GA3 Background Guide

NEW YORK CITY, NY, USA NMUN•NY 18 - 22 March (Conf. A) / 25 - 29 March (Conf. B)

GENERAL ASSEMBLY THIRD COMMITTEE BACKGROUND GUIDE 2018 Written by: Tobias Dietrich, Director; Ashley Boyer, Director; Kelsea Gillespie, Assistant Director; Tomás Ocampo, Assistant Director

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Dear Delegates,

Welcome to the 2018 National Model United Nations New York Conference (NMUN•NY)! We are pleased to welcome you to the General Assembly Third Committee (GA3). This year’s staff are: Directors Tobias Dietrich (Conference A) and Ashley Boyer (Conference B), and Assistant Directors Kelsea Gillespie (Conference A) and Tomas Ocampo (Conference B). Tobias finished his M.Sc. in Nanoscience last year and is now working as a project manager for his local baseball club. Ashley completed her B.A. and M.A. in Political Science in 2012 and 2016 respectively. She once served as a Peace Corps Volunteer in Cartagena, Colombia and currently works for a global company in south Florida. Kelsea completed her B.A. in English and Political Science at Concordia University of Edmonton, and now works in public policy with the Government of Alberta. Tomas completed his B.A. in Political Science and Public Policy in 2015 and graduated with an M.P.P. in 2017; he now works as adjunct faculty in southern California.

The topics under discussion for the General Assembly Third Committee are:

1. The Right of Peoples to Self-Determination 2. The Elimination of All Forms of Religious Intolerance 3. Ensuring Equitable Access to Education

The General Assembly, one of the six principal organs of the UN, was created to act as the wholly representative and deliberative arm of the organization. The large variance in the scope of its mandate led the General Assembly to allocate its work among six committees. The stated mandate of the Third Committee is the discussion of all matters related to social, humanitarian, and cultural affairs. Since its inception, this mandate has evolved to include a particular specialism as the primary forum for human rights issues. The Third Committee performs a central role within the UN system, providing an overarching forum of discussion for a wide variety of social, humanitarian, and cultural issues and is the largest representative body for human rights norm-setting.

This Background Guide serves as an introduction to the topics for this committee. However, it is not intended to replace individual research. We encourage you to explore your Member State’s policies in depth and use the Annotated Bibliography and Bibliography to further your knowledge on these topics. In preparation for the Conference, each delegation will submit a Position Paper by 11:59 p.m. (Eastern) on 1 March 2018 in accordance with the guidelines in the NMUN Position Paper Guide.

Two resources, to download from the NMUN website, that serve as essential instruments in preparing for the Conference and as a reference during committee sessions are the:

1. NMUN Delegate Preparation Guide - explains each step in the delegate process, from pre-Conference research to the committee debate and resolution drafting processes. Please take note of the information on plagiarism, and the prohibition on pre-written working papers and resolutions. Delegates should not start discussion on the topics with other members of their committee until the first committee session. 2. NMUN Rules of Procedure - include the long and short form of the rules, as well as an explanatory narrative and example script of the flow of procedure.

In addition, please review the mandatory NMUN Conduct Expectations on the NMUN website. They include the Conference dress code and other expectations of all attendees. We want to emphasize that any instances of sexual harassment or discrimination based on race, gender, sexual orientation, national origin, religion, age, or disability will not be tolerated.

If you have any questions concerning your preparation for the committee or the Conference itself, please contact the Under- Secretaries-General for the General Assembly Department, Sarah Walter (Conference A) and Clarissa Manning (Conference B), at [email protected].

We wish you all the best in your preparations and look forward to seeing you at the Conference!

Conference A Conference B Tobias Dietrich, Director Ashley Boyer, Director Kelsea Gillespie, Assistant Director Tomas Ocampo, Assistant Director

NMUN is a Non-Governmental Organization associated with the UN Department of Public Information, a United Nations Academic Impact Member, and a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization of the United States.

Table of Contents

United Nations System at NMUN•NY ...... 2 Abbreviations ...... 3 Committee Overview ...... 4 Introduction ...... 4 Governance, Structure, and Membership ...... 4 Mandate, Functions, and Powers ...... 5 Recent Sessions and Current Priorities ...... 6 Conclusion ...... 7 Annotated Bibliography ...... 7 Bibliography ...... 8 I. The Right of Peoples to Self-Determination ...... 12 Introduction ...... 12 International and Regional Framework ...... 13 Role of the International System...... 14 Violence, Armed Conflict, and Self-Determination ...... 15 Self-Determination as a Right to Independence...... 16 Climate Change and the Right to Self-Determination ...... 17 Conclusion ...... 18 Further Research ...... 18 Annotated Bibliography ...... 18 Bibliography ...... 21 II. The Elimination of All Forms of Religious Intolerance ...... 24 Introduction ...... 24 International and Regional Framework ...... 25 Role of the International System...... 26 State-Induced Religious Intolerance ...... 27 The Role of Non-State Actors ...... 29 Conclusion ...... 30 Further Research ...... 30 Annotated Bibliography ...... 31 Bibliography ...... 33 III. Ensuring Equitable Access to Education ...... 37 Introduction ...... 37 International and Regional Framework ...... 37 Role of the International System...... 39 Education Accessibility for Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons ...... 40 Education for Women and Girls ...... 41 Conclusion ...... 42 Further Research ...... 43 Annotated Bibliography ...... 43 Bibliography ...... 45

United Nations System at NMUN•NY This diagram illustrates the UN system simulated at NMUN•NY and demonstrates the reportage and relationships between entities. Examine the diagram alongside the Committee Overview to gain a clear picture of the committee's position, purpose, and powers within the UN system.

Abbreviations ACRWC African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child AU African Union CAR Central African Republic CSO Civil society organization DESA Department of Economic and Social Affairs DPI Department of Public Information EAC Educate a Child F4R Faith for Rights FBO Faith-based organization HRC Human Rights Council ICCPR International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development ISIL Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant IT Information Technology MICS Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys NGO Non-governmental organization NSGT Non-self-governing territory OAS Organization of American States OHCHR Office for the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights OIC Organisation of Islamic Cooperation OSCE Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe PaRD International Partnership on Religion and Sustainable Development PGA President of the General Assembly PRC People’s Republic of China SDG Sustainable Development Goal SIDS Small Island Developing States STEM Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics UDHR Universal Declaration of Human Rights UN United Nations UN-Women United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women UNAOC United Nations Alliance of Civilizations UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNFPA United Nations Population Fund UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime UNPO Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization

Committee Overview

Introduction

Following the Second World War, the United Nations (UN) was formed to act as a deliberative and cooperational forum for Member States to better prevent the outbreak of future hostilities.1 The General Assembly, one of the six principal organs of the UN established under the Charter of the United Nations (1945), was created to act as the wholly representative and deliberative arm of the organization.2 The large variance in the scope of its mandate led the General Assembly to allocate its work among six committees that would allow each to focus on a specific theme.3 The stated mandate of the Third Committee is the discussion of all matters related to social, humanitarian, and cultural affairs.4 Since its foundation, this mandate has naturally developed to also include a particular specialism as the primary forum for issues around human rights.5 More than 50 % of the resolutions adopted by the committee in recent years were submitted under the human rights agenda addressing a variety of subtopics, thereby making it the world’s largest and most prominent forum for international human rights norm creation.6 This overview will introduce the Third Committee through a contextualization of it within the wider General Assembly structure, an overview of its governance and membership, and an analysis of its mandate and associated powers before examining its current priorities.

Governance, Structure, and Membership

In accordance with the Charter, the General Assembly is comprised of all 193 UN Member States, as well as the Holy See and the State of Palestine as Observer States.7 Furthermore the work of the committee is supported by non- governmental and intergovernmental observers like the European Union or the International Criminal Court.8 All main General Assembly committees begin their annual session in mid-September, following the drafting and allocation of agenda items by the General Committee to each specific committee, according to theme and content.9 Relevant reports of the Secretary-General are issued just before each corresponding agenda item, followed by an allotted time for questions for clarification or analysis.10 As is the case for all General Assembly committees, the Third Committee adopts draft resolutions on each agenda item and a report to the General Assembly Plenary.11 All documents require a simple majority to be adopted, unless the agenda item is considered an important question, like for example those on peace and security which require a two-thirds majority.12 Based on this, the Plenary then adopts, either through a vote or by consensus, the draft resolutions as recommended in the committee report.13

The President of the General Assembly (PGA) is the largely ceremonial head of the General Assembly, elected each year by a simple majority to a one-year nonrenewable term.14 The PGA’s duties are to facilitate Plenary sessions by directing discussion, managing the administration of meetings, and enforcing the General Assembly Rules of Procedure.15 The PGA does not preside over all six General Assembly committees separately; rather, Chairs and

1 Charter of the United Nations, 1945, Art. 55-60. 2 Ibid.; UN General Assembly, About the General Assembly, 2017. 3 Charter of the United Nations, 1945; UN General Assembly, Main Committees, 2017. 4 UN General Assembly, Social, Humanitarian & Cultural, 2017. 5 Ibid.; UN DESA, The UN General Assembly’s Third Committee – social, humanitarian and cultural issues, 2013; UN General Assembly, Social, Humanitarian & Cultural Issues – Draft proposals per agenda item, 2017. 6 UN HRC, Institution-building of the United Nations Human Rights Council (A/HRC/RES/5/1), 2007; UN HRC, Review of the work and functioning of the Human Rights Council (A/HRC/RES/16/21), 2011; UN DESA, The UN General Assembly’s Third Committee – social, humanitarian and cultural issues, 2013. 7 UN General Assembly, Member States, 2017. 8 UN General Assembly, List of non-Member States, entities and organizations having received a standing invitation to participate as observers in the sessions and the work of the General Assembly (A/INF/71/5), 2017. 9 Switzerland, The PGA Handbook: A practical guide to the United Nations General Assembly, 2011, pp. 37-38, 62. 10 Ibid., pp. 37-38, 65. 11 Ibid., pp. 37-38, 62; UN General Assembly, Reports to the Plenary, 2017. 12 UN General Assembly, About the General Assembly, 2017. 13 Switzerland, The PGA Handbook: A practical guide to the United Nations General Assembly, 2011, p. 62. 14 Ibid., p. 16. 15 Ibid.

Vice Chairs are the facilitators of individual committees.16 The PGA also performs executive duties such as meeting regularly with the Secretary-General, the President of the Security Council, and the President of the Economic and Social Council; communicating with the press and the public; and organizing high-level meetings for certain thematic issues.17

All General Assembly committees are supported by secretariats, which provide substantive and logistical support to the committees. The Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) serves as the primary substantive support wing of the Third Committee’s secretariat, acting as a natural focal point for human rights bodies, reports, and other publications.18 Given the varied nature of its work, various other UN entities may serve as substantive secretariats for the Third Committee, such as the UN Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), the United Nations Volunteers program, and the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR).19 Furthermore, as a subsidiary body of the General Assembly, the UN Human Rights Council (HRC) provides an annual report to the Third Committee on its own recent sessions and discussions.20 Independent Experts, Special Rapporteurs, and Working Groups that compile reports and advise the HRC will also engage in interactive dialogues with the Third Committee on a variety of subjects.21

Mandate, Functions, and Powers

The Third Committee derives its direction from a variety of UN documents.22 Articles 10-17 of the Charter are the principal guidelines for the substance and scope of all General Assembly committees.23 These articles state that the General Assembly has the authority to “initiate studies and make recommendations”, as well as “receive and consider reports” from other organs of the UN, including the Security Council.24 Article 1 also speaks of “promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all”, which has been said to be the foundation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) (1948) and the mandate of much of the Third Committee’s work.25 Nearly every international human rights instrument since the UDHR has built upon its core principles, thereby enlarging the Third Committee’s mandate by extension.26 The Third Committee used the UDHR as the groundwork to adopt additional and more specific international human rights instruments, chief among them the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (1966).27 These documents, along with the two optional protocols to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, make up what is known as the International Bill of Human Rights.28 Both covenants differ from the UDHR in that they are legally binding multilateral treaties to those Member States that have either ratified or acceded to them.29

Under its overall mandate as the Social, Humanitarian and Cultural Committee, the Third Committee spends a large portion of its time discussing matters relating to human rights and setting rights norms, demonstrated by the fact that around half of its work is based on the single agenda item “Promotion and protection of human rights”.30 However,

16 Ibid., pp. 15, 18. 17 Ibid., pp. 16-17. 18 UN OHCHR, Human Rights – New York: Mainstreaming human rights, 2017. 19 UN General Assembly, Organization of work of the Third Committee: Note by the Secretariat (A/C.3/71/L.1/Rev. 1), 2016. 20 UN General Assembly, Report of the Human Rights Council (A/71/53), 2016. 21 Switzerland, The PGA Handbook: A practical guide to the United Nations General Assembly, 2011, p. 65; UN DESA, The UN General Assembly’s Third Committee – social, humanitarian and cultural issues, 2013. 22 Switzerland, The PGA Handbook: A practical guide to the United Nations General Assembly, 2011; Charter of the United Nations, 1945, Art. 10-17. 23 Charter of the United Nations, 1945, Art. 10-17. 24 Ibid., Art. 13, 15. 25 UN OHCHR, Fact Sheet No.2 (Rev.1), The International Bill of Human Rights, 1996; UN General Assembly, Universal Declaration of Human Rights (A/RES/217 A (III)), 1948. 26 UN OHCHR, Fact Sheet No.2 (Rev.1), The International Bill of Human Rights, 1996. 27 Ibid.; UN General Assembly, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (A/RES/2200 (XXI)), 1966; UN General Assembly, International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (A/RES/2200 (XXI)), 1966. 28 UN OHCHR, Fact Sheet No.2 (Rev.1), The International Bill of Human Rights, 1996. 29 Ibid. 30 Switzerland, The PGA Handbook: A practical guide to the United Nations General Assembly, 2011, p. 65.

the Third Committee’s work can encompass a broad variety of issues, including those beyond human rights, demonstrated during its 71st session wherein topics including crime prevention and criminal justice, international drug control, young people’s social development, and the advancement of women were discussed.31

As part of the General Assembly, the work of the Third Committee is of a normative nature, in that it does not actually carry out the operations or tasks called for in its resolutions.32 The Third Committee primarily works through the initiation of studies and the creation of nonbinding recommendations.33 The task of operationalizing the Third Committee’s recommendations is primarily delegated to the various agencies and offices of the UN Secretariat.34 The Third Committee can request studies to be undertaken by relevant UN bodies such as OHCHR, UNHCR, UN-Women, and the UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC).35 UN-Women, for example, delivered the “Report of the Secretary-General on trafficking in women and girls” (A/71/223) to the Third Committee, and UNODC similarly issued the “Report of the Secretary-General on international cooperation against the world drug problem” (A/71/316) prepared pursuant to resolutions 69/149 (2015) and 69/194 (2015), respectively.36 The Third Committee can also call for conferences to highlight certain issues, with a notable recurring example being the World Conference on Women, originating from the Third Committee resolution 3276 (XXIX) (1974), and monitored regularly through follow up reviews every five years.37

Recent Sessions and Current Priorities

During its 71st session, beginning in September 2016, the Third Committee addressed a variety of issues and topics, culminating in 50 final texts being adopted by the Plenary.38 With the Third Committee meeting for the second time since the adoption of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the importance of the goals as a guidance for the work of the committee was stressed.39 The work on draft resolution concerning country-specific human rights questions led to heated discussions, due to the draft resolutions being considered “arbitrary and politicized” by some Member States.40 The reasons for increasing discussion on issues under the human rights agenda vary, but differing opinions on human rights questions as well as various ways to address the issue are part of it.41 A big question under debate that will need to be discussed further is whether resolutions on the human rights situation within single Member States are the suitable way to address the issue.42 Nevertheless, the Committee adopted four draft resolutions on the human rights situation in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, the Syrian Arab Republic, the Islamic Republic of Iran, and the Autonomous Republic of Crimea and the city of Sevastopol.43 While the General Assembly mostly works on a consensus basis, the committee requested recorded votes for three of the four draft resolutions.44 Overall the General Assembly adopted 35 out of the 50 Third Committee draft resolutions

31 UN General Assembly, Allocation of agenda items to the Third Committee (A/C.3/71/1), 2016. 32 UN General Assembly, Functions and Powers of the General Assembly, 2017. 33 Ibid. 34 OHCHR, Human Rights – New York: Mainstreaming human rights, 2017; Switzerland, The PGA Handbook: A practical guide to the United Nations General Assembly, 2011, p. 65. 35 UN General Assembly, Organization of work of the Third Committee: Note by the Secretariat (A/C.3/71/L.1/Rev. 1), 2016. 36 Ibid.; UN General Assembly, International cooperation against the world drug problem: Report of the Secretary-General (A/71/316), 2016; UN General Assembly, Trafficking in women and girls: Report of the Secretary-General (A/71/223), 2016. 37 UN General Assembly, Conference of the International Women’s Year (XXIX) (A/RES/3726 (XXIX)), 1974; UN-Women, World Conferences on Women, 2017. 38 UN DPI, General Assembly Adopts 50 Third Committee Resolutions, as Diverging Views on Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity Animate Voting (GA/11879), 2016. 39 UN DPI, Speakers Focus on Greater Solidarity with World’s Most Vulnerable People, Unequal Economic Progress, Need to Empower Youth, as Third Committee Opens Session (GA/SHC/4163), 2016; UN General Assembly, Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (A/RES/70/1), 2015. 40 UN DPI, Third Committee Approves 5 Draft Resolutions on Situations in Syria, Iran, Crimea, Introduces 5 Others Concerning Self-Determination, Enhanced Cooperation (GA/SHC/4188), 2016. 41 Ibid. 42 Ibid. 43 Ibid. 44 Ibid.

without a vote.45 This means that 30 % of the resolutions were adopted by recorded votes, showing the diverging views on many of the issues discussed within the agenda of the committee.46 The Third Committee also considered the question of the right of peoples to self-determination, continuing the work of the previous years.47 While the General Assembly adopted a resolution on the issue in general it also considered the question of mercenaries and the Palestinian people in two more resolutions.48 The committee considered the annual report of the HRC and, taking it into account, approved draft resolutions on a variety of human rights questions.49 This included human rights in relation with extreme poverty, right to peace, right to food, right to development, right to privacy in the digital age, as well as the freedom of religion and belief.50

The 72nd session of the General Assembly opened on 12 September 2017 and continues the initial work of implementing the SDGs.51 Secretary-General António Guterres began the General Debate by emphasizing that “we are a world in pieces” and stressed the need for more collaboration to face today’s challenges.52 The Third Committee opened its discussions on 2 October 2017 and, across its 72nd1st session, will discuss a variety of issues on the human rights agenda, including the promotion and protection of children’s rights, the empowerment of women and indigenous peoples, as well as receiving its annual reports from other UN bodies.53 The committee will furthermore discuss questions like the right of peoples to self-determination, eliminating various forms of discrimination, and international drug control.54

Conclusion

The Third Committee continues to perform a central role within the UN system, providing an overarching forum of discussion for a wide variety of social, humanitarian, and cultural issues and as the largest representative body for setting human rights norms.55 Particularly within the context of the adoption of the SDGs, and the foundational underpinning its mandate has across many of them, the Third Committee’s work continues to be of the utmost importance.56 Delegates should aim to understand the historical precedents the Committee has set through its work on human rights and humanitarian issues, as well as how these achievements continue to contextualize and influence the work it does today across a broad spectrum of topics and situations.57

Annotated Bibliography Charter of the United Nations. (1945). Retrieved 17 July 2017 from: http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/ The Charter is the fundamental document that underpins and informs all of the subsequent work of the United Nations. Delegates should understand the document as the foundational blueprint of the UN, both in terms of its structure and powers, but also its guiding ideals and objectives. Although much subsequent work has expanded upon the core principles of the Charter, it is essential that delegates understand the primary document and its context. Of particular interest is Article 17, which outlines the primary functions and powers of the General Assembly.

45 UN DPI, General Assembly Adopts 50 Third Committee Resolutions, as Diverging Views on Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity Animate Voting (GA/11879), 2016. 46 Ibid. 47 UN General Assembly, Universal realization of the right of peoples to self-determination (A/RES/71/183), 2017. 48 UN General Assembly, Right of peoples to self-determination: Report of the Third Committee (A/71/483), 2016. 49 UN General Assembly, Report of the Human Rights Council (A/71/53), 2016. 50 UN General Assembly, Social, Humanitarian & Cultural Issues – Draft proposals per agenda item, 2017. 51 UN DPI, General Assembly Adopts Resolution on Follow-up to, Review of 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, in Consensus Action (GA/11809), 2016. 52 UN DPI, Secretary-General Stresses Political Solutions in Addressing Nuclear, Terrorism Migration Issues as United States President Warns Pyongyang (GA/11947), 2017. 53 UN General Assembly, Allocation of agenda items to the Third Committee (A/C.3/72/1), 2017. 54 Ibid.; UN General Assembly, Universal realization of the right of peoples of self-determination (A/RES/71/183), 2017. 55 UN DESA, The UN General Assembly’s Third Committee – social, humanitarian and cultural issues, 2013. 56 UN DPI, Speakers Focus on Greater Solidarity with World’s Most Vulnerable People, Unequal Economic Progress, Need to Empower Youth, as Third Committee Opens Session (GA/SHC/4163), 2016. 57 UN General Assembly, Social, Humanitarian & Cultural Issues – Draft proposals per agenda item, 2017.

Switzerland, Permanent Mission to the United Nations. (2011). The PGA Handbook: A practical guide to the United Nations General Assembly. Retrieved 17 July 2017 from: http://www.unitar.org/ny/sites/unitar.org.ny/files/UN_PGA_Handbook.pdf The PGA Handbook is an essential read for delegates who will be a part of a General Assembly committee. The entirety of the Handbook is relevant and delegates are encouraged to study it carefully; however, of particular interest is page 65, which offers a comprehensive breakdown of the basic information of the Third Committee, including details of proceedings and voting information. This handbook is an essential ‘first-step’ for delegates to understand the structures, processes and traditions of the General Assembly Committees.

United Nations, Department of Public Information. (2016, December 19). General Assembly Adopts 50 Third Committee Resolutions, as Diverging Views on Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity Animate Voting (GA/11879) [Meetings Coverage]. Retrieved 17 July 2017 from: http://www.un.org/press/en/2016/ga11879.doc.htm This coverage of the work of the 71st session provides delegates with useful insight into the recent priorities of the committee. It provides a concise overview of resolutions adopted by the Plenary on the report of the Third Committee, and also a summary of statements made with actions undertaken on draft resolutions. Not only does this give delegates an understanding of the breadth of subject matter under consideration at the Third Committee, but it also serves as a useful starting point in their research that shapes and focuses lines of inquiry.

United Nations, General Assembly. (2017). Functions and Powers of the General Assembly [Website]. Retrieved 17 July 2017 from: http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/background.shtml This is a basic overview of the work of the General Assembly, and how it is permitted to do such work under the Charter. The page is very easy to understand and has links on the side that can take delegates to other pages with valuable information on the General Assembly, such as the subsidiary organs, rules of procedure, and observers. All the functions of the General Assembly are clearly laid out in bullet points, and delegates should study these points carefully.

United Nations, General Assembly, Third session. (1948). Universal Declaration of Human Rights (A/RES/217 A (III)). Retrieved 17 July 2017 from: http://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/index.html The UDHR is the cornerstone of international human rights, and, along with the Charter of the United Nations, is one of the most important documents delegates should study during their preparation. Delegates should seek to fully understand these principles, given their foundational role as the fabric of how human rights are viewed today. Special attention should be paid to the principles of equality and inalienability of these rights, as well as the strong desire that Member States express for the UDHR to be enshrined as the global standard for human rights.

United Nations, General Assembly, Seventieth session. (2015). Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (A/RES/70/1). Retrieved 17 July 2017 from: http://undocs.org/A/RES/70/1 Although the overall reach of the SDGs extends beyond the remit of the Third Committee, there is significant overlap between the mandates of the two. A rights-based approach is highlighted in nearly all of the goals, and many touch upon topics that the Third Committee regularly discusses. The SDGs represent the primary development agenda of the UN and it is therefore important that delegates understand the organization’s overarching objectives and how these interplay with and influence the work of the Committee. Bibliography Charter of the United Nations. (1945). Retrieved 17 July 2017 from: http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/

Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. (1996). Fact Sheet No.2 (Rev.1), The International Bill of Human Rights. Retrieved 17 July 2017 from: http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet2Rev.1en.pdf

Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. (2017). Human Rights – New York: Mainstreaming human rights [Website]. Retrieved 17 July 2017 from: http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewYork/Pages/MainstreamingHR.aspx

United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs. (2013). The UN General Assembly’s Third Committee – social, humanitarian and cultural issues [Website]. Retrieved 17 July 2017 from: http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/news/ecosoc/un-ga-third-committee.html

United Nations, Department of Public Information. (2016, July 29). General Assembly Adopts Resolution on Follow-up to, Review of 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, in Consensus Action (GA/11809) [Meetings Coverage]. Retrieved 17 July 2017 from: http://www.un.org/press/en/2016/ga11809.doc.htm

United Nations, Department of Public Information. (2016, October 4). Speakers Focus on Greater Solidarity with World’s most Vulnerable People, Unequal Economic Progress, Need to Empower Youth, as Third Committee Opens Session (GA/SHC/4163) [Meetings Coverage]. Retrieved 19 July 2017 from: https://www.un.org/press/en/2016/gashc4163.doc.htm

United Nations, Department of Public Information. (2016, November 15). Third Committee Approves 5 Draft Resolutions on Situations in Syria, Iran, Crimea, Introduces 5 Others Concerning Self-Determination, Enhanced Cooperation (GA/SHC/4188) [Meetings Coverage]. Retrieved 22 August 2017 from: https://www.un.org/press/en/2016/gashc4188.doc.htm

United Nations, Department of Public Information. (2017, September 19). Secretary-General Stresses Political Solutions in Addressing Nuclear, Terrorism Migration Issues as United States President Warns Pyongyang (GA/11947) [Meetings Coverage]. Retrieved 25 September 2017 from: http://www.un.org/press/en/2017/ga11947.doc.htm

United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women. (2017). World Conferences on Women [Website]. Retrieved 17 July 2017 from: http://www.unwomen.org/en/how-we-work/intergovernmental- support/world-conferences-on-women

United Nations, General Assembly. (2017). About the General Assembly [Website]. Retrieved 17 July 2017 from: http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/index.shtml

United Nations, General Assembly. (2017). Functions and Powers of the General Assembly [Website]. Retrieved 17 July 2017 from: http://www.un.org/en/ga/about/background.shtml

United Nations, General Assembly. (2017). Main Committees [Website]. Retrieved 17 July 2017 from: https://www.un.org/en/ga/maincommittees/index.shtml

United Nations, General Assembly. (2017). Member States [Website]. Retrieved 17 July 2017 from: http://www.un.org/en/member-states/index.html

United Nations, General Assembly, Third session. (1948). Universal Declaration of Human Rights (A/RES/217 A (III)). Retrieved 28 August 2016 from: http://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/index.html

United Nations, General Assembly, Twenty-first session. (1966). International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (A/RES/2200 (XXI)). Adopted on the report of the Third Committee (A/6546). Retrieved 17 July 2017 from: http://undocs.org/A/RES/2200(XXI)

United Nations, General Assembly, Twenty-ninth session. (1974). Conference of the International Women’s Year (XXIX) (A/RES/29/3276) [Resolution]. Adopted on the report of the Third Committee (A/9829/Add.1). Retrieved 17 July 2017 from: http://undocs.org/A/RES/3276 (XXIX)

United Nations, General Assembly, Seventieth session. (2016). Resolutions and Decisions adopted by the General Assembly during its seventieth session (A/70/49 (Vol. II)). Retrieved 23 August 2017 from: http://undocs.org/A/70/49(Vol.II)

United Nations, General Assembly, Seventy-first session. (2016). Allocation of agenda items to the Third Committee (A/C.3/71/1). Retrieved 25 August 2017 from: http://undocs.org/A/C.3/71/1

United Nations, General Assembly, Seventy-first session. (2016). International cooperation against the world drug problem: Report of the Secretary-General (A/71/316). Retrieved 25 August 2017 from: http://undocs.org/A/71/316

United Nations, General Assembly, Seventy-first session. (2016). New York Declaration for Refugees and Migrants (A/RES/71/1). Retrieved 17 July 2017 from: http://undocs.org/A/RES/71/1

United Nations, General Assembly, Seventy-first session. (2016). Organization of the work of the Third Committee: Note by the Secretariat (A/C.3/71/L.1/Rev. 1). Retrieved 17 July 2017 from: http://undocs.org/A/C.3/71/L.1/Rev. 1

United Nations, General Assembly, Seventy-first session. (2016). Report of the Human Rights Council (A/71/53). Retrieved 23 August 2017 from: http://undocs.org/A/71/53

United Nations, General Assembly, Seventy-first session. (2016). Right of peoples to self-determination: Report of the Third Committee (A/71/483). Retrieved 22 August 2017 from: http://undocs.org/A/71/483

United Nations, General Assembly, Seventy-first session. (2016). Trafficking in women and girls: Report of the Secretary-General (A/71/223). Retrieved 25 August 2017 from: http://undocs.org/A/71/223

United Nations, General Assembly, Seventy-first session. (2017). List of non-Member States, entities and organizations having received a standing invitation to participate as observers in the sessions and the work of the General Assembly (A/INF/71/5) [Background Note]. Retrieved 25 September 2017 from: http://undocs.org/A/INF/71/5

United Nations, General Assembly, Seventy-first session. (2017). Universal realization of the right of peoples to self-determination (A/RES/71/183) [Resolution]. Adopted on the report of the Third Committee (A/71/483). Retrieved 22 August 2017 from http://undocs.org/A/RES/71/183

United Nations, General Assembly, Seventy-second session. (2017). Allocation of agenda items to the Third Committee (A/C.3/72/1). Retrieved 25 August 2017 from: http://undocs.org/A/C.3/72/1

United Nations, General Assembly, Seventy-second session. (2017). Organization of the work of the Third Committee: Note by the Secretariat (A/C.3/72/L.1). Retrieved 25 September 2017 from: http://undocs.org/A/C.3/72/L.1

United Nations, General Assembly, Third Committee. (2017). Social, Humanitarian & Cultural [Website]. Retrieved 17 July 2017 from: http://www.un.org/en/ga/third/index.shtml

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I. The Right of Peoples to Self-Determination “No other concept is as powerful, visceral, emotional, unruly, as steep in creating aspirations and hopes as self- determination.”58

Introduction

The right to self-determination is the “right of a people to determine their own destiny in regards to their political status and economic, social, and cultural development.”59 While international law is clear that the right to self- determination belongs to all peoples, in practice there is not an agreed definition of what this right entails.60 The right is well established in the case of peoples under colonization, peoples living in dependent or non-self-governing territories (NSGTs), and peoples living in racist regimes.61 Additionally, the claims of several groups to cultural autonomy, that is the ability to develop and practice laws and customs central to a particular group’s culture, separate from the majority culture, are often recognized.62 On the other hand, the claims of groups that desire independence from their host state, and that are not under colonial occupation or living in racist regimes are rarely recognized.63 The challenge of determining which groups’ claims of self-determination are legitimate is further complicated when it comes to defining exactly who or what can classify as “peoples.”64 However, the United Nations (UN) Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) report International Meeting of Experts on further study of the concept of the rights of peoples (1989) provides a definition: “peoples” are defined as a group of people with “common historical tradition, a racial identity, a shared culture, linguistic unity, religious unity, a territorial connection and a common economic life.”65 Yet, the fact that a group need not have all these common aspects, but rather, at least one, allows for a large number of groups to possess a claim to self-determination.66

The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (1966) recognize the right of self-determination.67 However, the exact meaning, application, and which groups of peoples can claim self-determination is unclear, as evidenced by the two leading interpretations on the right to self-determination.68 One interpretation holds that the right to self-determination applies only to states as a way to safeguard their sovereignty.69 The other holds that the right to self-determination allows distinct ethnic, linguistic, religious, and other nationalistic groups separate from the dominant culture the right to secede from their host state.70 Despite these differing interpretations, the position of most Member States and peoples exercising their right to self-determination is that recognition of this right is more important than whatever outcome results from this right.71 That is, the process for exercising self-determination is more significant than the outcome, which could include cultural autonomy, self-government, or even independence.72 This issue is made more complex in the twenty-first century, since the rise in sea level will have significant implications to the territorial integrity and self-determination of small island developing states (SIDS).73 Thus, the development and application of

58 UNPO, Self-Determination, 2017. 59 Ibid. 60 UNESCO, International Meeting of Experts on further study of the concept of the rights of peoples, 1989. 61 Ibid. 62 UNPO, Self-Determination, 2017. 63 Ibid. 64 UNESCO, International Meeting of Experts on further study of the concept of the rights of peoples, 1989. 65 Ibid. 66 UN General Assembly, International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (A/RES/2200 (XXI)), 1966. 67 UNPO, The Question of Self-Determination: The Cases of East Timor, Tibet, and Western Sahara, 1996, p. 6; UN General Assembly, International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (A/RES/2200 (XXI)), 1966. 68 UNPO, The Question of Self-Determination: The Cases of East Timor, Tibet, and Western Sahara, 1996, p. 6. 69 Ibid. 70 Ibid. 71 Ibid., pp. 5-6. 72 Ibid., pp. 5-6. 73 Wilcox, Climate Change Inundation, Self-Determination, and Atoll Island States, 2016.

the right to self-determination is a complex subject, which will require Member States and the UN system to continue discussions on their role in enabling peoples to exercise their right to self-determination.74

International and Regional Framework

The Charter of the United Nations (1946) states in Article 1, Section 2, that the UN is “based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples.”75 The Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples (1961) was among the first international instruments to identify the right of all peoples to self-determination as a direct result of growing anti-colonial movements following World War II.76 The Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples stated that colonization, domination, and exploitation are contrary to the Charter, and violate fundamental human rights.77 An important result of the declaration is the assertion that inadequate political, economic, social, and/or educational institutions should not circumvent the independence of colonized peoples.78 Succeeding human rights instruments, including both the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, also acknowledged the right to self-determination in common Article 1.79 Condemning in the strongest terms the subjugation, domination, and exploitation of peoples, the Declaration on Principles of International Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation among States in Accordance with the Charter of the United Nations (1970) further reaffirms the importance of the right to self-determination.80 Additionally, subsequent international human rights declarations have included other cases of self-determination, including those of indigenous peoples and peoples in the former Soviet Republics.81 The Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2008), for example, outlined the inherent right of indigenous peoples to self-determination, and, in Article 26, recognized their right to the lands, territories, and resources in the area where they reside.82 The Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, however, did not clarify if indigenous persons could seek independence from their host state, providing only cultural autonomy or self-government as outcomes of the exercise of self-determination.83

Most recently, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (2015) asserted the right to self-determination as necessary for the successful implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for peoples living under colonial and foreign occupation.84 Furthermore, the General Assembly has adopted several resolutions concerning the right to self-determination, including resolution 55/153 on “Nationality of natural persons in relation to the succession of States,” (2001) which provides several guidelines for Member States to address the nationality of peoples who form their own state or integrate into their host state.85 General Assembly resolution 71/183 on the “Universal realization of the right of peoples to self-determination” (2017) further recognizes the right to self- determination for many peoples under colonial, foreign, and alien domination, which includes the Occupied Palestinian Territories, among others.86 Subsequently, General Assembly resolution 71/184 on “The right of the Palestinian people to self-determination” (2017) reaffirmed the international community’s position on this matter, and further included their right to independence.87

74 UNESCO, International Meeting of Experts on further study of the concept of the rights of peoples, 1989. 75 Charter of the United Nations, 1945, Art. 1. 76 UN General Assembly, Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples (A/RES/1514 (XV)), 1961. 77 Ibid. 78 UNPO, The Question of Self-Determination: The Cases of East Timor, Tibet, and Western Sahara, 1996, p. 7. 79 UN General Assembly, International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (A/RES/2200 (XXI)), 1966. 80 UN General Assembly, Declaration on the Principles of International Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation among States in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations (A/RES/25/2625 (XXV)), 1970. 81 UNPO, The Question of Self-Determination: The Cases of East Timor, Tibet, and Western Sahara, 1996, pp. 6-7. 82 UN General Assembly, United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (A/RES/61/295), 2007. 83 Ibid. 84 UN General Assembly, Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (A/RES/70/1), 2017, p. 9. 85 UN General Assembly, Nationality of Natural Persons in Relation to the Succession of States (A/RES/55/153), 2000. 86 UN General Assembly, Universal realization of the right of peoples to self-determination (A/RES/71/183), 2017. 87 UN General Assembly, The right of the Palestinian people to self-determination (A/RES/71/184), 2017.

Role of the International System

Established as one of the main organs of the UN in 1960, the Trusteeship Council oversaw the administration and independence of territories that have been placed in trust with the UN by their former administrating Member State (Trust Territories).88 It maintains the official list of NSGTs, or territories that are administered by another country, including Western Sahara, Gibraltar, and Guam.89 Since 1994, after the independence of Palau, the committee suspended its meetings and only meets occasionally as required, or by request of the majority of its members.90 A group that continues to meet regularly, however, is the Special Committee on Decolonization, which is a significant actor in regards to the right to self-determination.91 Founded in 1961 by the General Assembly, it is tasked with observing the implementation of the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples.92 It reviews the list of NSGTs, organizes meetings regarding the political, economic, and social conditions within NSGTs, and provides recommendations to further decolonization efforts.93 Recently, in June 2017, the Special Committee approved a draft resolution urging the United States to provide a means for Puerto Rico to fully exercise its right to self-determination.94 While Puerto Rico is not listed as a NSGT, speakers at a meeting of the Special Committee urged its members to consider the situation of Puerto Rico and to add it to the list of NSGTs.95 Including Puerto Rico on this list would not only confirm Puerto Rico as a colonized territory, but also legally obligate the United States to address its decolonization.96 At the Caribbean Regional Seminar on Decolonization in May 2017, the Secretary-General of the UN emphasized furthering decolonization in the Caribbean, which also entailed considering the situation of Puerto Rico.97

The UN Secretary-General submits reports on the “Right of peoples to self-determination” to the General Assembly upon request.98 Moreover, several human rights bodies contribute to the work of the General Assembly, such as the Office for the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), which is particularly concerned with human rights issues involving indigenous peoples, cultural minorities, and civil and political rights.99 It provides substantive support to the Human Rights Council (HRC), one of the subsidiary bodies of the General Assembly, which adopts recommendations on human rights issues including the right to self-determination.100 The General Assembly receives reports from HRC, incorporates its findings in its resolutions, and can request HRC to give attention to certain issues, as it did with resolution 71/183 regarding the universal right to self-determination.101 In 2016, HRC adopted resolution 31/33 on the “Right of the Palestinian people to self-determination” and resolution 31/34 on “Human rights situation in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, including East Jerusalem,” both of which reaffirmed the Palestinian peoples’ right to self-determination and called upon Israel to end its occupation of their territory.102 Additionally, in 2016 the Open Working Group on Mercenaries, established by HRC, provided a report to the General Assembly on the situation in the Central African Republic (CAR).103 It noted that the ongoing armed conflict in CAR is exacerbated by the presence of mercenary forces aiming to destabilize the country, and that these forces encroach on CAR’s right to self-determination.104 The report estimated that mercenary forces have led to the internal displacement of 380,000 people, and forcibly recruited 10,000 children as child soldiers.105 To address this,

88 UN Trusteeship Council, Trusteeship Council, 2016. 89 UN DPI, Non-Self-Governing Territories, 2017. 90 UN Trusteeship Council, Trusteeship Council, 2016. 91 UN Special Committee on Decolonization, Committee of 24 (Special Committee on Decolonization). 92 Ibid. 93 Ibid. 94 UN DPI, Special Committee Approves Text Calling on United States to Expedite Puerto Rico’s Self-Determination Process, Welcomes Release of Long-Timer Independence Activist, 2017. 95 Ibid. 96 Ibid. 97 UN DPI, Secretary-General Confirms His Commitment to Decolonization Agenda in Message for Opening of Caribbean Regional Seminar, 2017. 98 UN General Assembly, Report of the Secretary-General on the Right of Peoples to self-determination (A/71/326), 2016. 99 UN OHCHR, Who We Are, 2017; UN OHCHR, List of Human Rights Issues, 2017. 100 UN HRC, About the United Nations Human Rights Council, 2017. 101 UN General Assembly, Universal realization of the right of peoples to self-determination (A/RES/71/183), 2017. 102 UN HRC, Report of the Human Rights Council (A/71/53), 2015. 103 UN OHCHR, Urgent measures needed to deter mercenaries and foreign fighters and prevent further violence in CAR, 2016. 104 Ibid. 105 Ibid.

the General Assembly adopted resolution 71/182 on the “Use of mercenaries as a means of violating human rights and impeding the exercise of the right of peoples to self-determination,” (2017) which condemns the use of mercenaries in order to perpetuate armed conflict and exploitation, fight against national liberation movements, or overthrow governments.106

One of the leading international non-governmental organizations (NGO) that represents groups of indigenous peoples and unrecognized or occupied territories seeking their right to self-determination is the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO).107 At the 1993 Conference on Self-Determination in Relation to Individual Human Rights, Democracy and Protection of the Environment held in The Hague, Netherlands, UNPO brought together representatives of several of its members, including Abkhazia, East Turkestan, Iranian Kurdistan, Ogoni, and Taiwan.108 A few of the subjects discussed included the importance of management and protection of the natural environment as part of the right to self-determination, and participants agreed that environmental degradation and denial of land rights violated the right to self-determination.109 Further, Liechtenstein presented a proposal to the conference for an international convention on implementing the right to self-determination, which would outline a peaceful process for the exercise of the right to self-determination.110 One critical advantage of the proposal was its recognition of the legitimacy of claims to self-determination, which could allow peoples to pursue the right to self- determination without legal repercussions from their host state.111 However, some participants that currently face the destruction of their culture, language, and even their lives, claimed that the process in the proposal was too slow, and believed that “justice delayed [was] justice denied.”112 Nevertheless, the conference and ensuing proposal generated important dialogue between Member States and peoples alike, aiming to clarify the right to self-determination.113

Violence, Armed Conflict, and Self-Determination

Violence and armed conflict pose a threat to peoples’ right to exercise self-determination and the full enjoyment of human rights.114 Violence during the struggle for self-determination is well documented, for example with the situations of former Soviet Republics, South Sudan, and Palestine.115 Many of these cases stem from either the denial of the right to self-determination, or the oppression, discrimination, and arbitrary detainment by the host state of peoples claiming self-determination.116 Such acts by Member States only further marginalize groups claiming self-determination, and increase the likelihood of hostilities, if not outright violence and armed conflict.117 Without a legitimate process that recognizes peoples’ expression of their right to self-determination, the frustrations of a few groups of people can lead to tensions and even conflict.118

The Situation in the former Soviet Republics Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, several former Soviet Republics, including Georgia, Estonia, and Lithuania, claimed self-determination and moved to gain recognition as sovereign states.119 As a result, intra-state conflicts developed across several areas, including Abkhazia, South Ossetia, and Nagorno-Karabakh.120 In the Fall of 1990, South Ossetia, nestled within the borders of Georgia, declared itself a sovereign republic.121 The Georgian Parliament abolished the autonomy granted to South Ossetia and declared a state of emergency to curb what the

106 UN General Assembly, Use of mercenaries as a means of violating human rights and impeding the exercise of the right of peoples to self-determination (A/RES/71/182), 2017, p. 3. 107 UNPO, About, 2016. 108 UNPO Self-Determination in Relations to Individual Human Rights, Democracy, and the Protection of the Environment, 1993, p. 4. 109 Ibid., p. 14. 110 Ibid., p. 15. 111 Ibid. 112 Ibid., p. 16. 113 Ibid. 114 UNPO, Self-determination and Conflict Transition, 2002. 115 Ibid. 116 Ibid. 117 Ibid. 118 Ibid. 119 Ibid. 120 Starovoitova, Sovereignty after Empire: Self-Determination Movements in the Former Soviet Union, 1997, p. 25. 121 Ibid.

Georgian government saw as efforts by separatists to undermine Georgian territorial sovereignty.122 This began several years of conflict between South Ossetia and the Georgian government, and resulted in several casualties before a ceasefire was enacted in 1992.123 The situation is similar with Abkhazia, an autonomous region with peoples of distinct ethnic backgrounds from Georgia, who had long suffered from discrimination and harmful policies of assimilation by the Georgian government.124 In 1992, after Abkhazia declared its right to be independence, Georgia took part in yet another conflict in the region that ended in 1994 with the implementation of a UN Observer Mission through Security Council resolution 881 (1993).125 While most decisions on the conflicts in the region have been made by the Security Council, the General Assembly has recently addressed the plight of internally displaced persons and refugees with resolutions 62/249 (2008) on “Status of internally displaced persons and refugees from Abkhazia, Georgia” and 63/307 (2009) on “Status of internally displaced persons and refugees from Abkhazia, Georgia and the Tskhinvali region/South Ossetia, Georgia.”126 However, these decisions rarely discuss the right to self-determination for Abkhazia and South Ossetia, not even in the most recent decision by the General Assembly on the issue, resolution 71/290 of June 2017.127 Today, the General Assembly continues to remain vigilant of the situation of displaced persons and refugees, and calls upon Georgia to ensure their right of return, but has yet to directly discuss the implications the conflicts have on the groups’ right to self-determination.128

Self-Determination as a Right to Independence

Questions of secession and independence by groups pursuing their self-determination highlight the contradiction between a peoples’ right to self-determination and Member States’ right to territorial integrity.129 On the one hand, the right to self-determination granted to peoples safeguards their political, economic, and social development; on the other hand, Member States have a right to maintain territorial integrity, and prevent not only external threats to their sovereignty, but also internal, separatist threats.130 The Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, for example, proclaims the right of all peoples to self-determination, while at the same time stating that attempts at disrupting the territorial integrity of a Member State are incompatible with the Charter.131 Similarly, the Declaration on Principles of International Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Co- operation among States in Accordance with the Charter of the United Nations states that any efforts meant to “disrupt the territorial integrity of a state or country or its political independence are incompatible with the principles of the Charter of the United Nations.”132 While some movements exercising their right to self-determination can be seen as legitimate in their cause, the governments of some Member States can and do use both declarations to delegitimize such movements.133 As such, the right to secede from a Member State has had varying responses by the international community.134

For example, in the case of Tibet, which has claimed to be under foreign occupation by the People’s Republic of China (PRC), the outcome the Tibetan population desires is independence in order to restore their autonomy.135 While the PRC maintains that Tibet has always been a part of China, the Tibetan people believe themselves to be a sovereign state before the PRC occupied their territory in 1950.136 The Tibetan people believe they possess the right

122 Ibid. 123 Ibid. 124 Ibid., p. 26. 125 Ibid., p. 27. 126 UN General Assembly, Status of internally displaced persons and refugees from Abkhazia, Georgia and the Tskhinvali region/South Ossetia, Georgia (A/RES/71/290), 2017. 127 Ibid. 128 Ibid. 129 UNPO, Separatist Movements – Should Nations Have a Right to Self-Determination?, 2008. 130 Ibid. 131 UN General Assembly, Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples (A/RES/1514 (XV)), 1961. 132 UN General Assembly, Declaration on the Principles of International Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation among States in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations (A/RES/25/2625 (XXV)), 1970. 133 UNPO, Self-Determination in Relations to Individual Human Rights, Democracy, and the Protection of the Environment, 1993. 134 UNPO, Separatist Movements – Should Nations Have a Right to Self-Determination?, 2008. 135 Herzer, The Right to Self-Determination – The Legal Cornerstone to Tibet, 2007. 136 Ibid.

to self-determination under the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples and other international laws.137 In support of the Tibetan people, the General Assembly adopted several resolutions recognizing and reaffirming their right to self-determination, including resolutions 1353 (1960), 1723 (1961) and 2079 (1965) on the “Question of Tibet.”138 However, these decisions primarily support Tibet’s right to have their religious and cultural life respected, and avoid mentioning their right to independence.139 What makes the case of Tibet perhaps more difficult to resolve are the geopolitical challenges of affirming Tibet’s claim to self- determination.140 This poses a difficulty for the UN and the General Assembly Third Committee in particular, because, as consensus-building bodies, neither can significantly resolve issues of self-determination without the participation of the Member States in question.141 The prevailing position for many international law scholars and most Member States in regards to questions of independence and secession is that the right to self-determination is not a right to secede.142 A right to independence is generally seen as legitimate under the right of self-determination in cases where groups of peoples are denied the right to participate in democratic decision-making, and/or in cases of serious human rights violations, which, for example, has been the case for South Sudan.143

Climate Change and the Right to Self-Determination

A result of climate change, sea-level rise has contributed to the erosion of several SIDS, and has contaminated supplies of clean drinking water due to seawater intrusion.144 The projection that, by the next century, some SIDS will be underwater, poses a grave threat to the territorial integrity of those Member States.145 In a statement by Rupert Colville, a spokesperson for OHCHR, he stressed that climate change will not only undermine the ability of SIDS in the Pacific to provide for their peoples, but also their right to self-determination.146 The very right of self- determination, as conceived by international human rights instruments, is based on ownership of territory by a group of peoples.147 As of today, no recourse or framework exists in international human rights law that provides the right to self-determination for peoples that no longer have territory to claim a sovereign right upon.148 The disappearance of some SIDS as a result of sea-level rise may also result in climate change refugees that may no longer belong to an existing Member State.149

The Paris Agreement on climate change, adopted in 2015, did not include any mention of how Member States could address the rights of climate change refugees.150 Moreover, the pressing questions about what constitutes self- determination will require the collective efforts of Member States and the UN to be resolved, especially since the peoples of several SIDS may not possess the time to deliberate on the issue.151 While it is not clear when SIDS may face complete inundation from sea level rise, a 2007 report by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) lists various issues SIDS will face, including loss of ecosystem and soil fertility.152 Additionally, to cope with rising sea levels, some SIDS have begun considering buying land from other Member States for their people to be able to relocate to, should conditions worsen.153 However, this situation will require SIDS, the UN, and the international community to develop new frameworks and guidelines for preserving the right to self-determination.154 Despite this, many SIDS have begun to look at adaptation measures and ways to improve their resilience to the

137 Ibid. 138 Ibid. 139 Ibid. 140 Ibid. 141 Ibid. 142 UNPO, Separatist Movements – Should Nations Have a Right to Self-Determination?, 2008. 143 Dersso, International law and the self-determination of South Sudan, 2012. 144 UN OHCHR, Press briefing note on Indonesia/Death penalty and climate change and human rights, 2016. 145 Ibid. 146 Ibid. 147 Ibid. 148 Wilcox, Climate Change Inundation, Self-Determination, and Atoll Island States, 2016. 149 UN OHCHR, Press briefing note on Indonesia/Death penalty and climate change and human rights, 2016. 150 UNFCCC, Paris Agreement, 2015. 151 Morris, What Happens When Your Country Drowns?, Mother Jones, 2009. 152 IFAD, Climate Change Impacts – Pacific Islands. 153 Morris, What Happens When Your Country Drowns?, Mother Jones, 2009. 154 Kelman &West, Climate Change and Small Island Developing States: A Critical Review, Ecological and Environmental Anthropology, 2009.

effects of climate change, viewing migration only as a last resort.155 Cognizant of several of these challenges, the General Assembly has made efforts to assist SIDS for several years, including through the Mauritius Strategy for the Further Implementation for the Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of SIDS (2005).156 The resolution adopted by the General Assembly in 2012, “Follow up to and implementation of the Mauritius Strategy,” reaffirms the commitment by the UN and the international community to assist SIDS in overcoming challenges to sustainable development, which requires safeguarding the right to self-determination.157 These efforts highlight the approach that the UN has taken to address the implications of climate change on human rights, including the right to self-determination.158

Conclusion

While the outcomes for many groups seeking their self-determination are mixed, the right to self-determination is nevertheless recognized under international law for all peoples.159 The Declaration on Granting Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples has made clear that all peoples have a right to pursue their political, social, economic, and cultural development.160 As such, organizations like the UNPO recognize the right to self- determination as a process, rather than as a right to some specific outcome such as full independence.161 Self- determination can take several forms, ranging from cultural autonomy to political autonomy, and sometimes independence.162 Even though the exercise of the right to self-determination has been complex and difficult for the peoples in Abkhazia, South Sudan, Tibet, and many others, the General Assembly and the UN remain committed to ensuring the peaceful implementation of the right to self-determination. In the future, as reported by the Secretary- General in his 2017 report on the “Right of peoples to self-determination,” greater efforts by Member States and the UN will be required to address the challenges of the right to self-determination.163

Further Research

In preparing for this topic, delegates should contemplate how the General Assembly Third Committee can address the challenges posed by the ambiguity of the right to self-determination. Additionally, delegates should think about how this right can be expressed in a way that enhances or provides for the enjoyment of fundamental human rights. Delegates should consider: What groups of peoples should have their claim to self-determination recognized and why? Can a framework or criteria be developed that can fairly determine the legitimate claim of a group of people seeking their right to self-determination? How can violence and armed conflict be prevented or minimized for groups expressing their right to self-determination? How can the right to self-determination be implemented so that it allows peoples to fulfill their human rights, but also maintains the territorial integrity of Member States? What can SIDS do to safeguard their right to self-determination? Would purchases of land by SIDS in other Member States guarantee that the relocated peoples would be able to govern themselves? Could relocated peoples still claim fishing or other rights in their former territorial waters? What should the UN do to safeguard the right to self-determination for peoples that are left stateless as a result of climate change?

Annotated Bibliography Dersso, S. (2012). International law and the self-determination of South Sudan. Institute for Security Studies Paper, No. 231. Retrieved 28 August from: https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/141398/Paper231.pdf This article provides a comprehensive account of the South Sudanese people’s struggle for their right to self-determination. Not only does it document the basis for South Sudan’s exercise of their

155 Hingley, ‘Climate Refugees’: An Oceanic Perspective, Asia and the Pacific Policy Studies, 2017. 156 UN General Assembly, Sixty-seventh session, Follow up to and implementation of the Mauritius Strategy for the Further Implementation of the Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States (A/RES/67/207), 2012. 157 Ibid. 158 UN OHCHR, Human Rights and Climate Change, 2017. 159 UNPO, Self-Determination, 2017. 160 UN General Assembly, Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples (A/RES/1514 (XV)), 1961. 161 UNPO, Self-determination and Conflict Transition, 2002. 162 Ibid. 163 UN General Assembly, Report of the Secretary-General on the Right of Peoples to self-determination (A/71/326), 2016.

right, it also analyzes the wider implications of the situation in South Sudan. Ultimately, it argues that South Sudan presents a case where decades of violence and violations of human rights warranted the African Union’s suspension of the principle of non-intervention in one of its member’s internal affairs. This was justified in order to uphold the right to self-determination of the South Sudanese people. Delegates will find this document particularly useful in understanding how the case of South Sudan has changed the way the international community views the right to self-determination, and how it can be applied to groups of people suffering from serious violations of their human rights.

Herzer, E. (2007, June 28). The Right to Self-Determination – The Legal Cornerstone to Tibet. Retrieved 28 August 2017 from: http://www.unpo.org/article/6904 Discussing the legal position of Tibet, and that it has a right to self-determination as a formerly independent state, the author of this article provides several important points when analyzing the case study. Looking at two aspects of the right to self-determination, the article argues that Tibet possesses both a right to its territorial integrity as a former sovereign state, but also a claim to self-determination granted to its people by various international human rights instruments. Delegates will find the example of Tibet useful to better understand self-determination. For cases like that of Tibet, which have been brought before the International Court of Justice, delegates will need to understand the political ramifications of recognizing cases of self-determination, which include geopolitical constraints between and among Member States, and the dilemma of promoting self-determination at the expense of preserving territorial integrity.

Kelman, I., & J. West. (2009). Climate Change and Small Island Developing States: A Critical Review. Ecological and Environmental Anthropology, 5 (1). Retrieved 28 August 2017 from: http://www.ilankelman.org/articles1/eea2009.pdf This article provides delegates with several points to consider in regards to SIDS and the threats the effects of climate change will pose to their survival. One such point is that the habitability of SIDS is threatened by more than seawater intrusion, for example through coral bleaching, which would threaten fish populations and thus the SIDS’ source of sustenance. It also documents the actions by SIDS or the resources available to them to develop adaptation and mitigation plans. Lastly, the article provides a complete overview of the situation of SIDS and what steps they can take to prevent threats to their right to self-determination.

Morris, R. (2009, December). What Happens When Your Country Drowns?. Mother Jones. Retrieved 28 August 2017 from: http://www.motherjones.com/environment/2009/11/tuvalu-climate-refugees/ In a piece from Mother Jones, an American news magazine, the author elucidates the situation several low-lying Pacific Island States are experiencing due to the effects of climate change and sea-level rise. The article chronicles a Tuvaluan community who relocated to New Zealand due to the rise in sea levels. Tuvalu, one of the island states that is in peril of vanishing by the next century, has made plans to buy land in another Member State, and this article highlights the ramifications of that action. Additionally, it discusses the impact refugees, resulting from the effects of climate change, will have on Member States in the future, and how some Member States affected by sea level rise are preparing for the future effects of climate change.

Starovoitova, G. (1997). Sovereignty after Empire: Self-Determination Movements in the Former Soviet Union. Peaceworks, No. 19. Retrieved 29 August 2017 from: https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/pwks19.pdf The author of this article provides a thorough account of the claims of self-determination by former Soviet Republics, and the resulting situation of each case: Abkhazia, South Ossetia, and Nagorno-Karabakh. The article details the cases of armed conflict in the various territories, and how conflict has shaped the situation of each nation’s struggle for self-determination. Delegates will find it helpful to review the claims made by each group, and how their historical pursuit of self-determination remains unresolved in the present.

United Nations, General Assembly, Fifteenth session. (1961). Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples (A/RES/1514 (XV)). Retrieved 20 July 2017 from: http://undocs.org/A/RES/1514(XV)

The Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples is one of the primary documents that outlines the right to self-determination and serves as a basis for understanding the concept of the right as a whole. Delegates should examine the document thoroughly to understand how the right applies to countries and peoples that were colonized. Clause 3 states that the inadequacy of political, economic, social or educational preparedness should never be a pretext for delaying the exercise of the right to self-determination. Additionally, the document states that attempts at the partial or complete disruption of national unity or territorial integrity are incompatible with the Charter of the United Nations.

United Nations, General Assembly, Seventy-first session. (2016). Report of the Secretary-General on the Right of Peoples to self-determination (A/71/326). Retrieved 20 July 2017 from: http://undocs.org/A/71/326 The Secretary-General summarizes the main developments relating to the right to self- determination in this 2016 report. It addresses the situation of Western Sahara, Palestine, and non-self-governing territories, among others. The report also addresses the rights of indigenous peoples to free, prior and informed consent about the exploitation of resources on their land by their host state. Additionally, the reports states that the host state must consult with indigenous peoples about the disposal of hazardous substances on their land. Delegates will find this source helpful as they formulate solutions to address the right to self-determination.

Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization. (1993). Self-Determination in Relations to Individual Human Rights, Democracy, and the Protection of the Environment. Retrieved 28 August 2017 from: http://unpo.org/downloads/Self-determination%20conference%201993.pdf At UNPO’s conference held in The Hague, Netherlands in 1993, the objectives of the session included clarifying the meaning of self-determination, providing a space for those claiming the right to self-determination to voice their perspective, and considering strategies for the peaceful implementation of the right to self-determination. Several important topics that delegates will find critical to the discussion on the right to self-determination include: the affirmation that indigenous peoples have a right to the management of the natural environment in the territory they inhabit; that the principle of territorial integrity of Member States should not be an impediment to the implementation of self-determination; and the proposal by the Prince of Liechtenstein of a peaceful process for implementing the right to self-determination.

Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization. (1996). The Question of Self-Determination: The Cases of East Timor, Tibet, and Western Sahara. Retrieved 28 August 2017 from: http://unpo.org/downloads/Selfdetermination%20Conference1996.pdf This document summarizes the discussions at UNPO’ conference in Geneva, Switzerland, held concurrently with the 52nd session of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights. It was convened at the initiative of the leaders of Tibet, East Timor and Western Sahara, to discuss their exercise of the right to self-determination, the challenges they face to attain this right, and what actions the United Nations could take in response. This document also outlines the development of the right to self-determination under international law, which forms the basis for the claims of self-determination for Tibet, East Timor, and Western Sahara. One important point that delegates will find helpful to understanding the right to self-determination, is that many peoples seeking self- determination agree that the right to self-determination does not necessarily lead to political independence. The conference participants believed that it should be an option available to the peoples who are claiming their right to self-determination, and that the implementation of the right to self-determination should lead to an outcome that is the result of a clear, free, and well- informed choice through a democratic process.

Wilcox, S. (2016). Climate Change Inundation, Self-Determination, and Atoll Island States. Human Rights Quarterly, 38 (4): 22-1037. Retrieved 20 July 2017 from: https://muse.jhu.edu/article/636568 This article discusses recent developments in the right to self-determination as it relates to climate change. What will be most useful for delegates is the article’s clarity in describing how climate change affects the right of self-determination for many SIDS, especially through inundation from rising sea levels. Additionally, it describes the application of self-determination by the United Nations and international law, and the challenges that this categorization poses to the rights of

SIDS. Lastly, the article outlines several options that SIDS are considering in regards to their right to self-determination, if their territory is destroyed by climate change inundation. Bibliography Charter of the United Nations. (1945). Retrieved 20 July 2017 from: http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/index.shtml

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II. The Elimination of All Forms of Religious Intolerance “By acting together to end discrimination, we can lift humanity as a whole. As societies become multi-ethnic, multi- religious and multi-cultural, we will need greater political, cultural and economic investments in inclusivity and cohesion in line with the Sustainable Development Goals. We can build communities that recognize that diversity is not a source of weakness, it is a source of strength and richness. Let us stand up against intolerance and eliminate discrimination.”164

Introduction

According to a study conducted in 2010, across the world, more than eight in ten persons reported religious affiliation.165 Religious intolerance and social hostilities are on the rise, particularly against religious minorities.166 For instance, in recent months, many Rohingya Muslims from Myanmar have been subjected to violence and ethnic cleansing, and have been forced to flee to neighboring Bangladesh in the hundreds of thousands.167 The number of countries with incidents of religious intolerance towards minorities increased from 24% to 47% from 2007 to 2012, while those with instances of terrorist activities related to religious intolerance have suffered a sharp increase since 2007.168 Additionally, the number of governments that have exerted force against different religious groups has also increased, from 31% in 2007 to 48% in 2012.169 Many issues remain in mainstreaming the right to freedom of religion or belief.170 There is a general lack of empirical data and understanding that the right to religion or belief is intertwined with other human rights issues, including linguistic and religious minority, and refugee issues.171

The protection of religious freedom enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) (1948), is of priority for the vast majority of all persons.172 The United Nations (UN) General Assembly Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief (1981) defines religious intolerance as “any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on religion or belief and having as its purpose or as its effect nullification or impairment of the recognition, enjoyment of exercise of human rights and fundamental freedoms on an equal basis.”173 Religious discrimination has been interpreted as “an affront to human dignity and a disavowal of the principles of the Charter of the United Nations… as an obstacle to friendly and peaceful relations between nations.”174

Both intra- and inter-faith religious conflicts pose a threat to peace.175 Intra-faith tolerance is characterized as cooperation and amicable relations between different denominations of a religion, while inter-faith tolerance focuses on the relationship between different religions.176 Growing religious intolerance and mistrust of multiculturalism, along with the increased trend in the securitization of human rights (limiting human rights in the name of state

164 UN Secretary-General, Remarks at the Commemoration of the International Day for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination: Racial Profiling and Incitement to Hatred, including in the context of migration, 2017. 165 Pew Research Center, The Global Religious Landscape: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Major Religious Groups as of 2010, 2012, p. 10. 166 Pew Research Center, Religious Hostilities Reach Six-Year High, 2014, p. 10. 167 UN General Assembly, Address by H. E. Sheikh Hasina Hon'ble Prime Minister Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh, 2017. 168 Pew Research Center, Religious Hostilities Reach Six-Year High, 2014, pp. 10-13. 169 Ibid., p. 14. 170 UN General Assembly, Elimination of all forms of religious intolerance (A/71/269), 2016. 171 Ibid., 2016. 172 UN General Assembly, Universal Declaration of Human Rights (A/RES/217 A (III)), 1948. 173 UN General Assembly, Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief (A/RES/36/55), 1981. 174 Ibid. 175 UNESCO, Dialogue among Civilizations: Regional Summit on Inter-religious and Inter-ethnic Dialogue, 2004, p. 6. 176 UN HRC, Report of the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief, Heiner Bielefeldt: Addendum (A/HRC/25/58/Add.1), 2013, p. 15.

security), pose serious threats to the international system.177 Promoting religious tolerance, understanding, and peace, are important methods of eliminating all forms of religious intolerance and fostering sustainable peace.178

International and Regional Framework

The UDHR protects persons from discrimination on the grounds of religion, acknowledges individuals of age should be allowed to marry regardless of religion or creed, and endorses the right to education that promotes harmony.179 Article 18 enshrines the right of an individual to freedom of expression or belief, their right to change their beliefs, and “to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance.”180 Following the UDHR, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), adopted by the General Assembly in 1966, states that Member States party to the covenant undertake the duty to respect and protect the rights of their citizens, without distinguishing on the basis of religion.181 The ICCPR enshrines the “right to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion,” including the right to choose and convert to a religion, children’s religious rights, religious rights of parents, and freedom from coercion that would affect an individual’s right to freedom of religion.182

On 25 November 1981, the UN General Assembly adopted the Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief, which established a human rights framework for addressing the freedom of religion.183 The declaration expanded on the ICCPR and reassured the right to freedom of religion or belief by calling upon Member States to rescind discriminatory legislation in order to protect the freedom of religion and belief.184 The General Assembly also adopted the Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities in 1992, which focuses on protecting the rights of minorities, advocating that this protection be rooted in national legislation of Member States.185 More recently, General Assembly resolutions 71/195 and 71/196, both adopted on 19 December 2016, address intolerance related to religion and freedom of religion or belief, which are inextricably linked to one another.186 General Assembly resolution 71/195 on “Combating intolerance, negative stereotyping, stigmatization, discrimination, incitement to violence and violence against persons, based on religion or belief,” notes the recent increase in hate crimes motivated by religious intolerance, and encourages constructive conversation and interfaith dialogue as a strong proactive measure to eliminate the root causes of religious intolerance.187 Connected to eliminating religious intolerance is the right to freedom of religion or belief, addressed in General Assembly resolution 71/196, which strongly condemns all acts of terrorism and violence, discrimination and intolerance, and instances where state laws do not protect the freedom of religion.188 Moreover, the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (1988) acknowledges that attacks directed towards religious buildings constitute a war crime.189

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (2015) provides a roadmap for the international community to develop and enhance human rights, ensure greater and equal access to basic services, and build capacity for the development of inclusive societies.190 While none of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) explicitly address

177 UN General Assembly, Report of the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion and belief (A/HRC/34/50), 2017, p. 12. 178 UN General Assembly, Promotion of interreligious and intercultural dialogue, understanding and cooperation for peace (A/RES/71/249), 2016. 179 UN General Assembly, Universal Declaration of Human Rights (A/RES/217 A (III)), 1948. 180 Ibid. 181 UN General Assembly, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (A/RES/2200 (XXI)), 1966. 182 Ibid. 183 UN General Assembly, Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief (A/RES/36/55), 1981. 184 Ibid. 185 UN General Assembly, Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities (A/RES/47/135), 1992. 186 UN General Assembly, Combating intolerance, negative stereotyping, stigmatization, discrimination, incitement to violence and violence against persons, based on religion or belief (A/RES/71/195), 2016; UN General Assembly, Freedom of religion or belief (A/RES/71/196), 2016. 187 Ibid. 188 UN General Assembly, Freedom of religion or belief (A/RES/71/196), 2016. 189 UN Diplomatic Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Establishment of an ICC, Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, 1998. 190 UN General Assembly, Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (A/RES/70/1), 2015.

religious intolerance, some of their targets note that progress should be made to advance the right to freedom of religion, such as the targets in SDGs 4, 10, 16, and 17.191 These goals, aimed at promoting inclusive education, social cohesion and inclusivity; reducing discriminatory laws and protecting fundamental freedoms, and enhancing state policy capacity by increasing access to high quality data, all play a role in eliminating all forms of religious intolerance.192

From 28-29 March 2017, the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) held an expert workshop on “Faith for Rights” (F4R), which resulted in the Beirut Declaration, outlining five principles for advancing human rights and the right to freedom of religion or belief.193 The principles aim to translate international dialogue to local settings in order to combat religious intolerance, avoid the manipulation of faith, and promote F4R partnerships.194 The Beirut Declaration recognizes the importance of religious institutions in protecting human dignity and human rights.195 It also references the 2012 Rabat Plan of Action on the prohibition of advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence, which focuses on the role of political and religious leaders in denouncing intolerance and violence.196 The Rabat Plan of Action provides a concrete set of recommendations that cover legislative approaches to combat incitement to “discrimination, hostility, or violence.”197 Likewise, UN Human Rights Council (HRC) resolution 16/18 of 12 April 2011 titled “Combating intolerance, negative stereotyping and stigmatization of, and discrimination, incitement to violence and violence against, persons based on religion or belief” established the Istanbul Process, which allowed the international system to address religious intolerance through positive policy measures rather than the previous “defamation of religion” approach to eliminating blasphemy laws.198 Blasphemy laws indicate religious intolerance in a state’s judiciary system and can be described as “the act of insulting or showing contempt or lack of reverence for God.”199

Role of the International System

The Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief is mandated to help protect the right to freedom of religion or belief at the national, regional, and international level, to identify all obstacles to the freedom of religion or belief, to review instances where Member States do not uphold the Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief, and to inform the UN of all abuses of the freedom of religion or belief from a gender perspective.200 The Special Rapporteur’s recent report on the implementation plan for the Istanbul Process notes that many violations of the right to religion or belief are carried out by non-state actors, by terrorist organizations, and by those inspired to commit acts of hatred and religious intolerance.201

In 2017, the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) published the guide Making textbook content inclusive: A focus on religion, gender, and culture, which contains a special section on religion.202 The guide acknowledges that education and textbooks can assist in promoting dialogue between faiths, contributing to a learning environment that fosters inclusivity.203 UNESCO has worked on improving textbook content since 1945, and has seen significant development since then.204 The UN Inter-Agency Task Force on Engaging Faith-Based

191 Ibid. 192 Ibid. 193 UN OHCHR, The Beirut Declaration and its 18 commitments on Faith for Rights: Report and outlook, 2017. 194 Ibid., pp. 7-8. 195 Ibid., p. 10. 196 UN HRC, Annual report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (A/HRC/22/17/Add.4), 2013. 197 Ibid., p. 6. 198 UN HRC, Combating intolerance, negative stereotyping and stigmatization of, and discrimination, incitement to violence and violence against, persons based on religion or belief (A/HRC/RES/16/18), 2011; Article 19, UN HRC Res 16/18: Consolidating Consensus Through Implementation, 2016, pp. 3-4. 199 UN General Assembly, Elimination of all forms of religious intolerance (A/71/269), 2016, pp. 13-14; United States Commission on International Religious Freedom, Respecting Rights? Measuring the World’s Blasphemy Laws, 2017, p. 1. 200 UN OHCHR, Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief: Introduction, 2017. 201 UN HRC, Report of the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion and belief (A/HRC/34/50), 2017. 202 UNESCO, Making textbook content inclusive: A focus on religion, gender, and culture, 2017. 203 Ibid. 204 Ibid., pp. 7-8.

Actors for Sustainable Development works with faith-based organizations (FBOs) and different UN organizations to advance development and human rights.205 Additionally, the UN Population Fund (UNFPA) published a report titled Realizing the Faith Dividend: Religion, Gender, Peace and Security in Agenda 2030, which links the importance of FBOs within sustainable development, as actors that contribute to social and economic development.206 The UN Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect, which reports directly to the UN Secretary-General in an advisory capacity, has recently published the Plan of Action for Religious Leaders and Actors to Prevent Incitement to Violence that could lead to Atrocity Crimes, a document that is the result of two years of engagement with religious groups.207 The document addresses the critical role religious leaders play in curbing the incitement to violence through hateful speech and provides a blueprint for building inclusive societies.208 Similarly, the UN Alliance of Civilizations (UNAOC) brings together faith leaders for interreligious and intercultural dialogue, and maintains that respecting diversity is essential to building peace.209

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and FBOs have a substantial role to play in promoting the right to freedom of religion or belief, as they are uniquely positioned within society to build networks of trust and promote intercultural dialogue.210 The International Partnership on Religion and Sustainable Development (PaRD), established in 2016, unites NGOs, governmental organizations, FBOs, voluntary organizations, as well as secular and non-secular actors, to further SDGs 3, 5, and 16 on health, gender equality, and peace and strong institutions.211

On a regional level, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) has issued guidelines for reviewing legislation to protect the freedom of religion or belief as a measure to reduce religious intolerance.212 In 2015, the European Commission held a forum on “Tolerance and respect: preventing and combating anti-Semitic and anti-Muslim hatred in Europe.”213 The outcomes of the forum comprised a variety of policy suggestions from participants, including a call for national action plans, increased public awareness, education on human rights and religious diversity, and quality disaggregated data on religion and discrimination on the basis of religion.214 Furthermore, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) has issued a Programme of Action until 2025 focusing on promoting intercultural dialogue and tolerance in an effort to eliminate discrimination against and misconceptions about Muslims.215

State-Induced Religious Intolerance

The Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief has noted a “global pushback on human rights,” some of it at the state level, which has only deepened the chasm of realizing the right to freedom of religion or belief.216 For instance, in 2017, Russia’s Supreme Court banned Jehovah’s Witnesses from their country as an attempt to ban extremist religions.217 In China, some religions are considered a threat to the state, and there is an increasing number

205 UN Inter-Agency Task Force on Engaging Faith-Based Actors for Sustainable Development, Engaging Religion and Faith- Based Actors in 2016, 2016. 206 UNFPA, Engaging Religion and Faith-Based Actors in 2016, 2016; UNFPA, Realizing the Faith Dividend: Religion, Gender, Peace and Security in Agenda 2030, 2016. 207 UN Office on Genocide Prevention and the Responsibility to Protect, Plan of Action for Religious Leaders and Actors to Prevent Incitement to Violence that could lead to Atrocity Crimes, 2017. 208 Ibid. 209 UNAOC, Who We Are: About Us; UNAOC, The Role of Religious Leaders in Peacebuilding in the Middle East, 2017. 210 UN HRC, Report of the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion and belief (A/HRC/34/50), 2017, p. 20. 211 International Partnership on Religion and Sustainable Development, About: Mission Statement; International Partnership on Religion and Sustainable Development, How PaRD Works. 212 OSCE, Guidelines for Review of Legislation Pertaining to Religion or Belief, 2004. 213 European Commission, “Tolerance and respect: preventing and combating antisemitic and anti-Muslim hatred in Europe”, 2015. 214 Ibid. 215 OIC, The OIC – 2025: Programme of Action, 2016; OIC, History, 2017. 216 UN HRC, Report of the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion and belief (A/HRC/34/50), 2017. 217 United States Commission on International Religious Freedom, 2017 Annual Report: Key findings & Recommendations, 2017, p. 1.

of regulations placing restrictions on religions.218 Comparing these examples of religious intolerance at the state level reveals a host of causes for religious intolerance.219

Understanding the root causes of religious intolerance is paramount to creating better policy to eliminate it.220 Root causes for religious intolerance by governments can be summarized into different categories: intolerance on the basis of religious interpretation; using religion (or secularism) to distinguish national heritage or privilege certain religions; the exercise of control of public and private life; government failure; and an imbalance of power.221 Members of religious minorities are more vulnerable than religious majorities, as they may lack representation or protection and access to decision makers, and may experience discriminatory government policies.222 The most pervasive form of state-induced religious intolerance is harassment and hostility of government employees towards certain religious minorities.223 These include overly burdensome government processes such as requiring special permits for establishing places of worship, or requiring registration or legal authority for religious communities in order for them to operate.224 Additionally, blasphemy laws, which exist in over 70 countries, serve to penalize the expression of religion or belief when considered blasphemous in nature.225 Many blasphemy laws contradict international law regarding freedom of religion, belief, or expression, and have been deemed by the Special Rapporteur on the right to freedom of religion or belief to be unlawful and unjustifiable in the context of human rights, particularly the right to freedom of religion or belief.226

The securitization of human rights is an ongoing problem for maintaining religious freedom, as it undermines certain human rights, particularly the right to freedom of religion or belief, through state laws.227 Some states make declarations that rights must be limited in the name of security, when, in reality, the limitation of those rights does not lessen a security risk, or when the relationship between restricting rights and security is weak or unfounded.228 General, vague statements made by governments about the restriction of religious freedom in the name of security or order may be in some cases a cover for wanting to halt religious criticism, to maintain control over public and private life, or to discriminate against minority groups.229

Judiciaries and legislative frameworks within Member States play an important role in the realization of the right to freedom of religion or belief.230 Defense of secularism in human rights cases has become ubiquitous in countries that have secular laws.231 While the right to freedom of religion or belief is codified in international and human rights laws, the expression of such beliefs is often subject to limitations at the national level.232 For instance, in the case of Leyla Şahin v. Turkey, the European Court of Human Rights ruled that a university in Istanbul had the right to ban headscarves from campus to protect individuals from attacks from extremist groups trying to undo Turkey’s laws protecting secularism.233 In the case of Lautsi and Others v. Italy, crucifixes were allowed in classrooms in Italy by the European Court of Human Rights, while the House of Lords in the United Kingdom in Begum v. Headteacher came to the conclusion in 2006 that it was permissible to ban young women from wearing headscarves in a

218 Ibid., p. 12. 219 UN General Assembly, Elimination of all forms of religious intolerance (A/71/269), 2016. 220 Ibid., p. 19. 221 Ibid., pp. 9-13. 222 UN HRC, Report of the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion and belief (A/HRC/34/50), 2017; UN General Assembly, Elimination of all forms of religious intolerance (A/71/269), 2016. 223 UN General Assembly, Elimination of all forms of religious intolerance (A/71/269), 2016. 224 Ibid. 225 United States Commission on International Religious Freedom, Respecting Rights? Measuring the World’s Blasphemy Laws, 2017, p. 3. 226 Ibid.; UN HRC, Report of the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion and belief (A/HRC/34/50), 2017, pp. 12-13. 227 UN HRC, Report of the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion and belief (A/HRC/34/50), 2017, p. 12. 228 Ibid. 229 UN General Assembly, Elimination of all forms of religious intolerance (A/71/269), 2016, pp. 9-13. 230 UN General Assembly, Report of the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion and belief (A/HRC/34/50), 2017, p. 8. 231 Bennoune, Secularism and Human Rights: A Contextual Analysis of Headscarves, Religious Expression, and Women’s Equality Under International Law, 2007, p. 373. 232 Ibid., p. 370. 233 Ibid., pp. 370-371.

predominantly Muslim school, to ensure that the girls who did not wear headscarves were not threatened.234 In France, a country-wide ban on veils has been upheld in human rights courts, in order to promote France’s religious neutrality.235 The cumulative impact of these cases may have serious effects for religious minorities and societies, where principles of secularism may be implemented differently in each secular country.236 In these cases and others, an analysis of the reasons for bans on religious symbols, national law, gender equality, security, human rights law, and other factors may be considered before a decision is made by a court.237

One of the biggest issues facing the international community is a general lack of quality data on religious intolerance that could be used to establish better policies in the future.238 The OHCHR published a guide in 2012 to help measure human rights indicators to assist the international community, NGOs, and Member States so that data can be disaggregated and used to develop better policy to address human rights issues.239 This includes the disaggregation of data by religion, supporting SDG 17 and policy capacity for governments. 240

The Role of Non-State Actors

Some of the most brutal acts of religious intolerance are carried out by non-state actors.241 For instance, some officials of UN Member States have determined that the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) has committed acts of violent extremism in the name of religion, ultimately constituting genocide.242 According to the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief, militant and terrorist organizations that commit atrocities in the name of religion thrive due to many of the same root causes as government-induced religious intolerance: a general lack of governance and mechanism to enforce laws prohibiting religious intolerance, segregated and splintered societies, systemic discrimination, and corruption.243

An issue that the international community has failed to address is the role of non-state actors in the wider issue of protecting and promoting human rights.244 Even though non-state actors may perpetrate acts of violence or religious intolerance, it is nonetheless the responsibility of the state to protect and uphold human rights.245 Societal contexts in different parts of the world may not be accommodating to religious diversity or multiplicity of religious interpretation, and governments may explicitly or implicitly endorse marginalization and social ostracism, or other acts of intolerance.246 In some countries, vigilante groups may patrol their neighborhoods at night to ensure compliance with religious norms.247 Non-state actors that engage in acts of religious intolerance may be endorsed, ignored by states, or states may have failed or may lack capacity to address non-state actors effectively.248

The Role of the International Community in Promoting Religious Tolerance NGOs, FBOs, and broader religious communities have a role to play in promoting religious tolerance and eliminating intolerance, based on their unique position in society to work with communities and people from a place

234 European Court of Human Rights Press Unit, Factsheet – Religious symbols and clothing, 2017, p. 1; Bennoune, Secularism and Human Rights: A Contextual Analysis of Headscarves, Religious Expression, and Women’s Equality Under International Law, 2007, p. 371. 235 European Court of Human Rights, S.A.S. v. France, Application no. 43835/11, 2014. 236 European Court of Human Rights Press Unit, Factsheet – Religious symbols and clothing, 2017. 237 Ibid. 238 UN General Assembly, Elimination of all forms of religious intolerance (A/71/269), 2016, p. 20; UNFPA, Engaging Religion and Faith-Based Actors in 2016, 2016. 239 UN OHCHR, Human Rights Indicators: A Guide to Measurement and Implementation, 2012. 240 Ibid. 241 UN General Assembly, Elimination of all forms of religious intolerance (A/71/269), 2016, p. 20. 242 United States Commission on International Religious Freedom, 2017 Annual Report: Key findings & Recommendations, 2017, p. 1. 243 UN General Assembly, Elimination of all forms of religious intolerance (A/71/269), 2016, pp. 17-18. 244 UN HRC, Report of the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief (A/HRC/28/66), 2014, p. 13. 245 UN General Assembly, Elimination of all forms of religious intolerance (A/71/269), 2016, p. 18. 246 Ibid. 247 Ibid.; UNFPA, Engaging Religion and Faith-Based Actors in 2016, 2016. 248 UN General Assembly, Elimination of all forms of religious intolerance (A/71/269), 2016, p. 18.

of trust. 249 The Women’s Task Force of the Parliament of the World’s Religions helps to support women’s leadership in faith movements, and ensures women’s voices are heard in discussions relating to the promotion of human rights, including the right to freedom of religion or belief.250 The UN has launched the “United Nations Free & Equal Campaign,” which seeks to celebrate love and diversity, and which is supported by religious leaders around the world.251 This campaign helps contest messages of intolerance on the basis of religion or belief.252 In 2016, the Special Rapporteur, in conjunction with the organization Muslims for Progressive Values, organized and facilitated a conference on the right to freedom of religion or belief and sexuality.253 The conference explored the intersectionality of diversity characteristics and attempted to maintain a holistic view of human rights and human dignity.254 The conference also explored the idea that religion is not static and unchanging, and that diverse populations must be respectfully brought into discussions on promoting the rights of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and intersex persons.255 Muslims for Progressive Values calls on the international Muslim community to engage in critical conversations about their religion, the acceptance of diversity, and respect for universal human rights.256 If FBOs and religious institutions advocated for peace, acceptance of diversity, and human rights, this would have a significant impact on religious tolerance around the world.257

Conclusion

There is a high interest from the international community and broader UN system to work alongside FBOs and NGOs to promote the freedom of religion or belief, human rights, and the SDGs in order to eliminate religious intolerance.258 While there is some information on the root causes of religious intolerance, and the mechanisms available to further understand religious intolerance around the world, it is impossible to capture every example of religious intolerance.259 Nevertheless, the international system has an opportunity to dedicate its efforts in a high- level strategy to address religious intolerance.260 Addressing religious intolerance is a primary concern for the new Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief, as is operationalizing the implementation of positive policy measures, the Rabat Plan of Action, and HRC resolution 16/18.261

Further Research

Moving forward with their research, delegates should consider question such as: How can the international community reinvigorate the implementation of the Rabat Plan of Action and HRC resolution 16/18? How can the UN leverage existing partnerships and networks to advance the SDGs and the right to freedom of religion or belief? What are the important intersections in human rights that are not properly addressed in legal and judiciary systems? How can measurements and data collection on religious intolerance be improved in order to support better policy development and implementation? How to best mainstream the right to freedom of religion and belief? How might the international community support education for all human rights?

249 UN HRC, Report of the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion and belief (A/HRC/34/50), 2017, p. 20; UNFPA, Engaging Religion and Faith-Based Actors in 2016, 2016. 250 Parliament of the World’s Religions, What is the Parliament’s Women’s Task Force?; United States Commission on International Religious Freedoms, Women and Religious Freedom: Synergies and Opportunities, 2017. 251 UN Free & Equal Campaign, About UN Free & Equal, 2017. 252 Ibid. 253 Sonneveld, Conference Summary: Freedom of Religion and Belief and Sexuality, 2016. 254 Ibid. 255 Ibid., pp. 7-9. 256 Muslims for Progressive Values, About MPV: Collective Identity, 2017. 257 UNFPA, Engaging Religion and Faith-Based Actors in 2016, 2016; Pew Research Center, The Global Religious Landscape: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Major Religious Groups as of 2010, 2012, p. 10. 258 UNFPA, Realizing the Faith Dividend: Religion, Gender, Peace and Security in Agenda 2030, 2016; International Partnership on Religion and Sustainable Development, About: Mission Statement; UN Inter-Agency Task Force on Engaging Faith- Based Actors for Sustainable Development, Engaging Religion and Faith-Based Actors in 2016, 2016. 259 UN General Assembly, Elimination of all forms of religious intolerance (A/71/269), 2016. 260 Ibid., pp. 21-22. 261 UN HRC, Report of the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion and belief (A/HRC/34/50), 2017, p. 7.

Annotated Bibliography Article 19. (2016). UN HRC Res 16/18: Consolidating Consensus Through Implementation. Retrieved 19 September 2017 from: https://www.article19.org/data/files/medialibrary/38262/16_18_briefing_EN--online-version- (hyperlinked)-.pdf Article 19 is a registered charity and advocacy organization that works with organizations like the UN, OSCE, Amnesty International, and governments around the world to promote the freedom of expression. This briefing provides an in-depth analysis and explanation of HRC resolution 16/18 and its importance, as well as the key components for implementing the Rabat Plan of Action. Delegates will find this source useful when looking for recommendations for further action to reducing religious intolerance, and for furthering their understanding of the Rabat Plan of Action. This source also explains why limiting expression of opinions and beliefs should only be kept as a last resort for governments when limiting the right to freedom of religion or belief.

Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. (2017). The Beirut Declaration and its 18 commitments on Faith for Rights: Report and outlook. Retrieved 14 July 2017 from: http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Press/Faith4Rights.pdf In March 2017, the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights hosted cross-disciplinary and interfaith meetings on the relationship between the development of human rights and religion. During the Beirut meeting, the participants expanded on the Rabat Plan of Action and created the Beirut Declaration, along with 18 commitments to peace, harmony, and the development and advancement of human rights. This outcome document will help delegates understand the most current discussions related to human dignity, universal human rights, and religion. This source outlines the philosophy that the protection of human dignity is enshrined in religious beliefs, and acknowledges the importance of international human rights instruments to that end.

United Nations, General Assembly, Thirty-sixth session. (1981). Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief (A/RES/36/55). Adopted on the report of the Third Committee (A/37/590). Retrieved 14 July 2017 from: http://undocs.org/A/RES/36/55 In 1981, the UN General Assembly adopted the Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief. The declaration clarifies the scope of rights related to religion and belief, and provides context for all subsequent resolutions on the freedom of religion or belief. Delegates will find this source useful as it is essential for understanding the responsibilities of the international community to protect the right to freedom of religion or belief, and to reduce discrimination on the basis of religion or belief.

United Nations, General Assembly, Seventieth session. (2015). Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (A/RES/70/1). Retrieved 16 July 2017 from: http://undocs.org/A/RES/70/1 Delegates will find the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development an excellent place to begin research on how human rights and sustainable development are complementary. Delegates will find SDGs 4, 10, 16, and 17 of particular interest for promoting the right to freedom of religion or belief. The SDGs provide a roadmap for sustainable development and set specific targets to be reached by 2030. Promoting the right to the freedom of religion or belief and eliminating all forms of religious intolerance will be essential for the realization of the SDGs.

United Nations, General Assembly, Seventy-first session. (2016). Elimination of all forms of religious intolerance: Interim report of the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief (A/71/269). Retrieved 16 July 2017 from: http://undocs.org/A/71/269 This 2016 report by the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief to the General Assembly outlines the importance of a universal approach to freedom of religion or belief. The report emphasizes inclusivity, the complex nature of the right to freedom of religion or belief, and the importance of equality. The report provides important context for the root causes of religious intolerance, as well as injustices and violations of the right to religion or belief. Delegates will find the discussion of state- and non-state-induced religious intolerance helpful in their research and in categorizing types of religious intolerance.

United Nations, Human Rights Council. (2013). Annual report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights: Addendum (A/HRC/22/17/Add.4). Retrieved 19 July 2017 from: http://undocs.org/A/HRC/22/17/Add.4 The addendum to the report of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights contains an overview of the concrete actions established through the Rabat Plan of Action. Delegates will find this report useful, as the Rabat Plan of Action is cited often as part of a solution for eliminating religious intolerance due to its universality and clear plan for implementation at the state level. The report presents a succinct summary of OHCHR’s regional expert workshop meetings, exploring legal and legislative barriers that enforce religious hatred, and the culmination of those findings. It also provides a legal and legislative background for supporting religious freedom that is essential in the prohibition of incitement to national, racial, or religious hatred.

United Nations, Human Rights Council. (2017). Report of the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion and belief (A/HRC/34/50). Retrieved 14 July 2017 from: http://undocs.org/A/HRC/34/50 This report by the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief provides an overview of the new mandate holder’s approach to his position as the Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief. The report focuses on modern challenges related to implementing the right to freedom of religion or belief. The Special Rapporteur proposes an agenda for implementing this right, as well as a comprehensive framework for how the Special Rapporteur interacts with other components of the UN system. Focusing on addressing common and damaging misconceptions about the right to freedom of religion or belief, and proposing solutions and future work methods, this report will provide a guide for navigating the current state of the right to the freedom of religion or belief.

United Nations Population Fund. (2016). Engaging Religion and Faith-Based Actors in 2016: Report of the United Nations Inter-Agency Task Force on Engaging Faith-Based Actors for Sustainable Development. Retrieved 28 August 2017 from: http://www.partner-religion- development.org/fileadmin/Dateien/Resources/Knowledge_Center/Annual_Report_IATF_on_Religion_and_Develo pment_2016.pdf Delegates will find this source useful when beginning their research, as it provides critical information on how UN bodies interact with FBOs to promote sustainable development, tolerance, and intercultural dialogue. The Inter-Agency Task Force on Engaging Faith-Based Organizations for Sustainable Development represents an innovative UN body that is attempting to leverage non- state actors in order to pursue an agenda that promotes sustainability as well as human rights. This report compiles information about the involvement of UN bodies with FBOs, and provides references for exploring the international framework for religion, peace, and sustainable development.

United States Commission on International Religious Freedoms. (2017). 2017 Annual Report: Key findings & Recommendations. Retrieved 28 August 2017 from: http://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/KeyFindingsRecommendations.2017AnnualReport.pdf This report by the United States Commission on International Religious Freedoms contains a broad overview of countries that have restrictions on the freedom of religion or belief, and catalogs countries according to their level of religious intolerance. Delegates will find this source to be useful when researching countries that struggle to promote the right to freedom of religion or belief. This report shows the evolution over time of Member States that have been placed on Tier 1 – the states with the most instances of intolerance – as states of particular concern.

United States Commission on International Religious Freedoms. (2017). Respecting Rights? Measuring the World’s Blasphemy Laws. Retrieved 28 August 2017 from: http://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/Blasphemy%20Laws%20Report.pdf Delegates will find that this report contains definitions for and information on Member States that have blasphemy laws. This source also cites specific blasphemy laws. The Special Rapporteur on freedom of religion or belief believes blasphemy laws to be restrictive and antithetical to universal human rights. By understanding blasphemy laws, delegates can assess whether the Member State they are representing has legislation that is restrictive of the freedom of religion or belief. Important sections for review are Part IV and the Annex, which detail the findings of the report.

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III. Ensuring Equitable Access to Education “Knowledge is power. Information is liberating. Education is the premise of progress, in every society, in every family.”262

Introduction

Education is a basic human right and is foundational in fostering peace, eliminating poverty, and stimulating economic development.263 The right to education, incorporated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) (1948), is acknowledged globally as pivotal in the advancement of economic growth and development, and inciting societal progress.264 Education provides tools that enable economically and socially disadvantaged populations to rise out of poverty and engage fully in society.265 Despite significant progress in global education, much work remains to be done, as millions of children and adults live without access to equitable educational opportunities.266 The most progress has been achieved in primary education, which is typically defined as education “for children between the ages of about five and eleven.”267 Currently, 91% of children in developing countries are registered for primary education, yet 121 million children remain out of primary and lower secondary school altogether.268 Notably, of those children not enrolled in school, more than 50% live in sub-Saharan Africa, and equally as many in conflict-impacted areas.269

Gender equality in education is another area requiring further effort.270 While equality in primary education access between girls and boys globally has been achieved, equitable access at all levels of education has not been realized.271 Gender inequality in education weakens society by denying women the opportunity to develop skills and participate in the labor market.272 Moreover, 100 million children globally are deficient in basic literacy, with more than 60% of them being women.273 Furthermore, denying equal access to education threatens the success of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).274 The right to education is a primary principle underpinning the 2030 Agenda and SDG 4, which aims to “ensure inclusive and quality education for all and promote lifelong learning.”275 The premise of SDG 4 is that ensuring a quality education is foundational to improving livelihoods and overall sustainable development in societies.276 More broadly, education is critical to not only the success of SDG 4, but will also facilitate the achievement of many other SDGs by reducing poverty, building vocational skills, and eliminating the gender gap, thus providing equal opportunities for all.277

International and Regional Framework

Since the inception of the United Nations (UN), the international community has prioritized education.278 According to Article 26 of the UDHR, all individuals have the right to education.279 Following the adoption of the UDHR, the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) established the Convention against Discrimination in Education (1960) followed several years later by the Recommendation Concerning the Condition

262 UN DPI, If Information and Knowledge are Central to Democracy, they are Conditions for Development, 1997. 263 UNESCO, Education for the 21st Century. 264 UNICEF, Education, 2017; UNICEF, A Human Rights-Based Approach to Education for All, 2007, pp. 114-116. 265 UNICEF, A Human Rights-Based Approach to Education for All, 2007, pp. xi-xii. 266 UN DESA, Goal 4: Ensure inclusive and quality education for all and promote lifelong learning, 2017. 267 UNESCO, International Standard Classification of Education, 2011, pp. 30-33. 268 UN DESA, Goal 4: Ensure inclusive and quality education for all and promote lifelong learning, 2017; Global Partnership for Education, Out-of-school Children, 2017. 269 UN DESA, Goal 4: Ensure inclusive and quality education for all and promote lifelong learning, 2017. 270 Ibid. 271 Ibid. 272 UNGEI, Gender Analysis in Education: A Conceptual Overview, 2012, pp. 3-5. 273 UN DESA, Goal 4: Ensure inclusive and quality education for all and promote lifelong learning, 2017. 274 Ibid. 275 Ibid.; UN World Education Forum, Incheon Declaration – Education 2030: Towards inclusive and equitable quality education and lifelong learning for all, 2015, pp.7-11. 276 UN DESA, Goal 4: Ensure inclusive and quality education for all and promote lifelong learning, 2017. 277 Ibid. 278 UNICEF, Education, 2017; UNICEF, A Human Rights-Based Approach to Education, 2007, pp. 1-5. 279 UN General Assembly, Universal Declaration of Human Rights (A/RES/217A (III)), 1948.

of Teachers (1966).280 Respectively, these efforts sought to combat discrimination of all kinds in schools and to provide basic recommendations concerning the training of educational professionals.281 As a landmark year, 1966 saw the creation of several other foundational documents framing global education policy, including the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1966).282 Through this convention, in Article 5 and Article 7, UNESCO promotes equitable education regardless of race or color for all people.283 Likewise, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966) outlines the right to education in articles 13 and 14.284 Most importantly, however, the covenant solidifies free primary education as well as equitable access to higher education as an absolute right for all persons.285 Seeking to expand upon the Convention against Discrimination in Education, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1979) highlights the importance of providing equitable opportunities for women, including in education.286 Furthermore, beyond stating the right to education for every child, Article 28 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) discusses the need to provide alternative forms of secondary education, such as general and vocational education.287 Additionally, this document outlines educational attendance requirements and efforts to reduce dropout rates. 288 Finally, the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006) expands the existing international framework on education by paying particular attention to equal access for individuals with disabilities.289

At the international level, the UN took a major step to advance education in 2000 when it adopted the Millennium Development Goals, whereby Member States agreed to achieve global access to “free, quality, and compulsory primary education” by 2015.290 In 2015, the international community furthered its commitment to that ideal by adopting the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, encompassing 17 SDGs.291 Ensuing equitable access to education is related to the achievement of all the SDGs.292 For instance, if all children achieved basic literacy, over 100 million people could be lifted out of poverty, which advances global progress in achieving SDG 1 (eradicating poverty).293 Moreover, educating mothers leads to improved nutrition and thus the achievement of SDG 2, which aims to end hunger, and SDG3, which focuses on health.294 SDG 4, the primary goal focusing on education, has several targets, including one that emphasizes the importance of equal access to quality vocational and technical training for men and women.295 Another target aims to ensure that literacy and numeracy for all is achieved.296 The Education 2030 Agenda was born out of collaboration among Member States and is led by UNESCO.297 The Incheon Declaration (2015), adopted in the World Education Forum in Incheon, South Korea, was one of the outcomes of this agenda.298 The Incheon Declaration was a commitment from the global education community affirming the importance of education as an impetus to development.299

On a regional basis, many initiatives furthering global education are undertaken. For example, the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (ACRWC) (1990) discourages any Member States of the African Union

280 UNESCO, Convention against Discrimination in Education, 1960; UNESCO, Recommendation Concerning the Status of Teachers, 1966. 281 Ibid. 282 UN General Assembly, International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (A/RES/2106 (XX)), 1965. 283 Ibid. 284 UN General Assembly, International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (A/RES/2200 (XXI)), 1966. 285 Ibid. 286 UN General Assembly, Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (A/RES/34/180), 1979. 287 UN General Assembly, Convention on the Rights of the Child (A/RES/44/25), 1989. 288 Ibid. 289 UN General Assembly, Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (A/RES/61/106), 2006. 290 UNESCO, World Education Forum Final Report, 2000, p. 19. 291 UN DPI, The Sustainable Development Agenda, 2017. 292 Global Partnership for Education, 17 ways education influences the sustainable development goals, 2015. 293 Ibid. 294 Ibid. 295 UN DESA, Goal 4: Ensure inclusive and quality education for all and promote lifelong learning, 2017. 296 Ibid. 297 UNESCO, Leading Education 2030. 298 Ibid. 299 Ibid.

(AU) from practicing any custom or tradition that does not align with the educational rights outlined in the ACRWC, including child marriage, recruiting children into armed conflict, and religious practices that interfere with educational access.300 Another regional effort is the Declaration of Scarborough and Commitments to Action (2005), adopted as a result of a meeting of the Organization of American States (OAS) to discuss how the region could provide quality, inclusive education.301 Likewise, the Europe 2020 strategy of the European Union (2010) notes education’s transformative impact on society.302 In this strategy, education is described as a lifelong process and as a means to holistically improve Europe’s innovative capabilities.303 While there is a vast framework of international legislation and regional efforts promoting global quality education, implementing these ideals and achieving equitable educational objectives is a more difficult challenge.304

Role of the International System

UNESCO is the primary organization responsible for global collaboration on education, culture, science, and communication.305 Working diligently to strengthen relationships between Member States, UNESCO strives to ensure that every individual is able to access quality education.306 A primary view of UNESCO is that education transforms lives, minimizes poverty, and provides opportunities for all.307 UNESCO is charged with leading the Global Education 2030 Agenda, as established in SDG 4.308 Likewise, UNESCO also leads important education programs, including the Global Database on the Right to Education, which provides country-level data regarding access to education.309 The data is divided into five categories: treaty ratification, monitoring education rights, constitutional rights to education, legislation, and policy.310 This data is vital for researchers and policymakers in the advancement of the global education agenda, and to monitor progress cross-nationally.311

Likewise, the UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF) advocates for advancing the global education agenda and the rights of children globally.312 Operating in 143 countries, UNICEF works tirelessly to increase equal and affordable education, to strengthen existing education programs, and to promote innovation in the classroom through technical assistance and financial support.313 UNICEF collaborates with governments at all levels to expand global early learning education services.314 Moreover, UNICEF utilizes Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS) to gather data on children’s lingual, numerical, physical, psychological, and cognitive development.315 MICS were developed in response to the World Summit for Children in an effort to measure global progress in education.316 This data comprises a country’s Early Childhood Development Index and is made accessible to governments to provide a basis for policy recommendations and educational reform when necessary.317

Beyond UNESCO and UNICEF, The UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education is appointed by the Human Rights Council (HRC) to monitor the right to education globally.318 In 1998, the Commission on Human Rights, the precursor to the HRC, outlined the mandate of the Special Rapporteur in its resolution 1998/33 on the realization of all rights contained in the UDHR and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.319 The

300 OAU, African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child, 1990. 301 OAS, Declaration of Scarborough and Commitments to Action, 2005. 302 European Commission, Europe 2020 strategy. 303 Ibid. 304 UNESCO, Leading Education 2030. 305 UNESCO, About Us, 2017. 306 Ibid. 307 Ibid. 308 Ibid. 309 UNESCO, Global Database on the Right to education, 2017. 310 Ibid. 311 Ibid. 312 UNICEF, Education – Early Learning, 2017. 313 Ibid. 314 Ibid. 315 Ibid. 316 UNICEF, Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS), 2014. 317 UN OHCHR, Special Rapporteur on the right to education, 2017. 318 Ibid. 319 Ibid.

Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education participates in country visits, investigates alleged violations of the right to education, leads intergovernmental dialogues, and submits annual reports to the HRC and General Assembly on relevant developments concerning education.320

Various other UN entities collaborate in, and advance equitable access to education, including the UN Development Programme (UNDP) and the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR).321 These organizations cooperate in order to advance projects that are mutually beneficial to meet global educational goals.322 Likewise, not-for-profit organizations such as the Global Partnership for Education, World Education, and The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation impact global education policies.323 Through specialization, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) can operate with more flexibility than Member States or local governments.324 NGOs possess a targeted focus, allowing them to impact specific populations more efficiently.325 Collectively, NGOs, intergovernmental organizations, and other international actors, all play a vital role in ensuring that global access to quality education becomes a reality.326

Education Accessibility for Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons

Among other factors, war, violence, economic strife, and political turmoil are creating unprecedented levels of international displacement.327 Worldwide, 65.6 million individuals have been forcibly displaced due to discrimination, war, violence, and human rights violations.328 Of those displaced, 22.5 million are refugees, and among them, over 50% are under 18 years old.329 Ensuring access to education for refugees is essential to UNHCR’s mandate.330 Without access to early childhood and primary education, the foundation for future success is compromised.331 Moreover, educational institutions should be a place where students feel protected and safe.332 Refugees and displaced populations often flee from turmoil and instability, thus, feeling protected and safe is imperative for their educational success.333 Schools also play an important role in recognizing at-risk children and can be a resource for ensuring that children receive access to necessary support services.334

Refugees have an increased risk of being denied educational opportunities; in fact, only 50% of the refugee population has access to primary education, while the global average is 90%.335 As of 2016, six million refugee adolescents and children of school age fell under the mandate of UNHCR.336 However, only 2.3 million of those six million adolescents and children were enrolled in school.337 Accordingly, UNHCR collaborates with host governments to increase refugee access to quality, accredited education within existing national educational systems.338 One of the largest obstacles preventing further progress in this area is the steep increase in refugees and internally displaced persons since 2011.339 In fact, in 2014 alone, the number of school-aged refugees increased by

320 Ibid. 321 UNDP, Quality Education, 2017; UNHCR, Education, 2017; Global Partnership for Education, About Us, 2017; World Education, About Us, 2017; The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, What We Do, 2017. 322 Ibid. 323 Ibid. 324 UNESCO, Right to Education. 325 Ibid. 326 Ibid. 327 UNHCR, Figures at a Glance, 2017. 328 Ibid.; UNHCR, World at War, 2014, pp. 2-5. 329 UNHCR, Figures at a Glance, 2017. 330 UNHCR, Missing Out: Refugee Education in Crisis, 2016, p. 4. 331 Ibid., pp. 2-5. 332 Ibid. 333 Ibid., pp. 5-6. 334 Ibid., p. 10. 335 Ibid., p. 8. 336 Ibid., p. 3. 337 Ibid., pp. 3-8 338 Ibid., pp. 2-7. 339 Ibid., p. 8.

30%.340 An increase at this rate requires a minimum of 12,000 supplemental classrooms and 20,000 new teachers annually.341

To address these needs, various global programs have been implemented to ensure education access for refugees and internally displaced persons.342 The UNHCR Educate a Child (EAC) program targets out-of-school refugee children and focuses on improving educational quality, accessibility, and retention of students.343 Through this initiative, UNHCR encourages educational innovation, the construction of educational infrastructure, and teacher training.344 Since 2012, EAC has resulted in 400,000 out-of-school children in 12 countries enrolling in school.345 Despite this success, further progress is needed, as refugees fall behind their peers educationally and economically.346 For instance, in Chad, Kenya, Malaysia, and Pakistan, the percentage of refugee children enrolled in primary education is 50% less than their host country peers.347

The effect of conflict on education is stark.348 In 2009, 94% of Syrian children were enrolled in primary or secondary education.349 By 2016, following five years of civil war, that number decreased to 60%, leaving over 2 million school-aged children without any access to educational opportunities.350 In surrounding countries, nearly 5 million Syrian refugees are registered with UNHCR, 35% of whom are of school age.351 Collectively, between the refugees located in Turkey, Lebanon, and Jordan, nearly 900,000 Syrian refugee children are out of school.352

Education for Women and Girls

Realizing gender equality and empowering women and girls is recognized in SDG 5 and is integral to the 2030 Agenda.353 Expanding access to education for women and girls goes far beyond enrollment in the classroom.354 It includes ensuring that girls feel safe while attending school, and that they complete all levels of education, enabling them to integrate successfully into the labor market.355 Educating girls is a vital component in development, as women with higher levels of education lead more stable and healthier lives.356 Educated women earn higher annual incomes and marry later.357 Moreover, they tend to have less children, and provide better healthcare and education for their children, if they decide to become mothers.358 Collectively, these factors build stronger communities and households, and have the potential to improve the economic stability of a country.359

Despite these benefits, as of 2017, over 130 million girls are not enrolled in school.360 Likewise, 15 million girls of primary-school age, 50% of which reside in sub-Saharan Africa, will never attend school.361 The primary determinant for whether a girl can access education is poverty.362 For example, in Niger only four percent of impoverished young women in the North West zone are literate, in contrast to 99% of wealthy young women in the

340 Ibid. 341 Ibid. 342 Ibid., pp. 6-10. 343 Ibid., p.10. 344 Ibid. 345 Ibid. 346 Ibid., p.11. 347 Ibid. 348 Ibid. 349 Ibid. 350 Ibid. 351 Ibid. 352 Ibid. 353 UNDP, Sustainable Development Goals- Goal 4: Quality Education, 2017. 354 The World Bank, Girls Education, 2017. 355 Ibid. 356 Ibid. 357 Ibid. 358 Ibid. 359 Ibid. 360 Ibid. 361 Ibid. 362 Ibid.

South East region of the country.363 Consistently, rurally located individuals facing social and economic disadvantage, such as a low household income, are identified as the most deprived populations in terms of education.364

Further exacerbating these challenges is the changing nature of the global economy, which necessitates increasingly more specialized laborers with science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) backgrounds.365 Although men far outnumber women in STEM fields, recent efforts by the UN and partner NGOs are working to bridge this gap.366 In 2015, the UN Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women) partnered with Moldovan universities and information technology (IT) companies to launch GirlsGoIT.367 Each year, up to 65 young girls are afforded the opportunity to attend the week-long program where STEM industries like robotics, web development, 3D printing, and coding are presented.368 Through hands-on learning and day trips to Moldovan IT companies, participants gain firsthand experience and develop marketable skills in high-demand STEM industries.369 Similarly, in 2016, UN-Women partnered with The Mozilla Foundation to create Mozilla Clubs in Kenya and South Africa.370 This pilot program offers young women the opportunity to develop web literacy skills, including web navigation, web development, coding, and more.371 The ultimate goal of both GirlsGoIT and the Mozilla Clubs is to ensure young women and girls are not left behind during the “fourth industrial revolution,” which is defined as the current industrial revolution marked by technological advancements and digitalization.372 By initiating programs to develop IT skills, raising awareness of opportunities in STEM fields, and developing educational opportunities for women now, women will be able to reap the benefits of the forthcoming economic revolution.373

Conclusion

Since 2000, the international community has made substantial progress in achieving universal primary education.374 Educational enrollment rates across developing regions have increased, and the gender gap has been reduced.375 Moreover, literacy has improved substantially, and the number of children out of school has decreased by 50%.376 While these are all significant achievements, progress is more difficult to realize among vulnerable populations, including women, children, refugees, and internally displaced persons.377 Often, vulnerable populations disproportionately lack access to education, leading to negative lifelong implications.378 Inclusive and quality education plays an important role in sustainable development, and thus must be prioritized globally for further progress to be achieved.379 Efforts to not only provide basic primary and secondary education, but also opportunities to prepare women for future economic opportunities, are needed now more than ever.380 In doing so, the international community will greatly increase its ability to accomplish the SDG 4 and live up to the principles established in the UDHR.381

363 Ibid. 364 Ibid. 365 UN-Women, No Hidden Figures: success stories can help girls’ STEM careers, 2017. 366 Ibid. 367 United Nations in Moldova, Sixty-five girls across Moldova acquired technology skills at GirlsGoIT summer camp, 2017. 368 Ibid. 369 Ibid. 370 UN-Women, Empowering Women and Girls through Web Literacy, 2016. 371 Ibid. 372 UN-Women, No Hidden Figures: success stories can help girls’ STEM careers, 2017. 373 Ibid. 374 UNDP, Sustainable Development Goals- Goal 4: Quality Education, 2017. 375 Ibid. 376 Ibid. 377 Ibid. 378 Ibid. 379 UNESCO, Literacy and Education for Sustainable Development and Women’s Empowerment, 2014, pp. 7-10. 380 UN-Women, No Hidden Figures: success stories can help girls’ STEM careers, 2017. 381 UNDP, Sustainable Development Goals- Goal 4: Quality Education, 2017.

Further Research

As delegates continue their research on this issue, they should consider the following questions: How can the international community coordinate more effectively to meet the educational needs of displaced persons? How can Member States ensure that the education of internally displaced persons and refugees are not disrupted permanently? Likewise, how can access to education be extended to those living in conflict areas? How can global action on these issues by UN agencies, other international bodies, and NGOs be better aligned? How can global educational policies be improved? What can be done to bridge the gap between educational opportunities for urban and rural populations? For women and girls, what efforts can be undertaken to ensure equal access to educational opportunities? Specifically, how can STEM fields achieve gender parity?

Annotated Bibliography Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. (n.d.). Special Rapporteur on the right to education [Website]. Retrieved 20 July 2017 from: http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Education/SREducation/Pages/SREducationIndex.aspx The Special Rapporteur on the right to education monitors global education progress. This website discusses the history of the Special Rapporteur on the right to education and defines the human right to education. The source also highlights the legal obligations of Member States and their respective governments with regards to the provision of education. It is an important source for delegates as it provides a historical perspective on the mandate of the Special Rapporteur, and outlines the actions needed to fulfill this mandate.

United Nations, Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. (1999). General Comment No.13. Retrieved 4 September 2017 from: http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Education/Training/Compilation/Pages/d)GeneralCommentNo13Therighttoeducati on(article13)(1999).aspx. General Comment No. 13 outlines Member State commitments in relation to realizing the right to education. The source discusses Article 13 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights at the granular level, and provides a clear and concise breakdown of the rights set forth within it. As the most comprehensive resource pertaining to global education in human rights law, this explanation on the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights is undoubtedly useful to delegates. The source also articulates Member State expectations related to global education. Specifically, the mandate established affordable, available, and acceptable education for all. It is important for delegates as it provides a background on Member State expectations related to global education.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (2014). Literacy and Education for Sustainable Development and Women’s Empowerment [Report]. Retrieved 20 July 2017 from: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002301/230162e.pdf The Literacy and Education for Sustainable Development and Women’s Empowerment report focuses on uplifting women. It draws attention to the fact that women account for two-thirds of the world’s non-literate population, and emphasizes the importance of women’s literacy in achieving sustainable development. Particularly notable is the emphasis on the profound impact that empowering women can have on a community. Women’s literacy is correlated with increased social and economic benefits. For instance, literate women in Pakistan earn 95% more income than non-literate women on an annual basis. This report is important for delegates as it identifies obstacles to access to education, and reviews existing literacy programs and lessons learned from them.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, World Education Forum. (2015). Incheon Declaration – Education 2030: Towards inclusive and equitable quality education and lifelong learning for all [Report]. Retrieved 20 July 2017 from: http://uis.unesco.org/sites/default/files/documents/education-2030-incheon- framework-for-action-implementation-of-sdg4-2016-en_2.pdf This report is useful for delegates as it provides a granular breakdown of Sustainable Development Goal 4, “ensuring inclusive and equitable quality education and promoting lifelong learning opportunities for all.” This document is divided into three sections: section one provides

a comprehensive overview of SDG 4; section two discusses the nuances of the goal, its respective targets, and implementation plan; finally, section three proposes a path forward to coordinate global education efforts, monitoring, and follow up. This resource is foundational for delegates in understanding and framing policy on access to education. In addition, delegates are provided with a summary of the Incheon Declaration and the international community’s recognition of education as essential to development.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (2017). Education [Website]. Retrieved 18 July 2017 from: http://www.unesco.org/new/en/education/networks/global-networks/aspnet/about-us/history/ This resource provides a historical analysis of past UN activities related to education. It also draws attention to ongoing UNESCO ground-level partnerships with schools through the UNESCO Associate School Project Network (ASPnet), which began as a pilot program for 33 schools in 15 Member States. Particularly notable is that this resource has links to supplemental education projects, including country profiles, school profiles, and global evaluations on achieving the right to education. This website is important for delegates, as it provides global data on education and country-specific profiles that will be useful for their research.

United Nations, General Assembly, Twenty-first session. (1966). International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (A/RES/2200 (XXI)). Adopted on the report of the Third Committee (A/6546). Retrieved 4 September 2017 from: http://undocs.org/A/RES/2200(XXI) The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights is foundational in international human rights law. Particularly, Article 13 and Article 14 outline education as a human right. This document frames global education policy and is therefore vital for delegates to review during their research. Importantly, this resource will aid delegates in understanding the nuances of the right to education, which include mandatory and free primary education for all, and widely available secondary and higher educational opportunities. Likewise, it will also help delegates identify policy concerns facing education, such as gender, economic, and geographic inequality.

United Nations, Girls Education Initiative. (2017). About Us [Website]. Retrieved 4 September 2017 from: http://www.ungei.org/whatisungei/index.html The Girls Education Initiative is a valuable asset to delegates interested in gaining an understanding of the UN’s past, current, and future actions concerning the expansion of primary educational opportunities for girls. Particularly useful, the website includes an “information by country” section that details current and past efforts to improve access to education in specific Member States within three regions: Africa, Asia, and Oceania. Delegates will also find links to a number of reports detailing the initiative’s policy priorities, recommended strategies to accomplish these, and studies to further the international community’s understanding of the importance of achieving gender equality in education.

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2011). Ensuring Access to Education: Operational Guidance on Refugee Protection and Solutions in Urban Areas [Report]. Retrieved 4 September 2017 from: http://www.un.am/up/library/Ensuring%20Access%20Education_eng.pdf The Operational Guidance on Refugee Protection and Solutions in Urban Areas focuses on access to education in urban areas for refugees. Urban areas often host higher volumes of refugees, and ensuring access to education in these areas is particularly important, but also challenging. With increasing numbers of refugees in certain regions of the world, access to education for both local and refugee children is imperative. Education enables vulnerable populations to develop critical life skills, leading people to become more independent and employable. This report is important for delegates, as it provides background information on access to education for vulnerable populations. In addition, this source provides insight into the nuances of urban education, while also identifying broad best practices that can be implemented cross-nationally.

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2016). Missing Out: Refugee Education in Crisis [Report]. Retrieved 4 September 2017 from: http://www.unhcr.org/57d9d01d0 The number of refugees worldwide continues to grow in response to violence, natural disasters, and conflict. Delegates interested in the impact of displacement on children’s educational

obtainment will find this UNHCR report especially enlightening. The report details the current status of educational opportunities for refugee children and succinctly summarizes the core arguments for expanding these opportunities further. Delegates are presented with multiple case studies illustrating individual refugees’ journeys, and the importance of education in each of their lives. Following each case study, the report provides recommendations for increasing educational access to refugees, including scholarship financing, e-learning, and accelerated education programs. Finally, roadblocks to these policy recommendations are explored, as well as other areas for improvement.

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. (2017). Education [Website]. Retrieved 4 September 2017 from: http://www.unhcr.org/en-us/education.html The education section of the UNHCR website is a useful starting point for delegates getting acquainted with the topic, as it provides a broad overview of the global status of education. Additionally, this resource provides links to current UNHCR initiatives and programs related to education. This resource also contains recent stories, multimedia resources, and information on current events, such as the 2012-2016 Education Strategy, which provide comprehensive background information that will be useful for delegates when writing position papers. Notably, delegates will find the sections education in emergencies, sustainable development, and refugee education in crisis useful when conducting their research. Bibliography Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. (2017). What We Do [Website]. Retrieved 20 July 2017 from: https://www.gatesfoundation.org/What-We-Do

European Commission. (n.d.). Europe 2020 strategy [Website]. Retrieved 20 July 2017 from: https://ec.europa.eu/info/business-economy-euro/economic-and-fiscal-policy-coordination/eu-economic- governance-monitoring-prevention-correction/european-semester/framework/europe-2020-strategy_en

Global Partnership for Education. (2015). 17 ways education influences the sustainable development goals [Website]. Retrieved 20 July 2017 from: http://www.globalpartnership.org/multimedia/infographic/17-ways- education-influences-sustainable-development-goals

Global Partnership for Education. (2017). About Us [Website]. Retrieved 20 July 2017 from: http://www.globalpartnership.org/about-us

Global Partnership for Education. (2017). Out-of-school Children [Website]. Retrieved 20 July 2017 from: http://www.globalpartnership.org/focus-areas/out-of-school-children

Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. (2017). Special Rapporteur on the right to education [Website]. Retrieved 20 July 2017 from: http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/Education/SREducation/Pages/SREducationIndex.aspx

Organization of African Unity. (1990). African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child. Retrieved 3 September 2017 from: http://www.achpr.org/files/instruments/child/achpr_instr_charterchild_eng.pdf

Organization of American States. (2005). Declaration of Scarborough and Commitments to Action. Retrieved 3 September 2017 from: https://web.oas.org/childhood/EN/Lists/Recursos%20%20Politicas%20OEA/Attachments/3/DECLARATION_OF_ SCARBOROUGH_AND_COMMITMENTS_TO_ACTION.pdf

United Nations Children’s Fund. (n.d.). Education [Website]. Retrieved 17 July 2017 from: https://www.unicef.org/education/

United Nations Children’s Fund. (2007). A Human Rights-Based Approach to Education for All [Report]. Retrieved 3 September 2017 from: https://www.unicef.org/publications/files/A_Human_Rights_Based_Approach_to_Education_for_All.pdf

United Nations Children’s Fund. (2014). Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS) [Website]. Retrieved 22 October 2017 from: https://www.unicef.org/statistics/index_24302.html

United Nations Children’s Fund. (2017). Education – Early Learning [Website]. Retrieved 17 July 2017 from: https://www.unicef.org/education/bege_61657.html

United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs. (2017). Sustainable Development Goal 4: Ensure inclusive and quality education for all and promote lifelong learning [Website]. Retrieved 2 September 2017 from: https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/sdg4

United Nations, Department of Public Information. (1997, June 23). ‘If Information and Knowledge are Central to Democracy, they are Conditions for Development’, says Secretary-General (SG/SM/6268) [Press Release]. Retrieved 19 July 2017 from: http://www.un.org/press/en/1997/19970623.sgsm6268.html

United Nations, Department of Public Information. (2017). The Sustainable Development Agenda [Website]. Retrieved 3 September 2017 from: http://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/development-agenda/

United Nations Development Programme. (2017). Goal 4: Quality Education [Website]. Retrieved 3 September 2017 from: http://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/home/sustainable-development-goals/goal-4-quality- education.html

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (n.d.). Education for the 21st Century [Website]. Retrieved 27 August 2017 from: http://en.unesco.org/themes/education-21st-century

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (n.d.). Leading Education 2030 [Website]. Retrieved 18 July 2017 from: https://en.unesco.org/education2030-sdg4

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (n.d.). Right to Education [Website]. Retrieved 18 July 2017 from: http://en.unesco.org/themes/right-to-education

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (1960). Convention against Discrimination in Education. Retrieved 27 August 2017 from: http://www.unesco.org/education/pdf/DISCRI_E.PDF

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