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Home , 2020 Nobel Peace Prize, Model United Nations

Nuremberg, Germany 26 - 28 February 2021

Security Council Background Guide 2021

Updated and edited by: Anne Hahn, Dorothee Karbe, Tamara Titz

Dear Delegates,

Welcome to the 2021 Bayern Model United Nations!

The topics under discussion for the Security Council are:

I. Resource Scarcity and Its Relation to Conflict II. The Situation in Yemen

The Security Council is the international community's most powerful institution dedicated to maintaining peace and security. The Council may issue both binding and non-binding resolutions, release presidential statements, commission reports by the Secretary-General, and authorize peacekeeping or humanitarian missions, among other actions. The Council’s unique legal authority and broad reach makes it the leader of the international community’s efforts to maintain international peace and security.

This Background Guide serves as an introduction to the topics on the agenda. However, it is not meant to be the only resource for your research. We invite you to conduct additional research, explore your Member State’s position in-depth, and examine the policies of other Member States to facilitate negotiations and consensus building. The (annotated) bibliography can help you with your initial research and may lead you to other relevant sources. We ask each delegation to draft and submit a position paper by 12 p.m. (CET) on 15 February 2021. Guidelines will be made available in the download section of our Homepage.If you have any questions regarding your preparation for the committee and the conference itself, please contact us at [email protected].

This Guide is based on NMUN Background Guides and was updated and edited by BayernMUN Staff. Our special thanks to Tobias Dietrich for reviewing the Background Guides.

We wish you all the best in your preparation for the conference and look forward to seeing you in February!

Sincerely,

Your BayernMUN Secretariat

Table of Contents

Committee Overview ...... 2

Introduction ...... 2 Governance, Structure, and Membership ...... 2 Mandate, Functions, and Powers ...... 4 Recent Sessions and Current Priorities ...... 5 Conclusion ...... 7 Annotated Bibliography ...... 8 Bibliography ...... 8

I. Resource Scarcity and Its Relation to Conflict...... 12

Introduction ...... 12 International and Regional Framework ...... 13 Role of the International System ...... 14 Food Scarcity as Cause and Consequence of Conflicts ...... 15 Water Scarcity as Cause and Consequence of Conflicts ...... 17 Case Study: Humanitarian Crisis in Ethiopia and Sudan ...... 18 Conclusion ...... 19 Further Research ...... 19 Annotated Bibliography ...... 20 Bibliography ...... 21

II. The Situation in Yemen ...... 26

Introduction ...... 26 International and Regional Framework ...... 26 Role of the International System ...... 28 The Humanitarian Crisis ...... 30 Conclusion ...... 33 Further Research ...... 33 Annotated Bibliography ...... 34 Bibliography ...... 35

Committee Overview Introduction

After the devastating effects of the two World Wars, the international community established the United Nations (UN) as an intergovernmental organization with the primary responsibility of maintaining international peace and security, creating the conditions conducive to economic and social development, and advancing universal respect for human rights.1 The Security Council became one of the six principal organs of the UN and was given the primary responsibility of preserving international peace and security.2

The Security Council held its first session on 17 January 1946 at Church House in London.3 After its first meeting, the Council relocated to its permanent residence at the UN Headquarters in New York City.4 At that time, five permanent members and six non-permanent members were part of the Council.5 In 1965, the number of non-permanent members increased to 10 and discussions regarding a change in configuration took place frequently.6 As the body’s structure has remained largely unchanged, debate has arisen over the Security Council’s efficacy and authority as a mediator on issues of international security.7 Matters such as the Syrian Civil War, Russia’s annexation of Crimea, and The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea’s nuclear weapons program have posed particular challenges to the Security Council.8

Traditionally, the Security Council discusses issues related to peacekeeping missions, political processes, as well as the protection of human rights, disarmament, and humanitarian crises.9 However, with the adoption of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development by the UN General Assembly in 2015, the Security Council has begun to increasingly focus on the intersection between sustainability, peace, and security.10 Some important crosscutting issues the Council is currently addressing include human rights and the protection of civilians for conflict prevention and sustainable development; Women, Peace and Security; and the prevention of conflict and sustaining peace.11

Governance, Structure, and Membership

The Security Council is the only UN body that has the power to adopt legally binding resolutions, which place an obligation on Member States to accept and carry out the Council’s decisions under Article 25 of the Charter of the United Nations (1945).12 The Security Council also has a variety of other tools to address issues on its agenda.13 For example, the President of the Security Council may issue press statements or presidential statements to communicate the Council’s position.14 Although these are not legally binding, such statements are used to bring attention to important issues and to recommend solutions to ongoing conflicts.15

1 Charter of the United Nations, 1945. 2 UN Security Council, What is the Security Council?, 2019. 3 Ibid. 4 Ibid. 5 UN Security Council, Voting System, 2020. 6 Global Policy Forum, Background on Security Council Reform, 2020. 7 Council on Foreign Relations, The UN Security Council, 2018. 8 Ibid. 9 Ibid.; Encyclopaedia Britannica, United Nations Security Council, 2014. 10 UN General Assembly, Transforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (A/RES/70/1), 2015; UN DPA, Politically Speaking, Sustaining Peace, Conflict Prevention, Human Rights and Sustainable Development High on Agenda for New Security Council Members, 2018. 11 UN DPPA, Politically Speaking, Sustaining Peace, Conflict Prevention, Human Rights and Sustainable Development High on Agenda for New Security Council Members, 2018. 12 UN Security Council, What is the Security Council?, 2019; Charter of the United Nations, 1945. 13 UN Security Council, Functions and Powers, 2020. 14 NGO Working Group on Women, Peace and Security, Mapping Women, Peace and Security in the United Nations Security Council: Report of the NGOWG Monthly Action Points, 2009-2010, 2010, p. 11. 15 Ibid., p. 15.

The five permanent members of the Security Council are China, France, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States of America, often colloquially referred to as the “P5.”16 Every year, the General Assembly elects five of the 10 non-permanent members for a two-year term.17 Elections for non-permanent seats on the Council can be competitive, with states expressing interest and campaigning years in advance.18 States elected to serve on the Security Council are expected to represent the interests of their region; they usually have an influence at the international level and demonstrate leadership in specific areas of interest to their foreign policy.19 Each member of the Security Council has the ability to be represented at all meetings.20 In the Provisional Rules of Procedure, Rule 13 allows for Members to be represented by an ”accredited representative,” such as a Head of Government.21

Belgium, Dominican Republic, Estonia, Germany, Indonesia, Niger, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, South Africa, Tunisia, and Vietnam are the current non-permanent members for the 2020-2021 term.22 Security Council elections are held six months before the term starts in June.23 This change allows Member States sufficient time to prepare for their new role.24 The 10 non-permanent members represent countries from five groups: Africa, the Asia-Pacific Group, Latin America and the Caribbean, the Eastern European Group, and Western European and Other.25

Every Member State of the Security Council has one vote.26 Votes on all matters require a supermajority of nine Member States.27 However, if one of the five permanent members of the Security Council votes “no” on a matter of substance, such as a draft resolution, it does not pass.28 This is known as “veto power.”29 In the 1950s, Security Council Member States made frequent use of their veto power, but its usage declined in the 1960s—rising again in the 1970s and 1980s.30 In the last decades, the use of the veto power has been comparatively rare.31 In recent years, the Council has adopted many resolutions by consensus and has only been divided on a very limited number of issues.32

Since 1993, the General Assembly has discussed several models to reform the Security Council.33 The key challenges in the reform of the Security Council are its membership, transparency and working methods, and the veto power of the permanent five Member States.34 Most recently, in a debate in

16 Ibid. 17 Ibid. 18 UN DGC, Ahead of Security Council Elections, General Assembly President Explains how a Country can get a Non-permanent Seat, 2016. 19 Global Policy Forum, Background on Security Council Reform, 2020. 20 Charter of the United Nations, 1945. 21 UN Security Council, Highlights of Security Council Practice, 2019. 22 UN Security Council, Current Members, 2020. 23 UN General Assembly, Revitalization of the Work of the General Assembly (A/RES/68/307), 2014, p. 4. 24 UN DGC, Ahead of Security Council Elections, General Assembly President Explains how a Country can get a Non-permanent Seat, 2016. 25 UN General Assembly, Rules of Procedure, 2017. 26 Charter of the United Nations, 1945. 27 Ibid. 28 UN Security Council, Voting System, 2020. 29 Ibid. 30 Security Council Report, In Hindsight: The Veto, 2013; Security Council Report, The Permanent Members and the Use of the Veto: An Abridged History, 2013. 31 Security Council Report, The Permanent Members and the Use of the Veto: An Abridged History, 2013. 32 Security Council Report, In Hindsight: Consensus in the Security Council, 2014; Security Council Report, In Hindsight: The Veto, 2013. 33 Global Policy Forum, Background on Security Council Reform, 2020. 34 Ibid.

November 2018, delegates of the UN General Assembly called for expanding the number of permanent members and abolishing the permanent member’s use of veto power.35

Each member of the Security Council holds the presidency of the Council for one month, rotating according to alphabetical order.36 Security Council meetings can be held at any time when convened by the President and by the request of any Member State.37 Under Rule 3 of the Provisional Rules of Procedure of the Security Council, the President shall call a meeting if a dispute or situation requires the Council’s attention.38 Due to this, the Security Council meets regularly throughout the year in the UN Conference Building.39 However, in 2020, due to the coronavirus disease (COVID-19), the Security Council have resorted to meeting online through video conferences.40 Any Member State may attend the Council’s sessions if the body decides to extend an invitation.41 Member States are invited if the Security Council is discussing an issue that directly concerns the interests of the Member State.42 Invited Member States do not have the right to vote but are allowed to submit proposals and draft resolutions.43 Furthermore, invited Member States can inform the Council about a current crisis in their region.44 However, such proposals may only be put to a vote at the request of a member of the Council.45

The Security Council oversees many subsidiary bodies established under Article 29 of the Charter, including: the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, sanctions committees, and ad hoc committees.46 The Security Council also works with the General Assembly to oversee the work of the Peacebuilding Commission (PBC).47 Additionally, Security Council Member States participate in various working groups, which consist of some or all of the Security Council Member States and focus on regional issues, as well as improving the working methods of the Council itself.48

Cooperation between the Security Council and other entities, such as the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) and the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) is significant.49 Partnerships with independent regional organizations, such as the European Union (EU) and the African Union (AU) are also of paramount importance for addressing a broad range of issues such as terrorism, disarmament, nuclear non-proliferation, and extreme violence from non-state actors.50

Mandate, Functions, and Powers

The mandate of the Security Council is to maintain international peace and security and to take action whenever peace and security are threatened.51 The Council’s authority is particularly relevant with respect to the UN’s four primary purposes, as specified in the Charter: maintaining international peace and security; developing friendly relations among nations; cooperating in solving international problems;

35 Nastranis, UN Security Council Reform Back on the Table Again, 2019. 36 UN Security Council, Provisional Rules of Procedure of the Security Council (S/96/Rev.7), 1982. 37 UN Security Council, Repertoire of the Practice of the Security Council, 2019. 38 Ibid. 39 Ibid. 40 Lynch, U.N. Agencies Struggle to Carry on Remotely, 2020. 41 Ibid. 42 Charter of the United Nations, 1945. 43 UN Security Council, Provisional Rules of Procedure of the Security Council (S/96/Rev.7), 1982. 44 Ibid. 45 Ibid. 46 UN Security Council, Committees, Working Groups and Ad Hoc Bodies, 2019. 47 Ibid. 48 UN Security Council, Repertoire of the Practice of the Security Council, 2019. 49 UN Security Council, Committees, Working Groups and Ad Hoc Bodies, 2019; UN Security Council, Resolution 2118 (2013) (S/RES/2349) (2013)), 2013. 50 Ibid. 51 UN Security Council, What is the Security Council?, 2019.

and promoting respect for human rights.52 The capabilities of the Security Council are highlighted in Chapters V–VIII.53 Chapter V establishes the structure, membership, functions, and powers of the Security Council.54 Chapters VI and VII of the Charter specifically concern the Security Council and the range of actions that can be taken when settling disputes.55 Chapter VI of the Charter by itself aims to settle disputes through peaceful means, such as negotiation and judicial settlement.56 Chapter VII explores further actions that can be taken in regard to threats to peace, branches of peace, and acts of aggression.57 This chapter also authorizes the Security Council to implement provisional measures aimed to de-escalate the situation.58 Chapter VIII of the Charter allows the Security Council to call upon other regional agencies or arrangements to enforce appropriate operations and intervene if necessary.59

Under Article 41 in the Charter, the Council can call on its members to apply economic sanctions and other measures not involving the use of force to prevent or end violence.60 Some of these measures include arms embargos, enforcing disarmament, or calling upon international criminal mechanisms to become active.61 Regarding diplomatic tools, the Council is mandated to investigate any dispute or situation that might lead to aggression between states, with other non-state groups, or within states’ territories.62 The Council may also take military action against a state or other entity threatening international peace and security, and may further decide on the deployment of troops or observers.63 The Council may also decide upon the deployment of new UN peacekeeping operations to be led by the Department of Peace Operations (DPO).64 The Security Council creates a peacekeeping operation by adopting a resolution that outlines the mandate and size of a particular mission, and UN peacekeepers are assigned to appropriate regions to address conflicts.65 The Council also cooperates with a number of international and regional organizations as well as non-governmental organizations to implement its decisions.66

Recent Sessions and Current Priorities

By August 2020, the Security Council has covered a wide range of topics, issued 7 presidential statements, and adopted more than 32 resolutions.67 In general, the Security Council focuses efforts to consider country and region-specific situations in its agenda, as well as cross-cutting and thematic issues, such as threats to international peace and security, the financing of terrorism, and climate change, peace, and security.68 In 2020, amongst others, the Council has drafted resolutions to address the humanitarian situation in Syria, peace and security in Africa, sexual violence in conflict, and threats to international peace and security caused by international terrorism and organized crime.69

52 Charter of the United Nations, 1945. 53 Ibid. 54 Ibid. 55 Ibid. 56 Ibid. 57 Ibid. 58 Ibid. 59 Ibid. 60 Ibid. 61 UN Security Council, Functions and Powers, 2020. 62 Ibid. 63 Charter of the United Nations, 1945. 64 UN Peacekeeping, Forming a New Operation. 65 UN Peacekeeping, Role of the Security Council. 66 UN Security Council, Repertoire of the Practice of the Security Council, 2019. 67 UN Security Council, Resolutions Adopted by the Security Council in 2020, 2020. 68 UN DPA, Security Council Reporting and Mandate Cycles, 2018; Security Council Report, Thematic and General Issues, 2018. 69 UN Security Council, Resolutions Adopted by the Security Council in 2020, 2020.

The conflict in Syria has led to over 5.6 million refugees and 6.1 internally displaced people.70 Security Council resolution 2504, adopted 10 January 2020, and Security Council resolution 2533 on the situation in the Middle East, adopted 11 July 2020, call upon all parties to improve the humanitarian situation in Syria. This shall mainly be achieved by all parties complying to international law, and allowing safe access for humanitarian convoys to the regions defined in paragraphs 2 and 3 of Security Council resolution 2165 (2014).71

With regard to peace and security in Africa, the Security Council has reacted to the situation in the Central African Republic, the situation in Somalia, the situation concerning the Democratic Republic of Congo, and the situation in Mali.72 Mali, specifically, has been struggling with issues of safety of its citizens, ineffective governance, and economic and political instability, which has been exacerbated by nepotism and corruption in government.73 In 2020, the Security Council unanimously adopted resolution 2531, which renews the mandate of the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA) until 30 June 2021. Furthermore, paragraph 28 provides a number of priority tasks that are to be realized within one year by the Mission and the Malian parties.74

Since the adoption of landmark resolution 1325 on women, peace, and security in 2000 the Security Council has continuously addressed this issue.75 Therefore in 2020, the year of the resolutions’ 20-year anniversary, the Security Council again addressed the issue.76 On 17 July 2020, the Special Representative of the Secretary General on Sexual Violence in Conflict Pramila Patten, and Special Envoy to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Angelina Jolie addressed the Security Council in a debate on conflict-related sexual violence.77 Special attention was brought to the lack of attention to “the plight of Yazidi women and children in Iraq, who were abducted, enslaved and tortured by the thousands by ISIL terrorists in 2014”78, the problem of under-funding of efforts to fight sexual and gender-based violence, and the under-reporting on sexual violence against children in armed conflict.79 The latter is closely linked to the general discussion of protecting children in armed conflicts.80 In the past, the Security Council urged for a conflict prevention strategy to target the younger population and called upon other Member States to incorporate additional provisions in peace negotiations and agreements to protect the children.81 Resolution 2419 (2018) outlines the role of youth in conflict prevention.82 Security Council resolution 2250 on Youth, Peace and Security, adopted in 2015, highlights specific instances where youth participation and inclusion can occur, such as in civil and political engagement, humanitarian assistance, and civil society.83 This will help integrate and enable young individuals in decision processes and promote international peace and security.84 Most recently, through the unanimous adoption of resolution 2535 on 14 July 2020, the Security Council “underscored the role of youth in preventing and

70 UN DGC, Syria, 2020. 71 UN Security Council, Resolution 2504 (S/RES/2504 (2020)), 2020. 72 UN Security Council, Resolutions Adopted by the Security Council in 2020, 2020. 73 UN DGC, Mali, 2020. 74 UN Security Council, Resolution 2531 (S/RES/2531 (2020)), 2020. 75 Security Council Report, Women, Peace and Security: The Agenda at 20, 2020. 76 Ibid. 77 UN, Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Sexual Violence in Conflict, Statement of SRSG-SVC Pramila Patten Security Council Open Debate on Conflict-Related Sexual Violence “Turning Commitments into Compliance” Friday, 17 July 2020, 2020. 78 UN News, Wartime Sexual Violence a “Psychological Weapon”, Sets Back Cause of Peace, 2020. 79 Ibid. 80 UN Security Council, Resolution 2250 (2015) (S/Res/2250 (2015)), 2015. 81 Ibid. 82 UN Security Council, Resolution 2419 (2018) (S/RES/2419 (2018)), 2018. 83 UN Security Council, Resolution 2250 (2015) (S/Res/2250 (2015)), 2015. 84 Ibid.

resolving conflict, as well as in building and maintaining peace, encouraging Member States to include young people in decision-making processes across these areas”.85

In 2019, the Security Council adopted resolution 2482 (2019) on “threats to international peace and security caused by international terrorism and organized crime” and 2462 (2019) which outlined measures to suppress the financing of terrorism.86 Resolution 2482 called upon Member States to enhance coordination towards a global response to international terrorism and organized crime.87 The resolution also urges Member States to investigate and dismantle organized crime networks involved in trafficking, and to review and implement legislation on issues such as sexual and gender-based violence in armed conflict by ensuring that domestic laws and regulations are in line with Member States’ obligations under international law.88 Resolution 2462 calls for the UN Office of Counter-Terrorism (UNOCT) to play a leading role in identifying ways to suppress terrorist financing through expanding its focus and working closely with the Financial Action Task Force, an inter-governmental body that sets standards for combating money laundering and terrorist financing.89 The Secretary-General, in his tenth report (S/2020/95), provided updates about the threats posed by the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL or Da’esh) in February 2020 to urge Member States to assist in efforts to counter the threat to international security and peace.90

Conclusion

The Security Council is one of the main bodies of the UN that ensures international peace and security, overseeing the admission of new members to the UN General Assembly, and changes to the UN Charter.91 The Council also has a unique and impactful mandate to set norms and govern state actions, as all Member States are required to comply with the Security Council’s legally-binding decisions under Chapter VII of the Charter, the only UN body to have legally-binding decisions.92 The Council is the only UN body that has the ability to create legally binding decisions.93 Although the Security Council is first and foremost the primary UN entity responsible for the maintenance of international peace and security, the adoption of the post-2015 development agenda signaled the increasing need to also discuss the linkages between peace and security, and issues of human security and development.94 The Council has begun looking at the intersection between the SDGs and international peace and security, namely through discussion and debates on climate change.95 The Security Council also continues to address regional and country issues, as well as thematic issues, such as climate change, terrorism, and gender.96

85 UN, Meetings Coverage and Press Releases, Security Council Underlines Vital Role of Youth in Building Peace, Unanimously Adopting Resolution 2535 (2020), 2020. 86 UN Security Council, Highlights of Security Council Practice, 2019. 87 UN Security Council, Threats to International Peace and Security (S/RES/2482 (2019)), 2019. 88 Ibid. 89 UN Security Council, Threats to International Peace and Security Caused by Terrorist Acts: Preventing and Combating the Financing of Terrorism (S/RES/2462 (2019)), 2019. 90 UN Security Council, Tenth Report of the Secretary-General on the Threat posed by ISIL (Da’esh) to International Peace and Security and the Range of United Nations Efforts in Support of Member States in Countering the Threat (S/2020/95), 2020. 91 UN Security Council, What is the Security Council?, 2019. 92 Charter of the United Nations, 1945. 93 Ibid. 94 UN DPA Politically Speaking, Sustaining Peace, Conflict Prevention, Human Rights and Sustainable Development High on Agenda for New Security Council Members, 2018. 95 Mead, UN Security Council Addresses Climate Change as a Security Risk, 2019. 96 UN DGC, Fragile Countries Risk Being ‘Stuck in a Cycle of Conflict and Climate Disaster,’ Security Council Told, 2018.

Annotated Bibliography Charter of the United Nations. (1945). Retrieved 20 September 2020 from: http://www.un.org/en/charterunited-nations/index.html The Charter of the United Nations provides a thorough explanation on the powers, and functions authorized to the Security Council. For instance, the Charter outlines where the use of force is acceptable and how the council is structured to combat threats to international peace and security. As the fundamental principles of the Security Council are written down in the Charter, this document should be the first resource for delegates to consider. Article 27-32 of the Charter outlines the voting procedures of the committee and structure of how the committee conducts its business. Article 23, which sets the membership structure, and articles 23–26, which discuss its basic functions and powers, are important for understanding both the structure and function of the Security Council. In addition, articles 27–32 explain the Council’s voting procedure and its overall structure. The Charter can also be particularly helpful for delegates in understanding the powers and limitations of the body. Delegates will find Chapters VI and VII most helpful when researching the mandate of the Security Council and proposing actions and solutions.

United Nations Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs. (2018). Security Council Reporting and Mandate Cycles. Retrieved 20 September 2020 from: https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/sites/www.un.org.securitycouncil/files/general/reportingandmandatecyc les_122018.pdf Published by the UN Department of Political Affairs, this document provides information on the work and decisions of the Security Council, including resolutions and presidential statements. The document primarily consists of tables on items that have been discussed by the Security Council, various requests by the Security Council, and mandates of different entities and operations that report to the Council. This report will help delegates by providing succinct and clear information on the recent actions taken by the Security Council on its various thematic issues. Additionally, delegates may find the tables providing the actual clauses of different Security Council resolutions particularly helpful to their research.

United Nations, Security Council. (2019). Highlights of Security Council Practice. Retrieved on 20 September 2020 from: https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/content/highlights-2019 This article reviews the activities and resolutions passed of the Security Council during the last year. This is a useful recap of all the issues that the Security Council has addressed or currently still needs to resolve. The Security Council highlights for the previous years are also available. For a more detailed report, the Security Council also reports monthly updates. There are many charts and graphics depicting the activity of the Council within 2019, even detailing number of meetings, regional focuses, and decisions by geographical regions.

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I. Resource Scarcity and Its Relation to Conflict “A toxic combination of conflict, climate change and COVID-19, threatened to push 270 million people to the brink of starvation."97

Introduction

Resource scarcity is increasingly perceived as one of the greatest security risks of the 21st century.98 Scarce resources can result from environmental changes, environmental degradation or an increased demand for a given resource due to population changes.99 Resource scarcity can be both, the cause and the result, of humanitarian crises and often overlap with conflicts rooted in inequalities, poverty or other threats of livelihoods.100 This guide will focus on two main resources that are essential to meet basic human needs - food and water.

Food and water insecurity triggers violence and instability, particularly in contexts marked by pervasive inequalities and fragile institutions.101 For example, sudden spikes in food prices tend to exacerbate the risk of political unrest and conflict.102 Further, the mismanagement or unequal distributions of food and water resources can lead to a perception of scarcity, which can have an equally detrimental effect.103 Fighting between members of a given population in an attempt to gain a greater share of the resource that is perceived to be scarce may erupt.104 Moreover, that same group may incite a conflict against the group of people that they hold responsible for the mismanagement or unequal distribution of the resource.105 In general, increased demand that exceeds the supply of a natural resource will tend to increase tensions between user groups that are competing for their share of the resource.106

Food and water insecurity are also perpetuated during conflict settings by the disruption of vital infrastructure, blockage of transport chains, pushing up food and fuel prices and endangering the access to safe water sources.107 For example, violent actions such as the use of landmines by Houthi forces in Yemen do not only kill civilians but also leave agricultural land unusable and hinder the delivery of humanitarian aid.108 Additionally, conflict-induced displacement comes with great risk of malnutrition and poverty.109 This leaves refugees and displaced populations reliant on humanitarian aid and the support of hosting communities which often find themselves facing high levels of food insecurity or resource scarcity.110 On December 11, 2020, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees(UNHCR) spokesperson Babar Baloch reported a total of nearly 50,000 Ethiopian refugees who have crossed into eastern Sudan to avoid violence from armed troops.111 The state of Sudan is itself a country facing a longstanding food scarcity leaving Sudan’s population as severely food insecure caused through food price hikes.112

97 UN Security Council, Letter dated 23 April 2020 from the President of the Security Council addressed to the Secretary-General and the Permanent Representatives of the members of the Security Council (S/2020/340), Protecting civilians from conflict induced hunger, 2020. 98 Mildner, Resource Scarcity – A Global Security Threat?, 2011. 99 Koning, Resource-Conflict Links in Sierra Leone and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 2008. 100 Ibid. 101 FAO et al., The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2017, 2017. 102 Ibid. 103 Evans, Resource Scarcity, Climate Change, and the Risk of Violent Conflict, 2010. 104 Ibid. 105 Ibid. 106 Matthew, Resource Scarcity: Responding to the Security Challenge, 2008, p. 9. 107 FAO & IFPRI, FAO-IFPRI Joint Brief: Conflict, migration and food security, 2017. 108 Yemen: Houthi Landmines Kill Civilians, Block Aid, Human Rights Watch, 2019. 109 Matthew, Resource Scarcity: Responding to the Security Challenge, 2008, p. 9. 110 Ibid. 111 UNHCR, Babar Baloch, Press briefing, Palais des Nations, Geneva, December 11, 2020. 112 FAO & WFP, Monitoring food security in countries with conflict situations: A joint FAO/WFP update for the United Nations Security Council, 2019.

International and Regional Framework

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) (1948) is the primary document that outlines the basic rights all humans are entitled to.113 One of the first actions by UNHCR for displaced people is providing basic humanitarian needs as access to essential food, potable water, basic shelter, and essential medical services.114

Both food and water security are imbedded in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and its Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) adopted in 2015.115 SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) aims to end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.116 However, as stated in the Global Hunger Report 2020, the world is not on track to achieve this goal by 2030.117 If recent trends continue, the number of people affected by hunger would surpass 840 million by 2030.118 SDG 6 (Water and Sanitation) aims to ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.119 In particular, target 6.4 addresses the reduction of potential for conflict by ensuring sustainable withdrawals of water and increasing water-use efficiency, with the objective of reducing the number of people suffering from water scarcity.120

Over the coming decades, food and water security will mainly be influenced by the effects of climate change as highlighted in the statement by the president of the Security Council (S/PRST/2011/15) from 2011 on the implications of climate change in regards to security.121 Furthermore, a report from the General Assembly on “Climate change and its possible security implications”, shows how climate change can fundamentally impact the security of Member States and how the impacts of climate change multiply the potential for conflicts.122 The action of the United Nations (UN) which aim to address the causes and consequences of climate change were first formulated in the Kyoto Protocol in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change in 1997 and later renewed with the Paris Agreement in 2015.123 The latter demands to limit greenhouse gas emissions to levels that would prevent global temperatures from increasing more than 2°C (3.6°F) above the benchmark set before the beginning of the Industrial Revolution.124 Even if the goals of the Paris agreement will be met, the consequences of climate change are already causing migration and displacement.125

113 UN General Assembly, Universal Declaration of Human Rights (A/RES/217), 1948. 114 UNHCR, From Commitment to Action - Highlights of progress towards comprehensive refugee responses since the adoption of the New York Declaration, 2018. 115 UN General Assembly, Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (A/RES/70/1), 2015. 116 Ibid. 117 Von Grember et al., 2020 Global Hunger Index: One Decade to Zero Hunger: Linking Health and Sustainable Food Systems, 2020. 118 Ibid. 119 UN General Assembly, Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (A/RES/70/1), 2015. 120 Ibid. 121 UN Security Council, Statement by the President of the Security Council (S/PRST/2011/15), 2011. 122 UN General Assembly, Climate change and its possible security implications (A/64/350), 2009.

123 UNFCCC, Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 1997; COP 21, Paris Agreement, 2015. 124 Ibid. 125 Migrants in Countries in Crisis Initiative. Guidelines to Protect Migrants in Countries Experiencing Conflict or Natural Disaster, 2016.

Role of the International System

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the Security Council organized an Arria Formula Meeting at the Security Council in 2016.126 During this meeting, the relation between food security and peace was addressed.127 In 2017, the Global Report on Food Crises was launched, which is a periodic and specific joint report by FAO and the World Food Programme (WFP) to address the food insecurity situation in countries in conflict.128 In its first release the relation between the increase of acute food insecurity and the escalation of conflicts was underlined.129 The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2017 report highlighted that about 60% of people suffering from hunger were living in conflict contexts.130

Co-led by WFP and FAO, the global Food Security Cluster was established in 2011 to coordinate food security responses during humanitarian crises to support country-level operations.131 In October 2020, WFP was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize "for its efforts to combat hunger, for its contribution to bettering conditions for peace in conflict-affected areas and for acting as a driving force in efforts to prevent the use of hunger as a weapon of war and conflict."132 The WFP director emphasized that this award spotlights conflict, climate change and COVID-19 as drivers of a deepening global hunger crisis.133

In May 2018, the Security Council adopted resolution 2417(2018) which explicitly recognized the link between conflict and hunger and addressed the cycle of hunger in conflict-affected countries.134 This resolution furthermore underlined that conflict prevention is key to eradicate hunger and acknowledged the compounds of economic crises and severe weather events and natural disaster in conflict-induced food crises around the world.135 Additionally, it condemns starvation as a tool of war and calls all parties of armed conflict to comply with their obligation under International Humanitarian Law.136 This includes minimizing the impact of military actions on civilians, including on food production and distribution, and to allow humanitarian access in a safe and timely manner to civilians needing lifesaving food, nutritional and medical assistance.137 The Security Council reaffirmed this in 2020 by a presidential statement (S/PRST/2020/6) on conflict-induced hunger with an additional element on early warning systems.138 Additionally in April this year, a meeting was held on protecting civilians from conflict induced hunger.139 In September, Security Council members were briefed during a videoconference on conflict-induced food insecurity and the risk of famine (S/2020/930).140 Often people fleeing armed conflict lack essential needs such as water, food, health services and education, thus the African Union – United Nations Hybrid

126 UNHCR, Guidelines on International Protection No. 12: Claims for refugee status related to situations of armed conflict and violence under Article 1A(2) of the 1951 Convention and/or 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees and the regional refugee definitions, 2016. 127 Ibid. 128 FSIN, Global Report on Food Crisis 2017, 2017. 129 Ibid. 130 FAO et al., The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2017, 2017. 131 WFP, Global Food Security Cluster 2017-2019 Strategic Plan, 2017. 132 Nobel Prize Outreach, The Nobel Peace Prize 2020, 2020. 133 WFP awarded 2020 Nobel Peace Prize, WFP, 2020. 134 UN Security Council, The link between armed conflict and food insecurity (S/RES/2417), 2018. 135 Ibid. 136 Ibid. 137 Ibid. 138 UN Security Council, Presidential statement on conflict-induced hunger (S/PRST/2020/6) On 29 April 2020, 2020. 139 UN Security Council, Letter dated 23 April 2020 from the President of the Security Council addressed to the Secretary-General and the Permanent Representatives of the members of the Security Council (S/2020/340), Protecting civilians from conflict induced hunger, 2020. 140 UN Security Council, Letter dated 21 September 2020 from the President of the Security Council addressed to the Secretary-General and the Permanent Representatives of the members of the Security Council: protection of civilians in armed conflict (S/2020/930), 2020.

Operation in Darfur (UNAMID), a peacekeeping mission, provides drinking water to Internally Displaced Persons in Central Darfur.141

UN Secretary General António Guterres underlines that „we have the tools and the know-how. What we need is political will and sustained commitment by leaders and nations.”142 In the light of the ongoing pandemic, the UN Secretary General urged for a global ceasefire earlier this year.143 This was reaffirmed by Security Council resolution (S/RES/2532(2020)) demanding a 90-day “humanitarian pause” in conflicts worldwide to allow states to respond to the COVID-19 crises.144

Food Scarcity as Cause and Consequence of Conflicts

According to WFP, the number of chronically hungry people worldwide hit 821 million in 2018, up from 777 million just three years before.145 In 2020, approximately two thirds of the 113 million people facing acute hunger in the world are located in 21 countries affected by conflict and insecurity and ten out of 13 of the world’s main food crises are driven by conflict.146 As a consequence, nearly all of the biggest emergency operations of WFP are located in conflict zones.147

Conflict, violent actions, and insecurity are causing hunger and the world’s main food crises.148 This is a self-enforcing process where war leads to greater food insecurity and food insecurity increases the chances of unrest and violence.149 Persistent hunger creates the kind of instability that leads to more conflict.150 In conjunction with poverty, food insecurity may increase the likelihood and intensity of armed conflict.151 Food production and transport through areas in armed conflicts is impaired and conflicts often result in large displacements.152 In contrast, food security leads to fewer community tensions, less violent extremism and more mutual co-operation.153

Food insecurity can result from inadequate access to land, water, livestock, agricultural inputs, price spikes and is among the push factors leading to migration and displacement, then called “survival migration.”154 According to the WFP report 2017, migrants from Bangladesh and East and West Africa report food insecurity and economic vulnerability as key drivers for outward migration.155 High food prices and food shortages were equally reported by Venezuelans fleeing to Colombia, Peru and Ecuador.156 In contrast, Syrians and Afghans claim that a lack of safety and security as well as sustained conflict triggered their migration.157

141 UN DPO, UNAMID Fact Sheet, 2020. 142 FSIN, 2020 Global Report on Food Crises, 2020. 143 UN Secretary-General, Appeal broadcast on virtual press conference on Global Ceasefire (SG/SM/20032), 2020. 144 UN Security Council, Maintenance of international peace and security (S/RES/2532 (2020)), 2020. 145 WFP, Fact Sheet: Hunger & conflict, 2019.

146 FSIN, 2020 Global Report on Food Crises, 2020. 147 Ibid. 148 Ibid. 149 Ibid. 150 Ibid. 151 Holleman et al., Sowing the seeds of peace for food security: Disentangling the nexus between conflict, food security and peace, 2017. 152 Ibid. 153 FSIN, 2020 Global Report on Food Crises, 2020. 154 FAO, The State of Food and Agriculture 2018 - Migration, Agriculture and Rural Development, 2018. 155 FSIN, Global Report on Food Crisis 2017, 2017. 156 Ibid. 157 Ibid.

To monitor food security situations around the world the Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC), a set of standardized tools that aims at providing a "common currency" for classifying the severity and magnitude of food insecurity, is used.158 The joint FAO and WFP early warning analysis of acute food insecurity hotspots published in November 2020 states that between 101 and 104.6 million people are facing a food crisis or emergency (IPC/CH Phase 3 or above).159 One key finding of the report was the expansion and intensification of violence, following displacement of civilians and disruption of food systems and markets, is likely to drive more people into high acute food insecurity. As an example, due to violence, in Cameroon the number of people in high acute food insecurity (IPC Phase 3 and above) has doubled from last year reaching 2.1 million between June and August 2020.160 The report highlights especially the devastating effects on the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic on food insecurity and that 55 countries were at risk of famines.161

Food Security during COVID-19 Pandemic Six months after WHO has declared COVID-19 a pandemic, the indirect socio‐economic consequences of the efforts to contain the spread of SARS-CoV-2 are aggravating food security and nutrition situation for millions worldwide in a multi-faceted way.162 The Global Report on Food Crisis September Update in Times of COVID‐19 provides acute food insecurity data for 26 countries.163

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic will be devasting in post-fragile, crisis and post-crises environments.164 Especially supply chains for health supplies and humanitarian aid providers were affected by the disruption of movement of goods and people, including the suspension of flights and maritime traffic, export restrictions, and border closures, among others.165 In settings with high-level food insecurity, epidemic preparedness is often lower and morbidity is higher due to malnourishment resulting in higher mortality rates.166 This became evident during the 2014 West African Ebola outbreak, where the epidemic related agricultural labor shortages, led to more than 40 per cent of agricultural land not being cultivated.167 Additionally, the above mentioned trade restrictions are hindering food transportation due to interference with global food industrial and supply chains which results in the increase of food prices.168 For example, in South Sudan, ongoing violence, flooding, COVID-19 and access impediments, led to food insecurity reaching the highest levels recorded in South Sudan since 2014.169

The direct health impacts are negatively affecting poor households the most, since sick or quarantining members have limited ability to engage in productive activities and infected households may face increased expenditure on health, resulting in fewer resources to purchase food and loss of working force.170 WFP executive director David Beasley recalls that as the world was dealing with the COVID-19

158 FAO, Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC). 159 FSIN, 2020 Global Report on Food Crises, 2020. 160 Ibid. 161 Ibid. 162COVID-19 pandemic drives global increase in humanitarian food assistance needs: Labor migration restrictions limit seasonal income earning opportunities and crop production potential, Famine Early Warning System Network, 2020. 163 FSIN, 2020 Global Report on Food Crises, 2020. 164 OCHA, Global Humanitarian Response Plan for COVID-19, 2020. 165 Ibid. 166 Ibid. 167 Ibid. 168 UN Security Council, Letter dated 23 April 2020 from the President of the Security Council addressed to the Secretary-General and the Permanent Representatives of the members of the Security Council (S/2020/340), Protecting civilians from conflict induced hunger, 2020. 169 Ibid. 170 HLPE, Impacts of COVID-19 on food security and nutrition: developing effective policy responses to address the hunger and malnutrition pandemic, 2020.

pandemic, it was also "on the brink of a hunger pandemic" that could lead to "multiple famines of biblical proportions" within a few months if immediate action was not taken.171

Water Scarcity as Cause and Consequence of Conflicts

Water is an essential element in promoting socio-economic development.172 FAO notes that water scarcity arises from the “imbalances between availability and demand, the degradation of groundwater and surface water quality, intersectoral competition, interregional and international conflicts.”173 The lack of available freshwater disproportionately affects impoverished people in both urban and rural areas.174 Furthermore, people in poverty pay an estimated “five to ten times more per unit of water than do people with access to piped water.”175

A lack of freshwater has a negative impact on nearly every facet of development and well-being, including agricultural output.176 A reduction in agricultural output due to a lack of freshwater increases the likelihood of famine while placing an economic strain on those populations whose livelihoods are dependent on the export of agricultural products.177

Freshwater resources face increasing competition due to rising demographic pressure and ongoing economic development.178 Climate change is exacerbating the problem further according to an Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report which laid out that if emissions continue on their current trajectory and global temperatures rise above 1.5°C (2.7°F), 200 million more people will be exposed to increased water scarcity and more severe floods and droughts.179 The tremendous impact of climate change on the availability of water was further stressed in the novel United Nations World Water Development Report 2020:Water and Climate Change.180

Rising competition for water and the effects of climate change are leading to tensions and conflicts among stakeholders, thereby exacerbating inequalities in access to water, especially for vulnerable populations, including the rural poor, women and indigenous populations.181 Rising demand from agriculture and other sectors is leading to competition for scarce freshwater, increasing the risk of conflict among local farmers and other water users up to the international level in the form of transborder conflicts.182 Less-formal sectors such as fisheries are frequently forgotten, partly because it is difficult to demonstrate their true economic value and their ability to compete with economically powerful stakeholders such as energy and irrigation.183 However, the reality of scarce water resources can be a cause for cooperation if the right legal instruments are put in to place to allow for innovative strategies to be undertaken in order to alleviate the issue.184 Various water allocation agreements, such as the Nile Waters Treaty and the Israeli-Palestinian Water Accords, can and have been reached, even under the tensest of circumstances.185

171 UN Security Council, Letter dated 23 April 2020 from the President of the Security Council addressed to the Secretary-General and the Permanent Representatives of the members of the Security Council (S/2020/340), Protecting civilians from conflict induced hunger, 2020. 172 UNESCO, UN World Water Development Report 2020: Water and Climate Change, 2020, pp. 4-12. 173 FAO, Water Scarcity, 2020. 174 UN Security Council, Energy, Climate and Natural Resources, 2020. 175 Ibid. 176 Ibid. 177 Ibid. 178 FAO, SDG 6 – Indicators of water use efficiency and water stress, 2020. 179 Bapna et al., UN Security Council Examines the Connection Between Water Risk and Political Conflict, 2018. 180 UNESCO, United Nations World Water Development Report 2020: Water and Climate Change, 2020. 181 FAO, The State of Food and Agriculture 2020: Overcoming water challenges in agriculture, 2020. 182 Ibid. 183 Ibid. 184 UN-Water, UN World Water Development Report 2020: Water and Climate Change, pp. 4-12. 185 FAO, Coping with Water Scarcity, Challenge of the Twenty-First Century, 2007.

Case Study: Humanitarian Crisis in Ethiopia and Sudan

The conflict situation in the northern Tigray region in Ethiopia leaves nine million people living in and around Tigray at “high risk” from the conflict.186 Over 40,000 Ethiopians have fled the Tigray crisis into eastern Sudan, a country itself heavily affected by multiple natural and human-made disaster situations.187

Ethiopia is, after Nigeria, the second most populated country on the African continent.188 The Ethiopian population is constituted about around 80 ethnolinguistic groups, where the Oromo, Amhara, Somali and Tigrayans are the largest.189 The country was the largest economy (by GDP) in East Africa in 2010.190 In 2018 the former Ethiopian prime minster Abiy Ahmed Ali was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize "for his efforts to achieve peace and international cooperation, and in particular for his decisive initiative to resolve the border conflict with neighboring Eritrea."191

However, Ethiopia remains one of the world's poorest countries struggling with poverty, hunger, corruption, and limited access to health and education with large inter-regional differences.192 Continued intercommunal violence as well as clashes between government forces and unidentified armed groups in rural areas persisted, driving internal displacement, disrupting livelihood activities and distorting food market systems and prices.193 Fighting started in early November 2020 between Tigray regional forces (Tigray People's Liberation Front) and the government.194 Violence, worsened by ethnic tensions, affected local communities and refugees and resulted in the displacement of thousands of people.195 Many communities continue to be affected by unresolved historical tensions and grievances over resources, mainly land and water, as well as political, administrative and social rights196.

This year, one of the worst desert locust upsurge in decades is spreading across East Africa especially affecting Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, Uganda and Kenya.197 The upsurge began in the Arabian Peninsula in 2018 after successive cyclones led to favorable breeding conditions, and ongoing conflict in Yemen limited pest control operations.198 Crop and pasture losses had generally been minimal in Ethiopia, Kenya, and Somalia with the exception of northern and south-eastern Tigray, north-eastern Amhara, and eastern Oromia regions in Ethiopia.199

The eastern African region is furthermore troubled through water scarcity.200 A below-average rainy season is forecasted mainly over parts of Burundi, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Tanzania and Uganda which is likely to affect secondary-season cereal crops to be harvested from February 2021.201 The Nile River is the major source of water and energy for Ethiopia. The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Damn on the Blue Nile River project, a massive hydroelectric dam on the Blue Nile that has caused tensions with

186 UN OCHA, Ethiopia - Tigray Region Humanitarian Update, 2020. 187 Emptaz, As refugee numbers surge, Ethiopians seek word of loved ones, 2020. 188 Ibid. 189 Ibid. 190 Ibid. 191 Nobel Prize Outreach, The Nobel Peace Prize 2020, 2020. 192 UNDP, Ethiopia - Human Development Indicators, 2020. 193 ReliefWeb, Ethiopia IPC Acute Food Insecurity Analysis July 2019 – June 2020, 2019. 194 Mules, Ethiopia: A timeline of the Tigray crisis, 2020. 195 ReliefWeb, Ethiopia IPC Acute Food Insecurity Analysis July 2019 – June 2020, 2019. 196 Ibid. 197 FAO & WFP, FAO-WFP Early Warning Analysis of Acute Food Insecurity Hotspots - October 2020, 2020. 198 Ibid. 199 Ibid. 200 Ibid. 201 Ibid.

downstream Nile states, such as Egypt which fears the lowering of the Nile water.202 Egypt, Sudan and Ethiopia have been negotiating for years over the damn project without reaching a deal.203 While such large-scale water development projects can be successful in promoting socio-economic development, they also cause development-induced displacement and resettlement which is related to the realization of developmental projects such as hydroelectrical power plants, agricultural projects, mining, industrial plants, infrastructure and conservation projects.204 People affected are often confronted with the loss of livelihood and impoverishment and therefore facing similar experiences to refugees in terms of economic and social loss.205

UNHCR is currently working with local authorities and other partners to scale up humanitarian responses to assist Ethiopian refugees.206 The UN jointly called for all parties to allow freedom of movement to affected civilians seeking assistance, safety, and security within the Tigray region or outside the affected areas.207 On December 9, 2020, the UN agreed with the Ethiopian Government to start a full humanitarian mission across areas now under its control in the northeastern area mission including support from the WFP and WHO.208

Conclusion

While conflict can arise for any number of reasons, its eruption as a result of resource scarcity can be particularly dangerous.209 Populations that enter into conflict as a result of scarce resources will generally continue to lack access to necessary basic resources such access to food and water.210 If they are not successful in attaining their goals in the conflict, they may find themselves further marginalized and worse off than before.211 Thus, the United Nations, especially the WFP and the UNHCR support governments with humanitarian aid missions to care for displaced people. Additionally, the FAO and UN peacekeeping missions aim to lower the risk of food and water scarcity in the first place and in post-conflict situations. Involvement by the Security Council, especially in the form of targeted and effective action, at every step of a conflict arising from resource scarcity may be necessary to facilitate transitions from conflict to peace in areas found to be either lacking in or mismanaging basic resources.212

Further Research

Moving forward, delegates should consider questions such as: Is the threat of conflict from climate change and resource scarcity at a level that justifies increased attention by the Security Council to this issue? In what ways has the Security Council addressed climate change and its potential consequences regarding resource scarcity to past and current conflicts? What measures can the Security Council take to prevent famine in 2021 as the COVID-19 pandemic continues unabated? How can the Security Council reinforce the call for global ceasefire in light of a global pandemic? How can the Security Council ameliorate the current situation of Ethiopian refugees?

202 Egypt: Ethiopia rejecting ‘fundamental issues’ on Nile dam, Aljazeera Media Network, 2020. 203 Ibid. 204 IMDC, Development-induced displacement, 2020. 205 Ibid. 206 UNHCR, Babar Baloch, Press briefing, Palais des Nations, Geneva, December 11, 2020, 2020. 207 Ibid. 208 UN News, UN working at ‘full speed’ to prepare for humanitarian mission to Ethiopia’s Tigray, 2020. 209 Gendron & Hoffman, Peace and Conflict Review, 2009, p. 2. 210 Ibid. 211 Ibid. 212 Ibid.

Annotated Bibliography Food and Agriculture Organization. (2020). Water Scarcity. Retrieved 16 November 2020 from: http://www.fao.org/land-water/water/water-scarcity/en/ This report provides an overview of water scarcity and its relation to violent conflict. The authors call for a multi-faceted approach to alleviating the problem of water scarcity while nothing that integration (within multiple sectors) is the only way to move forward to solve this issue. With the great impact water scarcity has on reducing quality of life for vulnerable populations, by reducing the availability of already scarce resources such as food.

Food Security Information Network. (2020). 2020 Global Report on Food Crises September Update: In Times of COVID‐19. Retrieved 29 November 2020 from: https://www.fsinplatform.org/sites/default/files/resources/files/GRFC2020_September%20Update_0.pdf

For the last four years, the Global Report on Food Crises (GRFC) has provided an annual, consensus‐based overview of the severity, magnitude and drivers of the world’s food crises. This report highlights the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the global food crisis and provides country and region-specific information about the current food security classifications. The Food Security Information Network, founded by FAO, IFPRI and WFP, is a technical global platform for the exchange of expertise, knowledge and best practice among a network of food security and nutrition practitioners.

Migrants in Countries in Crisis Initiative. (2016). Guidelines to Protect Migrants in Countries Experiencing Conflict or Natural Disaster. Retrieved 22 August 2017 from: https://micicinitiative.iom.int/sites/default/files/document/micic_guidelines_english_web_13_09_2016.pdf These guidelines were created by a state-led initiative of the United States and the Philippines and assisted by a working group comprised of various governments and organizations including the International Organization for Migration. This document gives a step-by-step guide on how various different actors should address the needs of migrants affected by natural disasters. The document also describes many practices that could be implemented to help facilitate climate migration such as the consolidation of databases on cross-border movements, which may help delegates as they outline solutions and strategies on this issue.

Security Council Report. (2020). Energy, Climate and Natural Resources. Retrieved 20 November 2020 from: https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/energy-climate-and-natural-resources/ This website provides an overview of Security Council actions concerning natural resources and conflict up until 2020. The NGO carefully follows various topics as they progress each year within the Security Council. This particular page provides links to key documents relating to the resource scarcity and additional sources that delegates may find useful in their research. The summarized overview of the Security Council’s work on the topic is helpful in understanding the direction that has been taken regarding natural resources, resource scarcity, and conflict.

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (2020). 2020: United Nations World Water Development Report 2020: Water and Climate Change. Retrieved 6 December 2020 from: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000372985.locale=en The 2020 World Water Development Report concludes that reducing both the impacts and drivers of climate change will require substantial changes in the way we use and reuse the Earth’s limited water resources. The experience and expertise needed to achieve this goal are brought together in the report by UN-Water members and partners. Water can support efforts to both mitigate and adapt to climate change. Wetland protection, conservation agriculture and other nature-based solutions can help to sequester carbon in biomass and soils. Improved wastewater treatment can help reduce greenhouse gas emissions and produce biogas as a source of renewable energy.

Bibliography Bapna, M. et al. (2018, November 5). UN Security Council Examines the Connection Between Water Risk and Political Conflict. World Resources Institute. Retrieved 6 December 2020 from: https://www.wri.org/blog/2018/11/un-security-council-examines-connection-between-water-risk-and- political-conflict

Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. (1997). Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Retrieved 20 November 2020 from: http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/kpeng.pdf

Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Twenty-first session. (2015). Paris Agreement. Retrieved 20 November 2020 from: http://unfccc.int/files/essential_background/convention/application/pdf/english_ paris_agreement.pdf

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II. The Situation in Yemen “Yemen is the largest humanitarian crisis in the world, with more than 24 million people – some 80 per cent of the population – in need of humanitarian assistance, including more than 12 million children.”213

Introduction

Yemen, a small State on the southern tip of the Arabian Peninsula, was one of the many Middle Eastern countries to undergo the Arab Spring which began in 2011.214 The Arab Spring is a political movement that began in Tunisia, where the citizens of various Middle Eastern and North African (MENA) countries cited poor economic conditions, lack of employment and professional opportunities and rampant government corruption, and demanded the ousting of many long standing leaders from their respective countries.215 Yemen, which is amongst the poorest countries in the world, was no exception, and in January 2011, Yemenis began the long struggle for change and marched in the Capital of Sana’a demanding for their leader of thirty years, Ali Abdullah Saleh, to step down.216

After a year of unrest and violence, Saleh resigned due to the domestic and international pressure and was replaced by a transitional government led by his former vice president Abderabbu Mansour al- Hadi.217 Despite a seemingly orderly transition, the resignation of Yemen’s longstanding leader created a large vacuum in the Yemeni political system, which resulted in many national and regional parties jockeying for power and influence of the country.218 In 2014, the balance of power was fundamentally shifted when Houthi Rebels, a Shiite minority with strong opposition to the transitional government, violently took control of the capital.219 This chain of events resulted in the creation, in 2015, of a military coalition of Arab States led by Saudi Arabia that intervened on behalf of the internationally recognized Yemeni government by means of air strikes, blockades, ground troops and alliances with local groups — all of which dramatically increased the level of violence within the country.220

To this day, the country remains enveloped in a violent civil war with no immediate end in sight.221 Additionally, Yemen is locked in the midst of a proxy war that is being fought on its soil by powers vying for influence within the region.222 According to recent published data, 75% of the Yemeni population requires some form of assistance, 1.1 million people have gotten cholera and 15 million Yemenis are at risk of starvation.223 All of this has amounted to what the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Human Affairs (OCHA) has called the worst humanitarian crisis (known as a series of events that pose a dire threat to the general well-being, safety and security of a large group of people within a specified area) in the world.224

International and Regional Framework

With the situation in Yemen nearing a decade since the initial unrest, the international community has come together numerous times with the intention of attempting to resolve the crisis.225 The first such instance occurred in 2011, shortly after the political demonstrations that began in Yemen’s Arab Spring called for the resignation of Ali Abdullah Saleh.226 Yemen’s Gulf neighbors, whose populations largely did

213 UNICEF, Yemen Crisis, 2020. 214 Cornell University, Arab Spring: A Research and Study Guide: Yemen, 2019. 215 Encyclopedia Britannica, Arab Spring: Pro-Democracy Protests, 2019. 216 Timeline: Yemen’s Slide into Political Crisis and War, Reuters, 2019. 217 United Nations Foundation, Yemen: A Brief Background, 2019. 218 Yemen Crisis: Why is There a War, BBC, 2019. 219 Houthi Rebels Take Near-Total Control of Sana’a, Al Arabiya, 2014. 220 Yemen Profile-Timeline, BBC, 2019. 221 Amnesty International, Yemen War: No End in Sight, 24 March 2020. 222 Yemen Crisis: Why is there a War, BBC, 2019. 223 USA for UNHCR, Yemen Humanitarian Crisis, 2019. 224 UNDGC, Humanitarian Crisis in Yemen Remains the Worst in the World, Warns UN, 2019. 225 UNDGC, United Nations in Yemen: What We Do, 2019. 226 Yemen Profile-Timeline, BBC, 2019.

not participate in the political upheavals within the region, wished for the situation in Yemen to resolve quickly and peacefully, especially so that the unrest would not spread to their own borders.227 The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), a political and economic alliance and forum for the Gulf Arab States on the Arabian Peninsula, met in 2011 and pressured Saleh to step down as Yemen’s leader.228 Additionally, a road map called the Agreement on the Implementation Mechanism for the Transition Process in Yemen in Accordance with the Initiative of the Gulf Cooperation Council, known as the GCC Initiative, was created to aid in the political transition of power in Yemen.229 This initiative was a six-part framework that defined the transition period, staged the transition into two parts, and created a mechanism to resolve disputes.230 The GCC Initiative would see Saleh resign as president and for Al-Hadi, the Vice President at the time to lead a transitional unity government in the interim until presidential elections could be organized. Following presidential elections, a new constitution would be drafted with the input of all the parties involved thereby ending the conflict and peacefully transitioning Yemen into a new form of governance.231

The GCC Initiative served as a good theoretical transition framework, however, many parties in Yemen remained skeptical that Saleh’s vice president would deliver the change they demanded.232 Despite the plan, violence within Yemen continued to skyrocket and the transitional, internationally recognized government was forced to flee to the port city of Aden in southern Yemen when Houthi Rebels successfully captured the nation’s capital.233 The focus on the international community therefore pivoted from nation building to resolving the armed conflict, an area that the Security Council has been playing a leading role in.234 Due to the escalation in violence and the capture of the capital by rebels, the Security Council unanimously adopted Resolution 2140 (2014) under Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations (1948).235 This landmark resolution, which has served as the basis of the international community’s policy towards Yemen, calls upon the implementation of a political transition by all parties as laid out in the GCC Initiative, encourages the continued political participation of women and youth groups during the transition period, expresses concerns over the increased recruitment of children as soldiers and condemns terrorist actions in Yemen by groups such as Al Qaeda.236 The resolution also instituted a travel ban and assets freeze of designated individuals determined by the newly established Security Council Sanctions Committee (2014) who pose a threat to the stability and peace of Yemen.237 Additionally, the council requested the Secretary-General to establish a panel in consultation with the committee of up to four experts that would aid, analyze, report and support the sanctions committee in their efforts to implement the travel ban and assets freeze.238 The mandate set forth within this resolution has subsequently been extended and remains an active part of the international community efforts in aiming to resolve the matter.239

Despite all of these efforts, the civil war in Yemen continues to drag on, with the warring parties having reached a stalemate.240 Due to the precarious conditions faced by civilians within the country, the United Nations (UN) and the international community have urged the parties to negotiate a ceasefire agreement.241 In 2018, discussions between the two groups were held in Sweden and the Stockholm

227 Yadav & Carapico, The Breakdown of the GCC Initiative, 2014. 228 What is the GCC, Al Jazeera, 2017. 229 GCC, Agreement on the Implementation Mechanism for the Transition Process in Yemen in Accordance With the Initiative of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), 2011. 230 Ibid. 231 Ibid. 232 Yadav & Carapico, The Breakdown of the GCC Initiative, 2014. 233 Carapico, Yemen on the Brink as the Gulf Co-Operation Council Initiative Fails, 2015. 234 UN OSESGY, Security Council Resolutions, 2019. 235 UN DGC, Security Council Adopts Resolution 2140 (2014), Welcoming Yemen’s Peaceful Transition Towards New Constitution, General Elections, 2014. 236 UN Security Council, The Situation in the Middle East (S/RES/2140 (2014)), 2014. 237 Ibid. 238 Ibid. 239 UN OSESGY, Security Council Resolutions, 2019. 240 Timeline: Yemen’s Slide Into Political Crisis and War, Reuters, 2019. 241 UN OSESGY, News: Full Text of Stockholm Agreement, 2018.

Agreement was reached.242 It aims for a ceasefire in key Yemeni ports and the creation of a humanitarian corridor so that the basic needs of the Yemeni civilians can be addressed.243 While the agreement did not resolve the impasse, the hope of the ceasefire was to prevent the situation from getting any worse.244 The international community has supported the Stockholm Agreement and is actively working to ensure that the two parties are upholding their ends of the document.245 However, with continued bouts of violence, keeping the peace and alleviating the humanitarian suffering remains a challenge.246

In August 2019, fighting broke out amongst allies fighting the Houthi Rebels, the Southern Transitional Center (STC) turning their back on Hadi’s Government and pushing for self-rule, resulting in what has been called “a civil war within a civil war”.247 In November 2019, the parties signed the Riyadh Agreement, which foresees a shared Government of the two parties and wishes to establish a united front against the Houthi rebels.248 This agreement has had trouble with implementation, the STC proclaiming self-rule in April 2020.249 They rescinded their claims in July 2020, but a full implementation of the Riyadh Agreement has yet to be reached.250

Role of the International System

Since the start of the conflict, several entities of the UN and a number of other parties have remained engaged on a plethora of issues related to the situation in Yemen including: security, the humanitarian crisis, human rights, and the plight of children.251 The Security Council, which established the aforementioned sanctions committee, also adopted resolution 2216 (2015) on “The Situation in the Middle East” which created an arms embargo, limiting the sale and transfer of weapons to designated individuals and groups.252 The Security Council has also extended the mandates related to the asset and travel bans as well as the arms embargos through the years as seen in resolutions 2266 (2016), 2342 (2017), and 2402 (2018).253 In 2018, when the two parties agreed upon the Stockholm Agreement, the Council adopted resolution 2452 (2019) on “The Situation in the Middle East” which created a special political mission that would oversee the implementation of the agreement.254 In resolution 2481 (2019), the Council extended the mandate of the mission to further ensure that the ceasefire agreement is upheld.255

In response to resolution 2216, in 2015, the internationally recognized Al Hadi government requested the aid of the UN in verifying the contents of ships that would enter Yemeni ports that were not under its direct control.256 Under the UN Office for Projects Services (UNOPS), the UN Verification and Inspection Mechanism for Yemen (UNVIM) was created.257 The mechanism allows for the unhindered flow of goods for those commercial vessels that have received a clearance of their cargos destined for Yemen.258 Based in Djibouti, UNVIM reviews applications for clearance and periodically checks the cargos of

242 UN OSESGY, News: Full Text of Stockholm Agreement, 2018. 243 Ibid. 244 Salisbury, What Does the Stockholm Agreement Mean for Yemen?, 2018. 245 UN OSEGY, A Year after the Stockholm Agreement: Where are we now?, 2019. 246 UN OCHA, ReliefWeb, One Year Since Stockholm Agreement, Hodeidah Still Most Dangerous Place in Yemen for Civilians, 2019. 247 UN News, Yemen agreement to end southern power struggle “important step” towards peace: UN Special Envoy, 2019; Al Jazeera, Yemen’s Riyadh Agreement: An Overview, 2020. 248 UN News, Yemen agreement to end southern power struggle “important step” towards peace: UN Special Envoy, 2019; Embassy of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, The Riyadh Agreement, 2020. 249 Al Jazeera, Yemen’s Riyadh Agreement: An Overview, 2020. 250 Ibid. 251 United Nations, United Nations in Yemen: About Us, 2019. 252 UN Security Council, The Situation in the Middle East (S/RES/2216(2015)), 2015. 253 UN OSESGY, Security Council Resolutions, 2019. 254 UN Security Council, The Situation in the Middle East (S/RES/2452(2019)), 2019. 255 Ibid. 256 UNVIM, United Nations Verification & Inspection Mechanism for Yemen, 2019. 257 Ibid. 258 Ibid.

suspicious vessels that applied for clearance.259 The mechanism seeks to deter the flow of various sanctioned goods, arms and people defined by the Council.260

Additionally, the office of the Secretary-General has made Yemen a priority, and has been supporting the political transition in Yemen as early as 2012, when it created the Special Envoy to Yemen as requested by the Security Council in resolution 2014 (2011) on “The Middle East”.261 The Secretary-General also reports on the situation in Yemen and provides timely updates as requested by the council.262 Recent reports published regard to children and armed conflict, as well as the implementation of Security Council resolution 2451 (2018) on “The Situation in the Middle East”, and the humanitarian crisis caused by the ongoing internal conflict.263 In 2018, the Secretary-General appointed Martin Griffiths, the new Special Envoy to Yemen, who continues their office’s commitment of negotiating with the various political groups in order to establish a lasting peace to the Yemeni crisis.264 The special envoy delivers monthly briefings, which relate to many facets of the situation in Yemen including status updates of various regions within the country, the humanitarian situation, significant events such as the releasing of detainees and involvement of civil society organizations (CSOs) such as the International Committee of the Red Cross.265 In addition to the Secretary-General and the Security Council, numerous UN entities are working to resolve the humanitarian impact that the situation in Yemen has created.266 The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), which has noted the dire emergency Yemeni children face, has scaled up projects throughout the country to include more initiatives that promote maternal health and lower child and infant mortality.267 Additionally, UNICEF is working to improve access to nutritious food and clean, safe drinking water, as well as advocating for the end of recruitment of child soldiers.268The United Nations Human Rights Council (HRC) has been engaged in addressing human rights violations that are occurring, and in 2017 adopted resolution 36/31 that established a group of international and regional eminent experts on Yemen.269 This panel monitors and reports human rights violations, reviews alleged violations, identifies those responsible for committing violations and provides recommendations related to access to justice, accountability, reconciliation and other areas that would improve human rights within the country.270

The Arab League, one of the region’s main political forums, held a summit in 2015 to discuss the situations in Yemen, Libya, Syria as well as terrorism within the region.271 The summit’s final communiqué called for the establishment of a joint military force formed by Arab Member States to address some of the region’s main problems related to terrorism and civil unrest.272 Arab leaders also supported the military intervention in Yemen led by Saudi Arabia, and hoped that such intervention would restore the legitimate government and have demanded that Houthi rebels withdraw from the nation’s capital.273 The creation of a joint military force was realized when, in November 2018, Egypt, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, Kuwait and Jordan held their first joint military exercise in Egypt known as Arab Shield.274 The Sultanate of Oman, a Gulf State that shares a southwestern border with Yemen, has sought to restore peace and presented a plan to Iran and Saudi Arabia known as the Omani Initiative.275 The seven point

259 UNVIM, About UNVIM, 2019. 260 Ibid. 261 UN DPPA, Special Envoy Yemen, 2019. 262 Ibid. 263 Security Council Report, UN Documents for Yemen, 2019. 264 UN DPPA, Special Envoy Yemen, 2019. 265 UN OSESGY, Briefing of the Special Envoy of the UN Secretary-General for Yemen to the Open Session of the Security Council, 2019. 266 United Nations, United Nations in Yemen: About Us, 2019. 267 UNICEF, Falling Through the Cracks: The Children of Yemen, 2017. 268 Ibid. 269 UN HRC, Human Rights, Technical Assistance and Capacity-Building in Yemen (A/HRC/RES/36/31), 2017. 270 UN HRC, Group of Eminent Experts on Yemen, 2019. 271 Arab League, Final Communiqué of the 26th Arab League Summit, 2015. 272 Ibid. 273 Ibid. 274 Hendawi, Forces from Egypt and 5 Other Nations to Start ‘Arab Shield’ Joint Military Exercise, 2018. 275 Oman Offers Seven-Point Peace Plan for Yemen, The New Arab, 2015.

plan aimed to end the standoff in Yemen by creating a compromise that would have seen Houthi rebels withdraw from the capital, early parliamentary and presidential elections, conversion of some minority groups into legitimate political parties and Yemen being admitted into the GCC.276 However, due to the continued civil war and resistance by the rival factions, the plan did not get off the ground.277

The Humanitarian Crisis

As the civil war and political upheaval in Yemen continues to drag on, no other group has been more adversely affected than that of civilians.278 The UN estimates that approximately 80% of the population is in need of some form of assistance, and that the number of those in need continues to grow.279 Over three million people have been displaced and there have been at least 17,700 verifiable civilians deaths since 2015.280 Three million girls and women are at risk of violence annually.281 Two thirds of the country’s population, about 20 million people, is considered to be food insecure, and half of those are considered to be suffering from extreme hunger.282 UNICEF estimates that half a million children under the age of five are severely malnourished and the conditions children face are considered the most challenging in the world.283

The war has also devastated an already fragile economy, with the World Bank reporting a 39% contraction in the GDP since the end of 2014.284 It is estimated that 75% of the population live under US $3.20 a day, and that half live under a US $1.00 a day.285 Infrastructure, which was limited before the conflict began, has been largely destroyed, thereby compounding the humanitarian crisis by making the delivery of basic human services even more challenging.286 Political groups have also been blocking vital aid from entering the country by means such as diverting fuel tankers, closing ports, limiting movement of aid workers and agencies, and confiscating food and medical supplies.287 Due to this lack of infrastructure, as well as collapsing healthcare systems, the incidence of disease, especially cholera, has exploded.288 The World Health Organization (WHO) has reported that there have been over 650,000 cholera cases over the past year and a half with over a quarter of those affected being children.289 These deteriorating humanitarian conditions and the situation in Yemen as a whole directly challenge the achievement of almost all of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) including but not limited to: eradicating poverty, zero hunger, good health, clean water, quality education and peace.290 In its Assessing the Impact of War on Development in Yemen report released in April 2019, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has reported that the conflict in Yemen has significantly set back development and currently estimates the setback to be 21 years.291 UNDP further estimates that should the conflict resolve by 2022 the setback would be a full generation (approximately 26 years) and if the conflict resolves by 2030 the development setback would be 40 years.292

In order to understand these humanitarian challenges that Yemen faces, as well create a plan of action in addressing these concerns, the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs

276 Ibid. 277 Ibid. 278 UN OCHA, 2019 Humanitarian Needs Overview: Yemen, 2019, p. 3. 279 Ibid. 280 Ibid., p. 4. 281 Human Rights Watch, World Report 2019: Yemen, 2019. 282 UN OCHA, 2019 Humanitarian Needs Overview: Yemen, 2019, p. 4. 283 UNICEF, Yemen Crisis, 2020. 284 World Bank, Yemen’s Economic Update-April 2019, 2019. 285 Ibid. 286 Ibid. 287 Human Rights Watch, World Report 2019: Yemen, 2019. 288 WHO, Health Situation in Yemen and WHO Response, 2019. 289 WHO, Outbreak Update-Cholera in Yemen, 12 May 2019, 2019. 290 UN General Assembly, Transforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (A/RES/70/1), 2015. 291 UNDP, Assessing the Impact of War on Development in Yemen, 2019, p. 6. 292 Ibid.

(OCHA) publishes annually the Humanitarian Response Plan for Yemen.293 In its 2019 response plan, the UN focused on five strategic objectives which include: overcoming hunger, reducing transmission of infectious diseases including cholera, aiding families living in temporary settlements, reducing displacement and violence against civilians, and supporting public infrastructure so that its institutions can continue to offer basic life services.294 The report also creates twelve cluster plans in order to try and meet the aforementioned objectives.295 Regardless of all this work however, a cessation of violence remains imperative, in order to quickly reverse the most severe humanitarian consequences the region has been facing.296

A new humanitarian issue has arisen concerning the FSO Safer, an offshore oil-storage vessel lying off the shore of Yemen and holding an estimated 1.148 million barrels of light crude oil, that is now leaking.297 According to the Executive Director of the United Nations Environment Programme, an oil spill from the FSO Safer would lead to an environmental catastrophe in the Red Sea and would severely worsen the humanitarian situation of the Yemeni.298 Fishing communities would lose their income source and many ports might be forced to close, critically destabilizing commercial and aid imports.299 Access to the vessel depends on the Houthis; since 2018, they have promised to allow access but have repeatedly reneged all of their commitments.300 The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic has also exposed the already vulnerable population to more critical levels of humanitarian needs.301 Yemen is currently incapable of containing any COVID-19 outbreaks.302 The case mortality rate is at 29%, suggesting considerably higher infection rates and an untraced spreading of the virus.303 Only half of the health facilities are functioning, and those that remain operational often suffer from lack of basic equipment such as masks, gloves or oxygen.304 Displaced persons are especially vulnerable to the virus, as underlined by the Human Rights Watch.305 With over 40.000 persons displaced in spring this year alone - with over 750.000 displaced persons in Marib alone, which has an initial population of 500.000 - this puts a substantial number of Yemenis at risk.306 Amongst this crisis, international aid has been cut severely in 2020, placing the majority of humanitarian programs in Yemen in danger of being shut down.307

Over the past several years, the political stalemate in Yemen has only led to an increase in violence, with no significant alteration in the balance of power or shift in the political dynamic within Yemen.308 In late 2018, upon the urging of the international community and the UN, Yemen’s main rival groups met in Sweden and agreed upon the Stockholm Agreement.309 The agreement is comprised of three main components: a ceasefire and demilitarization of both parties from the city of Hodeidah and its related ports, a similar ceasefire on the city of Ta’iz, and the creation of a prisoner swap program.310 The ceasefire in the city of Hodeidah and the use of its ports would allow for humanitarian assistance to reach Yemenis throughout the country.311 The idea of a prisoner swap program seeks to address the 15,000 detained between the two groups, and its framework is planned to be decided upon in subsequent

293 UN OCHA, 2019 Humanitarian Response Plan: Yemen, 2019. 294 Ibid., p. 10-12. 295 Ibid., p. 18-30. 296 World Bank, Yemen’s Economic Update-April 2019, 2019. 297 UN Press Release, Without Access to Stricken Oil Tanker off Yemen, Under-Secretary-General, Briefing Security Council, Warns of Environmental, Economic, Humanitarian Catastrophe, 2020. 298 Ibid. 299 Ibid. 300 Ibid. 301 UNICEF, Yemen Crisis, 2020. 302 Human Rights Watch, Yemen: Displaced at Heightened Covid-19 Risk, 2020. 303 UNICEF, Humanitarian Situation Report September 2020, Yemen Country Office. 304 UNICEF, Yemen Crisis, 2020. 305 Human Rights Watch, Yemen: Displaced at Heightened Covid-19 Risk, 2020. 306 Ibid. 307 Ibid. 308 Worth, How the War in Yemen Became a Bloody Stalemate, The New York Times, 2018. 309 UN OSESGY, News: Full Text of Stockholm Agreement, 2018. 310 Ibid. 311 Ibid.

negotiations.312 The parties further committed to reducing roadblocks to achieving peace, implementing the agreement, and continuing peaceful negotiations in a mutually acceptable location.313

The Security Council further reinforced their support of the Stockholm Agreement with the adoption of resolution 2451 (2018) on “The Situation in the Middle East”, which endorsed the agreement and asked the Secretary-General to send a team of monitors to support its quick implementation.314 In January of 2019, on the request of the Secretary-General, the council went a step forward and created a special political mission, the UN Mission to support the Hodeidah Agreement (UNMHA).315 The mandate of the mission is to oversee the ceasefire, the redeployment of forces and mine action operations.316 The mission also monitors compliance between the parties, and works with Yemeni security forces to ensure that the security of the city and port of Hodeidah is adequate.317 The UNMHA was immediately deployed to the region, and has been overseeing the pullout of armed forces from the key areas as defined in the agreement.318 In May 2019, the monitors verified the pullout and reported that cooperation between the various groups had been quite stable.319 The Hadi government allowed fuel ships to enter the port of Hodeidah, which has further established the humanitarian corridor laid out in the Stockholm Agreement.320 Despite the initial successes, the overall implementation of the agreement has been slow and challenging.321 For example, there have been several rounds of talks in conducting a prisoner swap, but no such mechanism has been instituted.322 Additionally, only recently has there been the start of talks about creating another humanitarian corridor in Ta’iz, which was a key pillar of the Stockholm Agreement.323

Additionally, in June 2019, the Secretary-General released a letter to the Security Council acknowledging that while progress has been very slow, the two main groups had met at least twice, that there was some headway in negotiations and that the groups had realized that the timelines set in the agreement have been too aggressive and would need to be reworked.324 However, the report also noted that the groups are highly distrustful of each other and that increases in political posturing between the parties as well as within the Gulf region endanger the fragile progress that has been made.325 Additionally the continued violence in other areas of Yemen, as well as continued foreign intervention, and shifting alliances, as seen in southern Yemen in August 2019, threatens to jeopardize the agreement entirely.326 Recently however, there have been some positive developments as both sides try to reconcile.327 In his briefing at the opening session of the Security Council in October 2019, the Special Envoy to Yemen stated that Houthi rebels have stated that they will end drone attacks on Saudi Arabia and they have also released

312 Dijkstal, Yemen and the Stockholm Agreement: Background, Context, and the Significance of the Agreement, 2019. 313 UN OSESGY, News: Full Text of Stockholm Agreement, 2018. 314 UN Security Council, The Situation in the Middle East (S/RES/2451(2018)), 2018. 315 UN Security Council, The Situation in the Middle East (S/RES/2452(2019)), 2019. 316 Ibid. 317 Ibid. 318 UN DGC, UN Monitoring Team in Yemen Verifies Pullout of Armed Forces From Crucial Port Zones, 2019. 319 Ibid. 320 UN OSESGY, Briefing of the Special Envoy of the UN Secretary-General for Yemen to the Open Session of the Security Council, 2019. 321 International Crisis Group, Saving the Stockholm Agreement and Averting a Regional Conflagration in Yemen, 2019. 322 UN Security Council, Letter Dated 10 June 2019 From the Secretary-General Addressed to the President of the Security Council (S/2019/485), 2019. 323 UN OSESGY, Briefing of the Special Envoy of the UN Secretary-General for Yemen to the Open Session of the Security Council, 2019. 324 UN Security Council, Letter Dated 10 June 2019 From the Secretary-General Addressed to the President of the Security Council (S/2019/485), 2019. 325 Ibid. 326 ‘Scores’ Killed in Yemen as UAE-Backed Fighters Seize Parts of Aden, The Guardian, 2019. 327 UN OSESGY, Briefing of the Special Envoy of the UN Secretary-General for Yemen to the Open Session of the Security Council, 2019.

290 prisoners.328 There has also been a reduction in violence in both the north and south sections of the country.329 However the overarching message continues to be that the situation is extremely fragile, and that much work continues to be needed in attaining the Stockholm Agreement and a peaceful resolution to the conflict in Yemen.330 As the Stockholm Agreement’s main objective was to prevent immediate military offensives in Hodeidah and other port cities, it is also not sufficient in itself to ensure a sustainable peace in all of Yemen.331

Conclusion

The situation in Yemen, as it continues into its tenth year, is currently no closer to being resolved than when the conflict escalated in 2015.332 The humanitarian crisis that has resulted due to the political violence has made Yemen one of the most impoverished and unsafe places in the world for the country’s citizens, especially for children.333 The UN and the Security Council have been actively engaged in the matter and have been working on various facets of the situation, ranging from the council’s work on implementing sanctions and creating political missions to oversee a ceasefire to other UN organizations such as UN OCHA, UNICEF, WHO, HRC and others addressing the complexities of the situation in Yemen.334 While there has been some headway in establishing a ceasefire, the regions proxy wars being fought on Yemeni soil threaten to further unravel the situation and possibly the integrity of a unified Yemeni state.335 While a comprehensive political solution shared by the warring parties may be a way out, emphasis on addressing the violence is paramount to resolving the deteriorating humanitarian conditions in Yemen.336 In the words of Mark Lowcock, UN Under-Secretary-General of Humanitarian Affairs and Emergency Relief Coordinator, “A sustainable peace would be the most effective remedy for the humanitarian crisis in Yemen...without peace, we will simply go on treating the symptoms of this crisis instead of addressing the cause.”337

Further Research

When researching this topic, delegates should consider the following questions: What policies can the Security Council create to continue to ensure that the Stockholm Agreement is upheld? How can the international community make sure the Riyadh Agreement will be implemented? How effective has the UNMHA been in achieving its mandate? What can be done to continue to reduce the humanitarian crisis that the civil war in Yemen has created? What human rights violations are occurring due to the conflict, and how can they be addressed? How can the UN get the warring parties to come back to the negotiating table to resolve the political crisis in Yemen? How should the international community envision a political transition? How can the GCC Initiative be improved and or implemented? What should be done to address the proxy wars being fought in Yemen? How should regional and international groups remain engaged in the crisis? How effective have the sanctions been in curbing the violence? How can all of these mechanisms be altered and improved?

328 UN OSESGY, Briefing of the Special Envoy of the UN Secretary-General for Yemen to the Open Session of the Security Council, 2019. 329 Ibid. 330 Ibid. 331 OSEGSY, A Year After the Stockholm Agreement: Where Are We Now?, 2019. 332 Council on Foreign Relations, War in Yemen, 2019. 333 UN OCHA, 2019 Humanitarian Needs Overview: Yemen, 2019, p. 3. 334 Office of the Resident Coordinator of the United Nations in Yemen, Your Guide to the United Nations in Yemen, 2016. 335 ‘Scores’ Killed in Yemen as UAE-Backed Fighters Seize Parts of Aden, The Guardian, 2019. 336 UN DGC, Parties to Conflict in Yemen Have Accepted Plan for Redeployment of Forces From Hodeidah Port, Special Envoy Tells Council, 2019. 337 Ibid.

Annotated Bibliography Council on Foreign Relations. (2019). War in Yemen. Retrieved 21 July 2019 from: https://www.cfr.org/interactive/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/war-yemen The Council on Foreign Relations website regarding the war in Yemen serves as a good dashboard reviewing the status of the conflict in a clear and concise manner. At the top of the website are a series of indicators that summarize the overall conflict status, the humanitarian toll, and type of conflict. Additionally, the website has periodic, current updates regarding the crisis and also has a brief, but effective background of the situation in Yemen. Furthermore, the dashboard provides a list of additional readings and articles that convey important information on a variety of facets regarding the conflict. Delegates will find this website useful in familiarizing themselves with the conflict overall.

Gulf Cooperation Council. (2011). Agreement on the Implementation Mechanism for the Transition Process in Yemen in Accordance with the Initiative of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). Retrieved 29 November 2020 from: https://peacemaker.un.org/sites/peacemaker.un.org/files/YE_111205_Agreement%20on%20the%20imple mentation%20mechanism%20for%20the%20transition.pdf The Gulf Initiative was the major political transition plan that the GCC created with the hope of resolving the political upheaval in Yemen at the start of the conflict. This document has continuously been cited by the UN, as well as the Security Council, Member States and different civil society groups. While the Initiative is on hold due to the focus being on de-escalation of violence, the plan still is the roadmap that the international community has endorsed in establishing a peaceful political solution. Delegates should familiarize themselves with the goals set forth in the Initiative, and should also review how the plan’s shortcomings have led to the current situation in Yemen.

United Nations Office of the Special Envoy of The Secretary-General for Yemen. (2018). News: Full Text of the Stockholm Agreement. Retrieved 10 August 2019 from: https://osesgy.unmissions.org/full-text- stockholm-agreement The Stockholm Agreement was the breakthrough ceasefire agreement that was drafted at the end of 2018. There are three parts of the agreement, which include the ceasefire in the Yemeni port city of Hodeidah, a creation of a prisoner exchange mechanism, and an understanding of Ta’iz, which is a neighboring province. While the agreement is very basic, the UN, the Security Council and the international community have been placing an n enormous amount of energy in maintaining the ceasefire agreement. Delegates should understand what the ceasefire entails and should periodically review the status of its implementation and any new developments as they pertain to Ta’iz and the prisoner swap.

United Nations Office of the Special Envoy of The Secretary-General for Yemen. (2019). Security Council Resolutions. Retrieved 05 August 2019 from: https://osesgy.unmissions.org/security-council-resolutions This website serves as a good synopsis for the major aspects of work that the Security Council has done thus far as it pertains to the situation in Yemen. The website lists almost all the resolutions that have been adopted by the Security Council about Yemen in the last 8 years and there is a brief summary of what each of the resolutions are regarding. All of the resolutions listed have links to the full text resolution, which makes research and review much easier. Delegates should utilize this source to familiarize themselves with what the Council has already done regarding the topic.

United Nations, Security Council, 7119th meeting. (2014). The Situation in the Middle East(S/RES/2140 (2014)). Retrieved 21 July 2019 from: https://undocs.org/S/RES/2140(2014) Resolution 2140 was a significant resolution in regards to the situation in Yemen, as it formed the bulwark of Security Council policy as it retains to sanctions. The resolution defined the freezing of assets as well as the travel ban and called for the Secretary- General to create a group of experts that would aid in these objectives. The mandate has

been subsequently extended in several resolutions following the initial passage of this resolution. Delegates should review this resolution and seek to understand how the Security Council utilizes the powers given to it under the Charter of the United Nations when it comes to sanctions and security.

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