The Encounter between and Persia: Research on The Impact of West-Asiatic Cosmology in Southeast Asia

S. SETUDEH-NEJAD

he study of comparative civilizations, with focus on the culture of the Cham, a seafaring T people of Sa Huynh origin (in Central ), has attracted much attention in field surveys. My examination of the 'Cham problem' is based on studies which were initiated during the period of my affiliation with the Institute of Asia-Pacific Studies, Srninakharinwirot Univer- sity at the Prasarnmit Campus, under the impact of Ajarn Plubplung Kongchana's lecture on Champa at the Siam Society on July 16th, 1995, and a period of field research in Vietnam and during 1996. It is probable that reform-based manifesta- tions of the famed reign of Sasanian King Khosrow Anushirwan found firm roots in the legendary, and thus, literary heritage of the Champans, who as a Malay-speaking people in Vietnam retained numerous concepts in their traditions together with other peoples of the peninsular regions of Southeast Asia, where traditions for fairness and 'justice' are identifi- able with the Malay sphere traditions regarding a legendary 'just prince' in whose image, Pan- Map: showing the historic spots in Champa and Vietnam, Asian movements evolved in Southeast Asia in Cochinchina and the Cambodian zone, all of which were order to pursue socio-economoc reforms. under the symbolic sphere of 'Funan' and her extensive kinship courts of Cosmic Kingship' in the direction of the Malay Peninsula, where the sea trades of the 'Posse' became felt as of the 4th century AD Persian Elements in the Cultural Heritage of Cham-Viet Peoples Our chief argument regarding a Persian- Cham of (1); (b) Western based inspiration and heritage for Malay- scholarship regarding the "Book of Anushirvan", speaking peoples' models for 'just rule' and a cosmic text attributed to Cham compilation, transmission of Zoroastrianism, thus, inclusion of derived from Persian-based metamorphosis; and cosmological concepts from Sasanid Iran into (c) recent studies which indicate the impact of Champa is based on several factors: (a) An oral Sasanid Persia in Vietnamese territory (2). As tradition by the 'Orang Bani', or the Islamicised Schafer has explained, among the Champan

SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 3 5 enclaves scattered in various reached Guangzhou, a port in east Asian kingdoms' ports. In areas of Vietnam, there are Southern China, in the city of China proper, as gathered data some in the villages of Binh "Canton" (8), and that by 748 seems to suggest, historical Thuan in southern Vietnam AD, Hainan, an island in the texts and family records of Chi- who identify themselves as China Sea had Persian and nese Muslims in Guangzhou, 'Orang Bani' (3), a term which Arab merchant communities, Xiamen, and Quangzhou may denotes the Islamic faith, and whose movements penetrated indicate that the propagation kin-Malay affiliation among northerly port-towns of China as and popularization of Islam the Cham ethnicity (4). These well (9). in China from the seventh to southern Vietnamese Muslim According to Cady, from the fourteenth centuries AD., Chams hold on to a tradition re- AD 758 onward, and "for a gen- was via families who were garding their ancestry, claiming eration thereafter", West-Asian descendants of Central-Asian, that their first king was named traders from Arabia and Persia Mongolian, Arab, and Persian "Noursavan", or 'Nourshavan', used as a trading traders who were married to a name which, as Schafer centre of maritime activities Chinese wives. Their popula- has clarified, is the Champan (10). Ships carrying goods and tion today is over ten million version for 'Anushirwan the passengers travelled in the who still profess the Muslim Just' of Sasanid Persia (5). waterways of Cham-Viet king- faith, and are called 'Hui', Moreover, French schol- doms. These activities were together with some 33,000 arly efforts have indicated recorded in a Chinese text Persian-speaking Tajik nomads another association between the 'Chiu T'ang-shu', a historical who are dwellers in the Pamir Sasanians and Cham culture, work which has provided some Mountains in Xinjiang (12). being the so-called "Book of details on a Southeast Asian Consequently, trade and Anushirvan", a Cham work on state known by its Sinicized long-time residence via inter- cosmology, which Schafer name as P'an P'an, whose marriage resulted in the preser- pointed out as "sacred" to the location was proximate to the vation of loyally to West and Champan people (6). coast of Thailand: "P'an P'an Central Asian husbands, and We must primarily con- lies to the southwest of Lin-i these ethno-cultural kinships sider a tentative argument [Champa] in a corner of the helped to introduce Islamic that Cham people's loyally to an sea ... One can reach it by boat concepts and traditions which oral tradition involving Persia from Chiao-chou [Tonkin] in were indigenous in West and suggests that the history of forty days" (11). Thus, there Central Asia, but Islamicised Champa's Islamization is prob- is ample literary evidence to (Zoroastrians were converted ably related to the appearance indicate that Muslim trading into Islam and a fusion of ideas of West-Asian Muslim enclaves ships could have reached Cham- under the name 'Persian' in- which were established in Cham- pan harbours from Tonkin or cluded Islamic and Southeast Viet homelands between the Chinese ports to establish Asian notions). Such trends seventh and eighth centuries settlements, and Muslim inter- probably persisted among the AD, at a time when the harbours marriage with the Far Eastern seafaring people of Vietnam in of Tonkin were reportedly a people resulted in the spread Champan ports, where the terminus for the overseas trade of Islam in Southeast Asia. 'Orang Bani' as a Islamicized of Arabian and Persian ship Indeed, inter-marriage group are probably a symbol merchants (7). In this regard, was the institution or the basis of inter-marriage with West- we know that as early as AD 611 upon which Islamization found Asian residents in Tonkin and to 626, Islamic missions had momentum in China and South- Cham harbours. The discovery

6 SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 3 of inscriptions in Southern luxury of this royal court, sug- by Mazdean cosmology, led to Vietnam, depicting Kufic scripts gesting that its magnificence the spread of the name and dated from the latter half of was "unsurpassed by that of achievements of Khosrow the eleventh century AD (13), any dynasty in world's history" Anushirwan of "The Immortal suggests that Islamic enclaves (16). Soul", whose fame as 'Anushir- existed in Vietnam in earlier In the Era of Khosrow wan the Just' became known in times, but when we consider Anushirwan, Persia was a Zoro- the East and West, especially in the 'Orang Bani' and their oral astrian kingdom, and Iranian the East where the ideal for tradition on 'Nour-shavan', their cosmology centred on Zoroas- kingly charisma relied on first king, it is in retrospect a trian-derived interpretations of strength and justice (19). reflection of a pre-Islamic en- the official faith, 'Mazdaizm'. It is likely that in the days counter of Champa with Sasanid The founder of this ancient of maritime trade between the Persia. faith was Zarathushtra, whose Persian Gulf and the Arabian birthdate, as Mary Boyce Sea in the direction of the Indian suggests, is identifiable with Ocean and farther East, the oral The Personage of BC 1400 to BC 1200 when Irani- traditions for a 'just king' who Anushirwan And ans were first experiencing had brought about agricultural Sasanian Cosmology the impact of their Bronze Age prosperity for his subjects The most celebrated mon- (17). spread across the Malay Penin- arch of Persia in the Sasanian Under the Sasanian dy- sula, where its cosmology was Period (AD 226- 651) was nasty, the Mazdean clergy re- retained in the literary heritage Khosrow Anushirwan (r.AD formed the strict ethical dualism of Malay-speaking peoples 531-579), whose age marked of prophet Zarathushtra's faith in the 'Sejara Melayu', or The the zenith of Persian culture, into a philosophical format Malay Annals', in which a direct symbolizing the 'Golden Age' in the 'Mazdean context', an reference to 'Nushirwan Adil' of Iranian civilization (14). 'official' doctrine in Sasanid can be interpreted as the Anushirwan conducted socio- Iran, which Hourani has clari- inclusion of a Sasanian ethical economic reforms, and sup- fied as being centred on 'King- doctrine in the cosmology of ported agricultural projects; ship', and Mazdaizm is said to Malay dynastic tradition; in that benefitted farmers. This have "supported the power of an Islamicised version, it is Sasanian King also built univer- the ruler regarded as a 'just identifiable with Champan sities, and encouraged and king', who preserved harmony derivation of Persian cosmic promoted arts and international between the different classes concepts in their "Book of sciences. Anushirwan's court of society" (18). Being a learned Anushirvan" (20). In this was the meeting place of King, Anushirwan's ideal was regard, we know that contem- scholars, and especially philoso- to popularise his reign via most porary dynastic traditions of phers from Greece and India tolerant attitudes toward his the Sultans of Malaysia, in and the Roman world, whose subjects, so that every citizen particular the genealogical polemics were famed as 'Con- would have the right to call upon records of the royal house of ference of Philosophers'. As him directly at his court, when Perak, attest to preserved oral such, the fame of this Persian deprived of a fair measure of traditions that combine refer- King had reached various justice. ences to ancestral kinship that parts of the East and the West Thus, this liberal policy is identified with Persia as early (15). Percy Sykes has elabo- of maintaining the position of a as the Achaemenian Dynasty rated on the "splendour" and 'just king', as it was demanded (BC 771- BC 331), and affiliation

SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 3 7 to Partho-Sasanian elements In fact, trade rivalry be- It was a basis of Iranian in the genealogy of other Malay tween Parthia and East Rome cosmology to intercept direct royalty (21). was symbolized and reflected contact of China with the West' in the use of similar coinage in via Persian territory on geopo- the overland and river routes litical and doctrinal grounds, Maritime Trade that connected Hellenic Cappa- and Parthia's refusal to facili- Exchanges of West-Asia docia and Iranic Syria and tate direct overland trade of with Southeast Asia Babylonia (26). The Romans China with the Roman world, After the third century AD, were in competition with Persia that deprived the Sinitic nation when Parthian Persia (BC 259- in the maritime routes of from making direct gains AD 226) gave way to the appear- Southeast Asia as Roman in trade with the West' (29). Un- ance of Sasanian dynasty as of vessels sailed to Tonkin from der these conditions, Emperor AD 226 in Iran, maritime trade AD 166 carrying ivory and Wu (r.BC 140-87) sought a new, between the West and the Far tortoise shells (27). Roman alternative route via Tonkin. East, and Vietnamese ports coins found in Southeast Asia, In earlier days, China's increased, with in-coming ships bearing the images of two generals had annexed the from other regions of Asia. emperors Antonius Pius (AD southern provinces of 'Nam- From AD 150 to the third cen- 133-162), and Marcus Aurelius Viet', and Emperor Wu's doc- tury, Tonkin played the role (162-180), can probably explain trine brought the outcome to of a significant terminus of a Western attempt to initiate sea his advantage, while Tonkin maritime activities between trade with the Far East in the and the delta of the Red River the Red Sea zone and South- days of China's sphere in South- were transformed into "an east Asia (22), as goods were east Asia (28). important centre of inter-Asian shipped from Vietnamese ports communication and interna- to Champan harbours (a tional trade" (30). record from 'Liang-shu', Evidently, the Iranians dating from the early period also gained from Chinese of the seventh century AD., measures, in particular from refers to the existence of the early period of the third ties between 'An-hsi', or century AD., when innova- 'Parthia', and Tun-sun, a tions in the ship-building in- trans-isthmian port in the dustry in the Persian Gulf Malay Peninsula) (23). led to the construction of K'ang T'ai, who was 'deep sea ships. These were China's envoy to Tunan', a big ocean-going vessels dynastic centre of Southeast large enough to carry up to Asia in the early years of seven hundred passengers, the third century AD., had and had the capacity for recorded in his diary that many metric tons of cargo for Tun-sun was involved in sea The discovery of a coin of Marcus Aurelius found at Oc-Eo exports. Chinese accounts of trade with Parthia and Tonkin evidences contact with the West these skills, suggest that Far (24). Parthian Persia was a (from The Museum of Vietnamese Eastern nations also adopted great power of its age and a History, Ho Chi Mink City, pp.192, 193, published in 1996) some of these techniques; junks rival of East Roman Empire in which were constructed in the trade routes (25). pattern of those from the Per-

8 SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 3 sian Gulf (in which "the fore and a symbolic role in trade, which that are "clearly of Iranian aft rigging made sailing of ships Wolters argues in "Early inspiration" (39), especially in possible close to the wind") Indonesian Commerce" in an the context of pre-Angkorean were another major innovation attempt to identify 'Posse'. iconography of the images of in the art of navigation that in- Chinese designation of the 'Surya' in Cambodia (the 'Sun- creased the volume of maritime 'Persian' trade in the maritime worship context'). Legend trade from the Indian Ocean and routes of Sinitic Asia in pre- and literary references identify the Red Sea through Southeast T'ang era as a role limited to 'Funan' as the earliest state in Asian routes (31). export of products alone (37), Southeast Asia, whose centre Indeed, with such a ca- and such references to Sasanid was situated in Champa and pable marine fleet, Sasanid Persia and the "Book of Anu- 'Kambuja'(Cambodia), in the Persia initiated new sea route shiravan" suggest a linkage lower and its delta. trades in Southeast Asia, and by between pre-Islamic Iran and The capital of Funan, 'Ba the fourth century AD., Persian Southeast Asia's Islamicised Phnom' was a hilly spot in the seafarers were reportedly in literary heritage on oral tradi- 'Kambuja' province called Prei the harbours of 'Nam-Viet' (32), tions of Zoroastrianism. Such Veng, and its main port Oc-Eo and Vietnamese mariners and linkages indicate that the conducted trade with Indic, merchants introduced their oral traditions in Southeast Persian and Mediterranean products to these Sasanian Asia had helped diffuse West- ships (40). newcomers who used Vietnam' Asian cosmological concepts as Champa was then under s quality woods "to provide 'ideals' in the peninsular coasts the jurisdiction of Funan's planking for their ships" (33). since antiquity. sphere in the region, identifiable It is said that Persian seafarers with the dynasty founded by the introduced the botanical prod- legendary 'Kaundinya', who ucts of Caucasia, India, and Diffusion of 'Indo-lranian' married the indigenous Prin- Persia to 'Nam-Viet' (34), and Traditions to Funanese cess 'Soma', and whose 'Saka- under these conditions, Persian and Khmer Kingdoms brahmana' offspring ruled peri- settlements were established European archaeologists odically in 'Funan', but whose which prompted "extende inter- in France, who are engaged in background was probably course with the Persian state Southeast Asian studies, have Northern India (41), where of the Sasanides" (35). discovered objects at Oc-Eo in 'Sacae' princedoms were estab- When we consider the western Cochinchina, dated lished in Punjab and other re- presence of Persian resident from the era of 'Funan', which gions near the western coasts of merchants in the Malay Penin- has shed further light on the India and leading into the Bay sula at Tun-sun (36), and heritage of the Zoroastrian of Bengal (42). Champa prob- references to Sasanian cosmol- epoch in Persia. One such find ably fell under the sphere of ogy in Malay and Champan is an intaglio depicting "a liba- courtly priesthood under texts, we can argue that the tion to fire", and another of a 'Saka-brahmana', and was participation of Persia in South- cabochon with a Sasanian effigy tolerant of fusion-oriented east Asia's cultural transforma- dated from the fourth century doctrines that allowed for tion was significant in the Islam- of the Christian era (38). These courtly worship of Indic, Bud- ization age, probably because treasures and other 'Persian dhist, Brahmanic, and later on the Persians had arrived in Context' discoveries, as Coedes also Zoroastrian notions. Southeast Asia before the has suggested, can point to Aymonier explained (1891) that advent of Islam, and by-passed Zoroastrian-based influences the extent of such syncretic

SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 3 9 practices in the culture of culture of Dian kingdom, site of Persians, Indians, and Brah- Champa was centred in the a probable Southeast Asian- mans were among the residents side-by-side co-existence of based enclave in Yunnan in and settlers, and through inter- the Cham converts to Sivaite, China, which has the prototype marriage with the indigenous Buddhist, and Islamic religions aspects of a North Vietnamese people there had extended the during the ninth and tenth ethnicity under Western Han impact of their customs and centuries AD (43). Era (46). In its archaeology, lifestyles in Southeast Asia, Historically, Central-Asia there are suggestions that it especially in funerary rites. As was the world centre of syn- had contact with the arts of the in Funan, rites akin to those cretic practices involving Scythians, and were culturally- of the 'Indo-Iranians' such as religions and cultures of its influenced by them. cremation and "exposure to the various inhabitants, such as Dian culture underwent birds" were practiced by the the dwellers in the Steppes of strong acculturating influences Tun-sunians (50). Inner Asia, most of whom at from the heritage of the Step- Regarding an 'Indo-Ira- one time lived under the sphere pes, so that the nomadic impact nian' cultural impact in Funan, of Cyrus the Great (r.BC 550- of Central-Asia embraced the scholars have suggested that 530), when many tribes of the indigenous cultural symbols of via fusion of arts, Scythian art Scythians such as the 'Saka', and Southeast Asia (47). The exist- elements were adopted in 'Sacae', and 'Sacians', and ence of syncretic beliefs in Khmer statuary works (51). It Massagetae' lived under the 'Funan' from its foundation date is probable that the entrance of cultural impact of Achaemenid circa the first century AD., Central-Asian-based Buddhist Persia (44). Dr. Quaritch Wales where Saivite and Buddhist monks into Southeast Asia clarified that, in the artistic rites were practiced side by from circa AD 150 to 250, re- realm, Achaemenian Persians side, and funerary rites included sulted in the transmission of initiated the fusion of arts and cremation and "exposure to the artistic techniques in paintings, architecture with inspiration birds" (48), are elements which architecture, and statuary from the monumental arts of can explain the tolerant attitude styles, which were appealing the Mesopotamians and the of the dynasts in Champa and to the people under the sphere Egyptians, but it is equally Cambodia. of Funan more than Hinduist important to note that Persian It is noteworthy that ones, leading to the rise of doctrine for artistic fusions also Funan's culture had character- 'Amaravati' Buddhist arts (52) extended to cosmic and reli- istics akin to Central-Asia, in fusion with West and Central- gious notions leading historian at least linguistically, and a de- Asian art heritage. Buddhist Richard Frye to propose the scription was provided of 'Amaravati' was popularised "Magian-Zoroastrian Achae- Funanese writing script by under the impact of monk- menid fusion" (45). Thus, it is China's envoy K'ang T'ai, who translators from the Scythians, probable that Scythians, in in his official record noted Sogdians, Kuchans, Khotanese, migrations to Northern India the similarity of Funanese to Parthians, and Bactrians (53), and elsewhere in farther East the language of the 'Hu' people who propagated Mahayanist extending into Southeast Asia, (49). It is also interesting traditions in China and South- did persist in maintaining such to note that during the third east Asia. traditions in order to harmonise century AD., 'Hu' people from Indeed, Vietnam's role in their rule with the indigenous Central-Asia were reported in the development of Mahayana inhabitants. This may be borne Tun-sun, a peninsular port in Buddhism has a Sogdian signifi- out by the characteristics of the the Malay waterways, where cance attached to it, with Cen-

10 SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 3 tral Asian monks and Brahman Civilization Impact of the time for the Scythians to diffuse priests in Vietnam since an 'Cham' in Southeast their culture in the 'Dongson' earlier time. The famed K'ang- Asian Sphere cultural phase in the areas Seng-hui ( d.280), whose family 'Dongson', a term used of Cochinchina, Champa, and had immigrated to Vietnam to denote the Bronze Age in Cambodia. with other Central Asian trad- Southeast Asia, has often been The homeland of the ers, lived in Chiao province and described as 'proto-Cham', due Chams was in the Central and introduced Dhyani Buddhism to prevailing Cham styles (58). Southern coasts of Annam to Vietnam (54). K'ang Seng- According to Davidson, there including the northern districts hui's original homeland, is a "marked Central Asian of Thana Hoa, Nghe An, and Samarkand, was a centre of presence in the civilization Ha Tinh (63). Until AD 758, syncretic practices in associa- of Dian in the second-first Champa was known as Lin-i; tion with Zoroastrianism (55). century B.C."(59), which can a Chinese influence (64). Its By the third century, another indicate that the Central-Asian first king was Qulian, who Central-Asian monk in Vietnam art of the Steppes, under the is said to have founded this was the Indo-Scythian Kalya- sphere of the Scythians, was kingdom in AD 192, and its naruchi who introduced other in favourable conditions to existence extended to AD 1471 scriptures of Mahayana school penetrate Southeast Asia, when the 'Nam-Viet' (Di-Viet) to Chiao-chi. Around this time, where 'proto-Cham' cultural state invaded Champa (65), Marajivka, a monk from India, elements played a leading role and pushed the remnants of sailed to Funan, and later on in the neolithic period. the Champan people into the visited China at Lo-yang, The migration of Malayo- mountains and forests (66), thus paving the way for China to Indonesian speaking peoples ending an age of great tradition become an alternative route to Southeast Asia is associated in Southeast Asia. for Buddhist monks from with the early and middle The present population Vietnam, who until then only periods of the first millennium of the Cham people in Vietnam used the Central Asian overland BC, and linguistic evidence is estimated to be some one routes (56). It was from Chiao- show that the establishment million inhabitants, most of chi that Buddhist teaching of the 'Dongson' culture is whom reside in the southern penetrated China, and resulted identifiable with the region of areas of Vietnam (67). Champan in the exchange of ideas Champa, Cochinchina, and ethnicity and character have between Central-Asian, Viet- Cambodia (60). been described as "tall with namese, and Chinese peoples. Moreover, it has been straight or wavy hair, light By the latter half of the seventh suggested that the mythology skins, relatively narrow and century, another Sogdian monk, of the inhabitants of the Bronze sometimes aquiline noses and Samghavarma, arrived in age, or 'Dongson' culture, was non-Mongoloid eyes" (68). As Annam from China, and a Viet- "imbued with a cosmological regards their cultural and namese Buddhist monk, named dualism"(61). Historically, economical background, it has Dai-Thang-dang, reached D' the period between the sixth to been suggested that the Cham varavati (57). the fourth centuries BC is myth of settlement was in identified with the 'Zoroastriani- relation to the deity To Naga', zation' of the Scythians of or The Mother Goddess of the Central Asia under the Persian Land', which may point to a cultural orbit (62); we can thus Cham awareness of the technol- argue that there was ample ogy of rice cultivation and irri-

SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 3 11 gation methods, attributed Yellow River basin had been tions of Angkor (81), are among to the development of agricul- with Western Asia", and its ori- the evidence which can demon- turalism in the 'Dongson' phase gin is dated to the rise of the strate that Persia's role in South- of the first century AD, or ear- Achaemenian dynasty in the east Asia in the pre-T'ang era lier (69). sixth century BC (74). was beyond trade, and extended Original Cham worship Still, seafaring between to cultural and cosmological is identified with shamanic the Persian Gulf and the mouth relationships in the context of practices including regard for of the Indus persisted long Persian mythic sphere of the celestial deities (70). The after this period "down to the Zoroastrian Era (82). When we Neolithic characteristics of Buddhist times" (75), when consider the usage of the Saka Cham culture were related to the Scythian seafarers were calendar and the Indo-Scythian the cultivation of irrigated leading maritime trade activities cultural phase in Southeast Asia, ricefields, the domestication of between the Persian Gulf and we can also take into account buffaloes and oxen, the rudi- the many ports and harbours the literary and archaeological mentary use of metals and of the Indian Ocean (76), from factors in the Malay Peninsula, sea-nomadism in the context of around the first to the end of Java, Cambodia and Vietnam. skills in navigation, which came the second century AD., when On these grounds, I am inclined to dominate Cham economy Greek seamen visited the ports to propose that the Cham cosmic (71). It has been said that Cham of 'Scythia' in Western India, text, the "Book of Anushirvan", skill in farming may indicate a and Grecian geographers de- and references to Sasanid Per- "presence of a considerable scribed the sea ports of India sia in 'Sejara Melayu' and other Caspian-Mediterranean ele- under the Scythians, who had Malay chronicles, and other ment", via the mixed cultural established principalities and folkloric literature of Southeast element of the Mon-Khmer states in various areas of India Asia on the background of people, which may have via conquest (77). Indeed, the Malay-speaking people, and reached this region from the Scythians established cultural their pre-Islamic as well as north along the Mekong Valley links with Southeast Asia in the Islamicised oral traditions, are from the direction of the moun- Funan epoch during the fourth among the evidences that can tains and plateau of the Chinese- century AD., when 'Chandan' support my hypotheses that the Tibetan borders (72). was an Indo-Scythian king in the Zoroastrian epoch in Iran played Braddell commented that: delta of the Mekong (78), and a significant role in the enhance- "It is tempting to regard the his reign may account for ear- ments that Southeast Asian Cham who appear to have lier Scythian cultural element in history of thought has achieved been the earliest historical Funan, both in the pre-Khmer in 'moral wisdom'. occupants of the era under the Kaundinya dy- Nowadays, one can look as a relatively pure advance of nasty, and later on the "Iranian for such an impact in the Caspian-type, which mingling Kambojas", that could have in- Javanese ideal of 'Ratu Adil', with the prehistoric Negroid fluenced the rise of 'Kambuja' or 'just prince', regarding the and Negrito aborigines, formed state of the Khmers (79), personage of a 'ruler' "who the nucleus of the people who The preservation of the could restore harmony and under the pressure of the Mon- Saka calendar in Champa, prosperity to a disturbed Khmers, emigrated eastward" Cambodia, and Java until the society", which has been de- (73). According to Wolters, twelfth century AD (80), to- scribed by Sartono Kartodirdjo, "The earliest form of trade gether with references to the as a theme for peasant protests known by the Chinese of the 'Saka-brahmana' in the inscrip- in Java (83). Elsewhere in

12 SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 3 Thailand, similar themes have were diffused in the Malay- and revolutions, via the Malayo- been reported by Yoneo Ishi, speaking world during the Indonesian ideal of 'just prince'), and Chattip Nartsupha on the Islamizing phase of Peninsular it can be interpreted as a Per- leadership of the 'men of merit', zones of Southeast Asia, whose sian-based participation in the and 'holy men', who would heritage found ample motiva- cosmological transfor mation, revolt to safeguard 'justice' in tion in the compilation of the primarily amongst the Cham Thailand (84). In this connec- "Book of Anushirvan", a cosmo- and Malay-type inhabitants of tion, David Chandler has logical text of Cham people. On Southeast Asia whose courts also noted the existence of the theme of 'Persianization' and political administrations, "a similar phenomenon in in Southeast Asian history of since the era of the Sultans of Cambodia" (85). It is a possibil- ethical thought, and derivation Malaka, have retained doctrines ity that such themes in the 'just of socio-political models from and numerous ideals, some of prince' context derive from sacred and appreciated literary which can be designated to be descriptions of 'just prince' in heritage (especially in the linkage points in relation to the literary works from former Malay literary context which transmission of cultural aspects centuries of the Sultans of in different times has utilised and streams of ethical thought Melaka, and cosmic indo- ideals for 'justice' and 'moral principles from the direction of ctrinations retained in such wisdom', resulting in the forma- 'Sasanian' civilization. works as 'Sejara Melayu', tion of socio-political protests By the appearance of 'Hikayat Marong Maha- Persian seafarers in seaports wangse', 'Hikayat Amir of peninsular Southeast Asia, Hamza' and the Champan a new impetus was felt in sea "Book of Anushirvan", trades in this region. The representing oral tradi- voyage of the monk I-Ching tions of the natives of pen- in AD 671, from Sri Lanka insular zones in Southeast (Ceylon) to Southeast Asia Asia. Similarly, the image aboard a ship said to have been of a heroic arrow-thrower Persian, that took him to who safeguards the inde- Srivijaya for Buddhist studies, pendence of a kingdom from a Vietnamese port (88), (in the Kedah Annals) and that of Vajrabodhi to the has been attributed by same destination and China Winstedt to a "Malay in 717, escorted by 35 Persian indebtedness to Persian ships (89), suggest that 'Posse', models" (86), which by all China's term of reference to the means can recall another monopoly of the Far Eastern sea image, that of 'Arash' in routes by the 'Persians', from Sri the'Shah-Nameh'(87). Lanka to Southeast Asia and Chinese maritime zones (90), represented more than a trading Conclusion Vishnu statues in the Mekong delta status for the impact of Sasanid Champa, a maritime na- which possibly represent a symbolic Persia in Sinitic Asia. The ini- impact of Indo-Scythians in Vietnam tial stage of Sasanian role tion in the delta of the Mekong, (from The Museum of Vietnamese gained a metamorphosis from History, City, in the maritime routes was said Sasanian-based traditions that pp. 192,193, published in 1996) to be in relation to "dependence

SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 3 13 of Southern Chinese dynasties character" (95), while on the celebrated the cosmological on maritime trade of luxury other hand, we can describe aspirations of their Iranian, and goods from West Asia", which Persia's contribution as having Zoroastrian-based civilization. necessitated the use of an had a mythical basis that In retrospect of the Cham intermediary zone for transfer centred on doctrinal aspects, context of such influences, we and shipment of goods, that and a relationship to Zoroas- can conclude that Champa had Malay harbours and their cargo trian-derived traditions based an interface with pre-Islamic facilities and crewmen provided upon philosophical ideals and heritage of West and Central- to the Persian ships from the cosmological goals in which Asia, and after this stage also third into the sixth centuries the worship of celestial deities, received motivation from the AD., in Southwestern Sumatra and architectural symbols of Islamization effects of West- (91), as Persian goods in frank- 'Divine Kingship', conveyed Asians who arrived in Champa incense and myrrh (92), and the Achaemenian visions in the during the seventh century especially ceramics and glass- 'Persepolitan context', where and afterwards, which in the ware (93), destined for the Persian kings expressed and context of Partho-Sasanid Chinese markets, were distrib- trade roles, in South- uted to Malay intermediary east Asia's water cargo centres, whose close ways, can as a whole encounters with the Persians represent the fact must have resulted in cultural that via Buddhist exchange, and much give and contacts of Central- take indicating diffusion of Asia with Cham- ideas in both directions. Viet peoples, and By the sixth century AD., other symbols of Persia's role in navigation and West-Asian wor- trade of the seas reached the ship, both Zoroas- Sri Lankan zones falling under trian and Islamic, Sasanian control, an event the peoples of the which resulted in Persian delta of the Mekong domination of markets for probably gained a China's silk in the Persian Gulf rich metamorphosis region via Western Indian from the acculturat- Ocean (94). In the final analy- ing characteristics sis, the heritage of Zoroastrian of Sasanian civiliza- Persia and the Hindu-Buddhist DOUBLE IDOL OF PO-NRAUP tion and inter-mar- sphere of the Indic world of riage of post-Sasa- nian-age immigrants with the South Asia have each in their The Double Idol of own ways contributed to the Po-Nraup in Ninh Thuan Province in Cham-Viet peoples. Their liter- enhancement of the indigenous Southern Vietnam indicates an impact ary heritage, together with cultures of Southeast Asia. of West and Central Asia on those from other Funan-based Cham-Viet heritage Hindu culture in Funan, J.C. (From the Book, Champa, culture in that region, preserved Van Leur emphasized, had to A Short Sketch of Her oral traditions that pursue a do with sacred rites and ritual, Historical Evolution Based on 'saviour' in times of crisis, a sav- Architectural Ruins, by Swami iour in the image of Malay-type and court ceremonies, "which Sada-nanda, 1944, had a consecrated magical Culcutta Oriental Press literature that is based on the

14 SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 3 personage of 'Adil', or 'just', Images of the South, p.11, Harvard University Press: indicating the Malay rendition University of California Cambridge, London of 'Nushirwan Adil', including Press: Berkeley and Los 13. Schafer, The Vermilion texts which put different inter- Angeles Bird, p.75, SEE ALSO: pretations on manifestations of 2. Ibid, p.270, SEE ALSO: Kongchana, Plubplung. this 'just prince', and its orally Zakaria Ali. 1991.'Notes 1995. "Cham Today: transmitted windfall in the on the Islamic Art of The living Heritage of Khmer, Java- nese and Siamese Champa',p.l29, Le Campa A Once Proud Kingdom contexts, and whatever impact Et Le Monde: Paris And People", Lecture, of West-Asia on Central-Asia 3. Ibid,p.11 pp.3-4, July 16th, The Siam that the "Double idol of Po- 4. Blood,Doris E. "Aspects Society: Bangkok Nraup" (96), transmitted to the of Cham Culture", Notes 14. Sykes, Percy. 1963. Cham-Viet peoples, and what- From Indochina On A History of Persia, ever measures in 'moral Ethnic Minority Cultures, Volume One, pp.458, wisdom' that men of capacity p.11 (Edited by: Merilyn 460-465, Macmillan-St maintained when Champa fell to Gregor-son & Dorothy Martin's Press: London, Di Viet rule, whose Vietnamese Thomas), SIL Museum of New York inhabitants have preserved Anthro-pology:Dalas, 15. Arberry,AJ. (Edited by). since 1471 in Cham cosmic Texas 1953. The Legacy of doctrines and gallantry that 5. Schafer, The Vermilion Persia, pp.335-337, Cham civilization envisions Bird, p.11 Clarendon Press: Oxford even today. 6. Ibid, p.270 16. Sykes, A History of Persia, Moreover, recent studies 7. Cady, John F 1976. pp.458, 460-465 suggest that Zoroastrianism Southeast Asia, Its 17. Boyce, Mary. 1984 (Edited had prevailed in Cham ports Historical Development, by). Textual Sources (97), with Persian immigrants p.67, Tata-McGraw-Hill For The Study of Zoroas- arriving in Champa (98), and Publishing Company Ltd: trianism, p.11, Manches- whose presence in Southeast New York ter Asia resulted in the production 8. Braddell, Roland. 1980. University Press: of 'Persian Context' characteris- The Study of Ancient Manchester tics in arts, and culture (99), and Times in The Malay 18. Hourani, Albert. 1991. indeed, it was after the advent Peninsula And Straits A History of The Arab of Islam that Sasanian culture of Malacca, p.484, Peoples, p.9, The Belknap persisted in maintaining her The Malaysian Branch of Press of Harvard strong presence in Southeast the Royal Asiatic Society: University Press: Asian portowns, along with the Kuala Lumpur Cambridge, transfer of Sasanian technology 9. Cady, Southeast Asia, p.66 Massachusetts to the Far Eastern folks of China 10. Ibid, p.67 19. Sykes, A History of and her tributary zone in South- 11. Braddell, The Study of Persia.Volume One, east Asia. Ancient Times', p.370 pp. 458, 460,465 12. Gladney,Dru.1991. 20. Brown, C.C. (Trans,by). Muslim Chinese: 1970. Sejara Melayu References Ethnic Nationalism in Or Malay Annals, p.5, 1. Schafer, Edward H. 1967. The Peoples' republic, Oxford University Press: The Vermilion Bird, Tang pp. 17-18,37,96,287, Kuala Lumpur

SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 3 15 21. Wilkinson,RJ.1971. 1965. Angkor And Rome, 44. Belennitsky, Aleksandr. Papers On Malay p.41, Bernard Quaritch 1968. Central Asia, Subjects, Ltd: London, SEE ALSO: pp.12, 53, 114, (trans by pp. 28-29,364,368, Coedes, James Hogarth), Oxford University Press: G. 1971.The Indianized Nagel Publishers: Geneva, Kuala Lumpur States of Southeast Asia, Paris, Munich 22. Moorhead, M.A. 1965. p.21, The University of 45. Quaritch Wales, H.G. A History of Malaya And Hawaii Press: Honolulu 1961. The Making of Her Neighbours, Volume 32. Schafer, The Vermilion Greater India, p.21, One, p.3, Longmans of Bird, p. 180 Bernard Quaritch Ltd: Malaysia 33. Ibid,p.l74 London, SEE ALSO: 23. Wheatley, Paul. 1961. 34. Ibid, pp.198,203 Frye, Richard N. 1963. The Golden Khersonese: 35. Buttinger, The Smaller The Heritage of Persia, Studies In The Historical Dragon, p.244, note 1 p. 112, The World Geography of The Malay 36. Wheatley, Paul. 1964. Publishing Company: Peninsula Before A.D. Impressions of The Malay Cleveland And New York 1500, p. 16, University of Peninsula In Ancient 46. Smith, R.B; Watson Malaya Press: Kuala Times, p.46, Eastern W.(Edited). 1979. Lumpur Universities Press: Early Southeast Asia, 24. Wolters, O.W. 1970. Singapore pp. 125-126, Oxford The Fall of Srivijaya 37. Wolters, O.W. 1967. Early University Press: In Malay History, p.22 Indonesian Commerce, New York Kuala Lumpur 25. Warmington, E.H. 1974. p. 159, Cornell University 47. Ibid. SEE ALSO: The Commerce Between Press:Itaca, New York Mair, Victor H. 1998. The Roman Empire 38. Coedes, G. 1971. The The Bronze Age And And India, p.2, Curzon Indianized States of Early Iron Age Peoples of Press-Octagon Books: Southeast Asia, p.47 Eastern Central Asia, London, New York 39. Ibid. " Again on the Influence 26. Ibid,p.86 40. Hall, D.G.E. 1966. and Diffusion of 27. Moorhead, A History of A History of Southeast the Scythian Culture in Malaya And Her Neigh- Asia, p.25, Macmillan- the Yunnan Bronze Age", bours, p. 15 St.Martin's Press: By: Zhang Zengqi, 28. Buttinger, Joseph. 1958. London, New York pp.667-699, Volume One, The Smaller Dragon: 41. Coedes, The Indianized The Institute For the A Political History of States of Southeast Asia, Study of Man, Vietnam, p.244, notel, pp. 15,17,47,280 The University of Frederick Praeger: 42. Majumdar, R.C; Pennsylvania Museum New York Raychau-dhuri, H.C; Publications 29. Warmington, Datta, Kalikan-kar. 1967. 48. Hall, A History of The Commerce Between An Advanced Southeast Asia, p.31 The Roman Empire history of India, 49. Ibid,p.24 And India, p.86 pp.107-109,112113,117,137, 50. Wheatley, The Golden 30. Buttinger, The Smaller Macmillan: London Khersonese, p.17 Dragon, p. 104 43. Schafer, The Vermilion 51. Hall, A History of 31. Quaritch Wales, H.G. Bird, p.75 Southeast Asia, p.31

16 SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 3 52. Ibid, pp.20-21 P.53, Louise Fredrick Southeast Asia, p.31 53. Sinor, Denis. 1990. Publisher: France 79. Ibid. (Edited). The Cambridge 65. Ibid,p.54 80. Coedes, The Indianized History of Early Inner 66. Ibid, p.53 States of Southeast Asia, Asia, p. 168, Cambridge 67. Kongchana, Plubplung. pp.47,146,170,280 note 9, University Press: 1995. "Cham Today: SEE ALSO: Braddell, Cambridge The Living Heritage Of The Study of Ancient 54. Taylor, KeithWeiler.1983. A Once Pround Kingdom Times', p. 123 note 1 The Birth of Vietnam, And People", A Lecture, 81. Quaritch Wales, The pp.80,182, University of The Siam Society , July Making of Greater India, California Press: Berkeley, 16th, pp. 1-5, Bangkok p. 184 Los Angeles, London 68. Braddell, The Study of 82. Braddell, The Study of 55. Belennitsky, Central Asia, Ancient Times', p.20 Ancient Times'. pp.24,55,97,112-114,137, 69. Kongchana, "Cham Pp.206,209 185,211-212,216 Today", A Lecture, p.2 83. Tarling, Nicholas.(Edited). 56. Taylor, The Birth of 70. Spinks, Charles Nelson. 1992. The Cambridge Vietnam, pp.86,182 1960. "Book Reviews": History of Southeast Asia, 57. Ibid, pp.183,173 Prehistory And Religion Volume 1, From Early 58. Smith; Watson, Early In Southeast Asia, by: Times to C.1800, p.34, Southeast Asia, p. 115 Quaritch Wales H.G, Cambridge University 59. Ibid, p.113, SEE ALSO: pp. 103-105, The Journal of Press: Cambridge Genito, Bruno (Edited). The Siam Society, Volume 84. Ibid. 1994. The Archaeology of XLVII, Part 2, November 85. Ibid. the Steppes, Methods 71. Hall, A History of 86. Braddell, 'The Study of And Strategies, "Western Southeast Asia, pp.8-9 Ancient Times', pp.206,209 Yunnan And Its Steppe 72. Braddell, The Study of 87. Yarshater, Ehsan. Affinities", By: Tzehuey Ancient Times, pp.20-22 (Edited). 1985. The Chiou-Peng, pp.280-304, 73. Ibid. Encyclopaedia Iranica, Istituto Universitario 74. Wolters, Early Indonesian Vol.11, Fas 3, pp.266-267, Orientale: Napoli Commerce, p.40 Routledge, Chapman, Hall: 60. Hall, A History of 75. Ghosh, Manomohan. London, New York Southeast Asia,p.7 1960. A History of 88. Majumdar, R.C. 1965. 61. Ibid,pp.8-9 Cambodia: From Suvarnadvipa: Ancient 62. Belennitsky, Central Asia, The Earliest Times Indian Colonies in p.53 To The End of French The Far East, Volume 63. Sadananda, Swami. 1944. Protectorate, p.30, Two, pp.27-28, Gian Champa: A Short Sketch J.K.Gupta: Culcutta Publishing House: of Her Historical Evolution 76. Warmington, New Delhi Based On Architectural The Commerce Between 89. Cady, Southeast Asia, p. 66 Ruins, Foreword, P. I, The Roman Empire 90. Moorhead, A History of Calcutta Oriental Press: And India, pp.9, Malaya And Her Culcutta 54-55,57,65,71,203,215 Neighbours, Volume One, 64. Louise Fredrick 77. Majumdar, An Adavanced p.59 Encyclo-pardia of Asian History of India, p. 112 91. Hall, A History of Civilizations, Volume Two, 78. Hall, A History of Southeast Asia, pp.38-39

SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 3 17 92. Ibid. the Royal University of Phnom trades of the 'Posse' became 93. Wolters, Early Indonesian Penh, who during December felt as of the 4th century AD Commerce, p.72 1996 welcomed me to this (Map From: The Art of 94. Ibid,p.74 Cambodian Centre of Southeast Asia, By: Philip 95. Quaritch Wales, H.G. learnings and furnished me Rawson,page 6), Thames The Making of Greater with studies from a recent And Hudson, reprinted 1995, India, p.26 Khmer Studies Conference. London) 96. Sadananda, Champa, My Study of Champa at (Page 8) Double Idol of Po-Nraup the National Center For Social The discovery of a coin of 97. ZakariaAli. 1991. Sciences And Humanities of Marcus Aurelius found at 'Notes on the Islamic Art Vietnam was approved by Oc-Eo; of Champa', p. 129, Dr. Pham Duc Thanh, Director (Page 13) Le Camp Et Le Monde: of ISEAS of Vietnam (Ha Noi), Vishnu statues in Paris where its first draft was the Mekong delta which 98. Setudeh-Nejad, S. 1998. completed and printed by possibly represent a "The Significance of the encouragement of symbolic impact of Indo- 'Persian Context' Vietnamese archaeologist Scythians in Vietnam. Discoveries From Dr. Dzoanh. (both illustrations from Archaeological Sites in The Museum of Vietnamese Thailand And Southeast Illustrations History, , Asia: A Concise (Page 14) pp. 192,193, Published in 1996) Perspective", pp. 13-17, The Double Idol of Spafa Journal, Volume 8 Po-Nraup in Ninh Thuan Number 3, September- Province in Southern The Author December Vietnam indicates an S. Setudeh-Nejad, who is an 99. Ibid. Impact of West and Iranian academician and re- Central Asia on Cham-Viet search associate in Thai and Acknowledgements heritage Southeast Asian Studies at The Completion of this (From the Book: Champa, Chiang Mai University, special- study on the 'Cham problem' A Short Sketch of Her izes in comparative aspects of is indebted to facilitating Historical Evolution Based on civilizations East and West. His efforts of some scholars Architectural Ruins, by: Swami Academic works on Thai and whose guidance I have sought: Sada-nanda, 1944, Culcutta area studies in the Southeast Dr. Nguyen Sy Tuan, Head of Oriental Press) Asian field was initiated in the Cambodian Division, (Page 5) Thailand's universities and their ISEAS of Vietnam (Ha Noi), Map: showing the historic affiliated research centres in and Dr. Ton Nu Quynh, spots in Champa and Vietnam, Bangkok and Chiang Mai since Director of the Centre For Cochinchina and the 1993. Mr. Setudeh-Nejad's fo- Southeast Asian Studies Cambodian zone, all of which cus on Thai studies led to his (Ho Chi Minh City) for their were under the symbolic association with the scholars Letters of Introduction on my sphere of 'Funan' and her who are based at the Siam Soci- behalf. In this respect, I wish extensive kinship courts of ety, where he has been affiliated to extend my thanks to 'Cosmic Kingship' in since 1998, and to which he is Dr. Sorn Samnang, Director of the direction of the Malay contributing studies. He is cur- the Department of History at Peninsula, where the sea rently a dissertation candidate.

18 SPAFA Journal Vol. 10 No. 3 ANGKOR OBSERVED by DAWN ROONEY

This is the second book in the se- upplementary reading following a ries THERE BEFORE YOU. It con- also of interest to the arm- sists of a selection of early travel- eller unable to venture as lers' impressions of the Khmers as Cambodia, empire's ancient, 12th century capi- The a u t h o r has a PhD in art his- tal and the legends that inspired the has written several books majestic stone temples of Angkor east Asian art and culture, which were described by a visitor in Angkor. An Introduction the 1920s as "the most impressive to the Temples (1994). sight in the world of edifices". "Go to Angkor, my friend, out- s The work brings to the reader to its ruins and its dreams " of-print impression of early western travellers, and also includes tales and P. Jeannerat de Beerski, 1923. legends based on an oral tradition, published for the first time.It serves as a guide-book companion, as an. Approximately 260 pp., richly illustrated, introduction to Angkor and as maps, bibliography, index.

Please supply the following book(s): Qty Title Price Total Angkor Observed (ISBN 974-8304-79-5) US$ 23.00

Add postage, packing and h a n d l i n g (add 15% of value, min. $9). Total amount$ D Check Enclosed Name Address Postal Code City Country ASIA: ORCHID PRESS, P.O. Box19, Yuttitham Post Office, Bangkok 10907. Thailand Fax: +662 990 5646 E--mail:[email protected] North America: 4840 Acorn Street, Montreal H4C 1L6, Canada. Fax (514) 934 6043 Europe: P O Box 5259 Maj., N-0303 Oslo, Norway. Fax +47 22 56 57 66