Valdosta State University Model United Nations Conference Human Rights Council Background Guide

Dear Esteemed Delegates, Welcome to the Valdosta State University Model United Nations Conference of 2019 and thank you all for participating in the Human Rights Council. My name is Jacob Alward and I am a Junior Political Science major with a concentration in International Relations and a minor in History at VSU. I am also the Director General for this conference. The bonds formed by participating in Model United Nations has inspired me to choose International Relations as as a future career. I sincerely hope that each of you find the diplomacy performed by the United Nations to change the world around you as you begin to enter a new exciting chapter in each of your lives. The Human Rights Council (HRC) is one of the most hotly debated and well-known committees within the United Nations. It is comprised of 47 members that are elected for three years, and no member may occupy a seat for more than two consecutive terms. The Human Rights Council is an inter-governmental body within the United Nations system responsible for strengthening the promotion and protection of human rights around the globe and for addressing situations of human rights violations and make recommendations on them. The HRC holds meetings throughout the year in Geneva providing a multilateral forum to address human rights violations wherever and whenever they occur. The Topics for the Human Rights Council are: I. Addressing the persecution of journalists. II. The crisis of sexual exploitation of minors in Africa. III. The rights of LGBTQ+ people in the Middle East. Good luck at the conference, delegates, and we await your attendance this upcoming March! This Background Guide was prepared by: Jacob Alward Minji Kim Cori Henris

History of the Human Rights Council Although the concept of human rights has been a foundation of the United Nations, the HRC is relatively new as it was founded in 2006 under General Assembly Resolution 60/251. Its first session took place from 19 to 30 June 2006. 1Human rights, however, have been the cornerstone of the United Nations since its inception in 1945. For millennia, man believed that all peoples deserve unalienable freedoms that ensure that they do not suffer at the hands of a tyrant. Sadly, the world could not come to agreement as to what those freedoms were. Before the HRC, the UN created the United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) in 1946 to focus on creating and maintaining the International Declaration on Human Rights. The UNCHR was reorganized to be the HRC due to multiple conflicts of interests with members committing human rights violations. Although the inclusion of such violators was unfortunate, the UNCHR did help draft the International Declaration on Human Rights. This Declaration formed what the HRC stands for in thirty articles the first six are as follows; Article 1. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. Article 2. Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore, no distinction shall be made based on the political, jurisdictional or international status of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent, trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty. Article 3. Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person. Article 4. No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms. Article 5. No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. Article 6. Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law.2 Since the reformation of the UNCHR into the HRC, there have been numerous landmark declarations made to supplement the International Declaration of Human Rights, such as The Right to Food (A/HRC/34/L.21), The Rights of the Child: protection of the rights of the child in humanitarian situations (A/HRC/37/L.33), and The Elimination of all forms of discrimination against women and girls (A/HRC/38/L.1/Rev.1).3 As noble as all these resolutions may be, it is important to realize that the UN definition of Human Rights cannot be enforced on sovereign nations. In fact, no nations are required to adhere to any of the definitions set forth by the Human Rights Council. What is beneficial, however, is that all regions have representation on the Council. The 47 seats are distributed as follows; African States: 13 seats Asia-Pacific States: 13 seats Latin American and Caribbean States: 8 seats Western European and other States: 7 seats Eastern European States: 6 seats4 With fair representation across the board, no human rights violation goes ignored. Members of the Council serve for a period of three years and are not eligible for immediate re-election after serving two consecutive terms. Most recently, the United States of America has withdrawn from the HRC and shall be replaced by Finland until that seat expires in 2019. To date, the HRC remains an integral committee within the United Nations. As the group in charge of defining the rights of a human, the Human Rights Council maintains a place in the spotlight as a force of change but also a target of criticism. It should be remembered the mission statement of the HRC; To work for the protection of all human rights for all people; to help empower people to realize their rights; and to assist those responsible for upholding such rights in ensuring that they are implemented. In carrying out its mission HRC will: Give priority to addressing the most pressing human rights violations, both acute and chronic, particularly those that put life in imminent peril; Focus attention on those who are at risk and vulnerable on multiple fronts; Pay equal attention to the realization of civil, cultural, economic, political, and social rights, including the right to development; and Measure the impact of its work through the substantive benefit that is accrued, through it, to individuals around the world.5 As the world enters a new era of change, the Human Rights Council will be there to help the people who suffer in times of chaos and help bring to justice the people that take away a person’s rights.

I. The Persecution of Journalists “I disapprove of what you say, but I’ll defend to the death your right to say it.”6 — Voltaire Background Information The World Wide Web emerged in the 1990s and spread across the world. This invention has changed the world to make it easy to contact, share information, and interact across the globe. Following its ever-expanding progression, social media showed up after 2000 and improved rapidly. It has brought profound changes; people started using the internet more frequently, getting news immediately, and debating controversial issues through commenting. While the scale of news is becoming worldwide without limitation of a country’s border, journalists, people who write news stories or articles for newspapers, magazines, or broadcasts them on radio or television, have become a target for governments in some countries.7 Mostly, governments or countries who want to stifle dissent and control the media threaten effective journalists. Those governments are most likely to be authoritarian in nature, and dictators are using media tools to control their populations and prevent political change. Hence, journalists are being forced to write articles in ways that their government or political system want. They also face threats, surveillance, attacks, arbitrary arrest, and detention. Every year, hundreds of journalists are attacked, imprisoned, or killed. Between 1992 and 2018, 1,324 journalists have been killed. If unconfirmed motive is included, 1,842 journalists have been killed.8 Freedom of expression is a right especially for journalists to support them reporting facts to the public. The United Nations General Assembly adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) on December 10, 1948. According to Article 19 of the UDHR, “everyone shall have the right to hold opinions without interference” and “everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression; this right shall include freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his choice.” The UN has an important role to play to protect journalists from being threatened.

Current Situation According to Article 7 of International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, “No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.” Still, there exists incidents like violence, disappearance, threatening, murder related with journalists. On October 2, 2018, a well-known Saudi journalist, Jamal Khashoggi, was reported missing from Turkey. After visiting the Saudi Arabian consulate in Istanbul, Turkey, Khashoggi’s whereabouts became unknown. The Turkish government raised suspicions that 15 members of the Saudi Arabian government had interrogated, tortured, murdered and mutilated Kashmiri and disposed of the body, sparking international controversy.9 Saudi authorities say they have confirmed that Jamal Khashoggi was killed at the Saudi consulate in Istanbul, Turkey.10 Up until the 1990s, he was close to the royal family. However, as the editor of the reform-minded daily newspaper Al-Watan, he criticized fundamentalist Islam and called for social reform, and he gradually became the focus of government attention. In particular, he angered the Saudi royal family by supporting the people's revolution in the spring of 2011. He lived in the U.S. since September 2017 and has criticized Saudi Arabia's current Prince Muhammad bin Salman's policies such as Saudi intervention in Yemeni civil war and the Qatar Bridge, a causeway between Qatar and Bahrain. In October 2018, Khashoggi visited the Saudi consulate in Turkey to report his marriage to his Turkish counterpart, where he was apparently murdered. Journalists are being killed, imprisoned, and reported missing. In 2018, 45 journalists have been killed.11 There are typically three types of death; crossfire, dangerous assignment, and murder. Crossfires are mostly suspected by military officials and political groups. Other than them, there are criminal groups, government officials, residents, mob violence, paramilitary groups, and unknown fire.12 Their specific jobs didn’t matter; various workers were killed regardless of their part of the job. They can be a broadcast reporter, an editor, internet reporter, photographer, producer, or publisher.13 Since 2000, the number of journalists imprisoned has been gradually increasing from 81 to 262 in 2017.14 They are accused of being terrorists. Several governments are imposing lifetime sentences on those journalists. Most incarcerations are in the Middle East. Turkey has imprisoned the largest number of journalists in the last three years. Additionally, China and Egypt have always ranked second and third. A slight overall improvement has been shown in respect for press freedom in Latin America. However, violence, impunity, and authoritarian policies towards journalists in many countries including Latin American states persist. In Central America and Mexico, a reign of fear and self-censorship are maintained by impunity and violence. Reporters and journalists are systematically subjected to threats, intimidation, and physical violence. During 2017, 11 journalists were killed in Mexico and one was killed in Honduras. Mexico has become the world’s second deadliest country for the media in 2017, surpassed only by Syria.15

UN Actions to date The Human Rights Council engaged the UN Plan of Action on the Safety of Journalists and the Issue of Impunity in 2010 upon request of UNESCO’s Intergovernmental Council of the International Programme for the Development of Communication (IPDC). It was approved by the UN Chief Executives Board on April 12, 2012, and welcomed by the Conference, the Human Rights Council and a resolution by UNESCO. The UN Action Plan aims to create a free and safe environment for journalists and media workers in conflict and conflict-free situations to strengthen peace, democracy and development around the world. The Plan includes actions such as the establishment of an interagency mechanism to enhance the contributions of each UN actor and to strengthen the consistency of the UN. It contains cooperation with countries to develop laws and other mechanisms to protect freedom of expression and freedom of information as well as the safety of journalists. It also includes initiatives to build partnerships, improve awareness and foster awareness.16 In November 2014, there was a review of the implementation of the UN plan in Strasbourg. More recently, on June 29, 2017, the OHCHR and UNESCO organized a multilateral consultative body to gather about 250 representatives from U.N. agencies, member states, local communities, media and local government agencies to examine ways to strengthen U.N.17 The Human Right Council issued a resolution 33/2, and they requested the available mechanisms concerned with ensuring the safety of journalists and other related stakeholders to the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. The Human Right Council expressed deep concern at the increasing number of journalists facing possibilities of being endangered every moment of their lifetime.18 Recalling all relevant reports, the Council condemned all attacks and violence toward journalists such as torture, killings, enforced disappearance, arbitrary arrest and arbitrary detention, intimidation, threats and harassment.19

Committee Directive Delegates, states have a duty to protect journalists and human rights defenders from threats, surveillance, attacks, and arbitrary arrest. With the increasing importance of freedom of expression, it is vital that these questions be deeply considered during this committee. How can the world better assist journalists being targeted, forced, and threatened in certain states? What can be done to encourage those states to advocate not to commit any actions to control media? Are there any procedures that have been done successfully to protect journalists? Member States are strongly advised to implement laws concerning reported cases of invisible threat against journalists. How can violence against journalists be stopped?

II. The crisis of sexual exploitation of minors in Africa

“There can be no keener revelation of a society’s soul than the way in which it treats its children.” — Nelson Mandela, Former President of South Africa

Background Information The inequality, unemployment, lack of education, and poverty in Africa have made it a fertile breeding ground for the sexual exploitation of minors.20 Commercial sexual exploitation of children is defined as sexual abuse by an adult with remuneration in cash or in-kind to the child or a third person or persons. A child is any person under the age of 18, as defined by the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC).21 The levels of this kind of exploitation has risen to an unacceptable level. According to the International Labour Organisation in South Africa, an estimated 1.39 million people are forced into commercial sexual work and about forty to fifty percent are children. Most of the cases for the sexual exploitation of children involve youths between the ages of ten and fourteen. The sexual exploitation of children in Africa has created a culture where children are treated as property or a commercial object. This exploitation can come in many forms but usually manifests as prostitution, pornography, child sex trafficking, online sexual exploitation of children and sex for a favor by adults.22 The ones trafficking the children are usually close family friends, people the children know well, and often family members themselves.23 Those who lure the children use different forms of manipulation such as promising them better education or protection for their family. Violent crimes, such as these, interfere with these minors’ ability to survive and develop. These minors will suffer from psychological and emotional problems even if they happen to find refuge from their situation. 24 It has been estimated that sixty-eight percent of South African children live in poverty and that twenty percent are orphans, which leaves these children unable to defend themselves. These violent crimes are mainly directed at young girls, especially those without the social and economic stability to avoid these dangers. Although girls are mainly targeted, both young boys and girls are falling victim to these acts. The boys that are affected by this, often receive less attention by governmental and international agencies. In a District in Uganda, 31 percent of school girls and 15 percent of boys report having been sexually abused, many by teachers.25 In a study in a South African hospital of children under age fifteen in whom a diagnosis of child abuse was considered, forty-five percent of the children reported having been the target of sexual abuse. Thirty-one percent reported being physically abused, and sexual abuse was suspected but not confirmed in another fourteen percent of the children. A study in Uganda revealed that forty- nine percent of sexually active primary school girls say they had been forced to have sexual intercourse. A major concern for the areas affected by this is the desensitization of their society. The use of minors in these kinds of ways has become normalized and that makes it difficult for any change.26 Current Situation As of 2016, it was reported that South Africa had one of the highest rates of sexual abuse cases in the world. There were over 51,000 cases of sexual offenses reported or approximately 142 cases per day. Many of these cases relate to children. The increased levels of tourism to Africa has created a concerning environment for the sexual exploitation of minors. As of 2006, there was a nine percent increase in tourism over all from the previous year, which equals to about 36,715,000 tourists. In Kenya, almost two-thirds of the profits from tourism goes to foreign tour companies and airlines. 7 It has been shown that tourists are aware of the vulnerability of children in Africa. This makes it the perfect destination for those interested in the availability of children in that capacity. Many African countries have no way of protecting minors from exploitation in tourism.7 There are major gaps in awareness, understanding, laws, and enforcement by the nation and local government. Like any other industry, tourism must be regulated for the safety of the society. If this is not regulated it could lead to increased exposure of children to sex trafficking for tourist. This would also negatively impact the region by giving it a bad reputation. If tourism is left unchecked, children exploited for tourism will continue.27 The African Government has made several commitments towards combating this issue. The African Child Policy Forum (2005) aimed to combat the physiological and emotional side effects of the commercialized sex industry in Africa.28 It also provides legal counseling so that children can fight back against their traffickers. Similarly, the Children’s Act (2001) of Kenya protects children from sexual exploitation in the forms of prostitution and any other inducement or coercion in to sexual acts. Despite these and other efforts, it was found that children are not benefiting from the laws placed to protect them. The complex framework of laws poses a barrier for the continent. United Nations Actions to Date In hopes to combat the issue of sexual exploitation of minors in Africa, the United Nations (UN) has proposed many policies in order to promote the well-being of these children. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) was created in 1989 and it is now the basis of all the work done by UNICEF. This convention is made up of fifty-four articles that address all aspects of a child’s life. Per this convention, every child has rights regardless of their ethnicity, religion, gender, language, abilities, or status. The UNCRC is the most widely ratified human rights treaty in the world. This convention states the following: Parties must recognize that every child has the inherent right to life. Parties shall ensure to the maximum extent possible the survival and development of a child. Parties shall undertake to respect the right of the child to preserve his or her identity, including nationality, name and family relations as recognized by law without unlawful interference. The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) was created in 1946 to save children’s lives and defend their rights. UNICEF recruits’ volunteers worldwide to visit countries, such as Africa, to help give children their most basic needs.29 This organization believes: Every child has the right to grow up in a safe and inclusive environment. Every child has the right to survive. Every child has the right to learn. Every girl has the right to reach her potential. The Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children (2000) is a supplemental action for the United Nations Convention against Transitional Organized Crime. The purposes of this protocol are: To prevent and combat trafficking in persons, paying particular attention to women and children; To protect and assist the victims of such trafficking, with full respect for their human rights; and To promote cooperation among States Parties in order to meet those objectives.30 Committee Directive As one can see, the present situation for children in Africa is of the utmost concern. While the United Nations and African governments have tried to combat the issue, minors are still being sold and trafficked into the commercialized sex industry daily. As delegates for this committee, you should educate yourselves on the exact nature of the policies and programs that the United Nations and African governments have put in place to try to combat this issue. What other strategies should be used for this situation? Are there additional programs or policies that should be enacted? In what way could the already established policies and programs be further enforced? What is the most beneficial and cost-effective measures that should be taken? Whose responsibility is it to fight this issue?

III. The rights of LGBTQ+ people in the Middle East. “I am a human like everyone else, and I have rights. I will defend those rights.” —Ahmed, gay man, Libya Background Information In the13th and 14th centuries, two celebrated male poets wrote about men in affectionate, even amorous, terms. They were Rumi and Hafiz, and both lived in what is now Iran.31 They wrote about men as a modern poet would muse about women. They were viewed as sacred and sensible. Refined and beautiful. The ancient Middle East not only tolerated LGBTQ+ peoples, they were celebrated. It should be noted the Quran, the Islamic Holy Book, describes homosexuals only in the story of Lot and the destruction of Sodom - and sodomy in Arabic is known as "liwat," based on Lot's name. Men having sex with each other should be punished, the Quran says, but it doesn't say how - and it adds that they should be left alone if they repent.32 As Middle Eastern history is often viewed as Islamic history, it is important to realize that early Muslims viewed homosexuality as fairly common and a part of life as many poets and writers would speak on the topics of love between people of the same gender. The general openness may have to do with the views toward LGBTQ+ peoples by the Persians, Greeks and later the Roman Empire. In the Persian Empire, though Zoroastrianism, the predominant religion of ancient Persia, viewed same-sex intercourse as a form of demon worship, there was no official law banning homosexuality. Many modern scholars believe that Persia found no issue with homosexuals. What more is that ancient Iran has a rich history in celebrating same-sex love.33 In ancient Greece, same-sex romantic and sexual attractions were often regarded as a matter of taste or preference rather than a moral issue. It was thought that Alexander of Macedon even had a male lover beside him when he conquered most of the ancient world.34 In the Roman Empire, male with male relations were the most common and prevalent type of homosexuality in ancient Rome. Older men taking a young male lover was very common. For example, the emperor Hadrian took a young lover named Antinous despite being married.35 As both Greece and Rome traded extensively with the Middle East, it can be a near guarantee that some cultural mores and traditions were traded as well as goods. Records seem to show that homosexuality began to be viewed negatively around the time that early medieval Christianity rose as a dominant religion in Europe. The Bible found that love between people of the same gender as sinful, immoral, and impure. While the attitudes towards LGBTQ+ peoples were not strongly changed at the time, it changed the attitudes of two major world powers that would colonize the Middle East in the 19th century, England and France. British colonialism effectively made homophobia mainstream in over a quarter of the world. The British empire went as far as installing anti-gay laws in Egypt, Iraq, Cyprus and eight other Middle Eastern countries. France did the same in Syria. Unfortunately, when Britain left the Middle East, only Bahrain and Jordan repealed the homophobic laws. Later, conservative Sharia (A sect of Islam) laws (based largely on ahadith, sayings controversially attributed to the Prophet Muhammad and his companions) continued the colonial period’s anti-gay legacy.36 Another reason for the end of LGBTQ+ acceptance in the Middle East was the rise of Islamic Fundamentalism in the 1980s. They viewed homosexuality as “Western moral decay” that was being exported to the Levant (another term for the Middle East) during the height of the AIDS epidemic. The increased hate rhetoric and Western war-mongering at the time led to most of the peoples believing that homosexuality was wrong and should be punished. Current Situation There are six countries in the Middle East that punish homosexual acts with the death penalty; Yemen: According to the 1994 penal code, married men can be sentenced to death by stoning for homosexual intercourse. Unmarried men face whipping or one year in prison. Women face up to seven years in prison. Iran: In accordance with Sharia law, homosexual intercourse between men can be punished by death, and men can be flogged for lesser acts such as kissing. Women may be flogged. Qatar: Sharia law in Qatar applies only to Muslims, who can be put to death for extramarital sex, regardless of sexual orientation. Saudi Arabia: Under the country’s interpretation of Sharia law, a married man engaging in sodomy or any non-Muslim who commits sodomy with a Muslim can be stoned to death. All sex outside of marriage is illegal. Afghanistan: The Afghan Penal Code does not refer to homosexual acts, but Article 130 of the Constitution allows recourse to be made to Sharia law, which prohibits same-sex sexual activity in general. Afghanistan’s Sharia law criminalizes same-sex sexual acts with a maximum of the death penalty. No known cases of death sentences have been meted out since the end of Taliban rule in 2001. United Arab Emirates: Lawyers in the country and other experts disagree on whether federal law prescribes the death penalty for consensual homosexual sex or only for rape. In a recent Amnesty International report, the organization said it was not aware of any death sentences for homosexual acts. All sexual acts outside of marriage are banned.37 It is worth noting that only two countries in the Middle East have legalized homosexuality; Iraq and Jordan but same sex marriage is forbidden. There has been movements within the Middle East to promote LGBTQ+ rights. However, as the majority of Middle Eastern governments have policies that suppress free speech and protest, work has been excruciatingly slow. LGBTQ+ people suffer a crucible of egregious violations, including killings, rape, mutilation, torture, arbitrary detention, abduction, harassment, physical and mental assaults. Even Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) have been punished for their efforts to encourage equal rights in the Middle East.38 UN Actions to Date Since it was founded in 1945, the UN hadn’t discussed LGBT rights. It wasn’t until the 4th World Conference of Women in September 1995, when the topic of sexual orientation became open for debate. It was the first time that the government had a public stance about being for or against the involvement and understanding of sexual orientation. Furthermore, at the conference in Beijing, a woman by the name of Beverley Pales Ditsier became the first openly lesbian individual to speak to the UN regarding issues towards the LGBT community, calling on them to come up with some solutions that acknowledged sexual diversity. In the 1980s, early United Nations reports on the HIV/AIDS pandemic made some reference to homosexuality, and the 1986 Human Freedom Index did include a specific question, in judging the human rights record of each nation, with regards to the existence of criminal laws against homosexuality. In its 1994 decision in Tone v. Australia, the UN Human Rights Committee declared that laws criminalizing consensual same sex relations between adults are in violation of international human rights law. The Tone decision was an important removal from earlier international order that had found the ban of same-sex sexual relations to be in breach of the right to privacy. In Tone, the Human Rights Committee found a violation of the ICCPR's privacy provisions in conjunction with the prohibition of discrimination, innovatively interpreting the principle of non- discrimination on grounds of "sex" as including "sexual orientation.” Since Tone, other treaty-monitoring bodies of the UN have helped consolidate the principle that sexual-orientation discrimination is proscribed in international human rights law. The Human Rights Committee, the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women have repeatedly and consistently called for the repeal of laws criminalizing homosexuality in countries around the world. The HRC has emphasized the harmful consequences of these laws for the enjoyment of other civil and political rights, particularly where they result in the death penalty and other cruel, in human, and degrading punishments.39

Since 2000, the UN General Assembly has included a reference to sexual orientation in its biennial resolutions on extrajudicial, summary and arbitrary executions, as did the former Commission on Human Rights. The latter had also addressed the use of the death penalty for sexual relations between consenting adults in its annual resolutions on the death penalty between 2002 and 2005. In recent years the General Assembly resolution on executions also covered gender identity as a ground for protection. An informal cross-sectional group of United Nations Member States was established in 2008. As of 2018, the group is co-chaired by Argentina and the Netherlands. The LGBTI Core Group also includes Albania, Australia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Croatia, El Salvador, France, Germany, Israel, Italy, Japan, Montenegro, Mexico, New Zealand, Norway, Spain, the United Kingdom, the United States, Uruguay, and the European Union, as well as the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, and the non-governmental organizations Human Rights Watch and Outright Action International.40 Committee Directive The right to be is of the utmost importance for the Human Rights Council. Sadly, work within the region is slow and suppressed and multiple violations still occur against LGBTQ+ peoples living in the Middle East. As delegates for this committee, it is recommended that you investigate what your individual country stands for in terms as LGBTQ+ equality. You should also research the extent to which this committee can go in terms of dealing with this issue. What can be done to address this situation? How has your country addressed this issue? What UN actions have been performed to remedy the problem? Is there a way to promote equality in the Middle East without intruding on the sovereignty of Middle Eastern Member States? Are there peaceful methods that can be taken to resolve this issue? Who is at fault for such violations taking place?

Bibliography

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The Persecution of Journalists

6https://quoteinvestigator.com/2015/06/01/defend-say/ 7https://quoteinvestigator.com/2015/06/01/defend-say/ 8https://cpj.org/data/killed/?status=Killed&motiveConfirmed%5B%5D=Confirmed&motiveUnconfirmed%5B%5D =Unconfirmed&type%5B%5D=Journalist&start_year=1992&end_year=2018&group_by=year 9 https://www.msnbc.com/andrea-mitchell-reports/watch/sen-corker-everything-points-to-saudis-being-responsible- for-washington-post-contributor-s-disappearance-1341977667970?v=railb& 10 https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-45923217 11https://cpj.org/data/killed/2018/?status=Killed&motiveConfirmed%5B%5D=Confirmed&type%5B%5D=Journalis t&start_year=2018&end_year=2018&group_by=location 12https://cpj.org/data/killed/2018/?status=Killed&motiveConfirmed%5B%5D=Confirmed&type%5B%5D=Journalis t&sourcesOfFire%5B%5D=Military%20Officials&sourcesOfFire%5B%5D=Political%20Group&start_year=2018& end_year=2018&group_by=location 13https://cpj.org/data/killed/2018/?status=Killed&motiveConfirmed%5B%5D=Confirmed&type%5B%5D=Journalis t&jobs%5B%5D=Broadcast%20Reporter&jobs%5B%5D=Camera%20Operator&jobs%5B%5D=Editor&jobs%5B %5D=Internet%20Reporter&jobs%5B%5D=Photographer&jobs%5B%5D=Print%20Reporter&jobs%5B%5D=Pro ducer&jobs%5B%5D=Publisher%20%2F%20Owner&jobs%5B%5D=Technician&start_year=2018&end_year=201 8&group_by=location 14https://cpj.org/data/imprisoned/2017/?status=Imprisoned&start_year=2017&end_year=2017&group_by=location 15 https://rsf.org/en/rsf-index-2018-mixed-performance-latin-america

16 https://www.ohchr.org/EN/Issues/SafetyOfJournalists/Pages/SafetyOfJournalists.aspx 17 Ibid. 18 http://undocs.org/A/HRC/RES/33/2

19 Ibid The Crisis of Sexual Exploitation of Minors in Africa

20 Child Welfare South Africa, Sexual Exploitation and Trafficking, (2017), Retrieved: http://childwelfaresa.org.za/sexual-exploitation-and-trafficking/

21 Advocates For Youth, Sexual Abuse and Violence in Sub-Saharan Africa, retrieved: http://www.advocatesforyouth.org/publications/publications-a-z/457-sexual-abuse-and-violence-in-sub-saharan- africa

22 Mike Sheila, Children Sold as Slaves in West Africa, (2018), Retrieved: https://abcnews.go.com/WNT/story?id=131004&page=1

23 World Report on Violence and Health, Sexual Violence, Retrieved: https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/global_campaign/en/chap6.pdf

24 Rome Sigsworth, Anyone can be a Rapist: An Overview of Sexual Violence In South Africa, (2009), Retrieved: https://www.csvr.org.za/images/docs/sexualviolence.pdf

25 Mary Kimani, Taking on violence against women in Africa, (2007), Retrieved: https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/july-2007/taking-violence-against-women-africa

26 EPCAT International, The Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children in Africa, (2014), Retrieved: http://www.ecpat.org/wp-content/uploads/legacy/Regional%20CSEC%20Overview_Africa.pdf

27 UNICEF, Sexual Exploitation of Children in Africa, (2008), Retrieved: https://www.unicef.org/wcaro/Sexual_l_Exploitation_paper_World_Concgress_Final__2_.pdf

28 UNICEF UK, What is UN Convention on Child Rights, Retrieved: https://www.unicef.org.uk/what-we-do/un- convention-child-rights/

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United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, (2000), Retrieved: https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/protocoltraffickinginpersons.aspx

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32 The Associated Press, Islam and Homosexuality: What Does the Koran Say? (2018),Retrieved; https://www.haaretz.com/middle-east-news/islam-and-homosexuality-what-does-the-koran-say-1.5395747 33 ELr, HOMOSEXUALITY iii. IN PERSIAN LITERATURE, (2012), Retrieved; http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/homosexuality-iii 34 Religion Facts, Homosexuality in Ancient Greece, (2016) Retrieved; http://www.religionfacts.com/greek- religion/homosexuality 35 Wiki Books, “Roman Culture/Homosexuality” (2018) Retrieved; https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Roman_Culture/Homosexuality 36 Daniel Villarreal “How the Middle East Moved From Tolerant of Homosexuality to a Battlefield of Anti-Gay Violence” (2018) Retrieved; https://hornet.com/stories/middle-east-homophobia-anti-gay-history/ 37 Max Bearak and Darla Cameron “Here are the 10 countries where homosexuality may be punished by death” (2016) Retrieved; https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/06/13/here-are-the-10-countries- where-homosexuality-may-be-punished-by-death-2/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.bdc1407b90af 38 UN News , “Action needed to stop violations of LGBT people’s rights worldwide, expert tells UN” (2017) Retrieved; https://news.un.org/en/story/2017/10/569492-action-needed-stop-violations-lgbt-peoples-rights- worldwide-expert-tells-un 39 Ignacio Sai . Health and Human Rights, Vol. 7, No. 2, Sexuality, Human Rights, and Health (2004), pp. 48-80. Retrieved from: https://www-jstor- org.ezproxy.library.valdosta.edu/stable/pdf/4065348.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3A4a949c9a9c18a2d58db21de4bdcc4 859 40 Unknown. LGBT Rights at the United Nations. Retrieved from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGBT_rights_at_the_United_Nations