DOCSLIB.ORG

Customs of Champa in Late 16 Century As

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Customs of Champa in Late 16 Century As Fetching Human Gall as an Offering For the King: Customs of Champa in late 16th century as depicted in Spanish documents Bilis humano como ofrenda al Rey: Las costumbres de Champa a finales del siglo XVI según los documentos españoles y chinos Fabio Yu-Chung Lee National Tsing Hua University Abstract The ancient Kingdom of Champa, known in ancient Chinese recorded as Linyi, became prosperous due to its pivotal location along the Chinese and Southeast Asian trade routes. Its status waned as the rise of Vietnam. During the 15th century, the people of Champa retreated to the north side of the Mekong River in Middle-south Vietnam, where they resisted the incursions of Cochinchina forces. As a result, when discussing the history of modern Vietnam, few references regarding Champa’s historical development were found in Southeast Asian historical works since the 16th century. Nevertheless, the Kingdom of Champa still possessed considerable strength and experienced several revivals. In 1594, Champa even sent troops to Malacca to confront the Portuguese. It was not until the 1830s that Vietnam completely annexed Champa, where little attention was paid afterwards by most historians. By analyzing the contents of several Spanish letters and historical material that were associated with Champa, this article re-examines Spanish expeditions conducted in Southeast Asia since the 1590s, especially those in Indochina, where “private military forces” marched into Cambodia, Siam, and the Kingdom of Champa. In doing so, we have gained a better understanding of the interaction between Spain and Kingdom of Champa. Through cross-referencing Spanish and Chinese materials, we may be able to catch a glimpse of the silhouette of this ancient Southeast Asian kingdom. Keywords: Champa, Cambodia, Philippines, Spanish, Boxer Codex Resumen El reino de Champa, llamado Linyi en lengua china antigua, prosperó por su ubicación dentro de las rutas de comercio de China y el sureste de Asia. Con el crecimiento de Vietnam durante el siglo XV su poder disminuyó y la gente se retiró al norte del Río Mekong para resistir los ataques de las fuerzas de Cochinchina. Como resultado, es poco lo que puede encontrarse sobre la historia de Champa en obras referidas al sureste de Asia a partir del siglo XVI. Sin embargo, el reino de Champa mantuvo una fuerza notable, incluyendo una confrontación con Portugal en Malaca en 1594, hasta la década de 1830 cuando Vietnam anexó Champa completamente. Este artículo explica la interacción entre España y el reino de Champa a través de un análisis de cartas y documentos históricos españoles. Investiga las expediciones españolas en Asia del sureste a partir de los 1590, especialmente aquellas en las cuales “fuerzas militares privadas” marcharon sobre Camboya, Siam y Champa. Desde un estudio comparado de la historia española y china, intentamos profundizar el entendimiento de la historia del reino de Champa. Palabras clave: Champa, Camboya, Filipinos, español, Código Bóxer 279 Recibido: 08/01/2014 Evaluado: 19/02/2014 The ancient Kingdom of Champa, known as Linyi in ancient Chinese records, became prosperous due to its pivotal location along the Chinese and Southeast Asian trade routes. Its status waned as Vietnam became increasingly powerful. During the 15th century, the people of Champa retreated to the north side of the Mekong River in Middle-south Vietnam, where they resisted the incursions of Cochinchina forces. As a result, when discussing the history of modern Vietnam, few references regarding Champa’s historical development was found in Southeast Asian historical works since the 16th century.1 However, the Kingdom of Champa still possessed considerable strength and experienced several revivals from time to time. In 1594, Champa even sent troops to Malacca to confront the Portuguese. It was not until the 1830s that Vietnam completely annexed Champa; after then, references concerning Champa had disappeared from Vietnamese history.2 In recent years, more and more archaeological discoveries and the appearance of new interpretations of documents relevant to the ancient civilization of Champa, studies of its language, literature, and history have once again aroused academic interest in Champa’s history.3 However, existing first-hand records of Champa history and language are few and difficult to decipher, which hinders the research progress. Nevertheless, a number of Chinese sources offer an insight into Champa history before the 15th century, especially about the trade relationship between China and Champa. Studying Champa history after the 16th century, a time when Europeans began to enter Southeast Asia, requires a reliance on Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, and * I wish to thank the National Science Council of Taiwan (101-2410-H-007-062-MY2) and most of all, Professors Guo Ping Jin, Wing Sheung Cheng, Peter Kang, Alexei Volkov, and Tsung Jen Chen for their assistance. ** Assistant Professor of Institute of History, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan. 1 D. G. E. Hall, A History of Southeast Asia (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1955), pp. 195-202. Nicholas Tarling, The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University, 1999), pp. 252-260. 2 Emmanuel Guillon, Cham Art (London: Thames & Hudson, 2001), pp.14-26. 3 Southeast Asia Community Resource Center. Research on Champa and Its Evolution. (Washington, DC: Southeast Asia Community Resource Center, 1994). 280 Japanese materials. Yet, a majority of the research during this period focuses mostly on Cambodia, which contains only supplemental references to the Kingdom of Champa. As a result, some articles described these research results as merely “a few casual studies and increase the threshold for the study of the topic. The renowned historian C.R. Boxer worked on a 16th century Spanish record of Champan history, which was later named as the “Boxer Codex.”4 Boxer transcribed the record and translated it into English. However, it appears that scholars did not make further use of this Spanish resource. 5Some scholars have made use of these Spanish sources, but unfortunately, they have been unable to make use of Chinese sources from the Ming Dynasty to verify the authenticity of Spanish materials. Therefore, by analyzing the contents of several Spanish letters and other historical material relevant to Champa, this article re-examines Spanish expeditions conducted in Southeast Asia from the 1590s, especially those in Indochina, where “private military forces” marched into Cambodia, Siam, and the Kingdom of Champa. In doing so, we will gain a better understanding of the interaction between Spain and the Kingdom of Champa. Through cross-referencing Spanish and Chinese materials, we may be able to catch a glimpse of the silhouette of this ancient Southeast Asian kingdom. Background: Spanish Expansion into Indochina at the End of 16th Century Supported by the Spanish Crown, Ferdinand Magellan was responsible for 4 ＜Relación de las costumbres del reino de Chanpa＞，《Boxer Codex》，fols. 303-305，and C. R. Boxer, “A Late Sixteenth Century Manila MS”. Journal of Royal Asiatic Society (April, 1950), p. 34-49， and 李毓中、José Luis Caño Ortigosa，〈中西合璧的手稿：「謨區查抄本(Boxer Codex)」初探(The study for “Boxer Codex”: the Manuscript that Combines both Chinese and the West)〉，《西文文獻中的 中國(China in the Western Narratives) 》(上海：復旦大學，2012)，頁 67-82。 5 “Relacion de las Costumbres del Reyno de Champa”, (ed.) C. R. Boxer, in Papers Read at the Inauguration of the Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies, 16-18 Septembre 1968. Lund, Scandianavian Institute of Asian Studies, 1970, pp. 37-44. 281 commanding a Spanish fleet since 1519, which crossed the Pacific through the Magellan Strait into East Asia. In 1565, during King Felipe II’s reign, an expedition force led by López de Legazpi established a stronghold at Cebu after efforts spanning for almost half a century. Subsequently, Andres de Urdaneta, an Augustinian missionary who took part in the expedition, discovered a route to return to the Americas via the Kuroshio Current. By taking advantage of this route, the Spanish were able to maintain a continuous flow of supplies from Mexico to their new outpost in East Asia. The expedition force expanded further north, and made Manila on the Luzon Island the new stronghold, which became the foundation of Spanish colonization of the Philippines for the next three centuries. The Spanish relied on Manila to serve as the expansion base in East Asia. While broadening regional trade by means of American silver, thanks to merchants of various origins that were present in the area, the Spanish designated Manila as a base to gather information from Continental Asia. The Spanish planned to build channels of communication with China and Japan, while expanding southward, hoping to gain control over the spice-producing Maluku Islands. 6 From the 1590s to early 17th century, certain adventurers in Manila wished to follow the examples of conquistadors Hernan Cortes’s (who conquered Azteca in Mexico) and Francisco Pizarro (who plundered Inca). These adventurers dreamed of taking part in a new wave of Spanish expansion into Southeast Asia. Near the end of 16th century, King Felipe II of Spain also assumed the 6 李毓中，＜北向與南進：西班牙東亞殖民拓展政策下的菲律賓和臺灣(1565-1642)(Taiwan and Philippines under The Spanish policy of expansion en East Asian)＞，《曹永和先生八十壽慶論文集 (Essays in Celebration of the 80th Birthday of Prof. Yung-ho Ts´ao》(臺北：樂學書局，2001)，頁 31-48。 282 Portuguese throne, thereby easing Spanish-Portuguese tensions, enabling Spanish-occupied Manila to stay focused on colonial expansion in East Asia. Meanwhile, the newly risen, ambitious Dasmariñas family organized 270 soldiers and sent them to Manila on May 31 1590, led by the family head Gomez Pérez Dasmariñas, the new governor-general of the Philippines. During the rule of Gómez Pérez Dasmariñas as governor-general of the Philippines, an optimistic atmosphere ensued; people awaited further Spanish expansion. Their primary targets were the Maluku Islands, at the south of the Philippines.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Influence of Hinduism Toward Islam Bani: Study of Religious Thought of Muslim Champa, Viet Nam
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by ILMU USHULUDDIN THE INFLUENCE OF HINDUISM TOWARD ISLAM BANI: STUDY OF RELIGIOUS THOUGHT OF MUSLIM CHAMPA, VIET NAM Ismardi, Zulkifli, Kamiruddin, Afrizal Ahmad State Islamic University of Sultan Syarif Kasim Riau, Indonesia [email protected] Abstract: This article would like to traceabout: when is the emergence of Bani Islam, what is the teachings of Islam Bani,what is the influence of Hinduism toward Muslim worship of Bani Vietnamese, andwhat are the Vietnamese Muslim businesses in purifying/renewing their teachings. This article was conducted in NinhThuan Province, Vietnam in 2017. The subject of the study were the figures of the Champa Muslim community (Bani and Cham Islam), then the worshipers of the two groups above. The object of this research was Hindu effect on Bani Islam.The population in this research were the Bani religious figures and Cham Islam/Sunni whose numbers could not be identified completely because they were spread in various regions. The analysis that the author used in this study was a Qualitative Descriptive analysis. This article concludes thatin Vietnam there are two Islamic groups namely Cham Islam and Early Cham (Cham Bani). The way to worship the Cham Bani group was influenced by Hinduism, which has become a tradition of Vietnamese society before the arrival of Islam. This happened due to the unfinished Islamization process.Cham Bani's way of worship is still going on nowadays, even though there have been purification efforts from various parties to improve the way they worship.
    [Show full text]
  • Vietnam) to Attract Overseas Chinese (From 1600 to 1777
    IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS) Volume 24, Issue 3, Ser. 1 (March. 2019) 74-77 e-ISSN: 2279-0837, p-ISSN: 2279-0845. www.iosrjournals.org The Policy of the Cochinchina Government (Vietnam) to Attract Overseas Chinese (from 1600 to 1777) Huynh Ngoc Dang1, Cao Dai Tri2 2Doctor of history 1Institute of Cultural History - Hunan Normal University (China) Abstract: Aiming at building a powerful administration to survive and secede, Nguyen clan in Cochinchina was smart and skillful in implementing policies to attract significant resources to serve the reclamation in southern Vietnam, build a prosperous kingdom of Cochinchina and even go further: to create a position to counterbalance and balance the political-military power with Siam (Thailand) in the Indochina Peninsula. One of the critical resources that the feudal government in Cochinchina smartly enlisted and attracted is the Chinese immigrant groups living in Vietnam. Keywords: Cochinchina government, Nguyen clan, Chinese, Policy, Vietnam. I. Overview of the Migration of Chinese to Cochinchina. It is possible to generalize the process of Chinese migration toward Cochinchina into three following stages: Phase 1: From the end of the 16th century to the year 1645. This period has two main events affecting the migration of Chinese to Cochinchina, namely: In 1567, Longqing Emperor (China) issued an ordinance allowing his civilians to go abroad for trading after almost 200 years of maintaining maritime order banning (Vietnamese: Thốn bản bất hạ hải) - do not give permission for an inch of wood to overseas. The second event was Nguyen Hoang’s returning to Thuan - Quang in 1600, began to implement the idea of secession.
    [Show full text]
  • The Mandala Culture of Anarchy: the Pre-Colonial Southeast Asian International Society
    The Mandala Culture of Anarchy: The Pre-Colonial Southeast Asian International Society Pandu Utama Manggala Australian National University, Australia Abstract Throughout the years, study on pre-colonial Southeast Asian international relations has not garnered major attention because it had long been seen as an integral part of the China- centred tribute system. There is a need to provide greater understanding of the uniqueness of the international system as different regions have different ontologies to comprehend its dynamics and structures. This paper contributes to the pre-colonial Southeast Asian literature by examining the interplay that had existed between pre-colonial Southeast Asian empires and the hierarchical East Asian international society, in particular during the 13th- 16th Century. The paper argues that Southeast Asian international relations in pre-colonial time were characterized by complex political structures with the influence of Mandala values. In that structural context, the Majapahit Empire, one of the biggest empires at that time had its own constitutional structures of an international society, albeit still sought close relations with China. Keywords: Pre-Colonial History, Southeast Asia, Mandala, Tributary System Introduction Southeast Asian countries were far from peaceful and stable under the tribute Throughout the years, study on pre- system. Fierce competition for survival and colonial Southeast Asian international domination had characterized the balance relations has not garnered major attention of power politics throughout the pre- because it had long been seen as an integral colonial era (Shu 2012b, p. 46). part of the China-centred tribute system. For that reason, there is a need to Moreover, Southeast Asia has often been provide greater understanding of the regarded as a political backwater uniqueness of the international system as compared to East Asia because Southeast different regions have different ontologies Asia as a region is seen as relatively to comprehend its dynamics and structures.
    [Show full text]
  • A Comparison of Buddhist Music and Dance Between Ancient Cambodian and Yunnan Minority Peoples After Reading the Customs of Cambodia
    A Comparison of Buddhist Music and Dance Between Ancient Cambodian and Yunnan Minority Peoples After Reading The Customs of Cambodia Yang Minkang (Music Research Institute, The Central Conservatory of Music, Beijing) [Summary] Over 700 years ago, The Customs of Cambodia was written by Zhou Daguan. It provided a detailed, reliable record and description of the Buddhist culture of Chenla, describing the Buddhist sects, characteristics of temples, Theravada rituals, ritual music activities, and related folklore activities. Compared with the music of some Yunnan ethnic groups that believe in Theravada, such as Dai, Blang, De’ang, etc, they all have some common features. In the vast sea of Chinese historical records, this is another important historical document that records ceremonies and ritual music and dance in detail after the Pyu Music.1 It helps us to understand the ins and outs of Theravada music and dance culture in China today, it also sheds light on the research of Theravada’s cultural history in Southeast Asia. [Keywords] The Customs of Cambodia, Dai Minority, Blang Minority, Theravada, Ritual music. [Chinese Library Classification] J607， J608, J609.2 [Document Code] A [Article ID] 1008－9667（2009）03－0027－08 During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, Chenla which was a vassal state of Funan, began to rise. Its original territories included today's northern Cambodia and southern Laos. Around the mid-6th century, A.D, Chenla annexed the eastern border area of Funan and gradually became stronger. In the 7th century, it eventually replaced Funan and became the most powerful Indianized countries in Southeast Asia. During the Song2 and Yuan3 dynasties, this country that once belonged to Funan grew stronger.
    [Show full text]
  • The Cham of Vietnam: History, Society and Art Edited by Trần Kỳ Phương and Bruce M
    Studies on Asia Book Review The Cham of Vietnam: History, Society and Art edited by Trần Kỳ Phương and Bruce M. Lockhart (Singapore: NUS Press, 2011. Pp 460 ISBN: 978-9971-69-459-3) Bookended by the penetrating and sweeping historiographical analyses of Michael Vickery and Bruce Lockhart (ARI and NUS), the contributors to this volume have broken new ground in scholarship on Cham studies, which, as Lockhart writes “pose[s] a thorny and awkward problem for scholars of Vietnam” (1). These original peoples (Dân Tộc Bản Địa) were at one time the dominant cultural force in the territory of the contemporary Vietnamese state before they were reduced to a culturally significant, yet comparatively small, minority population (Dân Tộc Tiểu Số). To move beyond this problem, Lockhart’s essay “Colonial and Post-Colonial Constructions of Champa” enlightens our understanding of French Orientalist and Vietnamese scholars who have seen Champa “From Hà Nội” and “From Saigon.” Lockhart develops some of the latest trends in scholarship on Champa, which include a greater emphasis on Cham as equally in contact with both the Indic and the Sinitic spheres and a greater emphasis on the unique vestiges (di tích) of Cham culture. With new archeological analysis provided by Ian Glover, Nguyễn Kim Dung, Yamagata Mariko, William Southworth, Allison Diem, Trần Kỳ Phương, John Guy, and Thành Phần, this volume fills in gaps in one of Southeast Asia’s most complex and incomplete records. Evidence is compiled such that a cultural continuity is delineated through the Neolithic record of the Sa Huynh, the early kingdom of Lín Yì, the apogee of the highly Indianized negara of Vijaya, and the last independent negara Panduranga, which overlaps with the homeland of the contemporary Cham Balamon Hindu and Bani Muslim populations of Bình Thuận and Ninh Thuận provinces.
    [Show full text]
  • China Versus Vietnam: an Analysis of the Competing Claims in the South China Sea Raul (Pete) Pedrozo
    A CNA Occasional Paper China versus Vietnam: An Analysis of the Competing Claims in the South China Sea Raul (Pete) Pedrozo With a Foreword by CNA Senior Fellow Michael McDevitt August 2014 Unlimited distribution Distribution unlimited. for public release This document contains the best opinion of the authors at the time of issue. It does not necessarily represent the opinion of the sponsor. Cover Photo: South China Sea Claims and Agreements. Source: U.S. Department of Defense’s Annual Report on China to Congress, 2012. Distribution Distribution unlimited. Specific authority contracting number: E13PC00009. Copyright © 2014 CNA This work was created in the performance of Contract Number 2013-9114. Any copyright in this work is subject to the Government's Unlimited Rights license as defined in FAR 52-227.14. The reproduction of this work for commercial purposes is strictly prohibited. Nongovernmental users may copy and distribute this document in any medium, either commercially or noncommercially, provided that this copyright notice is reproduced in all copies. Nongovernmental users may not use technical measures to obstruct or control the reading or further copying of the copies they make or distribute. Nongovernmental users may not accept compensation of any manner in exchange for copies. All other rights reserved. This project was made possible by a generous grant from the Smith Richardson Foundation Approved by: August 2014 Ken E. Gause, Director International Affairs Group Center for Strategic Studies Copyright © 2014 CNA FOREWORD This legal analysis was commissioned as part of a project entitled, “U.S. policy options in the South China Sea.” The objective in asking experienced U.S international lawyers, such as Captain Raul “Pete” Pedrozo, USN, Judge Advocate Corps (ret.),1 the author of this analysis, is to provide U.S.
    [Show full text]
  • Culture & History Story of Cambodia
    CHAM CULTURE & HISTORY STORY OF CAMBODIA FARINA SO, VANNARA ORN - DOCUMENTATION CENTER OF CAMBODIA R KILLEAN, R HICKEY, L MOFFETT, D VIEJO-ROSE CHAM CULTURE & HISTORY STORYﺷﻤﺲ ISBN-13: 978-99950-60-28-2 OF CAMBODIA R Killean, R Hickey, L Moffett, D Viejo-Rose Farina So, Vannara Orn - 1 - Documentation Center of Cambodia ζរចងាំ និង យុត្ិធម៌ Memory & Justice មជ䮈មណ䮌លឯក羶រកម្宻ᾶ DOCUMENTATION CENTER OF CAMBODIA (DC-CAM) Villa No. 66, Preah Sihanouk Boulevard Phnom Penh, 12000 Cambodia Tel.: + 855 (23) 211-875 Fax.: + 855 (23) 210-358 E-mail: [email protected] CHAM CULTURE AND HISTORY STORY R Killean, R Hickey, L Moffett, D Viejo-Rose Farina So, Vannara Orn 1. Cambodia—Law—Human Rights 2. Cambodia—Politics and Government 3. Cambodia—History Funding for this project was provided by the UK Arts & Humanities Research Council: ‘Restoring Cultural Property and Communities After Conflict’ (project reference AH/P007929/1). DC-Cam receives generous support from the US Agency for International Development (USAID). The views expressed in this book are the points of view of the authors only. Include here a copyright statement about the photos used in the booklet. The ones sent by Belfast were from Creative Commons, or were from the authors, except where indicated. Copyright © 2018 by R Killean, R Hickey, L Moffett, D Viejo-Rose & the Documentation Center of Cambodia. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
    [Show full text]
  • Indians As French Citizens in Colonial Indochina, 1858-1940 Natasha Pairaudeau
    Indians as French Citizens in Colonial Indochina, 1858-1940 by Natasha Pairaudeau A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, University of London School of Oriental and African Studies Department of History June 2009 ProQuest Number: 10672932 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 10672932 Published by ProQuest LLC(2017). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 Abstract This study demonstrates how Indians with French citizenship were able through their stay in Indochina to have some say in shaping their position within the French colonial empire, and how in turn they made then' mark on Indochina itself. Known as ‘renouncers’, they gained their citizenship by renoimcing their personal laws in order to to be judged by the French civil code. Mainly residing in Cochinchina, they served primarily as functionaries in the French colonial administration, and spent the early decades of their stay battling to secure recognition of their electoral and civil rights in the colony. Their presence in Indochina in turn had an important influence on the ways in which the peoples of Indochina experienced and assessed French colonialism.
    [Show full text]
  • Indigenous Cultures of Southeast Asia: Language, Religion & Sociopolitical Issues
    Indigenous Cultures of Southeast Asia: Language, Religion & Sociopolitical Issues Eric Kendrick Georgia Perimeter College Indigenous vs. Minorities • Indigenous groups are minorities • Not all minorities are indigenous . e.g. Chinese in SE Asia Hmong, Hà Giang Province, Northeast Vietnam No Definitive Definition Exists • Historical ties to a particular territory • Cultural distinctiveness from other groups • Vulnerable to exploitation and marginalization by colonizers or dominant ethnic groups • The right to self-Identification Scope • 70+ countries • 300 - 350 million (6%) • 4,000 – 5,000 distinct peoples • Few dozen to several hundred thousand Some significantly exposed to colonizing or expansionary activities Others comparatively isolated from external or modern influence Post-Colonial Developments • Modern society has encroached on territory, diminishing languages & cultures • Many have become assimilated or urbanized Categories • Pastoralists – Herd animals for food, clothing, shelter, trade – Nomadic or Semi-nomadic – Common in Africa • Hunter-Gatherers – Game, fish, birds, insects, fruits – Medicine, stimulants, poison – Common in Amazon • Farmers – Small scale, nothing left for trade – Supplemented with hunting, fishing, gathering – Highlands of South America Commonly-known Examples • Native Americans (Canada – First Nations people) • Inuit (Eskimos) • Native Hawaiians • Maori (New Zealand) • Aborigines (Australia) Indigenous Peoples Southeast Asia Mainland SE Asia (Indochina) • Vietnam – 53 / 10 M (14%) • Cambodia – 24 / 197,000
    [Show full text]
  • Exonyms of Vietnam's Vinh Bac Bo (Gulf of Tonkin)
    Exonyms of Vietnam's Vinh Bac Bo (Gulf of Tonkin) POKOLY Béla* The presentation is exploring the various exonyms of this south-east Asian gulf, including some historical allonyms. Tonkin is the traditional historical name in most foreign languages for the northern part of Vietnam. Both the local Vietnamese and Chinese names for the feature mean in essence the same thing: “north bay”, even though it lies at the southern part of China. This commonly used meaning also helps co-operation and understanding in a region that saw so much suffering in the 20th century. The Gulf of Tonkin as is known in the English language, is a north-western portion of the South China Sea with an approximate area of 126,000 square kilometres. Its extent is larger than the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland combined, it is a much more open sea area, with Vietnam (763 km) and China (695 km) sharing its coastlines. Bordered by the northern part of Vietnam, China's southern coast of Guangxi Autonomous Region, Leizhou Peninsula and Hainan Island, it is outside the disputed maritime area further out in the South China Sea. The local names for the feature are Vinh Bac Bo in Vietnamese and 北部湾 (Pinyin Beibu Wan) in Chinese. (Fig.1) The toponym gained worldwide attention in 1964 when the controversial Gulf of Tonkin Incident marked the starting point of the escalation of the Vietnam War. The paper does not wish to deal with this event, but tries to present some aspects of the exonyms and local names of this marine feature over time.
    [Show full text]
  • A STUDY of the NAMES of MONUMENTS in ANGKOR (Cambodia)
    A STUDY OF THE NAMES OF MONUMENTS IN ANGKOR (Cambodia) NHIM Sotheavin Sophia Asia Center for Research and Human Development, Sophia University Introduction This article aims at clarifying the concept of Khmer culture by specifically explaining the meanings of the names of the monuments in Angkor, names that have existed within the Khmer cultural community.1 Many works on Angkor history have been researched in different fields, such as the evolution of arts and architecture, through a systematic analysis of monuments and archaeological excavation analysis, and the most crucial are based on Cambodian epigraphy. My work however is meant to shed light on Angkor cultural history by studying the names of the monuments, and I intend to do so by searching for the original names that are found in ancient and middle period inscriptions, as well as those appearing in the oral tradition. This study also seeks to undertake a thorough verification of the condition and shape of the monuments, as well as the mode of affixation of names for them by the local inhabitants. I also wish to focus on certain crucial errors, as well as the insufficiency of earlier studies on the subject. To begin with, the books written in foreign languages often have mistakes in the vocabulary involved in the etymology of Khmer temples. Some researchers are not very familiar with the Khmer language, and besides, they might not have visited the site very often, or possibly also they did not pay too much attention to the oral tradition related to these ruins, a tradition that might be known to the village elders.
    [Show full text]
  • Why Did Chinese Call Cambodia Chenla
    [email protected] The History of Cambodia from 1st Century to 20th Century [5] Why did Chinese call Cambodia “Chenla[s]”? SLK 05/02/2009 The architectural style of the shrine, which scholars call the pre-Angkorian Khmer style, is the progenitor of the Rolous group of monuments built in the ninth century in the vicinity of Angkor. Today it is still possible to visit the ruins of the two palaces on either side at the foot of the hill. Naga-shaped staircases are attached to the sides of the palaces and rise to the hilltop in the company of enormous trees. Human sacrifices were performed at the temple, ministered at night by the king of Zhenla. SLK v.2 [5] Why did Chinese call Cambodia “Chenla[s]”? Zhenla Period (550-802) THE first classical Chinese text to provide any detailed information on Zhenla is the Sui Annals, written in 627, seventy-seven years after the kingdom became established in 550. The Kingdom of Zhenla is south-west of Linyi (Champa). It was originally a vassal kingdom of Funan. It bordered Chequ on the south. The kingdom of Chu-ch’uang (Red River) on the west, and took six days’ travel by sea from Rinan. The family name of the king was Ch’a-li (Kshtriya); his personal name was She-to-ssu-na [Chitrasena]; his ancestors had gradually increased the power of the country. Chitrasena seized Funan and subdued it. Chitrasena died, and his son, Prince Isanavarman, succeeded him as king. This prince makes his residence in the city of I-she- na (Isanapura), which contains more than twenty thousand families.
    [Show full text]