36 Vietnam and Korea in the longue durée. The Focus Negotiating tributary and colonial positions. Compared to ample studies of the history of Japan’s foreign relations with China, Korea, Ryūkyū and the Ainu people, there is little research available concerning the history of Japan’s relationships with Southeast Asia. This article provides a short sketch of Japan’s relations with Vietnam in the early modern period by focusing on international trade and diplomacy, and will hopefully serve as an initiator for further research. Junk ship from Cochinchina (Courtesy of Matsura Historical Museum) foreign trade policy, realized through these four gateway ports, not only with Korea and Ryūkyū but also with other countries such as China, Southeast Asian states and the Netherlands. Thanks to several sorts of Beyond diplomacy junk ships coming from the China Sea region, Japan successfully obtained a set of Asian commodities, such as raw silk and sugar, at Japan and Vietnam in the 17th and 18th centuries reasonable prices without sending out its own Japanese vessels to China and Southeast Asia. Ryuto Shimada Japan’s trade with Vietnam Before the establishment of Japan’s sakoku isolationist policy in the 1630s, Vietnam’s okugawa Japan (1603-1867; also exemption. This gateway was managed by trade with Japan was mainly conducted by known as the Edo period) set in motion the Governor, appointed by the Tokugawa Japanese merchants holding the so-called Ta unique systematic policy for foreign central authorities, and it was the most ‘red-sealed letters’ provided by the Tokugawa trade and diplomacy with the establishment important gateway port in terms of the scale shōgun’s central authorities. But after of the so-called sakoku isolationist policy of foreign trade. Only two types of vessels Japanese nationals were banned from going in the 1630s, which continued until the 1850s were permitted to call at this port: those of abroad by Tokugawa central authorities in when Japan signed the treaty to open ports the Dutch East India Company (Verenigde 1635, international trade between Japan for trade to Western countries such as Great Oost-Indische Compagnie: hereafter VOC), and Vietnam began to be run by overseas Britain and the United States of America. and tōsen [junk ships]. Literarily meaning Chinese settled in Vietnam in cooperation The sakoku policy limited international trade ‘Chinese ship’, tōsen came in many varieties. with Japanese immigrants living there, and to four gateway ports: Tsushima, Matsumae, During the 17th century in particular, several who best knew the conditions of the Japanese Satsuma and Nagasaki. sorts of junks berthed at Nagasaki: junks from market. In addition to overseas Chinese The first three gateway ports were Taiwan under the control of Zheng Chenggong traders in Vietnam, the VOC conducted each managed by a han [clan] under (Koxinga), who attempted a revival of the trade between Japan and Vietnam under the supervision of the Tokugawa central Chinese Ming dynasty; junks from Chinese the framework of the intra-Asian trade. government. Tsushima was assigned to coastal areas under the control of Qing China; The Japanese categorized junk ships manage foreign relations with the Kingdom and junks from ports in Southeast Asia, from Vietnam according to their place of of Chosŏn (Korea), Satsuma took care which were run and managed by overseas embarkation. The first category was the ships of affairs with the Kingdom of Ryūkyū Chinese merchants. that came from Tonkin (present-day Hanoi) (present-day Okinawa), and Matsumae While Tokugawa Japan officially continued in Northern Vietnam, which was the capital interacted with the Ainu people on the island to keep diplomatic relations only with Korea of the Trịnh regime. The second category was of Hokkaidō. The port of Nagasaki was an and Ryūkyū, Japan held a multi-directed called Kannan (or Kannam), and were ships The Newsletter No. 79 Spring 2018 Vietnam and Korea in the longue durée. 37 Negotiating tributary and colonial positions. The Focus originating from the middle of Vietnam, for The rise of the Chinese last junks to sail to Nagasaki (according to to Japan amounted to twelve. Except for example, from the port city of Hoi An, formerly VOC records) from Tonkin and Cochinchina the last mission in 1811 to Tsushima island, known as Fai-Fo or Faifoo. These ships junk network did so in 1763 and 1767 respectively, and all other missions arrived at Edo and were under the control of the Nguyễn regime. In the late 17th century, the economic from Champa already in 1735. contributed to the establishment and The third category covered junk ships from links between Japan and Vietnam began This change in the pattern of junk ship preservation of peace between the two Champa, south of the territory of Nguyễn to decline. There were various reasons, trade was not only seen between Japan countries, even in the eighteenth century Cochinchina. including the Ming-Qing transition, the arrival and Vietnam, but also generally for the junk when Japan-Korea international trade had The international division of labor was of political peace in China and the recovery trade between Japan and other Southeast declined. Interestingly though, this foreign a basis for this maritime trade. As direct trade of the Sino-Japan trade. After the surrender Asian ports, such as Ayutthaya and Batavia. relationship was somewhat strange between Japan and mainland China had of the Zheng family in Taiwan (Kingdom of By and large, the junk trade at Nagasaki because it lacked a full exchange of come to a halt following the maritime ban in Tungning; 1661-1683) to Qing China, the became dominated by mainland Chinese missions; the Tokugawa central authorities Ming China (1368-1644), Vietnam came to be trading pattern of junk traders changed on traders from the Yangtze River Delta, where never sent a diplomatic mission to the regarded as a substitute source of raw silk for a large scale around the China Sea region. Southeast Asian products were extensively capital city of Korea. This was likely due the Japanese market. Vietnam also exported Until 1683, most junk traders had been available thanks to the development of the to the simple fact that Korea feared a cinnamon, several types of sugar, aloeswood overseas Chinese settlers in Vietnam. Some Chinese junk trading network around the Japanese visit could lead to a repeat of (used in incense and perfume), rayskin, and of these overseas Chinese were merchants China Sea region. a Japanese invasion. animal hides (deer, buffalo, etc.) to Japan. and some were junk ship crew members. The Tokugawa central authorities Silver was the most significant trading Afterwards, more Chinese junk traders from also never established official diplomatic item from Japan to Vietnam. In addition to mainland China began to participate in the Diplomatic relations with relationship with Qing China. If negotiations silver, copper bar and copper cash were also Vietnam-Japan trade. In 1692, for example, were necessary between these two exported from Japan to Vietnam. Japanese 45 Chinese and only 6 Tonkinese were Korea, China and Vietnam countries, for instance, when castaway copper was smelted in Vietnam and used registered on a particular junk ship from Unlike with Korea, Japan refrained from people were sent back to Japan from to manufacture guns and other weapons; Tonkin to Nagasaki. official diplomatic relations with the states China, local governors or officers would some of the copper cash was in circulation But then, due to the rapid increase of in Southeast Asia after Japan’s establishment just exchange letters. as a small denomination currency in Vietnam. the numbers of Chinese junk ships coming of the sakoku isolationist policy in the 1630s. Vietnam was also ‘rejected’; in 1688, Miscellaneous goods such as lacquerware from the Yangtze River Delta in the 1680s, For example, when Thai King Narai took the the King of Cochinchina sent an official and house utensils were also shipped to Japan undertook to restrict the volume throne of the Kingdom of Ayutthaya in 1656, letter to the shōgun to ask for copper cash Vietnam from Japan. of international trade. And so, in 1715, the he sent a mission to Japan with his official from Japan, yet the Tokugawa central The VOC was also engaged in the Vietnam- Shōtoku Shinrei Act was issued by the Royal letter addressed to the shōgun. authorities never sent an official letter back ese trade, where it maintained trading posts in Japanese Tokugawa central authorities. In this letter King Narai expressed his wishes to Vietnam. However, while the Tokugawa Tonkin and Cochinchina. The Vietnamese trade This act introduced a new restriction policy to reopen diplomatic relations with Japan central authorities did not wish for official was important for the Dutch Japan trade; for international trade, and the pattern of in order to further develop the international diplomacy, they did want to maintain positive in order for the VOC to acquire large volumes maritime trade by junk ships began to change trade between both countries. In spite of practical relations, for example, through of silver in Japan, it needed Asian products for again in the China Sea region. From 1715, to the King’s eagerness, the Tokugawa central the Governor of Nagasaki. In other words, the Japanese market. Trade between Japan around the 1760s, Vietnam trade with Japan authorities refused his request. Japan continued to make an effort to keep and Vietnam was done under the framework was conducted only by Chinese traders By contrast, the Tokugawa central peaceful links with Vietnamese states without of the VOC’s intra-Asian trade: by supplying based in ports around the Yangtze River Delta, authorities did choose to reopen diplomatic an official relationship at the top levels. Southeast Asian goods to Japan, the VOC such as Zhapu and Shanghai.