latin America/ Caribbean ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ 0.48 Bamako ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 0.62 Ave All Regions ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ 0.43 Addis Ababa ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 0.61 Asia ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ 0.39 Dakar ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 0.59 Europe ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 0.35 Antananarivo ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ 0.53 North America ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 0.35 Abidjan ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ 0.50 Douala ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ 0.46 Brazzaville ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ 0.45 income inequality — African region Rabat ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 0.44 Accra ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 0.43 Libreville ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 0.41 East Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 0.57 Harare ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ 0.38 South Africa ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 0.55 Tunis ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ 0.38 West Africa ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 0.54 Casablanca ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ 0.37 Ave Africa ■■ ■■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ 0.48 Cairo ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 0.36 Central Africa ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ 0.44 Nouakchott ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 0.31 0.0 0.63 North Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 0.37

Gini coefficient (score 0-1)

african metropolitan report ————— 39 ANTANANARIVO. Photo by Brent Ninaber on Unsplash.

Johannesburg and Addis Ababa worldwide metropolitan database. stand out as metropolises where the Within the African metropolises GDP per capita is relatively high, and database, the scores range between there are very high levels of income 0.63 for Durban and Johannesburg, inequality. This pattern of increasing (South Africa being the most unequal inequality is a concern within Africa’s country on the database) to 0.3 for metropolises where the role of met- Nouakchott. ropolitan government in promoting Metropolitan governments can greater equity should not be under- play a significant role in addressing estimated. African metropolises are some of the drivers of inequality and under great pressure to perform build greater equity, gender equality their duties and provide services and inclusion. This includes improv- within severe economic constraints. ing an equal access to housing, social These financial constraints in turn infrastructure, basic services and perpetuate poverty, social exclusion public transport. and inequality. Across gender lines, income ine- Lanfranchi and Contin (2018) note quality is measured by the gender that inequality is one of the great- pay gap indicator measured by the est challenges facing metropolises ratio of female earning divided by this century. Levels of inequality as the income of males. A higher score measured by the Gini Coefficient indicates more equality and a lower of income inequality, show that, score indicates lower gender equal- together with Latin American me- ity. The data is all at a national level, tropolises, African metropolises have so does not provide a reflection of the highest levels of inequality in the the situation at a metropolis scale.

40 ————— african metropolitan report Data shows there are significant the highest.Abidjan has the highest differences between the metropolis- rate which is four times the African es, with women in Harare having the average. This is followed by Durban, greatest parity with males. In Douala, Johannesburg and Addis Ababa. women earn a third of that earned by Casablanca, Accra and Rabat all have men.The African average is the same significantly lower murder rates. as the international average and is In examining the relationship more equitable than that for Europe between murder rates and other and North America. indicators, the charts below show Another social cohesion indicator that murder rates tend to increase is murder rate. This is measured as with income inequality but are not the number of murders per 100 000 necessarily dependent on city size. people. African metropolises have on Cairo has a very large population and average the second highest mur- very low murder rate. As metropolis der rate compared to other world density increases, murder rates tend regions, with North Africa having to decrease slightly. the lowest rate and Southern Africa

Figure 16 murder rate and inequality/population and density

murder rate 20

0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0 5 10 15 20 0K 2K 4K 6K 8k

income inequality (Gini coefficient) population (millions of inhabitatns) density

■ North Africa ■ West Africa ■ South Africa ■ Central Africa ■ East Africa

african metropolitan report ————— 41 Beyond physical safety and well- Johannesburg and Antananarivo. being, literacy rates in Africa lag Bamako and Abidjan have extremely behind that of other regions. Literacy low literacy rates.Generally,metrop- rates are impacted upon by, amongst olises with higher literacy rates also other factors, poverty, gender ine- have lower poverty rates. Antanana- qualities and access to educational rivo and Harare are both exceptions facilities. In turn, literacy rates are to this, both with high literacy and highly predictive of factors such as poverty rates. employment levels, poverty and life The gender inequalities in literacy expectancy. rates are illustrated in the chart be- Africa’s average literacy rate is low. Only Johannesburg has a higher 77%. This is lower than any of the literacy level for women than it does world regions, where the global for men. Metropolises such as Dakar, average is 88.2%.Only three metrop- Bamako and Abidjan have over 20% olises in the African database have lower literacy rates for women, com- literacy rates of above 90%: Harare, pared to men.

Figure 17 difference between male and female literacy rates

Dakar ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 23.1 Bamako ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 22.9 Rabat ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 21.3 Abidjan ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ 20.6 Casablanca ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 19.8 Cairo ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ 16.8 Brazzaville ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 13.6 Douala ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ ■■■ ■ ■ 13.5 Addis Ababa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■■ ■ ■ 10.4 Tunis ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ 9.5 Accra ■■■ ■■■■■■ ■■ 9.0 Libreville ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ 5.0 Durban ■ ■■ 2.0 Antananarivo ■■ 1.3 Harare ■ 1.0 Johannesburg -0.5 ■ Nouakchott 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 5 10 15 20 25

literacy rate ■ Literacy male difference between male female literacy ■ Literacy female -0.50 23.00

Units in %

42 ————— african metropolitan report RABAT. Photo by Idriss Meliani on Unsplash

According to the 2016 African across the African continent, youth Gender Scorecard,52 there has participation in formal civic and been remarkable progress in political processes remains low, implementing global and regional especially amongst young women.54 gender equality and women’s The rights of citizens identifying as empowerment commitments across Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender Africa. However, in many cases these (LGBT) to fully participate in civic life interventions are relatively limited.53 are not protected in most African Moreover, in spite of the high countries and in some cases still proportion of youth in populations criminalized.

52 African Union Commission, of Local Governments in ‘Does less engaged mean (2017) African Gender Africa, 3rd edition, Country less empowered? Political Scorecard 2016, Addis Ababa profiles, criteria 12 on participation lags among Climate Change African youth, especially 53 UCLG Africa and Cities women’. Afrobarometer Alliance (2018) Assessing the 54 RorisangLekalake and Policy Paper No. 34 Institutional Environment E. Gyimah-Boadi (2016),

african metropolitan report ————— 43 African governments at a range rise, lower food security and the rise of levels have adopted a number of climate sensitive diseases such as environmental of global development policy malaria and cholera.58 commitments such as the Carbon Dioxide (CO2) emissions sustainability 2030 Agenda for Sustainable are a significant contributor to global Development, the Paris Agreement, warming and climate change. The the Addis Ababa Action, the average emissions from African Sendai Framework for Disaster metropolises are relatively low, at Risk Reduction and the New half of the world average, 2.3 metric Urban Agenda. All of these require tons per capita. sustainable urbanisation and The charts below show the for our purposes sustainable relationship betweenCarbon Dioxide

metropolisation. (CO2) emissions and car ownership, Africa’s significant renewable residential density and the metro and non-renewable natural population size. Metropolises with resources also present both increased levels of car ownership challenges and opportunities and higher GDP levels have increased

to its sustainable development. CO2 emissions, whereas higher Over 70% of Africa’s exports are residential densities and better in the oil, gas and mineral sectors, access to public transportation are

and these make up a significant associated with lower levels of CO2 amount of the continents GDP and emissions. government revenues.55 However, The PM2.5 concentration is a the exploitation of these natural measure of air quality showing resources has in many instances the annual mean concentration of come at the cost of sustainable and particulate matter of less than 2.5 equitable economic growth and has microns. Research has shown that resulted in significant environmental long term exposure to high levels degradation. In addition, the of PM2.5 can have serious adverse challenges of climate change have health implications. Increased levels required African cities to implement of PM2.5 concentration have been strategies to deal with factors found to be associated with higher such as land degradation, drought, population densities and increased flooding and increased heat.56 road densities.59 The data shows The Intergovernmental Panel on that on average, metropolises in the Climate Change’s57 (IPCC) measure African region have higher levels of of vulnerability to climate change PM 2.5 than the other regions. Within considers the degree to which a Africa, Nouakchott has the highest system is susceptible to, and unable levels, at 124, followed by Cairo and to cope with, adverse effects of Douala. Abidjan, Durban, Libreville climate change, including climate and Rabat all have significantly lower variability and extremes. The IPCC levels. Africa is note that Africa is highly vulnerable to Vehicle emissions contribute climate change due to its dependency significantly to increased CO2 and highly vulnerable to on climate related activities and PM2.5 and higher levels of emissions climate change due to its low adaptive capacity. The most are associated with low levels of dependency on climate significant expected changes public transport and higher levels impacting on Africa’s metropolises of motor car ownership. Africa has, related activities and low include water scarcity, the increase on average, the lowest levels of adaptive capacity in the magnitude and frequency of car ownership of any of the world extreme weather events, sea level regions, with on average just seven

55 Economic Commission for Africa, 2018, African the United Nations body for Change in Africa: Challenges for Africa, 2018, African Governance Report V, assessing the science related and Recommendations for Governance Report V, UNECA, Addis Ababa to climate change. Africa UNECA, Addis Ababa 57 The Intergovernmental Panel 58 IPCC, 2013, Policy Brief: 56 Economic Commission on Climate Change (IPCC) is Vulnerability to Climate

44 ————— african metropolitan report Figure 18 relationship between carbon emissions and car ownership; population density; access to public transport and GDP per capita

4 carbon emissions 2

0 10 20 0K 2K 4K 6K 8K 0 20 40 60 0K 5K 10K 15K 20K

car ownership Population density access to public transportation (%) GDP per capita (US$ per capita) (Inhabitants per km2)

■ North Africa ■ West Africa ■ South Africa ■ Central Africa ■ East Africa

passenger motor vehicles per 100 The provision of open green population. Europe, in comparison space, such as parks and has 48 passenger vehicles per recreational facilities within an 100 population. Within Africa, urban environment has numerous Harare has the highest levels of environmental and social benefits60 motor car ownership and Douala, and is an essential component of Antananarivo, Bamako, Nouakchott the broader social support system and Addis Ababa the lowest. and climate change mitigation There are a number of measures measures.61 Authors López-Moreno that metropolitan governments can and Murguía62 found that the most employ to reduce the amount and important factors associated with harmful impacts of air pollution and increased levels of prosperity relate

CO2 emissions as well as to improve to the availability of public space, in the general health of their residents. particular green open areas. These include increased provision In African metropolises, the of public transport, better land use measure of accessible green space planning which reduces commuting per inhabitant is significantly distances and the provision of lower than other world regions. accessible green space. Metropolises such as Douala,

59 Han, Shuaishuai& Sun, 60 Le Texier, M., Schiel, K., & Ca- 61 Steering the Metropolis Bindong. (2019). Impact of ruso, G. (2018). The provision Population Density on PM2.5 of urban green space and 62 In Steering the Metropolis Concentrations: A Case Study its accessibility: Spatial data in Shanghai, China. Sustai- effects in Brussels. PloS one, nability. 11. 1968. 10.3390/ 13(10), e0204684. doi:10.1371/ su11071968 journal.pone.0204684

african metropolitan report ————— 45 CAIRO. Photo by Sophia Valkova on Unsplash

Brazzaville and Dakar have is significantly higher in urban particularly low levels of access to areas, compared to rural areas. green space. These average scores Within metropolises access can also do not provide a full picture vary significantly, with residents of how access varies spatially of informal settlements and slums across a metropolis and across having very low levels of access and income groups. Residents living in even where services are provided, lower income residential areas are it may not be safe or easy to access Tunis ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 76 in greatest need of recreational such facilities. This is particularly Casablanca ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ 75 facilities. It is concerning that in the an issue for women who may not Cairo ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 73 African metropolises with higher be able to safely access sanitation Rabat ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 72 population densities there are facilities at night.64 Libreville ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ 68 generally lower levels of accessible The average population served Antananarivo ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 66 green space. by wastewater collection across Accra ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 66 One of the most important Africa is 43%, significantly lower Addis Ababa ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 63 tasks of local and metropolitan than the international average. This Johannesburg ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ 62 government is to provide or varies between almost 100% access Dakar ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 62 facilitate the provision of basic in Cairo, Casablanca and Rabat, to Bamako ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 60 services, including water, electricity, less than 1% in Antananarivo. North ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ sanitation and waste management. Africa has significantly higher levels Brazzaville 60 Yet, deficiencies in service provision of access, compared to West, Central Douala ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 59 negatively impact on residents and East Africa. In Antananarivo a Abidjan ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 59 living in urban areas throughout shortage of treatment facilities and Nouakchott ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 57 the world.63 The GOLD IV study the necessary infrastructure means Harare ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 57 notes that there has been a decline that water is discharged without Durban ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 56 in access to basic services in urban being treated. Together with flood areas of sub-Saharan Africa. risks, this has significant health The provision of wastewater implications for residents.65 collection or sanitation services

63 GOLD IV Co Creating the Ur- 64 Amnesty International (2010) 65 AFD, Protecting the popu- ban Future, United Cities and lation from flood risks in Local Governments (UCLG) Antananarivo https://www. 2017, Barcelona afd.fr/en/protecting-population-flood-risks-antananarivo

46 ————— african metropolitan report The life expectancy at birth indi- tancy in Europe and North America cator measures the number of years is over 80 years. Across the African quality of life that a person can expect to live. On regions, life expectancy in Southern average, across all the metropolises Africa tends to be lower than for the in Africa, the life expectancy is 65 other regions, with Harare having years. This is significantly lower than the lowest life expectancy. The north that for all other regions in the world, African metros of Casablanca, Tunis, where life expectancy is on average Rabat and Cairo, all have an average ten years more. Average life expec- life expectancy of above 70 years.

on average, across all the metropolises in Africa, life expectancy is lower than that for all other regions in the world

Figure 19 life expectancy

life expectancy — Africa life expectancy — map life expectancy — all regions

Tunis ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 76 Europe ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 81 Casablanca ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ 75 North America ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 81 Cairo ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 73 Latin American / Caribbean ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ 76 Rabat ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 72 Asia ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ 75 Libreville ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ 68 Ave All Regions ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ 73 Antananarivo ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 66 Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 65 Accra ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 66 Addis Ababa ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 63 Johannesburg ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ 62 life expectancy — African regions Dakar ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 62 Bamako ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 60

Brazzaville ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 60 North Africa ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 71 Douala ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 59 East Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 65 Abidjan ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 59 Ave Africa ■■ ■ ■ ■■■ ■ ■■■ ■ ■■■ ■■■ ■■ ■ ■ 65 Nouakchott ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 57 Central Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ 63 Harare ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 57 West Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 62 Durban ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 56 56 76 South Africa ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 59

african metropolitan report ————— 47 These findings must be under- metropolises have, on average, the stood in the context of other factors, lowest level of enrolment of female such as poverty rates, gender equali- school-aged population(primary ty and basic service provision. These and secondary school), compared to factors differ widely between and other world regions. within metropolises. Life expectancy The World Bank’s African is higher in urban areas than in more Region Gender Action Plan 2018-2266 rural areas due to increased access emphasized previous interventions to a range of government services. to encourage girls to stay in school But within a metropolis it can differ and engage in skills training in order by significant amounts. to break intergenerational cycles of The data from Africa demon- gender inequality. It demonstrates strates that gender inequities and the significant gains that have been exclusion remain high, and gender made in improving gender parity in parity in secondary and tertiary school enrolment and the impact education is particularly low. African that these have had on fertility

Figure 20 affordability of housing

affordability of housing — Africa affordability of housing — map affordability of housing — all regions

Accra ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 31.41 Asia ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ 19.77 Casablanca ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 72.24 Harare ■■■■■■■■■■■ 18.78 Latin American / Caribbean ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 14.44 Antananarivo ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 72.22 Addis Ababa ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 18.36 Ave All Regions ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ 14.26 Accra ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 64.09 Abidjan ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 18.00 Africa ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 12.67 Dakar ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 57.75 Rabat ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 17.61 Europe ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 11.30 Rabat ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 52.36 Libreville ■■ ■ ■ ■■■ ■ ■ ■■■ ■ ■ ■■■ ■ ■■ ■■■■ ■ 14.33 North America ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 7.03 Abidjan ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ 42.47 Casablanca ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ 14.22 Bamako ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 37.90 ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ Antananarivo ■■■■■■■ 13.90 Tunis 36.90 ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ Cairo ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ 12.50 Addis Ababa 28.30 Durban ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 16.47 Tunis ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ 12.25 affordability of housing — African regions Brazzaville ■■■■ 14.35 Bamako ■■■■■■■■ 11.40 East Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ 16.13 Douala ■■■■■ 13.01 Nouakchott ■■ 5.40 West Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 16.08 Cairo ■ ■■ ■■ 12.01 Douala ■■ 5.40 Ave Africa ■■ ■ ■ ■■■ ■■■ ■ ■■■ ■ ■■■ ■ ■■■ ■ 12.67 Johannesburg ■ ■ ■■ ■ 10.80 Dakar ■■ 3.50 North Africa ■■■■■■■■■■ 12.40 Libreville ■■ ■ ■■■ ■ 7.16 Durban ■■ 3.21 Central Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 9.87 Nouakchott ■ 4.43 Johannesburg ■■ 2.52 2.00 30.00 South Africa ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■■ ■■■ ■ 8.17 Harare ■ 2.39

66 World Bank, African Region Gender Action Plan 2018-22, World Bank Group

48 ————— african metropolitan report levels, income generation as well as ratio of house price to household changing social norms about gender income, but does not measure the roles and women’s empowerment. government provision of housing. The percentage of the population Instead, it measures the relative cost who are within the target age group of housing in different metropolises. enrolled in higher education ranges If formal housing is unaffordable, from 35% of the population in Cairo, many metropolitan residents have down to 5% in Antananarivo, Nouak- no choice but to live in informal chott and Bamako. Most North settlements and in temporary African countries have significantly structures or to find accommodation higher enrolment levels than other on the metropolis outskirts. One of regions. the targets for SDG 11 is to address Access to housing is another very access to affordable housing. In this important human rights and human regard the Montréal Declaration safety indicator. The affordability on Metropolitan Areas calls for an of housing indicator measures the inclusive approach to metropolitan

Figure 21 access to public transportation

access to public transportation — Africa access to public transportation — map access to public transportation — all regions

Asia ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ 19.77 Casablanca ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 72.24 Europe ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 88.05 Latin American / Caribbean ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 14.44 Antananarivo ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 72.22 Latin American / Caribbean ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ 57.35 Ave All Regions ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ 14.26 Accra ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 64.09 Ave All Regions ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 53.13 Africa ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 12.67 Dakar ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 57.75 North America ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 51.59 Europe ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 11.30 Rabat ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 52.36 Asia ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ 47.68 North America ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 7.03 Abidjan ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ 42.47 Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 32.05 Bamako ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 37.90 Tunis ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ 36.90 Addis Ababa ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 28.30 Durban ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 16.47 access to public transportation — African regions Brazzaville ■■■■ 14.35 East Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ 16.13 Douala ■■■■■ 13.01 West Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 50.55 West Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 16.08 Cairo ■ ■■ ■■ 12.01 East Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ 50.26

Ave Africa ■■ ■ ■ ■■■ ■■■ ■ ■■■ ■ ■■■ ■ ■■■ ■ 12.67 Johannesburg ■ ■ ■■ ■ 10.80 North Africa ■■■■■■■■ 35.59 North Africa ■■■■■■■■■■ 12.40 Libreville ■■ ■ ■■■ ■ 7.16 Ave Africa ■■ ■ ■ ■■■ ■ ■■■ ■ ■■■ 32.05 Central Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 9.87 Nouakchott ■ 4.43 Central Africa ■ ■ ■ ■■ 11.51 South Africa ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■■ ■■■ ■ 8.17 Harare ■ 2.39 0.00 75.00 South Africa ■ ■■ ■ 9.89

Units in %

african metropolitan report ————— 49 Figure 22 fragile cities index

fragile cities index — Africa fragile cities index — map fragile cities index — all regions

Bamako ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 4.00 Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 2.58 Antananarivo ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 3.00 Ave All Regions ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 2.09 Harare ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 2.89 Latin American / Caribbean ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 2.03 Dakar ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ ■■■ 2.89 Asia ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■■ ■■■ ■ ■■■■ ■ ■ ■ 1.94 Abidjan ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ 2.89 Europe ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 1.68 Johannesburg ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 2.86 North America ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 1.68 Brazzaville ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 2.78 Durban ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ 2.73 Cairo ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 2.47 fragile cities index — African regions Addis Ababa ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 2.44 Libreville ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ 2.38 Nouakchott ■■■■■■■■■■■■ 2.33 West Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 3.02 Accra ■■■■■■■■■■■ 2.30 South Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 2.83 Tunis ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 2.22 East Africa ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ 2.72 Douala ■■■■■■■■■■■■■■■ 2.11 Ave Africa ■■ ■ ■ ■■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■■ ■■■ 2.58 Rabat ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ 1.88 Central Africa ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ 2.42 Casablanca ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 1.77 1.00 4.00 North Africa ■■■■■■■■ 2.13

Score 1-5

development and human settle- goal of many urban governments. ments which provides affordable Improving accessibility within a and adequate housing.67 Accra has a metropolis is a function of reducing significantly higher score than other physical distances which need to metropolises on this indicator. Dakar, be travelled and reducing the time Durban and Johannesburg have a it takes to commute across the significantly better level of housing metropolitan territory. affordability. Lall et al (2017)68 note that the Ideally, people should be able majority of African cities have to reside and carry out their daily underdeveloped transport networks. lives in similar areas, and reducing The State of African Cities, 2018 physical distances has been the report confirms this, stating that: focus of initiatives such as increasing “African cities are generally internally density and changing land use fragmented and composed of small mixes. As this may not be fully and disconnected neighbourhoods.69” achievable in sprawled territories, Regarding access to public reducing commuting times through transportation, the lack of efficient the provision of improved public and effective systems is evident in transport systems is another stated that just 32% of Africa’s metropolitan

67 Montréal Declaration on Opening Doors to the World. 69 State of African Cities, 2018, Metropolitan Areas, 2015 Washington, DC: World p30 Bank. © World Bank. https:// 68 Lall, Somik Vinay; Henderson, openknowledge.worldbank. J. Vernon; Venables, Anthony org/handle/10986/25896 J. 2017. Africa’s Cities :

50 ————— african metropolitan report citizens have access to a recognized transport can significantly increase public transport stop, compared to a household’s monthly costs. The 88% in European metropolises. This urban fragility index measures the is lower than the averages for any vulnerability of cities, focusing on other part of the world represented issues such as rapid and unregulated in the Metropolis database. urbanisation, income inequality, Access is highest in Casablanca poverty, unemployment and natural and Antananarivo, where, in each hazard exposure, and scores cities metropolis 72% of the population based on a number of metrics. have access to public transport. Scores between 1 and 5 are allocated In Accra, Dakar and Rabat, over to each city. Generally, African half of the population have access metropolises have higher scores to public transport, yet in Harare, than those in the rest of the world. Nouakchott and Libreville, less than Bamako scores the highest on this 10% of the population have such index and Antananarivo the second access. It should be noted however highest. Rabat and Casablanca have that a recognized public transport relatively low scores. stop does necessarily not take into All the metropolises for which account stops made by the informal there is data indicate a vulnerability transport sector, in the form of mini- to fire. This is exacerbated by the bus taxi’s and motorbike taxis, but high levels of informal dwellings and is a useful indicator of access to a a lack of water infrastructure. Water more reliable and formal transport scarcity is also a common problem system. and requires a greater focus on the The combination of low density management of water supply and living and a lack of access to public water resources. TUNIS. Photo by Chermiti Mohamed on Unsplash

african metropolitan report ————— 51 conclusions

52 ————— african metropolitan report Metropolises perform a major role in Africa’s evolving structural transformation given the massive growth that urban environments can facilitate in critical economic sectors. Major urban areas can accommodate industries that have already demonstrated sustained economic growth and the role of African cities and urbanisation must reverberate in the long-term economic, spatial and demographic planning of the continent.

african metropolitan report ————— 53 The average size of the 17 African metropolises Metropolitan Africa 1 studied is 4.3 million, smaller than the international in a nutshell average of 7.5 million.

Population density is relatively high compared to 2 world averages, but varies significantly across cities and, is not always aligned to economic density.

Whilst rates of growth are slowly declining amongst 3 African metropolises, they are still significantly higher than those in urban areas in the rest of the world, providing serious governance and service delivery challenges.

African metropolises have a slightly higher degree of metropolitan coordination compared to other world 4 regions, and a lower level of fragmentation.

Urban growth is leading to higher residential 5 densities across the continent.

On average, across Africa, the sum of the budgets for metropolises is around 2.6% of that of national 6 government, significantly lower than the international average of 4%.

African metropolises have a slightly higher policy 7 leadership score than the worldwide average, but with a lower fiscal decentralisation average, effectively allowing metropolises to have a greater say over what gets done, but often without the necessary fiscal power to implement it.

In terms of gender equality, African metropolises have a lower percentage of women in local government than 8 the world average.

African metropolises have significantly lower levels of GDP per capita compared to all other regions, and 9 African poverty rates are more than double the world average.

In African metropolises with higher levels of GDP, 10 there are lower levels of poverty, but higher levels of inequality.

The gender pay gap indicator shows that in most of the African metropolises for which the data is available 11 have lower levels of gender pay inequality than the world average.

54 ————— african metropolitan report Generally, there are high levels of unemployment in African metropolises, where unemployment levels are 12 almost twice that of the international average.

There is also a significant gap between total unemployment and youth unemployment, which is 13 also a feature in other world regions.

Economic growth is compromised by the relatively 14 high dependency on work in the primary sector, where employment is characterized by relatively low wages and high levels of inequality.

Life expectancy is generally higher in urban areas than in more rural areas due to increased access to a 15 range of government services. Average life expectancy in African metropolises is on average 65 years, seven years less than for other worldwide metropolises.

Murder rates vary significantly between metropolises, but are generally high in African 16 metropolises.

Literacy rates in Africa lag 17 behind that of other regions.

Africa is highly vulnerable to climate change due to its dependency on climate related activities and 18 low adaptive capacity. The most significant expected changes impacting on Africa’s metropolises include water scarcity, extreme weather events, sea level rise, lower food security and the rise of climate sensitive diseases such as malaria and cholera. African metropolises rank high on the Fragile Cities Index.

The average Carbon Dioxide (CO2) emissions from 19 African metropolises are relatively low, at half of the world average, 2.3 metric tons per capita. Whilst CO2 levels are relatively low, PM2.5 concentrations are higher in African metropolises than in other world regions.

Underdeveloped public transport networks in 20 African metropolises increases inequality, and reduces accessibility accross the metropolitan spaces, discriminating particularly against the poor.

african metropolitan report ————— 55 To a certain extent the lag is due can be attributed to the fact that colonialism and its appendices effects are still writ large across African metropolitan areas. Colonialism often inhibited or distorted the economic-, social and infrastructural-growth of African urban spaces. At the same time, though, these data draw an important conclusion: that metropolisation does lead to improvements in governance, economy, social development, gender disparities and the ability to address climate change and improve environmental sustainability. Given that African metropolisation rates are higher than global rates, as these spaces develop it is expected that in time the disparities between African metropolitan spaces and the rest of the world will reduce. However, this is only likely to happen if the trends towards the decentralisation of developmental powers and functions to subnational and particularly metropolitan levels of governance continue. In particular, the provision or facilitation of basic services, including water, electricity, sanitation and waste removal,

DAKAR. Photo by Vince Gx on Unsplash reduction of disparities and the like should all contribute to this process of improved governance. Taken as a whole, African The Metropolis database and metropolitan spaces generally lag studies using these data will behind the global averages and hopefully lead to a wide variety of the other regions of the world. To a discussions comparing regions, certain extent this is to be expected, explaining differences and more given that African urbanisation rates importantly learning across have lagged behind those of the rest these metropolitan spaces as of the world. each strives to develop its own norms and standards. Clearly, further and ongoing work will need to be undertaken to improve both the reliability, validity and the disparities between representativeness of these data as the intention it be to ensure African metropolitan spaces and the rest of the world that comparisons are meaningful is only likely to be reduced if the trends towards and able to be contextualised. This the decentralisation of developmental powers is particularly given the crucial importance of metropolitan and functions to sub-national and particularly spaces in the environmental, metropolitan levels of governance continue infrastructural, economic and social challenges facing the world today.

56 ————— african metropolitan report appendices

african metropolitan report ————— 57 bibliography

AFD, undated. Defining and Empowering African Metropolis: The UN-Habitat and IHS- measuring social cohesion Women: An Agenda for metropolitan scale of Erasmus, University in South Africa. Policy Action, The Africa Gender resilience Rotterdam (2018) “The Brief 1 Equality Index 2015, State of African Cities African Development Bank Kuala Lumpur Declaration 2018: The geography of African Development group, Cote d’ivoire on Cities: 2030, Ninth African investment.” (Wall Bank Group, 2019. African session of the World Urban R.S., Maseland J., Rochell Economic Outlook 2019. Dijkstra and Poelman, 2014 Forum K. and Spaliviero M). United Nations Human African Union, Agenda Economic Commission Pan-African Statistics Settlements Programme 2063: the Africa we want for Africa, 2018. African Programme, 2017. African (UN-Habitat). Governance Report Trade Statistics Yearbook African Union, 2018. V: Natural Resource 2017. UN Habitat 2017, Africa’s Development Governance and Domestic Action Framework for Dynamics: Growth, jobs Revenue Mobilization for Peters, BG. 1998. Implementation of the and inequalities. Structural Transformation. Managing horizontal New Urban Agenda government. The politics African Union Commission, Florczyk, A.J., Melchiorri, of coordination. Canadian UN Habitat 2018, The State 2015. African Gender M., Corbane, C., Schiavina, Centre for Management of African Cities 2018: Scorecard. M., Maffenini, M., Pesaresi, Development. The geography of African M., Politis, P., Sabo, S., investment AGA, 2019. The Africa Freire, S., Ehrlich, D., Regional Development and Governance Report, Kemper, T., Tommasi, Spatial Inclusion, African United Cities and Local Promoting African Union P., Airaghi, D. and L. Economic Outlook 2015, Governments of Africa, Shared Values. Zanchetta, Description African Development 2015. Assessing the of the GHS Urban Centre Bank, Organisation for Institutional Environment Africa Human development Database 2015, Public Economic Co-operation of Local Governments in report: Accelerating Release 2019, Version and Development, United Africa 2015, 2nd Edition Gender Equality and 1.0, Publications Office Nations Development Women’s Empowerment in of the European Union, Programme (2015) Africa Luxembourg, 2019, ISBN 978-92-79-99753- World Bank, African Region Bocoum, AY and 2, doi:10.2760/037310, Gender Action Plan 2013- Djeguema, A. 39th JRC115586. 17, http://siteresources. ISOCARP Congress, Cairo: worldbank.org/INTAFRICA/ Urban planning in a more Khan, MH, 2018. Resources/AFR-Gender- globalised and competitive Institutions in Action-Plan-FY13-17.pdf world: Globalisation and Transformational metropolisation in Accra/ Governance: Lessons for 2018 revision of the World Lagos Continuum Africa. Africa Economic Urbanisation Prospects by Brief 9(8). African UN DESA’s Population Development Bank Group. Division

Lall, Somik Vinay, J. Vernon Henderson, and Anthony J. Venables. 2017. “Africa’s Cities: Opening Doors to the World.” World Bank, Washington, DC.

Metropolis, https://www. metropolis.org/projects/ metropolitan-indicators

58 ————— african metropolitan report metropolitan indicators definitions, units and sources

metropolitan population (disaggregated by sex and age) context and definition metric method reference governance Population of # The detailed method to (-) metropolitan area calculate the metropolitan area is described in www. sources indicators.metropolis.org/ Various methodology (most notably the census)

metropolitan area

definition metric method reference Size of the km2 Please refer to www.indicators. LSE Cities Metropolitan metropolis.org Area sources Various

population density

definition metric method reference Population Inhabitants Population (-) Divided by the per km2 Size of Metropolitan area Metropolitan sources Area Various

leadership of policy sectors

definition metric method reference Leadership of Score Online survey. The members LSE Cities different policy of Metropolis were asked sectors in the to respond to the following sources metropolitan area prompt: ‘Please rate the level Survey of influence that different tiers of government have over decision-making in your metropolis for the following policy sectors (0 = no influence; 1 = limited influence; 2 = moderate influence; 3 = significant influence).’ The following policy sectors were listed: Urban transport, Spatial planning, Economic development, Social services, Environment, Utilities, Health, Education, Housing, Policing and security, Gender equality, Culture.

african metropolitan report ————— 59 fiscal decentralisation (country-level)

definition metric method reference Subnational % of OECD government GDP Subnational www.oecd.org/cfe/region- expenditure as Government al-policy/sngs-around-the- a % of GDP 100x world.htm GDP World Bank www1.worldbank.org/pub- licsector/decentralization/ fiscalindicators.htm

sources Various (most notably the census)

territorial fragmentation

definition metric method reference Number of Local # Number of OECD (2016); Governments Local Government CIPPEC (2017) per 100,000 100 000 Inhabitants inhabitants of of the metropolitan sources the Metropolitan area National Statistics Bureau; Area Regional and Local Authorities

*Only general-purpose local governments are included (specific function governments are excluded, e.g. school districts, health agencies). **Only the local level of government has been included (the ‘lowest’ tiers) as a measure of the horizontal fragmentation (the administrative structure of a country may include more than one level of government with relevant responsibilities over the same territory covered by the metropolitan area).

metropolitan coordination

definition metric method reference This indicator Score 5 = There is a metropolitan LSE Cities aims at assessing (0 – 5) government/supra municipal Metropolis Issue the level of coor- structure Paper 1, OECD dination across 4 = There is a multi-purpose/ (2015), GIZ and policy sectors at strategic mechanism for UN-Habitat the metropolitan formal cooperation and all (2015), CIPPEC area. It assesses jurisdictions participate on it (2017) the number of 3 = There is a multi-purpose/ sectors under strategic mechanism for for- sources some formal mal cooperation but not all Various arrangement of jurisdictions participate on it metropolitan 2 = There is a sectoral/sin- coordination and gle purpose mechanism for the coverage of formal cooperation and all that institutional jurisdictions participate arrangement 1 = There is a sectoral/single purpose mechanism for formal cooperation but not all jurisdictions participate on it 0 = No coordination at all

60 ————— african metropolitan report national prominence (budget) definition metric method reference Ratio between % of metro jurisdictions LSE Cities the aggregated nationale budget budget for all gover- ∑ sources National government jurisdictions nment Local budget within the budget authorities metropolitan area and the national government budget

fiscal autonomy definition metric method reference Own Source % CPI-UN Own Source Revenue Revenue as 100x (2016: 121) Percentage of Total metropolitan the Total Metro revenue sources Revenue Various

*We will consider weighting different municipalities within a metropolitan area by their GDP or population ** When revenue data is not accessible, we used expenditure data instead

total metropolitan budget per capita definition metric method reference Sum of US$ per Total metropolitanbudget LSE Cities Metropolitan inhabitant Metropolitan population Government sources Budget per capita Local authorities

legislation enforcing gender equality definition metric method reference Legislation Score Online survey. The members LSE Cities Enforcing Gender of Metropolis were asked to Equality respond to the following sources prompt: ‘Is your city/ Survey metropolitan government implementing any of these tools and measures for promoting equal opportunities for women? Please select ‘yes’ if you are aware of any similar practice, ‘no’ if no similar practice has been implemented or ‘don’t know’ if you cannot be certain about it.’

african metropolitan report ————— 61 share of elected women in local government (head of departments if no elections)

definition metric method reference Percentage of % United Nations Number of elected Women Elected (2007), Women to City Council 100 * CPI – UN- (Number Legislative Habitat (2016), of elected Branch. If UNESCO representatives) Inexistent, Percentage of Women in sources Executive/ Various Managerial Positions

*In case of multiple jurisdictions (most of the cases) we will calculate the median

GDP per capita in the metropolitan area (or GVA if available) economic definition metric method reference development Sum of US$ per (-) OECD Metropolitan eXplorer, Metropolitan inhabitant CPI – UN-Habitat Government Budget per capita sources Primary: National Statistics Bureau Other: Subnational Statistics Bureau, Oxford Economics

employment share by sector

definition metric method reference % of the % LSE Cities People employed Metropolitan sector Area Employment sources by sector Total of people National Statistics employed Bureau, Regional metropolitan area employment agencies

economic prominence (GDP)

definition metric method reference % of Country GDP % of Metropolitan GDP OECD Metropolitan Produced by the national eXplorer National GDP Metropolitan govern- Area (at Current ment sources Prices) budget National Statistics Bureau

62 ————— african metropolitan report women in work force definition metric method reference Ratio of female Ratio Employed WEF – GGGI to male of Women ILO, https://data.worldbank. proportion of org/indicator/SL.TLF.CACT. a metropolitan Employed FM.ZS area working-age Men UN – HDR, http://hdr. population (ages undp.org/en/content/ 15 and older) that labour-force-participa- engages in the tion-rate-female-male-ratio labour market, either by working sources or actively looking National Statistics Bureau for work

*Whenever feasible, we will use the employment rate disaggregated by sex from Unemployment indicator.

unemployment (disaggregated by sex and age) definition metric method reference Share of % Metropolitan OECD Metropolitan metropolitan Unemployment eXplorer / ISO 37120 unemployment 100x Total over total sources metropolitan labour force in a National Statistic Bureau Labour Force metropolitan area *The unemployment rate will be calculated as the number of working-age city residents who during the survey reference period were not in paid employment or self-employment, but available for work, and seeking work (numerator) divided by the total labour force (denominator). **Labour Force refers to the sum of the total persons employed and unemployed who are legally eligible to work ***Youth employment will be calculated based on the definition of youth labour force of each metropolitan area

economic density definition metric method reference 2 Metropolitan US$/km Metropolitan CPI – UN-Habitat GDP Divided GDP by Size of the Size of sources Metropolitan Metropolitan area Various Area

african metropolitan report ————— 63 gender pay gap

definition metric method reference Female Ratio UN HDI (2015: 5) estimated Income by female WEF Global Gender Gap Report earned income (PPP, US$) http://www3.weforum.org/docs/ over male value Income by male WEF_GGGR_2017.pdf (PPP, US$) HDR (2008) http://hdr.undp.org/ sites/default/files/reports/268/ hdr_20072008_en_complete.pdf

Mean Nominal Ratio Monthly earnings ILO https://www.gov.uk/guid- Monthly by female ance/gender-pay-gap-report- Earnings by Monthly earnings ing-overview Female over by male male value sources (this can be Various hourly earnings as calculated by the UK Government)

* Most of the metro areas did not have any metro-level data.

informal economy (as % of jobs)

definition metric method sources Share of % Online survey. The Survey informal jobs members of Metropolis over total were asked to respond to reference jobs in the the following prompt: ‘What LSE Cities metropolitan is the estimated percentage area of the informal economy in your city/metropolitan area? Please indicate as a percentage of total jobs and/or as a percentage of tot al GDP.’

literacy rate (disaggregated by sex) social cohesion definition metric method sources The percentage % Number Various of population of literate aged 15 years population reference and older that 15 y Over United Nations 100x is literate i.e. Population (2007), can read and (15 y Over) CPI – UN- write a short Habitat (2016), simple statement UNESCO (usually a paragraph) related to his/her everyday life

* The definition of an adult population is based on age 15 or older, but may vary among some metro areas

64 ————— african metropolitan report income inequality

definition metric method reference Gini coefficient Score (-) UN CPI (2016), UN HDI (0 – 1) sources UN-Habitat – available for 1769 cities poverty rate (disaggregated by sex) definition metric method reference Proportion of % Number of UN SDG population below population Framework, the international Living below World Bank poverty line $1.90 PPP a day (defined as the 100x sources Total percentage of National Population the population Statistics living on less than Bureau, $1.90 a day at UN-Habitat 2011 international Urban Data prices).

* The definition of the poverty line varies among some metro areas. This is especially related to the raise of the international poverty line from $1.25 to $1.90 in 2015 and the availability of local-level data. Thus, the result should not be used for comparison between two metros but be used to get a general overview only.

foreign born population (disaggregated by sex)

definition metric method reference Percentage of % Foreign born http://data.un.org/Glos- Foreign Born population sary.aspx?q=foreign%20 population born%20population Metropolitan area population sources National Statistics Bureau

*According to UN Data, the foreign-born population of a country is defined as “All persons who have that country as the country of usual residence and whose place of birth is located in another country.”

murder rate (disaggregated by sex)

definition metric method reference Number of Murders Murders UN CPI (2016: 77) murders per 100,000 Metropolitan 10,000x (intentional and inhabitants Area sources unlawful deaths population Various purposefully inflicted on a person by another person) per 100,000 inhabitants disaggregated by sex

* Most of the metro areas did not have any information disaggregated by sex.

african metropolitan report ————— 65 air quality (PM 2.5 concentration) environmental definition metric method reference sustainability Annual Mean Micrograms PM 2.5 – 10 UN CPI (2016) Concentration of per cubic 100 {1– ( concentration )} Particulate Matter meter (μg/m3) 10 sources of Less than 2.5 WHO – Microns (PM2.5) available for in the Metropoli- 1883 cities, tan Area Environmental Authorities

*PM 2.5 is used because of its greater health impacts. The estimates represent the average annual exposure level of the average urban resident to outdoor particulate matter. High-quality measurements of PM 2.5 concentration from all the monitors in the urban area can be averaged to develop a single estimate.

CO2 emissions

definition metric method reference

CO2 emissions Tonnes per Annual CO2 World Bank World Development (metric tonnes inhabitant emission Indicators, ID: EN.ATM.CO2E.PC per capita) Metropolitan https://data.worldbank.org/in- population dicator/EN.ATM.CO2E.PC

sources Energy authority, providers

car ownership

definition metric method reference Number of # Total registered Eurostat (reg_tran) passenger cars cars in the metro- registered in politan area sources 100x the metropol- Metropolitan area Eurostat, Latin American itan area per population Green City Index, National 100 inhabitants Statistics

* Passenger cars mean road motor vehicle, other than a moped or a motor cycle, intended for the carriage of passengers and designed to seat no more than nine persons (including the driver). Included are Passenger cars, Vans designed and used primarily for transport of passengers, Taxis, Hire cars, Ambulances, Motor homes, and Micro-cars (needing no permit to be driven). Excluded are light goods road vehicles, as well as motor-coaches and buses, and mini-buses/mini-coaches.

green space

definition metric method reference Accessible green m2 per Total accessible UN CPI (2016), ISO space within the inhabitant green area within 37120 metropolitan area metropolitan region per inhabitant Metropolitan area sources population OpenStreetMap

*OpenStreetMap defines a park as an area of open space provided for recreational use, usually designed and in semi-natural state with grassy areas, trees and bushes. A Garden is defined as a distinguishable planned space, usually outdoors, set aside for the display, cultivation, and enjoyment of plants and other forms of nature. Thus, green space located in a rural or isolated location has been excluded from calculating green space in this indicator.

66 ————— african metropolitan report waste generated per capita definition metric method reference Solid or semi-solid Generation Total waste World Bank http:// waste generated in Rate (kg generated within documents.world- population centres / capita / metropolitan bank.org/curated/ including domestic day) region per day en/30234146812626 and commercial Metropolitan area 4791/pdf/68135-RE- wastes, as well as population VISED-What-a- those originated Waste-2012-Final-up- by the small-scale dated.pdf industries and institutions (including sources hospital and clinics), Waste collection markets, street authorities, sweeping, and from UN-Habitat Urban street cleaning Data

population served by wastewater collection definition metric method reference Metropolitan popu- % Total WCCD - ISO 37120 lation connected to metropolitan wastewater population sources collecting systems as served by Wastewater part of a public or wastewater collection community owned collection authorities, 100x system of discharge Metropolitan Eurostat, Latin of served waters area American Green and other residues population City Index through a pipe or similar duct that is connected to a network that takes it to a facility where it is treated

renewable energy use definition metric method reference Share of a % WCCD - ISO 37120 Total consump- metropolitan (p. 28) tion of electricty area’s total energy generated consumption derived sources from renewable from renewable WCCD; CDP; sources sources 100x Eurostat; National Total energy Statistics consumption population

*Renewable sources include geothermal, solar, wind, tide and wave energy, and combustibles, such as biomass, but do not include hydro source as suggested by the World Bank.

african metropolitan report ————— 67 life expectancy at birth (disaggregated by sex) quality of life definition metric method reference Life expectancy # (-) OECD (doi: at birth is defined 10.1787/27e0f- as how long, on c9d-en) average, a new- born can expect sources to live, if current National and death rates do metropolitan not change statistics

affordability of housing

definition metric method reference Housing Price- Ratio Nominal house OECD to-Income price of metropolitan doi: 10.1787/ Ratio is the region cbcc2905-en nominal house Nominal household price divided sources disposable income per by the nominal Real Estate Trade head of metropolitan disposable Associations, area population income per head Households (Net household surveys disposable income is used)

*’Affordability’ refers to the extent to which the financial cost of journeys require an individual or household to make sacrifices to travel or the extent to which they can afford to travel when they want to. Therefore, affordability indicates the ability to make necessary journeys to work, school, health and other social services; to visit family members; or to make other urgent journeys without having to curtail other essential activities” (World Bank, 2009)

enrolment of female school-aged population

definition metric method reference The number of % Number of WCCD - ISO 37120 female school- female school aged population aged Population sources enrolled at enrolled at National Minis- primary and primary an tries of Education, secondary levels secondary levels Regional/Local in public and in public and Departments of private schools private schools Education (numerator) 100x Total number of divided by the female shools total number of aged population female school- aged population (denominator)

68 ————— african metropolitan report fragile cities index definition metric method reference Measures Score Instituto Igarapé Instituto vulnerability of cities (1 – 5) analysed at least 7 of Igarapé focusing on: 11 metrics to formulate rapid and unregulated 5-point scale scores of sources urbanization, income 2,100 cities having more Instituto and social inequality, than 250,000 inhabitants Igarapé concentrated poverty, youth unemployment, policing and justice deficits, real and perceived insecurity, and natural hazard exposure

gross enrolment rate in higher education (disaggregated by sex) definition metric method sources Enrolled students % Population enrolled Various divided by that belongs in corresponding tertiary education reference 100x population. People that belong UN CPI Enrolled students - to the tertiary (2016:76) Number of individuals education age of official tertiary range school going age (usually between 18 to 23 years old) who are enrolled in tertiary education. Corresponding population - total individuals of official tertiary school going age

Total metropolitan # Population enrolled sources population enrolled in that belongs in (-) tertiary educational tertiary education 10.000x institutes per 10,000 Total metropolitan reference inhabitants population National and metropolitan statistics

* Most data used in this indicator is national-level ones.

african metropolitan report ————— 69 access to public transportation

definition metric method reference Proportion % Proportion of the population UN-Habitat, UN SDG’s of population who has access to an officially Framework Metadata that has recognized transport stop Indicator 11.2.1 convenient within 0.5km from a reference access point. Metadata for SDG 11 sources to public indicator 11.2.1 describes a OSM and LandScan transport four step method: 1. Spatial Analysis to delimit the built-up area of the urban agglomeration 2 .Inventory of the public transport stops in the city or service area 3. Estimate of urban area with access to public transport 4. Estimation of the proportion of the population with convenient access out of the total population HARARE. Photo by Trust Tru Katsande on Unsplash

70 ————— african metropolitan report african Research and writing Editing Layout and graphics metropolitan report Sue Bannister and Micha- Luca Arbau, Lia Brum, Silvia G Grafic el Sutcliffe, Directors and Llorente and Eugeni Villalbi, Co-Founders of City Insight Metropolis Secretariat General staff

Acknowledgments This publication was commissioned to City Insight, a consultancy based in South Africa whose founders have decades of experience in the development of good local government in order to transform and change the daily realities of inhabitants of the African continent.

The metropolitan indicators that serve as the main source of information for this report are part of the Metropolis Observatory, a project funded by the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona (AMB) which offers reference frameworks to include the metropolitan perspective in urban governance. The development of the metropolitan indicators was commissioned to LSE- Cities at the London School of Economics and Poli- tical Science. All the indicators are presented in graphic form at the website indicators.metropolis.org, where data points can also be freely downloaded.

November, 2019 This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ Supported by:

This publication contributes to the implementation of the following Sustainable Development Goals:

Secretariat General

Avinyó, 15. 08002 Barcelona (Spain) Tel. +34 93 342 94 60 Fax: +34 93 342 94 66 [email protected] metropolis.org #MetroGovernance

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