Comunicar Journal 37: the University Network and on The

ISSN: 1134-3478 / DL: H-189-93 / e-ISSN: 1988-3293 Andalucía (Spain), 37; vol. XIX 2 semester, octuber de 2011 INDEXED INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL

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REVISTA CIENTÍFICA DE COMUNICACIÓN Y EDUCACIÓN

EDITOR Dr. J. Ignacio Aguaded-Gómez University of Huelva (Spain)

GUEST-EDITED SPECIAL ISSUE • Dr. Josep María Duart. UOC. Barcelona (Spain) 37, XIX ASSISTANT EDITORS • D. Enrique Martínez-Salanova, Grupo Comunicar, Almería • Dr. Mª Amor Pérez-Rodríguez, Universidad de Huelva • Dr. Ángel Hernando-Gómez, Universidad de Huelva • Dr. Agustín García Matilla, Universidad de Valladolid • Dr. Mª Carmen Fonseca, Universidad de Huelva (Consultant) • Dr. Miguel de Aguilera, Universidad de Málaga • Dra. Mª Luisa Sevillano García, UNED, Madrid • Dr. Mariano Cebrián Herreros, Universidad Complutense, Madrid ADVISORY BOARD • Dr. Manuel Ángel Vázquez Medel, Universidad de Sevilla • Dr. Ismar de Oliveira, Universidade de São Paulo, Brasil • Dr. Francisco García García, Universidad Complutense, Madrid • Dr. Guillermo Orozco, Universidad de Guadalajara, México • Dr. Javier Marzal, Universitat Jaume I, Castellón • Dr. Cecilia Von Feilitzen, Nordicom, Suecia • Dr. Manuel Lorenzo, Universidad de Granada • Dr. Geniève Jacquinot, Université Paris VIII, París, Francia • Dr. Manuel Area, Universidad La Laguna, Tenerife • Dr. Pier Cesare Rivoltella, Università Cattolica de Milán, Italia • Dr. Concepción Medrano, Universidad del País Vasco • Dr. Alberto Parola, MED, Università de Torino, Italia • Dr. Juan de Pablos Pons, Universidad de Sevilla • Dr. Teresa Quiroz, Universidad de Lima, Perú • Dr. Félix Angulo Rasco, Universidad de Cádiz • Dr. Mar Fontcuberta, Pontificia Universidad Católica, Chile • Dr. Juan Antonio García Galindo, Universidad de Málaga • Dr. Jacques Piette. Université de Sherbrooke, Québec, Canadá • Dr. Elea Giménez Toledo, CSIC, Madrid • Dr. Samy Tayie, University of Cairo, Mentor Association, Egipto • Dr. Donaciano Bartolomé, Universidad Complutense, Madrid • D. Kathleen Tyner, University of Texas, Austin, USA • Dr. Ramón Reig, Universidad de Sevilla • D. Marieli Rowe. National Telemedia Council, USA • Dr. Ramón Pérez Pérez, Universidad de Oviedo • D. Jordi Torrent, ONU, Alianza de Civilizaciones, USA • Dr. Ana García-Valcárcel, Universidad de Salamanca • Dr. Vítor Reia, Universidade do Algarve, Faro, Portugal • Dr. Domingo Gallego, Universidad Nacional de Distancia, Madrid • Dr. Sara Pereira. Universidade do Minho, Braga, Portugal • Dr. Manuel Cebrián de la Serna, Universidad de Málaga • Dr. Armanda Pinto, Universidade de Coimbra, Portugal • Dr. Felicísimo Valbuena, Universidad Complutense, Madrid • Dr. Divina Frau-Meigs, Université Sorbonne, París, Francia • Dr. Manuel Fandos Igado, MasterD, Zaragoza • Dr. Evelyne Bévort, CLEMI, París, Francia • Dr. Pere Marquès, Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona • Dr. Patrick Verniers, Consejo Sup. Educación en Medios, Bélgica • Dr. Roberto Aparici, Universidad Nacional de Distancia, Madrid • Dr. Tania Esperon, Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Brasil • Dr. Concepción Mateos. Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Madrid • Dr. Vania Quintão, Universidade de Brasilia, Brasil • Dr. Lluís Pastor, Universitá Oberta de Catalunya, Barcelona • Dr. Gustavo Hernández, ININCO, Universidad Central, Venezuela • Dr. Jesús Valverde, Universidad de Extremadura • Dr. Gerardo Borroto, CUJAE, La Habana, Cuba • S. José Domingo Aliaga, Primeras Noticias, Barcelona • Dr. Ciro Novelli, Universidad del Cuyo, Mendoza, Argentina • Dr. Tatiana Merlo, Universidad Cat. Buenos Aires, Argentina THE BOARD OF MANAGEMENT • Dr. Silvia Contín, Universidad Nacional de Patagonia, Argentina • D. Rafael Repiso, Universidad de Granada • Ms. Karina P. Valarezo, Universidad Téc. Part. de Loja, Ecuador • Dra. Ana Sedeño Valdellós, Universidad de Málaga • Ms Yamile Sandoval, Universidad Santiago de Cali, Colombia • Dr. Juan Bautista Romero, Universidad de Huelva • S. Claudio Avendaño, Universidad Diego Portales, Chile • Dra. Jacqueline Sánchez Carrero, Universidad de Huelva • S. Michel Clarembeaux, Centre Audiovisuel de Liège, Bélgica • Dr. Isidro Marín Gutiérrez, Universidad de Huelva • Ms. Graça Targino, Universidade UESPI/UFPB, Brasil • Dr. Walter Gadea, Universidad de Huelva • Dr. Jorge Cortés Montalvo, UACH/REDECA, México • D. Francisco Casado, IES Huelva • Dr. César Bernal, Universidad de Almería EDITORIAL BOARD • Dª Paloma Contreras, Universidad de Huelva • Dr. J. Manuel Pérez Tornero, Universidad Autónoma, Barcelona • Dr. Tomás Pedrosa Herrera, IES Pablo Neruda, Huelva • Dr. Julio Cabero Almenara, Universidad de Sevilla COMMERCIAL MANAGER • Dr. Javier Tejedor Tejedor, Universidad de Salamanca • D. Alejandro Ruiz Trujillo, Comunicar Ediciones • Dr. Pablo del Río, Universidad Carlos III, Madrid • Dr. Joan Ferrés i Prats, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, Barcelona Designed by:Portada: Enrique Martínez-Salanova

C O N T E N T S Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011

The University Network and on the Net La Universidad Red y en Red Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011

FOREWORD Contents ...... 4/5 Editorial ...... 7/8 J. Ignacio Aguaded

DOSSIER

• Presentation: La Red en los procesos de enseñanza de la Universidad ...... 10/13 The Net on Teaching Processes at the University • Flexibility in Higher Education: Revisiting Expectations ...... 15/24 Flexibilidad en la educación superior: revisión de expectativas Betty Collis & Jef Moonen. Twente (Holland) •Building Creative Competence in Globally Distributed Courses through Design Thinking . . . . . 27/34 El «design thinking» como estrategia de creatividad en la distancia Reinhold Steinbeck. Stanford (USA) / São Paulo (Brazil) • «Alacena», An Open Learning Design Repository for University Teaching ...... 37/44 «Alacena»: repositorio de diseños de aprendizaje para la enseñanza universitaria Carlos Marcelo, Carmen Yot & Cristina Mayor. Sevilla (Spain) • Apprenticeship Students Learning On-line: Opportunities and Challenges for Polytechnic Institutions 45/53 El aprendizaje on-line: oportunidades y retos en instituciones politécnicas Martha Burkle. Calgary (Canadá) • Learning Networks, Networked Learning ...... 55/63 Redes de aprendizaje, aprendizaje en red Peter Sloep & Adriana Berlanga. Heerlen (Holanda) • Interaction Analysis in Hybrid Learning Environment ...... 65/72 Análisis de la interacción en ambientes híbridos de aprendizaje Luz Adriana Osorio & Josep María Duart. Bogotá (Colombia) & Barcelona (Spain) • Students’ Perspective on On-line College Education in the Field of Journalism ...... 73/79 La educación universitaria on-line en el Periodismo desde la visión del estudiante Gloria Gómez-Escalonilla, Marina Santín & Gladys Mathieu. Madrid (Spain) • Digital Divide in Universities: Internet Use in Ecuadorian Universities ...... 81/88 Desigualdad digital en la universidad: usos de Internet en Ecuador Juan Carlos Torres & Alfonso Infante. Loja (Ecuador) & Huelva (Spain) • University Senior Students on the Web ...... 89/95 Mayores Universitarios en la Red Roberto Martínez, Rosa Cabecinhas & Felicidad Loscertales. Sevilla (Spain) & Braga (Portugal)

C O N T E N T S Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011

KALEIDOSCOPE Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 • Children and New Media: Youth Media Participation. A Case Study of Egypt and Finland . . 99/107 Niños y nuevos medios: estudios de caso en Egipto y en Finlandia Irma Hirsjärvi & Samy Tayie. Cairo (Egipto) & Jyvaskyla (Finland) • Consumption Patterns and Uses of Photography in Digital Era among Communication Students 109/116 Hábitos de consumo y usos de la fotografía en la era digital entre estudiantes de comunicación Javier Marzal & Maria Soler. Castellón (Spain) • Values Perceived in Television by Adolescents in Different Cross-cultural Contexts ...... 117/124 Valores percibidos en el medio televisivo por adolescentes en contextos transculturales C. Medrano, A. Aierbe & J.I. Martínez-de-Morentin. Donostia (Guipuzcoa) (Spain) • The Cyber Media in Latin America and web 2.0 ...... 125/131 Los cibermedios en América Latina y la web 2.0 Elias Said & Carlos Arcila. Barranquilla (Colombia) • Television Fiction Series Targeted at Young Audience: Plots and Conflicts Portrayed in a Teen Series ...... 133/140 Las series televisivas dirigidas juveniles: tramas y conflictos en una «teen series» Núria García-Muñoz & Maddalena Fedele. Barcelona (Spain) • Spaniard’s Perspective of Immigration. The Role of the Media ...... 141/148 Españoles ante la inmigración: el papel de los medios de comunicación Juan Carlos Checa & Ángeles Arjona. Almería (Spain) • Bibliometric and Social Network Analysis Applied to Television Dissertations Presented in Spain (1976-07) ...... 151/159 Análisis bibliométrico y de redes sociales en tesis doctorales españolas sobre televisión (1976-07) Rafael Repiso, Daniel Torres & Emilio Delgado. Granada & Pamplona (Spain) • The Risk of Emergence of Boomerang Effect in Communication Against Violence ...... 161/168 Riesgo de aparición del efecto boomerang en las comunicaciones contra la violencia Gaspar Brändle, Miguel Á. Cárdaba & José A. Ruiz. Murcia & Madrid (Spain) • Classroom 2.0 Experiences and Building on the Use of ICT in Teaching ...... 169/174 Aulas 2.0 y uso de las TIC en la práctica docente María Domingo & Pere Marquès. Barcelona (Spain) • The Musical Offers of Children’s Programming on «Televisión Española» as its Hearing Universe ...... 177/185 La oferta musical de la programación infantil de «TVE» como universo audible Amparo Porta. Castellón (Spain) • Structures and Archetypal Content in Advertising Communication ...... 185/194 Estructuras y contenidos arquetípicos en la comunicación publicitaria Francisco García, Miguel Baños & Paloma Fernández. Madrid (Spain)

BINNACLE

VISUAL STORIES 196/199 REVIEWS 200/233 NEXT TITLES 234 QUALITY CRITERIA 235

Editorial Editorial http://dx.doi.org/10.3916/C37-2011-01-01

Media Education: An International Unstoppable Phenomenon. The Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 Work of the UN, Europe and Spain in the Field of Edu-communication

La educación mediática, un movimiento internacional imparable. La ONU, Europa y España apuestan por la educomunicación

Dr. J. Ignacio Aguaded-Gómez

espite the fact that media education scarcely appears reflected in school curricula all over the world, it is becoming more necessary in our societies. As Vallet stated decades ago, communication is the air we Dbreathe; and it is therefore essential to train and educate the new generations to understand the new languages and its new active and recreational learning processes, codes and discourses to be implemented by the educative authorities in each country. edia education should be also approached from other perspectives. The role of families as main educators and the media itself have a decisive edu-communicative influence on the children, as well as Mcivil society and the citizenship in democratic societies. The citizenship should take part in associations and organizations with the aim to build a responsible and critic society in which the power of the media is increasingly pervasive. he importance of media education at an international level is an indisputable reality. Since the 70s, some organizations such as the UNESCO have claimed the importance of media education as a trans- Tverse discipline which requires specific attention in school curricula, in teachers training, in family education, and should be also addressed to adults, the elderly, housewives, unemployed people, etc. oday, with more organizations involved (European Parliament, European Commission and UN- Alliance of Civilizations- UNAOC Program) new actions and strategies are being implemented. An Toutstanding initiative by the Media Literacy Education Program (MLE) is a web portal called «Clea - ring house» (www.aocmedialiteracy. org), with more than 2500 registered users each month, with a wide range of resources, information and material available. NAOC also develops a multicultural project of video graphic production «Plural+», aimed at the elaboration of audiovisual products by young people all over the world, focusing on thematic areas related Uto migration, diversity and social inclusion (www.unaoc.org/pluralplus). UNAOC also works on a platform in «Media Literacy» in partnership with advisers, teachers and researchers from the five continents. The final design will be presented in Doha (Qatar) during the «Global Junior Challenge» (www. gjc.it/2011/en), to be held as a next step after the «I International Forum on Media and Information Literacy», held last May 2011 in Fez (Morocco) (www.fls-usmba.ac.ma) and after the «World Summit on Media for Children and Youth» (Karlstad, Sweden), co-organized with Nordicom. nother remarkable initiative is «Mapping Media Education in the World», a publication released by UNAOC in collaboration with Grupo Comunicar. This publication has been distributed worldwide, Apresenting the most meaningful experiences in media education found in different countries. t a European level, many experiences are being developed supported by the guidelines presented by the European Parliament, focusing on the implementation of edu-communicative policies in all educative Asystems. We would like to mention five countries in particular: Belgium, United Kingdom, Italy, Portugal and Spain.

Editorial Editorial

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 nder the umbrella of the Belgian Presidency of the Council of the European Union, more than 300 experts from 30 countries gathered at the end of 2010 in the Conference «L'Education Uaux Médias pour tous», organized by the «Conseil Supérieur de l'Education aux Médias de la Communauté française de Belgique». This meeting was decisive to emphasize the importance of media education in Belgium and in the European Union. As a result, a declaration was released, the «Dé - claration de Bruxelles pour l'éducation aux Médias tout au long de la vie» (www.declarationdebruxe- lles.be). This document is a clear and precise declaration that can be signed by any European citizen. Média Animation actions in Belgium are decisive for boosting media education in the country. y the end of 2010 another important meeting took place in the UK. The «Media Literacy Con - ference» (MLC 2010) contributed to lay the foundations for future works on media education in Bthe UK. Due to the economic crisis, the next meeting to be held in Nottingham will be postponed, but the Media Education Association (MEA), together with the Centre for the Study of Children, Youth & Media (CSCYMNM) and the prestigious British Film Institute (BFI) continue carrying out activities on this field. n Italy, the MED (Associazione Italiana per l´Educatione ai Media e alla Comunicazione) has star- Ited to release «Revista Education» and is also organizing training activities along the country. t the beginning of 2011, an important national conference took place in Portugal: «Literacia, Media e Cidadania». Educative authorities, the media, universities, research centres, teachers Aand other agents were gathered in this conference. Despite the economic crisis, this meeting was essential to discuss the implementation of future actions. inally, in Spain, generally, media education remains a pending task. Even if there are more and better qualified researchers and teachers working everyday on media education and the resear- Fches and publications evidence the necessity to teach and learn the media, our current curricula, the educational TV, and our control boards are still far from the outcome reached in other European and American countries. However, in 2011, two exceptional events on the field of media education took place in Spain: the «I Congreso de Alfabetización Mediática», organized by the Gabinete de Co - municación y Educación de la Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona: this initiative became an international forum for reflection with a remarkable representation of Arabic, European and American cultures. On the other hand, the «Congreso de Educación Mediática y Culturas Digitales», held in Segovia and organized by the Universidad de Valladolid and other organizations (among them, Grupo Co - municar). This innovative conference has been a turning point to re-activate in Spain the discussion on media education as a crucial element in the daily life of citizens.

D ossier

Special Topic Issue 10 Introduction

http://dx.doi.org/10.3916/C37-2011-02-00 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 The Net on Teaching Processes at the University La Red en los procesos de enseñanza de la Universidad

Dr. Josep Maria Duart Open University of Catalonia (Spain)

igher education has undergone some very significant changes in recent decades: access to it H has been democratised, major progress has been made both in terms of research and of relationships with business and society, new teaching methodologies have been introduced, laws have been amended, quality assurance systems have been incorporated, the European Higher Education Area process has been implemented and so on. All of these changes are a consequence of the impact that an increasingly open and dynamic society –the information and knowledge society– has had on higher education. Moreover, we have experienced –and continue to experience– the rise of technologies that were first described as «new», then referred to as the ‘Internet’ and are now known as the «Web». The Web has spread into all areas of society and makes it more open. The social networking phenomenon is changing how we communicate with each other and how we value the present. However, technologies are not responsible for bringing about these changes in society in general and in higher education in particular; the changes were already there, bubbling under the surface until the time was right for them to happen. What the Internet has done is speed up the pace of change and enabled these changes to happen, while at the same time promoting new ways of communicating and disseminating ideas. These dynamics generate and are generating a real change in society and all of its institutions, not only in the field of higher education. The introduction and use of the Internet in higher education has transformed its organisational, technological, communication and educational models. While the early Internet-related changes affected organisation and communication (institutional websites, access to grades, online libraries, access to teaching plans, folders of virtual documents, etc.), nowadays it could be said that that major change affects education; it is the outcome of a model that integrates technology into teaching and learning processes. According to currently available data, teaching staff constitute one of the collectives that most uses the Internet on a personal level. However, we find that only slightly more than 50% of teachers in the Spanish education system use the Internet in teaching (although they make widespread of the Internet for research). These data also show that the uses to which the Internet is put in the classroom tend to focus on searching for and accessing information, and on communicating via e-mail. It would therefore seem that what is worthwhile in their personal lives and for research is of no use in classroom dynamics. Something similar happens when analysing the student collective, although we consider that students should not be held responsible for the low level of Internet use in higher education teaching. Today, we also know that Internet use in the classroom does not, in its own right, help to improve

Introduction Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 learning results. It is essential to integrate Internet use into learning plans in order to achieve positive results. Thus, we propose that the following principles should be taken into account: a) Awareness of the profile of university students today; b) Defining a learning model that integrates the use of technologies; c) Centring the educational model on learning activities; d) Avoiding any confusion between information and learning; e) Hybridising educational action to achieve a communication continuum between students and lecturers. Each of these principles is assessed in the paragraphs that follow. Knowing the student is crucial to any educational process. Learning is a personal process of acquisition, and we should therefore know the individuals to whom we are going to relate. Today, training cannot be understood solely from a unidirectional, lecturer-to- student knowledge transmission perspective; nowadays, students are people who are very much aware of Internet dynamics, who have their social networks, who have their identities on the Internet and who also have their own systems for searching for and accessing information. They are, therefore, people with Internet-use competencies. To overlook in the classroom the use that students make of the Internet outside the classroom is not beneficial to the teaching-learning process. Furthermore, we find that few higher education institutions have an institutional educational model. The most common approach is that each lecturer independently defines his or her own educational model in the classroom. However, today if a higher education institution wants to have a teaching system that integrates technologies, it is crucial to have the right institutional technological support. Higher education institutions should provide lecturers and students with technological systems to enable an educational model that integrates technologies to be developed. In the early days, an institution merely had to provide a Virtual Campus or a Learning Management System (LMS), but now it needs to go much further and facilitate access to open source information, the creation of knowledge networks, online participation, etc. Generally speaking, these systems should enable an increase in standards of information competencies and online relational competencies, and foster the creation of an institutional educational model that integrates technology use. Learning activities should be at the centre of any educational model. Neither is this new, nor is it a consequence of Internet use, though it could be said that Internet use can indeed help to situate learning

activities at the centre of the learning model. Learning activities are based on students’ learning objectives and not solely on teaching objectives, and this is precisely the point where multiple aspects need to be related and integrated: learning resources (available on the Internet), accompaniment by lecturers (both in class and online) and collaborative work among students (synchronous or asynchronous, with a more or less intensive Internet use). Knowing is not the same as learning. Being connected to or taking part in social networks does not necessarily mean that learning is taking place. Connectivism is not, in our view, a theory of learning. We Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 need to do a lot of research and have sufficient data available in order to observe and analyse the impact of connectivity on learning processes. Without these data, we consider that the most significant aspect is the acquisition of competencies to enable an appropriate use of social networking. Indeed, it is in the competent use of social networking – and not so much in access to technology – where the digital divide now manifests itself. Currently, the big challenge for higher education institutions resides in the hybridisation of their organisation and their teaching-learning methodologies. To hybridise is to integrate, that is to say, to combine traditional teaching with Internet-based teaching. It is not simply a matter of complementing traditional teaching with access to information on the Internet. Rather, it is a question of planning the educational process in an integrated way right from the start, and teaching staff play a key role in this challenge. Hybridisation also entails the configuration of a continuum in the learning process that goes beyond the amount of time spent in face-to-face classes. Students and lecturers remain connected and continue learning outside class time. Finally, it should be pointed out that the big challenge today is the teaching staff’s capacity to acquire the necessary competencies to adapt teaching methodologies to the reality of the present, a time when students are actively involved in social networks and in the network society. The monograph presented here includes important contributions to each of the issues and assessments that have been mentioned. Some of the most important contributions contained in the selected articles are detailed in the paragraphs that follow. The article by Martínez, Cabecinhas and Loscertales, which draws on an empirical survey-based study, shows that older people are very familiar with the Internet, highlights the importance of the motivational use of the Internet by older people and corroborates basic uses such as information searches and e-mail. It is an important contribution to the study of this collective’s social inclusion in the network society. The article by Collis and Moonen presents a very interesting review of the processes of higher education flexibilisation through Internet use. The authors assess flexibility from institutional, technological and educational viewpoints; they place particular emphasis on the latter and highlight the role of students and lecturers. They also portray several future scenarios for higher education. Along similar lines, the article by Steinbeck points to creativity as an important component in Internet- based learning processes. The author introduces this component by analysing global programmes and by drawing on the results of a research project conducted at several universities such as Stanford (California) and Pontifical Xavierian (Colombia). It is a very interesting contribution, with a new methodological and design proposal for learning activities. Open content repositories are also an object of analysis in this monograph. Marcelo, Yot and Mayor present the Alacena repository and perform a detailed analysis of its use for higher education teaching. The article by Burkle analyses the specific nature of e-learning in technical higher education institutions. The author presents a study that particularly focuses on the use of Web 2.0 tools by lecturers at technical institutes. One of the important conclusions drawn from the study suggests that there is a need to deal with the diversity of competencies required for students to use Web 2.0 tools by creating environments that enable competency imbalances to be redressed. Sloep and Berlanga’s contribution to the monograph is an interesting article on learning networks and networked learning. This is an important, well-documented reflection on the role of the Internet in the field of education. Indeed, it is one of the hot topics of debate in the sphere of higher education whenever there is talk of the role of social networks in learning processes. The article by Sloep and Berlanga brings crucial criteria and assessments to the debate.

The contribution made by Osorio and Duart is an analysis of interaction in hybrid learning environments. On the basis of a study conducted with the collaboration of students and lecturers taking part in a master’s degree programme, the importance of the learning environment was observed and, furthermore, the hybridisation of models was found to contribute to the training-communication continuum between students and lecturers. Along similar lines, the contribution made by Gómez-Escalonilla, Santín and Mathieu is a case study on journalism e-learning from the students’ perspective. The authors highlight the importance of the profile of students on the e-learning programmes and underscore the differences between them and Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 other students taking a face-to-face journalism course. The final article in the monograph is by Torres and Infante, which analyses Internet use by university students in Ecuador. It is a study within a geographical area that confirms some of the key evidence of similar studies conducted in other countries. In particular, the study highlights the existence of a relationship between social status and Internet use. This confirms the existence of digital inequality, which is dependent on the socioeconomic status of the family to which an Ecuadorian university student belongs. The monograph draws attention to some of today’s most important elements of analysis on Internet use in higher education. As already mentioned, this is just the start of a process of change in teaching and learning methodologies that is and will be highly beneficial. However, it is and will be a complex process because it affects people in particular and higher education institutions in general. Like any other process of change, it requires reflection, investigation and analysis. The monograph presented here seeks to contribute research, studies and assessments to aid such a necessary reflection.

Requested: 21-01-2010 / Received: 18-02-2011 l Betty Collis & Jef Moonen Accepted: 22-03-2011 / Published: 01-10-2011 Twente (Holland) http://dx.doi.org/10.3916/C37-2011-02-01 Flexibility in Higher Education: Revisiting Expectations

Flexibilidad en la educación superior: revisión de expectativas

ABSTRACT We have studied the construct of flexibility in higher education for many years, as researchers and practitioners. In this context we define flexibility as offering the student choices in how, what, where, when and with whom he or she participates in learning-related activities while enrolled in a higher education institution. In a textbook we wrote on the topic in 2001 we identified options that could be available to students in higher education to increase the flexi bility of their participation. We studied these from the perspective not only of the student but also in terms of their implications for instructors and for higher-education institutions and examined the key roles that pedagogical change and technology play in increasing flexibility. Now is it nearly a decade later. We will revisit key issues relating to flexibility in higher education, identify in broad terms the extent to which increased flexibility has become established, is still developing, or has developed in ways we did not anticipate directly a decade earlier. We will also review our scenarios for change in higher education related to flexibility and contrast these with a more-recent set from the UK. Our major conclusion is that flexibility is still as pertinent a theme for higher education in 2011 as it was in 2001. RESUMEN Llevamos bastantes años estudiando la construcción de la flexibilidad en la educación superior, tanto desde la óptica de la investigación como de la práctica. Entendemos por flexibilidad la opción de ofrecer a los estudiantes la posibi- lidad de elegir cómo, qué, dónde, cuándo y con quién participan en las actividades de aprendizaje mientras están en una institución de educación superior. En el libro que escribimos sobre esta temática en 2001 identificamos op- cio nes posibles para los estudiantes de educación superior con la finalidad de incrementar la flexibilidad de su par- ticipación. Lo estudiamos no sólo desde la perspectiva del estudiante sino también desde las implicaciones para los profesores y para las instituciones de educación superior, y examinamos el papel fundamental que desempeñan el cambio pedagógico y la tecnología en el aumento de la flexibilidad. Ahora, diez años después, revisamos los temas clave relacionados con la flexibilidad en la educación superior e identificamos, en términos generales, hasta qué punto se ha ido estableciendo el incremento de la flexibilidad, si todavía está evolucionando o si ha evolucionado de una forma que no pudimos prever hace diez años. Revisamos también nuestros escenarios para el cambio en la edu- cación superior relacionados con la flexibilidad y los contrastamos con un estudio más reciente llevado a cabo en el Reino Unido. Nuestra conclusión principal es que la cuestión de la flexibilidad en la educación superior sigue siendo tan pertinente en 2010 como lo era en 2001. KEYWORDS / PALABRAS CLAVE Flexibility, higher education, technology, change, pedagogy, implementation, scenarios. Flexibilidad, educación superior, tecnología, cambio, pedagogía, implementación, escenarios.

v Dr. Betty Collis is Professor Emerita at the School of Behavioral Sciences of the University of Twente (The Netherlands) ([email protected]). v Dr. Jef Moonen is Professor Emeritus at the School of Behavioral Sciences of the University of Twente (The Netherlands) ([email protected]).

Comunicar, 37, v. XIX, 2011, Scientific Journal of Media Literacy; ISSN: 1134-3478; pages 15-24 www.revistacomunicar.com 16

1. Introduction re unless they significantly alter their instructional For many reasons –political, social, philosophical, methods to keep pace with development spurred by economic as well as educational– there has long been the Internet» (Financial Times, 2000), and «Under- an interest in increasing the flexibility of participation in graduates are as interested in a college’s Net resources higher education. Rapid developments in computer as its curriculum (Bernstein, 2000: 114). The demo- and network technology, particularly the escalation in graphics of the student body were expected to alter Internet use during the latter decades of the 20th cen- dramatically, away from the traditional undergraduate

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 tury and the emergence of the World Wide Web in entering university directly after secondary school the mid-1990s not only intensified the motivation of toward uncharted numbers of post entry-level lear- institutions and governments to offer more flexible ners, such as those whose work situations require forms of participation in higher education but also led them to update themselves or prepare themselves for to a surge in experimentation with new pedagogical new careers. The possibility for learners, via techno- methods and new forms of digital learning resources logy, to participate in units or programmes from and interactions. In this context we wrote a book higher-education institutions where they would have about flexible learning in higher education which was little or no physical presence was seen as a threat to published in 2001 (Collis & Moonen, 2001). The traditional enrolment patterns. Increased flexibility was purpose of this reflection in 2010 is to revisit the con- seen as a key to the operations if not survival of higher- cept of flexible learning in higher education a decade education institutions and flexibility required techno- after our book was published, and consider the extent logy investments. The term «virtual university» began to which our conceptualizations and expectations to be used in the mid 1990s to describe an institution have been realized or need to be re-examined. The where some amount of its services and interactions questions we will address are: took place on-line, via network technologies and asso- • Conceptual: Has the concept of flexibility in ciated software applications (for a review, see higher education evolved since 2000 and if so in what Schreurs, 2009). Our main conclusion in 2001 based ways? Is increased flexibility still a major characteristic on interviews with decision makers in a number of of change in higher education? What are the key sce- European but also North American, Australian, and narios in describing a university’s position with respect Asian universities was «You can’t not do it»: Institutions to flexibility? had to make heavy investments in technology and • Realization-oriented: To what extent have our explore strategies for change in their methods of ope- expectations about flexibility been realized? In what rations in order to increase flexibility of participation. ways would we alter our expectations in the 2010 In 2010 institutions have made substantial invest- context? What factors constrain the possibilities for ments in network technology (see Section 2.2). flexibility in higher education? However the extent to which they have become virtual universities with a new demographic of student is 2. Flexible learning in higher education revisited not clear although certainly there is much on-line acti- In the 2001 book we conceptualized flexible lear- vity. In an analysis of virtual universities worldwide ning in terms of four key perspectives: institutional, carried out by the Re.ViCa Project supported by the implementation, pedagogy, and technology as well as European Union (Schreurs, 2009: 15-16) a conclu- combinations of these perspectives. In this section we sion is that «the virtual campus concept has changed will compare the emphasis on flexibility in 2001 and since it first came into use, because now more and 2010 in terms of these perspectives and their 2010 more universities see the possibilities inherent in offe- updates. We will also contrast scenarios for universi- ring courses off campus. We see an increasing num- ties in terms of flexibilization in our 2001 book with ber of universities offering courses themselves on a vir- other scenario suggestions that have occurred in the tual campus basis... While there are some institutions past 10 years. adopting fully on-line courses, it is now most common for courses to be blended. In the last few years there 2.1. Flexibility from the institutional perspective has been an apparent decline in usage of the term ‘vir- During 1999 and 2000 decisions makers in univer- tual campus’, but a continuing growth in the pheno- sities were confronted with a wave of threats to their menon... Every campus becomes a virtual campus. core businesses and identities. Newspapers and maga- (However) ‘blended models’ gain more and more zines routinely were making comments such as: interest and attention». «Traditional universities and colleges face a bleak futu- This is reflected in a survey in the USA of more

than 2,500 higher-education institutions (Allen & cost-effective space utilisation, is making it increasingly Seaman, 2007). In this survey an on-line course was important for senior managers and decision-makers to defined as one in which at least 80% of course content keep abreast of new thinking about the design of tech- is delivered on-line, thus including blended variations. nology-rich (physical) learning spaces». With this definition more than 3.4 million students, Physical buildings need to be designed so that their nearly 20% of all higher-education students, were individual spaces are flexible – to accommodate both taking at least one on-line course during the 2006 aca- current and evolving pedagogies and changing needs demic year, an increase of approximately 10% over the (HEFCE, 3). Technologies that are as far as possible Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 previous academic year. This 9.7 % growth rate for mobile and wireless will make spaces more easily re- on-line enrolments is much more than the 1.5% purposed (p. 5). In addition to the practical value of growth rate of the overall student population (Allen & flexible physical learning spaces supported by techno- Seaman, 2007). logy individual universities report positive results of However, despite the availability of some courses redesigned physical learning space relating to learning. or programmes in on-line (blended) form, a conclusion At the University of Brighton «the strongest finding to of a UK review (Jameson, 2002: 32) gives a more nuan- ced view of overall change in higher education: It is not uncommon for institutions to Advances in technology since 2001, particularly Web 2.0 make a commitment to new tools and applications, mobile technologies, Wifi networks, technologies in their strategy documents but in reality they different forms of group and individual work-support systems are watching the field and hope they are ready to ‘switch and personalisable digital environments to simultaneously on’ quickly if and when neces- support learning, work, and private activities, have changed sary. In a very person-to- person oriented learning sys- the landscape of how learners (and instructors) communicate tem (e.g. Oxford/Cambridge) technology has a limited and share outside of formal educational situations. The impact on teaching and lear- extent to which these new flexibilities will be translated for ning, but it does make resources available. use in formal settings for learning is still to be seen. Thus the move many predicted for higher-education institutions in terms of increasing flexibility by offering (some) courses or programmes on-line has been emerge so far has been an almost unanimous agree- modestly accomplished but the fact that many of these ment from facilitators and learners alike that the flexi- courses are in fact blended with some element of phy- bility of the space has had a very positive effect on the sical presence required means that the degree of flexi- learning process» (Martin, 2008). At Canterbury bility of location offered by traditional higher-educa- Christ Church University also in the UK extensive tion institutions is still constrained. This relates to an research has taken place as to what learners do and institutional trend related to flexibility that we did not where they go (their «learning footprints» (Collis, anticipate in 2001 but which has emerged strongly 2010) in a new technology-rich physical learning during the last decade: a growing interest and level of centre where learning flexibility is enhanced by the expenditure on on-campus physical learning spaces. In fact that «learners can borrow notebook computers the UK and also Australia there has been a substantial with full Wifi network connectivity as easily as picking redesign of physical learning spaces at many univer- a book from a shelf» (Steadman, 2010: 2) and thus sities. In a summary (2006: 2) by HEFCE, the Higher move about the facility as they wish while maintaining Education Funding Council for England, the point is on-line network contact. The initiative, the first in hig- made that «Increasing investment in estate and lear- her education successfully to introduce on a large ning technologies, combined with the need for more scale, self-service thin client notebooks on loan for

student use, also involved location-tracking software (electronic learning environments) as offering many within the notebooks, providing on-going data on the possibilities to increase flexibility. In later research (De numbers, time and duration of use, and location of the Boer, 2004) we noted that the logistic aspects of flexi- notebooks. The tracking data coupled with other data bility were being enhanced, but not the pedagogic sources such as interviews, surveys, and observations, aspects. gave empirical evidence of different learning interac- In 2010 this has remained the case: Web-based tions than took place in the previous physical learning course-management systems (VLEs) are now common

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 centres of the university library and classrooms (Collis, in the majority of universities, but tend to be used pri- 2010; Steadman, 2010). Parallel to this in the USA, marily for logistic flexibility. In terms of the technology there is the acknowledgement that «campuses should systems with which students interact universities are develop an interrelated strategy that takes into account gradually moving away from the current generation of a range of types of learning spaces, including virtual proprietary course-management systems toward open spaces, and a range of support services (Brown & source systems or even more-personalisable digital Lippincott, 2003: 16). desktop environments, making use of portals, customi- sable interfaces, and user- selected combinations of tools and applications (generally For flexibility to move beyond logistic – and personal-usage related to the so-called Web 2.0; Hermans & Verjans, options to more-fundamental aspects of higher-education 2008). Such combinations include possibilities for indivi- participation and pedagogic change will continue to require dual or collaborative creation strategic incentives and appropriate support. In a time of and sharing of content (via Weblogs, bookmarks, photos, financial constraint, the resources needed for appropriate or other resources); for the support of social networks support will be increasingly hard to allocate. both within the learning context and outside; for presence- related services that take into account where the users are Thus rather than moving toward the 2001 and who they will allow into their virtual space; and conception of increasingly virtual universities it is our aggregators and mash-up tools to help users know observation that provision for technology-rich flexible about new sources of input and to organise these for physical learning spaces has become a major focus for personal needs. Although prototypes of this sort of many university decision makers. Some learning may Personal Learning Environment (PLE) are beginning be taking place partially or fully on-line but enhancing to emerge in technology-related research projects in the flexibility, and attractiveness, of on-campus lear- higher education, user-adaptable functionality is alre- ning spaces is a larger focus, at least in countries inclu- ady common in the personal digital environments of ding the UK, Australia, and the USA. many higher-education students (Atwell, 2007). Students indicate that «technologies used in their (uni- 2.2. Flexibility from the technological perspective versity) courses are much less adequate than their In our 2001 analysis we indicated a variety of personal technologies (Heo, 2009: 295). ways that technology could enhance the flexibility of The Web 2.0 applications that have emerged in learning in higher education, ways related to the logis- the last several years were beyond what we discussed tics of engagement in a higher-education institution in our 2001 book. The use of Wikis (see for example (including accessing course materials and organisatio- Anzai’s account of Wiki use in Japanese higher educa- nal information on-line, submitting assignments and tion, 2009) and of social networks (Anderson, 2009) getting feedback on-line) and also ways related to new are examples of what in the US has been predicted as forms of learning. We saw the emergence of course- key emerging technologies for learning in higher educa- management systems (called by different names in dif- tion (New Media Consortium, 2008). This Consor - ferent contexts, including virtual campus environ- tium, which every year produces a report on key emer- ments, VLEs (virtual learning environments) or ELO ging technologies for higher education, indicates

«collective intelligence» and «social operating systems» technologies and new forms of learning activities that as follow ups to the now already present «collaboration have emerged in the literature in the last decade. Hall webs» could have a major impact on learning in higher and Conboy (2009: 232) for example describe explo- education by somewhere around 2013. ratory projects involving blogging as a reflective lear- But will they? In our 2001 book we noted that the ning activity, student development of course Wikis as potential of technology to enhance the learning expe- social knowledge-building, and the use of a social net- rience in higher education depends on whether it is work that learners could customise and use for the being used as a core or a complementary technology. management of their group learning activities. Their Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 A core technology involves the major artefacts around conclusion is that «the learner can be empowered to which a course is designed. These are institutionally make effective decisions about their learning where embedded. In much of higher education the core tech- read/write Web tools are used to catalyse pedagogic nologies remain as they have been prior to 2001: lec- innovation». At the Nanyang Technological University tures, classrooms, written examinations in physical, in Singapore a pedagogical and organisational model monitored situations, and textbooks. An addition has called University 2.0 has been implemented with an become the course-management system, used to emphasis on learner engagement (»teach less, learn provide resources and information and manage some more», Tan, Lee, Chan & Lu, 2009: 517) and on forms of interaction (typically submission of assign- empowering students to take charge in shaping their ments and provision of feedback and marks). Other own learning experiences. Learning activities such as sorts of technologies, such as the Web 2.0 applica- self/peer evaluation, project work management, stu- tions, are what we call complementary technologies: dent construction of questions for peer learning, and some instructors choose to use them as supplements or on-line portfolio creation are examples of the emphasis enrichments but they are not mainstreamed nor are on student engagement. Even during self study, lear- they essential to overall academic progress for the ners are encouraged to link up with other classmates student. Collectively we still are far from the «learning for learning support using a locally made application web» view of technology use in higher education, (aNTUna Connect) for the support of virtual learning where «the role of information technology is modelled communities. In addition, and still unusual in higher- as one of providing knowledge support systems that practice, «students are involved and also consulted in expedite the processes of knowledge formation and a decision-making process about learning focus and dissemination» (Gaines, Norrie & Shaw, 1996) or assessment outcomes». From a conceptual perspective what we called «technology as a learning workbench» Conole, Dyke, Oliver & Seale (2004) show how dif- (Collis & Moonen, 2005). ferent learning activities (brainstorming, gathering resources for a particular task, and self assessment of 2.3. Flexibility from the teaching and learning per- level of competence) can be made flexible by offering spective students options relating to individual or social partici- Teaching and learning involves instructors, lear- pation, as well as reflective or skill-oriented orienta- ners, and the pedagogy of instruction, particularly lear- tions, and information-based versus experience-based ning activities. The perspective also includes those emphases. who support instructors and learners in higher educa- Thus supported by Web 2.0-type technological tion institutions. developments the potential for pedagogic flexibility is even stronger in higher education than it was in 2001. 2.3.1. Pedagogy and learning activities However, in our more-recent analyses (Collis & In our 2001 book we elaborated a pedagogical Moonen, 2008) we have identified many barriers to model for course and learning-activity design based on the realisation of this potential. A major set of barriers two key principles: learning situations should be desig- relates to the willingness of instructors in higher educa- ned for flexibility and thus options for the student, and tion to change their teaching practices. learning situations should involve not only acquisition of skills and concepts but also opportunities to partici- 2.3.2. Instructors and support staff pate in and contribute to a learning community. This There is no widespread evidence that mainstream «contributing-student» pedagogical approach fits well higher-education instructors are any more likely to be with the affordances of Web 2.0 technology which incorporating innovative pedagogies in their course have emerged since 2001 and is indirectly reflected in designs in 2010 than was the case in 2001. As before, many of the studies and projects involving Web 2.0 the instructor is the key figure in pedagogic change.

And as before instructors lack sufficient time, motiva- Despite their importance support services are tion, and support to move beyond their level of tole- particularly vulnerable to internal reorganisations and rance for innovation and use of technologies in lear- budget cuts when universities face economic challen- ning. As noted by Collis and Messing in 2001 instruc- ges. Jameson (2002: 33) notes that «In the UK a num- tors make personal decisions about how much time ber of universities have felt the need to re-organise and effort they can make available for important their teaching and learning support services. In some elements of interaction-oriented pedagogies such as cases these services have been broken up and

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 feedback and individualisation and thus set their own removed to other parts of the administration, e.g. pla- limits for time commitment. In 2005 Gervedink Nijhuis ced in the «Estates» division. This is a dangerous move analysed the many time – and labour-intensive impli- as these support services have a special role in cations for instructors of offering more flexibility to stu- teaching and learning and they will find themselves in dents in learning activities and concluded that the time competition for resources with services supplying burden for instructors of managing flexibility in lear- general institutional requirements». ning activities is too much for many instructors in Unfortunately this is happening in many universi- balance with the many other burdens on their time ties and constitutes a serious constraint to enhanced and effort. Simons (2002) feels part of the problem is pedagogic flexibility. that instructors lack insight into «digital didactics» and thus are reluctant about or resistant to pedagogical 2.3.3. Learners change through lack of understanding as to what it can In our 2001 book we did not have a specific chap- offer or how to proceed with its implementation. ter relating to the learner’s perspective on flexibility. As has been the case with previous generations of This was because we considered the entire analysis to technologies and their potential for learning the need be grounded on the learner and the desirability of for more effective and efficient professional develop- making more options available for him or her in terms ment of instructors is still acknowledged and the impor- of participation in learning-related activities. In the sub- tance of support staff for teaching and learning remains sequent decade however a new cycle of interest in high. Support staff include persons in university tea- learner experiences as a key component of transforma- ching –and learning centres who focus on curriculum– tion of institutional practices has evolved. Sharpe and pedagogical innovations in teaching, technical staff (2009: 178) indicates that there is a shift occurring to who support instructors and students in their uses of research on the learner experience that is «more holis- technology, and also other staff such as librarians who tic, including that which examines the impact on the may be involved in supporting instructors, for example pervasive use of technology in learners’ lives...with with issues relating to digital information access and attempts to conceptualise the observed variation in management relevant to their teaching activities. On- learners’ experience». Learner-experience research demand support for instructors, thus highly flexible and now goes beyond institutional technology provision contextualised, was one of the major components of but also considers the influence of the rise of personal improved learning and cost reduction in a series of case ownership of technology and use of on-line tools and studies in course redesign in the USA (Twigg, 2004). applications. For example at the University of Bradford Simons (2002) calls for new methods of professional in the UK the awareness of students’ substantial use of development and guidance for instructors and thus in on-line social networks has led to new and highly fle- turn new methods and skills for support staff. A new xible approaches to on-line support to help learners method of staff development, based on flexibility and during their period of transition into higher education contextualisation, that has shown good promise is that (see the tool at www.brad.ac.uk/developme). At of Canterbury Christ Church University in the UK Oxford Brookes University a personalised learner-cen- (Westerman & Barry, 2009). Instructors can choose tric model of technology-enriched education based on which of more than 20 types of technologies they wish the belief that students should be skilled at handling to become familiar with and for each of the types diffe- information, managing human interactions, and know- rent sorts of self-study learning methods were develo- ledge building using digital tools is being developed ped. While each instructor had a personalised appro- and personalised also per academic study programme ach emphasising gaining technical literacy before (Benfield, Ramanau, & Sharpe, 2009). Because stu- attempting pedagogic changes, social interaction among dents are competent technology users does not neces- the instructors and the support staff was also an impor- sarily mean they are critical users, with information- tant form of learning and attitude change. literacy levels necessary for the learning goals of higher

education. Comrie, Smyth and Mayes (2009: 210) quality control (with two extremes, one where the note that at the three Scottish universities involved in expert at the university is responsible for the quality the TICEP project (Transforming and Enhancing the control of the learner’s experience and the other Student Experience through Pedagogy, see www2.- where the learner himself becomes increasingly res- napier.ac.uk/transform) priority is given to scaffolding ponsible for the quality of his own learning decisions). learners’ «self-regulation and what is being increasingly These gave rise to four scenarios: referred to as learning (or academic) literacy...with ins- • Back to the Basics: Where local and face-to-face titutions...focusing their resources on preparing their transactions are highly valued and the institution deter- Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 learners rather than on their ‘provision’». These and mines its curricula and programmes and ensures their other learner-experience studies suggest that the lear- quality ner’s personal experiences with technology and more • The Global Campus: Where the university importantly his or her critical maturity with dealing maintains quality control but programmes and learning with information and diverse human opinions are are increasing available via network technology, not a important components of his or her response to incre- physical campus ased flexibility relating to learning in higher education. • Stretching the Mould: Where the learner still This leads to the conclusion that preparing students to focuses on the local campus and face-to-face transac- respond effectively to flexibility is as important as flexibility provision itself. Thus, in summary, there is Our main conclusion in 2001 based on interviews with mixed progress in terms of increasing flexibility in learning decision makers in a number of European but also North and teaching in the decade American, Australian, and Asian universities was «You can’t since our 2001 analysis. Personal and socially oriented not do it»: Institutions had to make heavy investments in technologies have become common in the personal worlds technology and explore strategies for change in their of many students in higher education and there is experimen- methods of operations in order to increase flexibility tation with pedagogies that of participation. build on sharing, collaborating, and contributing to the learning of one’s peers. But beyond exploratory projects there does not appear to be widespread changes in pedagogical tions but gradually makes more personal choices and methods. The reasons remain those which have been thus assumes more responsibility for the quality of his the case whenever innovation in teaching practices are or her experience being considered: instructors do not have time, skills, • The New Economy: Where individuals pick or incentives to make substantial changes in their fami- and choose their own learning combinations, via glo- liar approaches to instruction. In parallel to this support bal and network-mediated transactions, from a num- staff who could stimulate such innovation are under ber of sources of learning resources resource constraints themselves. As we predicted in 2001, the New Economy option has not moved beyond the informal-learning 2.4. Scenarios for universities setting. Traditional universities are still primarily posi- In 2001 we identified four scenarios for higher tioned in the Back to the Basics scenario but with ins- education and flexible learning for «2005 and beyond». titution-supported options for some courses in a Global These scenarios emerged from the combination of Campus setting, and with a gradual increased presen- two key dimensions, one relating to the location of ce in a Stretching-the-Mould scenario. What is inte- learning provision (with two extremes, where local resting is that the latter is occurring generally outside a and face-to-face transactions are highly valued and the specific institutional strategy; the Stretch occurs in an other where network-mediated transactions are the organic way as more options for flexible participation heart of the learning setting) and a second related to are available for learners.

In the ensuing decade other scenarios have been tion providers will be challenged to offer their students suggested. A particularly interesting set of scenarios options with regard to blends of face-to-face and on- emerged from a 2008 study under assignment from line learning rather than only a distance model in order Universities UK, a membership association of the exe- to compete with the sorts of new situations suggested cutive heads of all the UK university institutions and in the second and third scenarios of the UK future some colleges of higher education (www.universitie- analysis. suk.ac.uk/AboutUs/WhoWeAre/Pages/default.aspx).

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 The study focused on the size and shape of the higher- 3. Conclusion education sector in the UK in 20 years’ time (Brown & We believe that flexibility is still as pertinent a al, 2008). Based on an analysis of key uncertainties theme for higher education in 2010 as it was in 2001. and drivers of demand and the recognition that fun- We affirm our position from 2001 that flexibility ding cuts are likely to be the context for any future sce- relates to making choices available to the learners, nario three scenarios were developed: choices that they need to be able to make use of and • Slow adaptation to change: Few significant new use wisely. We see a change in the momentum for fle- sources of student demand are expected, only modest xibility in traditional universities in 2010 compared to investments in e-learning will be made so that it 2001: less emphasis on «global campus» opportunities remains a relatively small part of the total learning for participation (beyond those already established) experience for most students. Some institutions will and more attention to enhancing the flexibility of lear- merge or close due to decreasing funding. ning spaces, as a blend of on-campus and technologi- • Market driven and competitive: Increased compe- cal spaces and the support that students can call on as tition in all student markets between and among traditio- they make use of the flexible spaces. The motivation nal higher-education institutions and new providers, for this attention is partially as incentive for new and more widespread investment in e-learning particularly continuing students, partially for the new learning by larger institutions in partnership with the private sec- opportunities that can be realised, but also for econo- tor, and a major reconfiguration of the sector with mic reasons – to make more flexible (i.e., cost-effec- fewer large multi-mission institutions and a larger num- tive) use of physical facilities. Advances in technology ber of small, specialist higher-education institutions. since 2001, particularly Web 2.0 tools and applica- • Employer-driven flexible learning: Employer tions, mobile technologies, Wifi networks, different demand for accreditation of work-related experiences forms of group and individual work-support systems and co-funding of programmes by groups of employers and personalisable digital environments to simultane- and their supply chains, most students study part-time ously support learning, work, and private activities, on a virtual basis while they continue to work, leading have changed the landscape of how learners (and ins- to a highly stratified higher-education sector with a tructors) communicate and share outside of formal small number of elite institutions, some major regional educational situations. The extent to which these new centres, some predominantly virtual institutions, some flexibilities will be translated for use in formal settings traditional local universities for undergraduates, and for learning is still to be seen. The risk is always there some institutions offering programmes franchised from that a «lowest common denominator» of usage will regional centres (summarised from Brown & al, 2008: settle in for these new technologies during the next 5-13) decade as it did for Web-based course-management In the second and third scenarios flexibility media- systems over the last decade. For flexibility to move ted by technology will play a major role. It is interesting beyond logistic – and personal-usage options to more- that this UK scenario exercise did not seem to explicitly fundamental aspects of higher-education participation refer to the experience of the Open University of the and pedagogic change will continue to require strate- UK. It, like other large-scale distance-education institu- gic incentives and appropriate support. In a time of tions (including the Open University of The Nether - financial constraint, the resources needed for appro- lands and the Open University of Catalonia) have long priate support will be increasingly hard to allocate. been offering flexible forms of course participation, particularly to non-entry level learners, with large numbers of students selecting this model of higher References ALLEN, I.E. & SEAMAN, J. (2007). Online Nation: Five Years of education. However, given the changing landscape of Growth in Online Learning. Needham (MA, USA): Sloan-Con sor- the higher-education sector as envisaged by the Uni - tium. (http://sloanconsortium.org/publications/sur vey/pdf/ on li ne_ na- versities UK study perhaps the mega distance-education.pdf) (01-08-2010).

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© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 15-24 © ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: 25 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 26 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 © ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: DOSSIER

Requested: 21-01-2010 / Received: 17-02-2011 l Reinhold Steinbeck Accepted: 22-03-2011 / Published: 01-10-2011 Stanford (USA) / São Paulo (Brazil) http://dx.doi.org/10.3916/C37-2011-02-02 Building Creative Competence in Globally Distributed Courses through Design Thinking El «design thinking» como estrategia de creatividad en la distancia

ABSTRACT Helping students think creatively is consistently cited as one of the key goals of education. Yet, across universities around the world, alarms have been sounding off suggesting that students are not prepared for a world where they are expected to solve messy, unstructured problems that don't have easy answers. This paper introduces design thinking, a human-centered innovation methodology that has been implemented in a design innovation program at Stanford University as well as at one of the most successful design consultancies. After a brief overview of design thinking, the author illustrates the key elements of this innovation pedagogy through its implementation at a university in Colombia. Realizing the potential of this methodology for building creative competence and confidence among students from all disciplines, and recognizing the power of the next generation of information and collaboration technologies and social media, the author proposes new research and development projects that will bring more creativity to traditional distance and blended learning programs through an infusion of design thinking. RESUMEN Ayudar a los estudiantes a pensar de forma creativa suele considerarse uno de los objetivos clave de la educación. Sin embargo, muchas universidades de todo el mundo muestran cierta preocupación al respecto que sugiere que los estudiantes no están preparados para un mundo en el que necesitarán resolver problemas desordenados y deses- tructurados que no tienen fácil solución. Este artículo presenta el «design thinking» como una metodología para la innovación centrada en las personas, que se ha implementado en un programa para la innovación en el diseño de la Universidad de Stanford, así como en una de las consultoras de diseño más exitosas. Después de un breve resumen del concepto de design thinking, se ilustran los elementos clave de esta pedagogía para la innovación a través de su aplicación en una universidad en Colombia. Rendida cuenta del elevado potencial de esta metodología para la construcción de confianza y capacidad creativa en los estudiantes de todas las disciplinas, y del evidente poder de la próxima generación de tecnologías de la información y la colaboración, así como de los medios sociales, el autor propone nuevos proyectos de investigación y desarrollo que aportarán más creatividad a los programas de educación a distancia y semipresenciales gracias a la aplicación del «design thinking». KEYWORDS / PALABRAS CLAVE Design thinking, distance education, international education, project based learning, creativity. Design thinking, educación a distancia, educación internacional, aprendizaje basado en proyectos, creatividad.

v Reinhold Steinbeck is Co-Director of the Laboratório de Design, Inovação e Criaividade (d-USPL) at the University of São Paulo (Brazil) and Research Affiliate with the Center for Design Research (CDR) at Stanford University in California (USA) ([email protected]).

Comunicar, 37, v. XIX, 2011, Scientific Journal of Media Literacy; ISSN: 1134-3478; pages 27-34 www.revistacomunicar.com 28 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 ie) raiiy a te 06 nul E Confe TED annual 2006 the at creativity» mines) under- than (rather nurtures that system education an «creating for case strong a made expert, creativity and today. relevant more be couldn’t challenges complex to tions solu- and ideas innovative and new out bring to tools and skills knowledge, the students our give that nities for designing new learning environments and call opportu- its and findings alarming its ago, years 20 almost level. same the at scored 2% only test, same the taken children scored at ‘genius level’. 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Jarman and Land the from results Test generating ideas by explo- by ideas –generating - - Thinking - The IDEO Success Story Success IDEO The - Thinking Design through Creativity and Innovation 2. 2009). (Tischler, language» foreign a like just Stanford, at requirement a confidence «creative to make researchers and faculty Stanford of core ever growing an and Alto, Palo nearby in based consultancy as Silicon Valley. Silicon as sity has played within the innovation ecosystem known univer- the role unique the for example great another yet and University, Stanford of spin-offs many the of one is IDEO that say even might some and University, Stanford to ties close has company The world. the in tancy. It’s one of the top ranking innovative companies tion/product is being designed (Define Point of View); of Point (Define designed being is tion/product (Observe); them ching (Understand); situation/problem general the ein hnig s ua-etrd innovation» human-centered is thinking words, other design In way. viable commercially and sible solving to meet people’s needs in a technologically fea that approach uses the designer’s sensibility «an and methods for problem as thinking design defines CEO, IDEO’s Brown, Tim problems. solve and challenges Summarized Thinking’. view to which through lens a is thinking design briefly, ‘Design called method tion sing ideas (Prototype); and (Prototype); ideas sing have teamed up with their clients to design some of the engineers, MBAs, medical doctors, sociologists, and other experts anthropologists, psychologists, cognitive new. entirely problem the reframe may sometimes and prototyping, and observations continuous from gained insights new (Test). totypes DO s o yu rno-h-il ein consul design run-of-the-mill your not is IDEO At the core of the success of IDEO is an innova an is IDEO of success the of core the At • Build real prototypes of some of the most promi (Ideate); possible as ideas many as Generate • solu- a whom for persona user typical a Create • wat- closely by users the with empathy Gain • and users the about knowledge basic Acquire • • Learn from users’ reactions to the various pro various the to reactions users’ from Learn • Over the years, IDEO’s multidisciplinary teams of teams multidisciplinary IDEO’s years, the Over take may teams process, iterative this Throughout © ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 • Pages 27-34 Pages • 1988-3293 e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: n itgae expertise from design, social sciences, integrates and product, final the than her rat process, design the on 2010). (Brown, disciplinary teams to: teams disciplinary brings together strong multi- It engineering. and business ein hnig focuses thinking Design ------29

has also been informed by the growing body of research in project – and problem-based learning and small- group student collaboration. General findings

for these methodolo- Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 gies indicate that they can promote a range of important educational Figure 1. The Design Thinking Process (H.P.I. 2009). outcomes, including: more favorable attitudes toward learning most innovative products, such as the first computer and increased motivation (Springer, Do novan & al. mouse (Apple Inc.), the Palm V Personal Digital 1999), higher levels of achievement (Slavin 1996), Assistant/PDA (Palm Inc.), or the LifePort Kidney higher order thinking (Cohen 1994), improved com- Transporter (Organ Recovery Systems Inc.). munication and conflict management (Johnson & Moving beyond products and having applied the Johnson 1993), and strategic problem-solving skills methodology to services and organizational processes, (Barron 2000). such as revamping nursing shifts at Kaiser Permanente Larry Leifer, Professor of Mechanical Engineering hospitals, IDEO designers are now bringing design- Design and founding Director of the Center for Design thinking to bear on some of the world’s largest and Research (CDR) at Stanford University, who has lead most complex challenges such as poverty, public the ME310 course since the late 1980s, describes it as health, clean water, economic empowerment, educa- a «radical course» and a «cross between a senior caps- tion reform, access to financial services, and the need tone course, prototyping laboratory, and microcosm of for basic services. For example, the Acumen Fund and Silicon Valley. The course combines the best of inter- IDEO, with backing from the Bill and Melinda Gates disciplinary teaching and problem-based learning for Foundation, joined forces to tackle the issues of water engineering design. ME310 also offers a successful transport and storage in India which has already resul- formula of global networked innovation and provides ted in new distribution models, automated water a documented test bed of engineering education» vending machines, and better vessels for existing busi- (Carleton & Leifer, 2009). nesses. While ME310 provides corporate partners with a unique opportunity to explore new ‘innovations’ in a 3. Design Thinking as an Innovation and Creativity safe environment outside their own corporate structu- Pedagogy res, the main goal of ME310 is to apply the design ME310 is Stanford University’s flagship design thinking process and ME310’s unique course frame- course, offered through the School of Engineering’s work as a design innovation pedagogy to prepare the product design group. It is a yearlong graduate-level next generation of ‘innovators’. The hope is that these course in which between 35-40 Stanford students innovators will be globally aware, system thinkers, able participate in corporate-sponsored real-world design to function across cultures and multidisciplinary teams, projects. Teams of three to four students tackle the and increasingly design for sustainability (Figure 2). corporate problem or opportunity and move through the entire engineering design process with plenty of 4. ME310 Goes Global: Collaboration with support and guidance from industry liaisons, faculty, Colombia and team coaches. Example corporate partners inclu- In recent years, project teams at Stanford were de SAP, Autodesk, Panasonic, Telefonica, General increasingly paired with a global academic partner, Motors, and Volkswagen. reflecting the need to prepare students for a world of ME310 has its origin in the school’s efforts, rea- globally distributed teams, and by 2005, ME310 has ching back to the 1960s and 1970s, to offer its students become a completely globally distributed and blended a hands-on design experience that integrates analytical course. All projects are now supported by global teams skills with creative skills (Carleton and Leifer 2009). It consisting of a total of six to eight globally distributed

ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 • Pages 27-34 30

during the kickoff event at Stan ford. The exercise allows them to work in teams and experience all the elements of the design thinking process, which they then apply increasingly during the main corporate project phase.

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 Besides the structured sequence of key activities and events throughout the course, ME310 and its innovation pedagogy emphasize the following general key features: • Diversity and multiple channels for interactions: A key principle of Stanford’s ME310 Design Inno - vation course is that diversity can Figure 2. ME310 Framework. have a significant influence on innovation outcomes (Carrillo, 2003). students, three to four students at Stanford, and three ME310 teams are characterized by a to four students at the global partner university (figure high level of interaction and open exchange of diverse 3). During the 2007-08 and 2008-09 academic years, ideas from a multitude of viewpoints, as well as global academic partner universities included: Hasso guidance and suggestions from experts from outside Plattner Institute, University of Potsdam, Germany; the academic community. Helsinki University, of Technology, Finland; Univer - • Student teams: Students in ME310 are Master- sity of St. Gallen, Switzerland; Universidad Nacional level students and bring a wide range of disciplinary Autónoma de México (UNAM), Mexico; Pontificia expertise to their respective teams, including enginee- Universidad Javeriana (PUJ), Cali, Colombia; Tech- ring, industrial design, economics, and business. Each nische Universität München, Germany. global partner university has a minimum of two student A series of structured and sequenced milestones, teams that work in the same open space. This exposes prototype reviews and presentations to the corporate students to even more perspectives, while at the same partners help guide students through the learning and design process, from project kickoff, when all the participating global teams meet at Stanford University, to defining design requirements to constructing functional prototypes to user testing and technical evaluation and extensive documentation. The course concludes with a final ‘Design Fair’ where all the project teams come together at Stanford and present their final solutions to their corporate partners. One key element in the ME310 course sequence is a two-week warm-up design exercise at the beginning of the course. This activity leverages the idea that students improve their understanding between theory and practice through multiple experiential iterations (Leifer, 1998). During this fun activity, student teams design and build a fully functional paper Figure 3. Globally Distributed ME310 Design Innovation Network (ME310, bike and then race it against each other 2010).

Figure 4. PUJ - Stanford Collaboration: ME310 Sequence of Key Activities and Events. time creating a sense of competition. fact that PUJ Cali is a small and private university has • Teaching teams: The teaching teams are as proven to be an advantage for starting a fairly nontra- diverse as the student teams, and consist of professors, ditional program, as these types of universities tend to instructors, and teaching assistants from Stanford as be more flexible. Furthermore, the lead instructor at well as all participating global partner universities. PUJ responsible for the ME310 collaboration was a • Industry liaisons and coaches: Since ME310 is a member of PUJ’s product design department and project-based course, interactions between students knew about IDEO and was already familiar with the and industry partners are an integral part of the tea- design thinking methodology. ching and learning process. Liaisons are members of The selection process for PUJ students to partici- the industry partners and interact with the students pate in the ME310 program was very competitive and through regularly scheduled meetings or conference rigorous. Only six students were selected per year out calls. Coaches are usually course alumni with relevant of a total pool of 50 applicants to join two global professional experience in the area of the project. teams, each team consisting of three PUJ students and Coaches act as process experts, advise the students three Stanford students. The PUJ candidates repre- based on their technical expertise, and help with gene- sented all four engineering disciplines: computer scien- ral project and team management. ce, civil engineering, industrial engineering, and elec- • Rich virtual and physical innovation and learning tronic engineering. All applicants had to submit an environments: Since work and learning environments essay and participate in a group interview with the affect creativity and innovation, each university provi- Dean of the School of Engineering and the ME310 des its teams with a dedicated physical space which lead instructor. All students had to be fifth-year engine- they own and which they can design in a way that ering students, with a high grade point average, speak meets the teams’ working style. These spaces are English well, and demonstrate a strong interest in pro- equipped with flexible furniture and tools and techno- duct design. logies that support face-to-face as well as virtual colla- During the first two years of the PUJ-Stanford boration, visualization, and rapid prototyping. collaboration, four global PUJ-Stanford student teams In 2007, facilitated by Stanford’s International worked on the following real-world design challenges: Outreach Program (IOP), ME310 expanded for the • 2007-08 – «EveryoneIn». A digital camera first time to a university in South America, the Ponti - system that can be controlled through a cell phone. ficia Universidad Javeriana (PUJ) in Cali, Colombia. Corporate Partner: Kodak. «IdeaSpace». A dynami- Founded in Bogota in 1623, PUJ is the oldest univer- cally shared digital whiteboard that creates the expe- sity in Colombia. PUJ’s sectional division in Cali was rience of standing at the same physical whiteboard opened in 1970, and currently has about 5,200 under- with a remote teammate. Corporate Partner: Autodesk graduate and graduate students spread across five • 2008-09 – «TeleCardea». A healthcare service schools (Engineering, Business Administration, Health that combines remote blood pressure monitoring with Sciences, and Humanities and Social Sciences). The mobile telephony in order to transmit, store and analy-

ze data that will be used to evaluate and monitor the enabled them to be more innovative, helped them to condition of a patient from their own home. Corpo - appreciate different perspectives, and connected their rate Partner: Telefonica. «EmBracelet». A wirelessly learning with the ‘real world’. «[In ME310 I had to] connected accessory that allows friends to easily share share my experience with different types of people simple gestures like a hug and the gentle squeeze of with different points of views ... [this is] important the hand. Corporate Partner: Panasonic because when you work in engineering sometimes you In 2009, the author spent Spring Quarter on the are so involved in knowledge and maybe you could

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 Pontificia Universidad Javeriana campus in Cali. The think that you are right all the time, but sometimes this focus of the visit was to gage the impact ME310 was is not true and you need other people to open your having on students, but also to get an initial glimpse mind». Others stated «you don’t have innovation into how an innovative design program such as without diversity» and argued «your brain makes more ME310 could be implemented at a South American solutions when you have prototypes». university. Several students recognized the importance of Eleven PUJ students from both years participated connecting theory with practice. As one student said in an informal program review, using individual 60- «we are working with real problems, and we are minute semi-structured interviews. The interviews working with solutions that maybe can go out... I think focused on how the ME310 experience affected their this is the best way to create a closer relationship bet- own learning and their innovation success. The ween academic and professional companies». students were also asked about specific elements of People and interactions are crucial elements of the the ME310 program, and how these elements influen- ME310 program. The value of guidance and formati- ced their overall experience (course structure, team ve feedback provided by the coaches and industry liai- setup and team meetings, infrastructure, teaching sons is illustrated creatively by one of the students who teams, industry liaisons and coaches, etc.). said that as a student in ME310 «you start with closed The overall response from all the students about eyes and then you go out and you can see the sunshi- their experience with ME310 was very positive. One ne. But sometimes that sunshine blinds you, because student summed this up by saying that «for me it is the it’s so strong, and you go ahead, but you can’t see most spectacular and awesome experience. I am not everything you have to see. So in that moment, those here in this to just learn about academic things, also I people appear and give you sun glasses. And then you am learning a lot of things about relationships, about can observe everything better». experience with life, about process, about the university, about countries, this is something that involves 5. Future Directions for Research and your life». Development The general feeling of a successful implementation As ME310 evolved over the years by going tho- of ME310 in Colombia was also supported by the fact rough its own iterative process, its various key compo- that the teaching team placed the Stanford-PUJ nents formed the foundation for the design-thinking projects for both years in the top field among all the methodology. Design thinking not only became the teams. And one of the teams won third place in the dominant pedagogy for teaching design at Stanford’s Stanford software fair. School of Engineering, the model also served as the One of the key recurring themes throughout all the seed for what would become the design consultancy interviews was the notion that students had to take res- IDEO. It is no coincidence that David Kelley, IDEO’s ponsibility for their own learning. One student clearly founder and Professor in Mechanical Engineering, expressed this by stating that «here in Colombia graduated from Stanford’s original product-design Engineering Schools are so rigid and structured... [ME program. 310] is based in great freedom and on a couple of gui- In 2004, with support from Stanford University delines, but you are the person in charge to get the president John Hennessy, Kelley and other faculty result». Another student explained that «I like to learn members led the creation of the Hasso Plattner in different ways... in ME 310 you have problems, you Institute of Design at Stanford, also known as the have to understand these problems, you have to find «d.school», taking the design thinking methodology answers to these problems, everything is based on you, beyond ME310 and the School of Engineering by why is this working with this, or what does the user offering design courses to students from all disciplines prefer?». (http://dschool.stanford.edu/). The d.school has All of the students commented on how ME310 become one of the most popular programs on campus

where students and faculty in engineering, medicine, with a unique opportunity to gain an optimistic and business, the humanities, and education learn design practical understanding of their roles in addressing thinking and work together to create innovative some of the most challenging problems in underdeve- solutions to complex problems. loped communities around the world. It is exciting to One such course connects students form Stanford’s think about how the next generation of information d.school with their counterparts at the University of and collaboration technologies can play a crucial role Nairobi in Kenya. This course, called ‘Designing in engaging more people in rediscovering their creative

Liberation Technologies’, explores the use of mobile confidence and becoming active and curious partici- Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 phones as a technology for solving some of the challen- pants in designing better solutions for the social good. ges facing the world’s poor. The international student There are many indicators that suggest that the teams work closely with community health organiza- design thinking methodology and the design innovation tions in Nairobi’s largest slum as well as local mobile pedagogy as implemented at Stanford University can phone companies to find better solutions for collecting advance creative confidence and competence among patient information or for locating clean water courses, students, and boost innovation in other disciplines, while applying the d.school’s methodology of design environments, and cultures. Stanford’s Center for thinking (Driscoll 2010). Along with expanding the design thinking methodology beyond the engineering disci- Educators across the educational system agree that helping plines and engaging students in projects that have a stronger students think creatively and understand what is necessary social impact, programs increa- to make innovative ideas feasible is becoming increasingly singly leverage the potential of the Internet and social media important. Yet, research shows that children enter the edu- platforms to support open innovation processes on a cation system with a natural ability to be creative and inno- larger scale. The d.school at vative, but lose that ability as they move through the system. Stanford is providing a free online guide that describes the design thinking process used at Stanford University. IDEO developed OpenIDEO, an online platform that is gui- Design Research has been conducting scientific ded by the design thinking process and brings together research on understanding and augmenting design creative thinkers to find solutions to global challenges innovation practice and education in engineering for (http://openideo.com/). Another effort by IDEO to many years. And the list of successful entrepreneurs integrate design thinking into the work of NGOs and who have graduated from the ME310 program or social enterprises that work with impoverished com- participated in project courses at Stanford’s d.school is munities in Africa, Asia, and Latin America is a com- rapidly growing. prehensive Human-Centered Design toolkit, downlo- However, as the design thinking methodology is adable as a free PDF from IDEO’s web site (http:// - expanding beyond the engineering disciplines and is www.ideo.com/work/ human-centered-design- being embraced by an increasing number of programs toolkit/). And the Massachusetts Institute of Techno - around the world, there is an opportunity and a need logy’s (MIT) Global Challenge is a competition that for additional rigorous research that looks into how uses an online platform to match MIT students and these methodologies can be implemented in new faculty with MIT alumni and local mentors and com- cultural, institutional, and technological contexts, and munity organizations across the globe to apply their how they can build creative competence and confi- creative problem-solving skills to create solutions to dence among students. global problems (http://globalchallenge.mit.edu). The Escola de Artes, Ciências e Humanidades It is encouraging to see how these new programs (EACH) at the Universidade de São Paulo (USP) in are trying to infuse creativity and innovation back into Brazil is currently setting up a new project that will teaching and learning across the entire education focus exactly on such a research project. The new enterprise, and how several of them provide students Laboratório de Design, Inovação e Criatividade, a.k.a.

d-USPLeste, is infusing design thinking into PBL cour- References ses (project-based and problem-based learning) where BARRON, B. (2000). Achieving Coordination in Collaborative students from various disciplines work with commu- Problem-Solving Groups. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 9, 4; 403-436. nity organizations in São Paulo’s Zona Leste, one of BROWN, T. (2010). IDEO «design thinking» Approach. (www.- the most underdeveloped urban regions in Brazil. ideo.com/thinking/approach) (27-12-2010). Further more, d-USPLeste is working with the Uni - CARLETON, T. & LEIFER, L. (2009). Stanford’s ME310 Course as versidade Virtual do Estado de São Paulo (UNIVESP) an Evolution of Engineering Design. Proceedings of the 19th CIRP

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 to establish a pilot program that will explore how the Design Conference-Competitive Design, Cranfield University. design thinking methodology can be integrated more CARRILLO, A. (2003). Engineering Design Team Performance: Quantitative Evidence that Membership Diversity Effects are Time formally into distance learning programs. Dependent. Stanford: Escuela de Ingeniería, Universidad de Stanford. To look at the promising synergy between PBL COHEN, E. (1994). Restructuring the Classroom: Conditions for Pro - and Design Thinking within the context of designing ductive Small Groups. Review of Educational Research, 6, 1; 1-35. for social impact, some of the research questions that DRISCOLL, S. (2010). Designing Liberation Technologies. (http:// - d-USPLeste is exploring include: stanfordlawyer.law.stanford.edu/2010/11/designing-liberation- • How do we best teach the key mindsets (human technologies) (21-012011). H.P.I. (2009). Design thinking Process. University of Potsdam centered, bias towards action, radical collaboration, (Germany). (www.hpi.uni-potsdam.de/d_school/home.html) (08- culture of prototyping, show don’t tell, mindful 01-2011). process) and the central tools and techniques (under- JOHNSON, D. & JOHNSON, R. (1993). What we Know about Coo- stand, observe, define, ideate, prototype, test) of perative Learning at the College Level. Cooperative Learning, 13, 3. design thinking outside of the engineering discipline? LAND, G. & JARMAN, B. (1993). Breakpoint and Beyond. New York: Harper Business. • How do we develop a pedagogic framework for LEIFER, L. (1998). Design Team Performance: Metrics and the design thinking to support co-located learning teams Impact of Technology. Evaluating Corporate Training: Models and distributed in time and place? Issues. In BROWN, S.M. & SEIDNER, C.J. (Ed.). Boston: Kluwer • What are the best proportions of problems, Aca demic Publishers. projects, teamwork, student – and partner teams, and ME310 (2010). Design Innovation at Stanford University. (www.- technology? stanford.edu/group/me310) (27-10-2010). ROBINSON, K. (2006). Do Schools Kill Creativity? (www.ted.com/- • What are the characteristics of successful design talks/ken_robinson_says_schools_kill_creativity.html) (27-09-2010). innovation projects that have a social impact? SLAVIN, R.E. (1996). Research on Cooperative Learning and Achie- • How do we manage multidisciplinary design- vement: What we Know, What we Need to Know. Con - learning teams? temporary Educational Psychology, 21; 43-69. • How do we develop a comprehensive design SPRINGER, L.; DONOVAN, S. & AL. (1999). Effects of Small-Group thinking assessment system including new metrics to Learning on Undergraduates in Science, Mathematics, Engineering, and Technology: A Meta-Analysis. Review of Educational Research, measure the effect design thinking has on the learning 69, 1; 21-51. process and learning outcomes of students from TISCHLER, L. (2009). Ideo's David Kelley on Design Thinking. Fast different disciplinary backgrounds. Company.

Requested: 13-01-2011 / Received: 27-02-2011 l Carlos Marcelo, Carmen Yot & Cristina Mayor Accepted: 28-03-2011 / Published: 01-10-2011

Sevilla (Spain) http://dx.doi.org/10.3916/C37-2011-02-03 «Alacena», An Open Learning Design Repository for University Teaching «Alacena»: repositorio de diseños de apren dizaje para la enseñanza universitaria

ABSTRACT Being a teacher means being involved in the design of learning activities. The teaching profession has become a «profession of knowledge», not because knowledge was or is the legitimate component of the profession, but because the teacher is the designer of learning environments and has the ability to design the spaces where knowledge is being produced. But these learning environments have long been regulated to the privacy of the classroom environment with student complicity. One positive aspect of the launch of the European Higher Education Area has been to bring greater transparency to the process of designing teaching and student learning. Our objective in this study was to identify, represent and document a wide variety of learning designs made by experienced and innovative teachers. We hope this repository will be available and accessible to every teacher through the Internet. The participants in this study were 58 teachers mainly from universities in Andalusia and the five branches of knowledge. From interviews we proceeded to represent all the learning sequences, available in the repository of sequences that we named «Ala cena». This repository is accessible on our research group’s website (http://prometeo.us.es/idea). The conclusions of our study were that there are innovative learning designs aimed at promoting a greater understanding of what students learn through their involvement in processes of inquiry and/or collaboration, and they are representative of good teaching practices in universities. RESUMEN Ser docente significa estar implicado en el diseño de actividades de aprendizaje. La profesión docente se ha transformado en una «profesión del conocimiento» no ya porque el conocimiento haya sido o sea el componente legiti- mador de la profesión, sino porque el docente es el diseñador de ambientes de aprendizaje y tiene la capacidad de rentabilizar los espacios donde se produce el conocimiento. Ahora bien, estos ambientes de aprendizaje durante mucho tiempo han quedado regulados en el ámbito de privacidad del aula y a la complicidad con el alumnado. Uno de los aspectos positivos que ha tenido la puesta en marcha del Espacio Europeo de Educación Superior ha sido aportar una mayor transparencia a los procesos de diseño del aprendizaje de los alumnos. Nuestro objetivo en este estudio consistió en identificar, representar y documentar una amplia variedad de diseños de aprendizaje realizados por docentes con amplia experiencia innovadora y que pudieran estar disponibles y accesibles a través de Internet. El profesorado que ha participado en este estudio lo han conformado un total de cincuenta y ocho docentes principalmente de las diferentes universidades andaluzas y de las cinco ramas de conocimiento. A partir de entrevistas pro- cedimos a representar el total de secuencias de aprendizaje que están disponibles en el repositorio de secuencias que hemos denominado «Alacena». Este repositorio está accesible en la página web de nuestro grupo de investigación http://prometeo.us.es/idea. Como conclusiones del estudio se constata que existen diseños del aprendizaje innovado- res y universitarios que pretenden promover en el alumnado una alta comprensión de lo aprendido a través de su implicación en procesos de indagación y/o colaboración y que son representación de buenas prácticas de enseñanza. KEYWORDS / PALABRAS CLAVE Learning design, repository, learning activities, sequences of learning, patterns, higher educaction. Diseño del aprendizaje, repositorio, actividades de aprendizaje, secuencias de aprendizaje, patrones, enseñanza.

v Dr. Carlos Marcelo García is Full Professor of Didactics and School Organisation at the School of Educational Sciences of the University of Seville (Spain) ([email protected]). v Carmen Yot Domínguez awards a scholarship at the School of Educational Sciences of the University of Seville (Spain) ([email protected]). v Dr. Cristina Mayor is Professor of Didactics and School Organisation at the School of Educational Sciences of the University of Seville (Spain) ([email protected]).

Comunicar, 37, v. XIX, 2011, Scientific Journal of Media Literacy; ISSN: 1134-3478; pages 37-44 www.revistacomunicar.com 38

1. Introduction Consequently, the didactic planning of a topic or One of the most evident consequences of the gra- subject should not be limited to distributing the dual introduction of the European Space of Higher contents throughout a schedule using the European Education is the change in the processes of planning credit system as a calculation system for teaching acti- and design of the teaching carried out by university vity. Instead, the central element of this planning teachers. The emphasis on ensuring the quality of tea- should be to present sequentially the whole set of acti- ching and learning for students is requiring university vities and tasks to be done in order to guide the expe-

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 teachers to anticipate the learning processes in which riences that the students will have to cover throughout the students will be involved. The systems to guaran- the teaching-learning process (De Miguel, 2006: 17). tee the quality of new university degrees, as well as the Our role as teachers will involve long hours of procedures for their verification and future accredita- designing and preparing learning activities and situation, demand high levels of transparency from univer- tions or scenarios that allow active and cooperative sity teachers with regard to the teaching and learning learning, where the development or execution of the processes that the students will be part of. complex actions that constitute each competency take In order to encourage autonomous learning, we place, rather than preparing and imparting the discipli- need to design and promote formative actions that nary contents of our specialty (De la Cruz Tomé, involve the students in active learning (Huber, 2008). 2003; Kiss & Castro,2005). It should be remembered From this point of view, the students are the ones who that adopting a teaching approach that guides students construct their own knowledge through learning acti- in their learning also means taking on the role of a vities (Benito Capa & Cruz Chust, 2007) which, in facilitator who should respond to the needs of the order to maximize the quality of learning results, accor- group and of particular students (Borthwick, Bennett, ding to Meyers & Nulty (2009), should be authentic, Lefoe, & Huber, 2007). real and relevant; constructive, sequential and related In summary, the teaching profession has become a to each other; require the students to use and partici- «profession of knowledge», not because knowledge pate in progressively more sophisticated cognitive pro- has been or is the validating component of the profes- cesses; be aligned with the desired learning results, sion, but because the university teacher is the designer and generate interest and motivation to learn. of learning environments and is capable of making the Herrington, Reeves, Oliver & Woo (2004), influen- spaces where learning takes place profitable (Marcelo, ced by the constructivist theory of education and 2001, Marcelo & Vaillant, 2010). advances in technology, call these authentic activities. However, for a long time these learning environ- Being a university teacher means being involved in ments have been controlled by the privacy of the class- designing learning tasks. But if learning is now unders- room and the students’ involvement (Guerra, Gon- tood not as consumption but as production of know- zález & García, 2010). One of the positive effects of ledge and, consequently, teaching does not transmit the introduction of the European Space of Higher knowledge but leads and facilitates it, university tea- Education has in fact been to make the design chers should no longer take the role of a leading actor, processes of the students’ teaching and learning more and should become the set designer instead (Murillo, transparent, as it asks that we, though perhaps too far 2006). This makes us reaffirm, as Bain (2007) points in advance, inform them of how we are going to out, that university teachers should think of teaching as ensure that our students acquire competencies by the promotion of learning, and should create a critical developing what have been called «teaching guides» learning environment that is natural, and where peo- (Marcelo & Yot, 2010). ple learn by tackling important, attractive or intriguing problems – authentic tasks that provide them with a 1.1. Designing students’ learning challenge when it comes to dealing with new ideas, Design is a critical task that is a characteristic of the reconsidering their assumptions and examining their role of a teacher. As Schön (1990) affirms, professio- mental models of reality. Along the same lines, nals design situations in which they apply their tacit Hannafin, Oliver and Land (1999) suggest that knowledge, as well as improvising. Learning design is suitable learning environments are characterised by the human activity in which people outline and plan the encouragement of student participation in complex learning activities, units of learning that a subject must cognitive learning activities that include problem sol- carry out in order to learn (Koper & Tattersall, 2005). ving, critical thinking, collaboration and/or self-adjust- As a synonym of instructional design, it involves, accor- ment. ding to Horton (2006), selecting, organising and spe-

cifying the learning experiences necessary to teach of student learning design in the new context of the something to someone. European Space of Higher Education, we will descri- As Cameron (2007) clarifies, the term learning be the investigation we have developed, which has design refers to a general and comprehensive method enabled us to design a repository for Learning of description of the teaching-learning process. Sequences. Our objective in this investigation was to «Learning design» is a representation of the teaching- identify, represent and document a wide variety of learning practice set out in some form of notation learning sequences planned by university teachers through which it can be shared between teachers, with extensive innovative experience and make them Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 replicated by a new teacher or used as a basis in cre- available and accessible through the internet. ating new learning activities (Conole, 2008). These forms of representation are defined by Conole (2008) 2.1. Looking for innovative learning designs as mediation devices, thus emphasising their role as Fifty-eight teachers have participated in this study, mediator in terms of how they are used as part of the from the various universities in Spain as well as from design of new learning activities and/or to help other the University of Chile, specifically from the Faculty of university teachers make informed decisions with regard to learning design (Conole, 2007). This leads Masterman, Jame - Consequently, the didactic planning of a topic or subject son, & Walker (2009) to question whether the designs should not be limited to distributing the contents throughout should be prescriptive, that is to say, used to communicate to a schedule using the European credit system as a calculation teachers a list of steps to system for teaching activity. Instead, the central element of follow, or descriptive in the sense of offering teachers this planning should be to present sequentially the whole set information about what others have done, from which they of activities and tasks to be done in order to guide the may be able to discover their experiences that the students will have to cover own variants. The idea of using learning throughout the teaching-learning process. designs as a means of sharing good teaching-learning practices is gaining interest. Beetham & Sharpe (2007) provide a valuable description of the Medicine. The largest numbers of teachers are from current development of this line of investigation by the University of Seville (23) and the University of revising the aspects relating to learning design, its Huelva (12). exchange and reuse. However, as Falconer & Of the total of participating university teachers, Littlejohn (2006) suggest, a learning design can only be twenty-four correspond to the branch of Health shared if the representation provides all the informa- Sciences, mainly Medicine and Nursing qualifications. tion that teachers need in order to understand it, often In second place are the Architecture and Engineering giving details of component elements of each learning university teachers with a total of fifteen university activity, such as the learning tasks and the necessary teachers participating in the study. There is a smaller resources and support (Conole, 2008; Oliver, presence of university teachers corresponding to Herrington, Herrington, & Reeves, 2007). In addition, Social Sciences (Teaching, Psychology, History…), according to Koper (2005), it should provide the and to Sciences (Biology, Maths, Chemistry…). means for illustrating the underlying design inherent in As we have mentioned, the selection of the uni- each learning practice, which is more widely applica- versity teachers was deliberate, since we were ble than the practice itself. interested in having access to university teachers with a strong university career as well as a proven capacity 2. Creation of a repository for learning sequences for innovation. In order to choose participants we used for university teaching various methods, including selecting university After establishing and highlighting the importance teachers participating in teaching innovation projects in

Spanish universities, and university teachers who had the creation of the repository on the investigation received prizes for their activity in innovation. group’s web page. Although it is not the purpose of this article, it 2.2. How did we obtain the information? should be made clear that the study proceeded with a The data collection has been carried out through complex process of data analysis. After the reports had semi-structured individual interviews with each uni- been returned and validated, a first analysis was versity teacher who was part of our study sample. carried out to describe the various learning activities

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 Once we had identified a university teacher with an and classify the tasks involved. In order to do this we outstanding career in teaching innovation, we arran- set out a system of categories. ged an interview with them. The purpose of the inter- Subsequently, in order to specify the relationships view was for the participants to describe a learning between the learning activities described, and thus to sequence that they habitually plan and implement for find out what patterns of learning activities were fre- the development of the subject that they teach, focu- quent in the totality of the sequences, a second data sing in the activities carried out by the students, the codification was carried out. The results showed us role played by the students and the university teacher, that patterns of learning activity exist based on the and the resources that are used to support the stu- minimal combination or structuring of activities. dents’ learning. In the course of the interview we aimed to discover and identify at least the following 3. The result: The Storage Space for Learning elements of the learning design: Sequences First Context: competencies to be taught with the sequence, expected learning results, prerequisites for All fifty-eight learning sequences are available in carrying out the sequence, study content covered, time the sequence depository that we have called Alacena. needed to complete it and level of difficulty. This repository is available on our investigation group’s Second the Activities performed by the students web page, as indicated above, http://prome teo.us.- and university teachers: tasks that are involved (assimi- es/idea latory, managing information, adaptive, communicati- Since its creation, Alacena has been an open ve, productive, experiential, evaluative), type of inte- resource available to university teaching staff with the raction required (individual or in groups), roles adop- sole purpose of allowing them to find the representa- ted (student as an individual, student as part of a tion of a variety of highly innovative learning sequen- group, advisor, mentor, facilitator, moderator…), ces that can help them to effectively design their own necessary resources (demonstrations, texts, audio- courses. Furthermore, it has been conceived as a visual resources, web pages, email…) and evaluation resource to be permanently constructed and added to, system (diagnostic, formative, summative). as it receives contributions from those university tea- As interviewers we used an interview guide, with chers who choose to share their own experiences. direction on questions to ask, and all the interviews Nevertheless, we are aware that there is not a tradi- were recorded in audio and had an average duration of approximately 90 minutes, depending on the complexity of each sequence. Once each of the learning sequences had been reformulated, in separate reports, they were sent to the teachers for them to review and validate the report that had been produced. All the contributions that the university teachers made about the representations of their sequences and their own learning designs were then incorporated. Following this, all the learning designs were edited in HTML format to be published on the internet and produced Figure 1. Screenshot of the web page and the Alacena repository: with the LAMS tool. The next stage was http://prometeo.us.es/idea.

tion of making formal plans in education, and in gene- carried out by the students are illustrated, appearing in ral the design is a very local and even individual aspect the order in which they are carried out, with arrows (Koper, 2005; Oliver, 2007). For this reason, there showing which task precedes and follows each other follows a detailed description of the notation system, task. the learning design we have developed, and the 3) An in-depth description of the sequence, detai- authorised uploading tool. ling its phases. The text allows us to find out which In order to develop the representations of the lear- activities (assimilatory, managing information, commu- ning sequences, a standardised design language is nicative, productive, application, experiential) make up Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 required, i.e. a notation that describes the learning the learning sequence, and helps us to understand the design in an interpretable way (Koper & Bennett, tasks that the students carry out. The learning activities 2008). By notation, the system of conventional signs and tasks are what form the main thread through the that is adopted to express concepts is understood. A information collected. For each one of them, attention number of attempts are now emerging to comprehen- is drawn to the resources that are needed and used, sively document learning designs, with the effect that the role played by the university teachers and students, there are currently many types of representation that the type of interaction and how students are grouped, can serve a wide range of different purposes. As etc. However, the information is kept brief in order to examples of these initiatives, Agostinho (2008) highlights: E2ML, IMS Learning De - sign, Learning Design Visual Sequence, LD Lite, Learning Activity Mana gement System and the design patterns. Ri- chards & Knight (2005), Mc- Andrew, Goodyear & Dalziel (2006), Cameron (2007), and Falconer & al. (2007), have also offered their review of the existing representations. Our learning design provides all the information that Figure 3. Graphic representation of a learning sequence. teachers need in order to understand and reproduce any of the learning sequences, giving details of the com- avoid making it tiring to read. ponent elements of each learning activity, such as the 4) A table focusing on three important aspects for learning tasks and the necessary resources and support understanding each sequence, namely: resources that (Conole, 2008; Oliver, Herrington, Herrington & are used, concrete tasks performed by the university Reeves, 2007), represented as: teachers and students, in which they use the pre- 1) An account of general and identification infor- viously mentioned resources, and roles assumed by the mation that can help to contextualise the sequence, teachers as well as the students in the carrying out of such as the qualification, the subject and the student- each of the tasks. The table therefore extends the teacher ratio. In those cases in which the university information contained in the graphic and synthesises teacher implementing the sequence and reporting it to the detailed information in the description. The three us has decided not to remain anonymous, their perso- representations (graphic, table and description) contri- nal details have been provided and the contextual bute to the overall understanding of the sequence. information has been extended to give the department, 5) A LAMS sequence, the image that represents the faculty and university. development of the sequence in the LAMS tool, taken 2) A graphic that summarises the most important in its own environment. It will soon be possible to moments of the sequence – the different tasks that the download designs developed in and exported from students carry out in it. It is a simple representation in LAMS to be reused. It is sufficient to mention that the form of an graphic, where just the tasks to be «Learning Activity Management System» (LAMS), is an

open source piece of software, which allows a university teacher to design as well as put into practice online learning activities, and which represents a sequence of activities illus-

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 trated visually in the form of a diagram that is easy to interpret (Agostinho, 2008). The various learning designs are organised, so that they can be located easily, by the different field of knowledge, by teaching method and by learning format: • By Field of Know - ledge. Taking into consideration the five areas of knowledge, the designs have been categorised as relating to: Social Sciences, Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arts and Humanities, Health Sciences and Technology, Engi neering and Architecture. • By teaching method. Although the majority of learning sequences incorporate a variety of Figure 4. Summary table of a learning sequence. activities for the students to complete, we have observed that one type of acti- which represent good university teaching practices. vity tends to predominate in each sequence. We also know that as teachers we have to facili- Consequently, we have differentiated between: tate learning of the competencies included in our tea- sequences based on practical work, sequences based ching programmes and guides, and that learning activi- on problems, sequences based on projects, sequences ties are the necessary vehicle to achieve this. This based on case studies, sequences based on group means that our role as teachers will involve long hours work, generic sequences. of designing authentic learning activities. • By learning format. We have differentiated bet- The Alacena repository that we have created ween three sequence formats: face to face, online, could become a useful tool to help with the planning and blended. of learning sequences, as it presents publicly what 4. Conclusion other university teachers do and provides knowledge As a result of the process of analysis carried out in of a variety of types of activities that we can design, the the study, and having created the Alacena repository, resources and support that we may need, the roles to we were able to verify the existence of innovative uni- be played, etc. so that they can then be carried out. versity learning designs that attempt to promote high Since it is a tool that brings us closer to the reality levels of understanding among students of what they of the classroom, and that allows us to discover diffe- have learned. This is done through students’ involve- rent teaching-learning processes, it is consequently a ment in investigative and/or collaborative processes, tool that promotes professional teaching development

re07/procs/cameron.pdf) (19-04-2011). CONOLE, G. (2008). Capturing Practice: The Role of Mediating Artefacts in Learning Design. In LOCKYER, L.; BENNETT, S.; AGOS TINHO, S. & HARPER, B. (Eds.). Handbook of Research on Learning Design and Learning Objects: Issues, Applications and Tech no logies. Hersey: IGI Global; 187-207. DE LA CRUZ TOMÉ, M.A. (2003). El proceso de con- vergencia europea: ocasión de modernizar la universidad española si se produce un cambio de mentali- Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 dad en gestores, profesores y estudiantes. Aula Abierta, 82; 191-216. DE MIGUEL, M. (2006). Metodologías de enseñanza y aprendizaje para el desarrollo de competencias. Orientaciones para el profesorado universitario ante el Espacio Europeo de Educación Superior. Madrid: Figure 5. LAMS graphic representation of a learning sequence. Alianza. FALCONER, I.; BEETHAM, H.; OLIVER, R.; LOCKYER, L. & LITTLE JOHN, A. (2007). Mod4L Final Report: processes. The data derived from our research show Representing Learning Designs (http://mod4l.com/tiki- that university teachers use a wide variety of activities download_file.php?fileId=7) (12-01-2011). and learning tasks. The different tasks included within FALCONER, I. & LITTLEJOHN, A. (2006). Mod4L Report: Case Studies, Exemplars and Learning Designs. learning activities are aimed at achieving certain objec- GUERRA, S.; GONZÁLEZ-FERNÁNDEZ, N. & GARCÍA-RUIZ, R. (2010). tives of student learning. Utilización de las TIC por el profesorado universitario como recurso However, based on this variety of tasks, they find didáctico. Comunicar, 35; 141-148. that the assimilative activities are most frequently HANNAFIN, M.; OLIVER, K. & LAND, S. (1999). Open Learning found, and the tasks associated with it. We unders- Environments: Foundations, Methods and Models. In REIGELUTH, tand that it is from the students aware of the content C. (Ed.). Instructional-Design Theories and Models. A New Para - digm of Instructional Theory, II. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum or theme of the program, either by reading or by the Associates; 115-240. listener, which he usually practiced by low-level HERRINGTON, J.; REEVES, T.C.; OLIVER, R. & WOO, Y. (2004). cognitive tasks such as the application or information Designing Authentic Activities in Web-based Courses. Journal of management. Computing in Higher Education, 16 (1); 3-29. At a time when university teaching is changing due HORTON, W. (2006). E-learning by Design. San Francisco: Pfeiffer. KISS, D. & CASTRO, E. (2005). Interacción comunicativa con la tec- to the enormous effort being made by teaching staff, it nología informática. Comunicar, 24; 143-149. seemed to us that there was a need to publish exam- KOPER, R. (2005). An Introduction to Learning Design. In KOPER, R. ples of good practices carried out by university tea- & TATTERSALL, C. (Eds.). Learning Design. A Handbook on Mo - chers. However, the fundamental aim of the project is de lling and Delivering Networked Education and Training. New for teachers to see Alacena as a useful and valuable York: Springer; 3-20. resource that they can use in the process of planning KOPER, R. & BENNETT, S. (2008). Learning Design: Concepts. In ADELSBERGER, H.H.; PAWLOWSKI, J.M.; KINSHUK & SAMPSON, D. and designing their students’ learning. (Eds.). Handbook on Information Technologies for Education and Tr a i n i n g. Heidelberg: Springer. References KOPER, R. & TATTERSALL, C. (2005). Learning Design. A Hand- AGOSTINHO, S. (2008). Learning Design Representations to Do cu- book on Modelling and Delivering Networked Education and ment, Model and Share Teaching Practice. In LOCKYER, L.; BEN - Tr a i n i n g. New York: Springer. NETT, S.; AGOSTINHO, S. & HARPER, B. (Eds.). Handbook of MARCELO, C. (2001). Aprender a enseñar para la Sociedad del Co - Research on Learning Design and Learning Objects: Issues, Appli- nocimiento. Revista Complutense de Educación, 12 (2); 531-593. cations and Technologies, I. Hersey: IGI Global; 1-19. MARCELO, C. & VAILLANT, D. (2010). Desarrollo profesional do - BAIN, K. (2007). Lo que hacen los mejores profesores de Uni ver - cen te. Madrid: Narcea. sidad. Valencia: PUV. MARCELO, C. & YOT, C. (2010). Diseños del aprendizaje y ense- BEETHAM, H. & SHARPE, R. (2007). Rethinking Pedagogy for a ñanza universitaria. Patrones de secuencias de tareas de aprendi- Digital Age: Designing and Delivering E-learning. Oxon: Routledge. zaje. VI Congreso Iberoamericano de Docencia Universitaria. Li - BORTHWICK, F.; BENNETT, S.; LEFOE, G. & HUBER, E. (2007). ma (Perú): Asociación Iberoamericana de Didáctica Universitaria. Applying Authentic Learning to Social Science: A Learning Design MCANDREW, P.; GOODYEAR, P. & DALZIEL, J. (2006). Patterns, for an Inter-disciplinary Sociology Subject. Journal of Learning Designs and Activities: Unifying Descriptions of Learning Structures. 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© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 • Pages 37-44 44 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 L O 45-62. Limencop; CEE CAM. Ediciones Alicante: cente. M 565-577. comes. ARROSA LIVER URILLO R; H R.; , Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 34 (5); 34 Education, Higher in Evaluation and Assessment , F. & J & F. , , P. (2006). La profesión docente en la sociedad actual. In actual. sociedad la en docente profesión La (2006). P. ERRINGTON IMÉNEZ , M.D. (Eds.). M.D. A; H A.; , ERRINGTON Análisis de la profesión do profesión la de Análisis J & R & J. , EEVES T. , - S (2); 2 Design, ning the Development of Online Communities of Learners. Supporting Designs Learning Authentic Representing (2007). Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Francisco: Professions. the in Learning Teaching for and Design New a CHÖN , D.A. (1990). 1-21. © Educating the Reflective Practitioner: Toward ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 37-44 Pages 1988-3293• e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: Journal of Lear San - DOSSIER

Requested: 21-01-2010 / Received: 04-03-2011 l Martha Burkle Accepted: 23-03-2011 / Published: 01-10-2011 Calgary (Canada) http://dx.doi.org/10.3916/C37-2011-02-04 Apprenticeship Students Learning On- line: Opportunities and Challenges for Polytechnic Institutions El aprendizaje on-line: oportunidades y retos en instituciones politécnicas ABSTRACT This paper presents the ongoing research on the challenges and opportunities of delivering on-line and virtual content to apprentices in a Polytechnic institution. Due to the current financial recession, apprentices are going back to academia in order to update their skills, but these potential students are not willing to leave their workplace or their personal lives behind to study. In this context on-line delivery represents an opportunity to provide access to content without leaving the work environment. However, in order to be successful in providing on-line materials for apprentices, polytechnics around the world are facing two challenges: How to transform hands-on Learning skills to on- line Learning material, and how to provide a rich-engaging environment for this group of learners. But not only the learner expectations should be taken when designing on-line learning. Instructors play also a crucial role in this ende- avor, as Web 2.0 technologies offer the instructor an entirely new role in teaching: that of a facilitator. In order to analyze apprenticeship students’ on-line learning, 57 on-line surveys were distributed among a group of students registered for on-line apprenticeship programs. The paper presents research findings and a comparison of these with a what the literature states regarding the new generation of learners and their use of technologies, and the behavior (learning preferences, learning styles, use of IT) presented by the research sample. Innovative opportunities for learning at the workplace (such as recommendations and future areas of research) are suggested. RESUMEN Este artículo presenta los retos y las oportunidades actuales respecto a la distribución de contenidos virtuales y on- line en el marco de la institución de educación superior politécnica. Debido a la recesión económica actual, se está produciendo un retorno de estudiantes aprendices al mundo académico con el fin de actualizar habilidades y cono- cimientos. Sin embargo, a menudo los estudiantes con este perfil no están dispuestos a dejar de lado el trabajo o su vida personal para volver al estudio. En este contexto, el aprendizaje on-line representa una magnífica oportunidad para acceder a contenidos académicos sin tener que dejar de lado el trabajo. No obstante, para garantizar el éxito en la provisión de materiales on-line para estudiantes aprendices, las instituciones politécnicas de todo el mundo deben enfrentar dos retos: la transformación de contenidos de aprendizaje práctico en objetos educativos en línea, y la creación de ambientes educativos en los que los estudiantes se sientan involucrados y participativos. Más aún, en un ambiente de aprendizaje en el que el uso de tecnologías Web 2.0 es primordial, es importante considerar también el nuevo rol del profesor, que se ha convertido en facilitador del aprendizaje. Con el fin de analizar la experiencia educativa on-line de estos estudiantes, se distribuyeron 57 encuestas entre los estudiantes registrados en programas de formación on-line. El artículo presenta las conclusiones de la investigación y las compara con las aportaciones que se han hecho en lo relativo a la nueva generación de estudiantes y su uso de las tecnologías, así como el comportamiento registrado por la muestra de la investigación (preferencias y estilos de aprendizaje, su uso de las nuevas tecnologías). Se plantean igualmente oportunidades innovadoras para conectar aprendizaje y contexto labo- ral y recomendaciones para futuras investigaciones. KEYWORDS / PALABRAS CLAVE Digital natives, Net Gen, on-line learning, student-centered environments, Web 2.0, hands-on learning. Nativos digitales, generación net, aprendizaje on-line, aprendizaje significativo, tecnologías Web 2.0, interactividad.

v Dr. Martha Burkle is Chair in e-Learning at CISCO of the SAIT Polytechnic in Calgary (Canada) ([email protected]).

Comunicar, 37, v. XIX, 2011, Scientific Journal of Media Literacy; ISSN: 1134-3478; pages 45-53 www.revistacomunicar.com 46

1. Introduction opportunities that students apprentices from the Net Educators around the world are uncertain if their Generation are bringing with them when they go back educational institutions are ready to respond to student to higher education. Possibilities that online learning needs and expectations as they see 21st century and virtual environments offer to transform teaching students arriving to colleges and universities. The rea- and learning are presented and a case study, the online son for this uncertainty is clear: these students are carr- apprentices project, is analyzed in detail. ying with them an entirely different approach to lear-

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 ning, entertainment and life in general. The majority of 2. Digital Natives: The New Student Generation students in today’s classrooms are the first generation in the 21st Century to grow up with such a vast array of information tech- According to some authors in North America, ave- nologies. They have spent their entire lives surroun- rage college graduates have spent today less than ded by and using computers, video games, digital 5,000 hours of their lives reading, but over 10,000 music players, video cameras, cell phones, and all the hours playing video games. Computer games, e-mail, other toys and tools of the digital age. As such, they are the Internet, cell phones and instant messaging are known as the Net Generation, or Net Gen-ers. integral parts of their lives (Gibson et al, 2008; Prensky In parallel to this challenge and due to the current 2001; Wesch, 2007). As a result of this ubiquitous working environment, apprentices are going back to technology, a number of social scientists sustain that colleges and universities in order to update their skills. today’s students think and process information diffe- But these potential students are not willing to leave rently than their predecessors. Even more so, their their workplace or their personal lives behind. In this entire system of beliefs and values are different from context online delivery represents an opportunity to those in previous generations, and these differences connect content to the workplace context. However, usually go further and deeper that most educators in order to be successful, this connection should be recognize. This is why Marc Prensky has named done in the context of an engaging environment, today’s students «digital natives». Digital natives are where learners can interact with other learners in a those who have always known the Internet and a rich virtual environment. digital environment. Others have called this new generation of students the Net Gen, where Net refers to either networking or Internet use. Whether Digital natives or Net Gen-ers, this generation was born at a time when computers were an important part of the dynamics of a home, and where the Internet had become an integral part of daily activities. Some argue that even if the digital natives have slight differences in speech and social interactions, they are fluent in digital communication forms that are Table I. Registered apprenticeship registrations, by major trade group, 1991 and 2007 prevalent in the new land (Jukes (Source: Statistics Canada, 2010). & Dosaj, 2004; Toledo, 2007). Oblinger (2005) characterizes Table I presents a comparison of the growing the «millenials» (as she calls the generation of students number of Apprentices in Canada going back to conti- born after 1982) this way: «They gravitate toward nue their training. This, together with the fact that group activity and social networking; they identify with apprentices are now expecting content to be mobile, their parents’ values and feel close to their parents; they has encouraged higher education (postsecondary) spend more time doing homework and housework and institutions in the country, to provide different ways of less time watching TV, they believe «it’s cool to be accessing content. smart», they are fascinated by new technologies; they This article is about the learning needs and are racially and ethnically diverse…» (2005: 2).

Academic colleagues from different countries have Sfard (1998) examined the changing role of the begun to consider whether students around the world instructor from a knowledge holder into a facilitator have similar experiences to those in North America. through the use of information technologies. He iden- For example, Oliver and Goerke (2007) researched tifies two teaching and learning models: the «acquisi- undergraduate students in Australia to find out whet- tion model» and the «participation model». In the her their students confirm these assertions. They acquisition model, the role of the instructor is to deli- found that «ownership of laptops, mobile phones and ver, suggest, and clarify knowledge and concepts. music devices appears to be growing rapidly among With the acquisition model, the focus of learning goals Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 this group, along with their use of tools such as instant is on acquiring pre-specified knowledge and on deve- messaging, blogs and podcasts» (Oliver & Goerke, loping understanding of predetermined concepts. 2007). Another example of this is the work done by In the participation model, he/she is a facilitator, Creanor et al. (2006) and published as the Lex mentor, expert participant, and guardian of practice/ (Learner Experience of E-learning) Report. A total of discourse. With the participation model, the focus of twenty-two interviews and six focus groups were con- learning activities is on becoming a member of a com- ducted that evaluated students’ experiences with e- munity of practice, learning from the community but learning in the UK. Findings of the report include the also contributing to it. fact that learners involved in the research tended to be The collaboration (transformation) framework highly skilled networkers and often use technology to emphasises individual thinking and construction of pull support when needed. meaning. Teaching with this approach is more tentati- The changes that today’s students bring with them ve, flexible and experimental – hence it is student-cen- – with some of these changes evident even in their tred. In this context, a community of learners will brain structures, according to Tapscott (2008) when improve learning through their interaction (Burkle, they start their post-secondary education creates an 2003; Perry, 2003). urgent call to understanding the different ways they Collis and Moonen (2001) and Sloman (2001) learn. In turn, this fact calls for a change in the way conclude their comparison of the two models by sta- institutions provide educational opportunities to them. ting that a pedagogical theory means little if instructors It is time not only to radically change the way teaching do not apply it, and also that technological resources takes place, but also to redesign curriculum, gradua- have no value if they are not used. In fact, the authors tion processes, evaluation methods, infrastructure stress the fact that the number of instructors who cho- needs, etc. ose to be innovators in technology and pedagogy is limited. 3. Web 2.0 technologies and the changing role of Sloman (2001) maintains that the acquisition the instructor model could be associated with behaviourist theory, Web 2.0 technologies are the foundation of the while the participation model is related to a construc- new pedagogical model, where the instructor has tivist approach. This assumption is based on the fact become a facilitator of knowledge and is no longer the that in the transmission model, a teacher (lecturer or «knowledge holder» (Anderson, 2007; Evans and instructor) can pass on a fixed body of information and Nation, 2000; Deal, 2007; Daniels, 1998; Mason, the «student or learner interacts with a pre-packed 1998). Laurillard (2002) analyzes the transformation content» (Sloman, 2001: 114), while the transforma- of the instructor from a knowledge source to a facilita- tion framework implies individual thinking and cons- tor, as he/she provides a conversational framework for tructing of meaning. the evolution of learning. In order to enable the eva- Holley & Haynes (2003: 4) suggest that «such luation of the effectiveness of learning, Laurillard iden- changes are most visible in the ongoing erosion of indi- tifies the key elements of the process: discussion, inte- vidual or small group teaching, and in the attempts to raction, adaptation, and reflection (on the student’s change the nature of contact time away from delivery performance by instructor and student). Laurillard of information towards more active participation». believes that this framework can be applied to the eva- The development and implementation of widely luation of technologies in learning. In fact, one of the accessible communication and information technolo- main goals for the use of technologies for teaching and gies has been a key driving force in the move towards learning should be to provide student-centered situa- the adoption of social constructivism as a guiding tions where instructors facilitate access to content in a principle in Higher Education Institutions HEIs (Lauri- horizontal, sharing environment. llard, 2002). In other words, this change has resulted

in a change in the role of the instructor from the «sage SAIT had a number of courses in the laptop program, of the stage», where transmissive, didactic learning or were using another learning technology such as the took place, to the «guide on the side», where more stu- video iPods, YouTube videos, or Second Life virtual dent-centred learning takes place1 (Harasim, 1990). spaces to deliver courses and lab procedures. There are more than 90 fully wired classrooms at SAIT, and 4. Web 2.0 technologies and learning at the the number of computer ports on campus rose from Southern Alberta Institute of Technology (SAIT 2,000 in 1997 to more than 15,000 in 2008.

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 Polytechnic) In order to provide the leadership which resulted SAIT Polytechnic is a public two-year institution in in SAIT’s achievement of international recognition in Alberta with approximately 52, 000 learners distribu- the use of technologies for teaching and learning, and with the financial support of CISCO Systems, in 2004 SAIT opened the position of a rese- Educators around the world are uncertain if their educatio- arch Chair (CISCO Chair in e- nal institutions are ready to respond to student needs and learning) and appointed Dr. Tony Bates to the position. Dr. expectations as they see 21st century students arriving to Bates immediately reviewed e- learning strategies across cam- colleges and universities. The reason for this uncertainty is pus and developed a strategic clear: these students are carrying with them an entirely diffe- plan. At the end of the year, Dr. Bates produced the «SAIT rent approach to learning, entertainment and life in general. Strategic e-Learning Plan», which proposed 82 recommen- The majority of students in today’s classrooms are the first dations to support student engagement with the use of e-lear- generation to grow up with such a vast array of information ning technologies (Bates, technologies. They have spent their entire lives surrounded 2007)2.

by and using computers, video games, digital music players, 5. Research Project In February 2010, and with video cameras, cell phones, and all the other toys and tools the support of AIT (Appren - of the digital age. As such, they are known as the Net ticeship Industry Training , SAIT decided to explore the Generation, or Net Gen-ers. possibilities of using mobile technologies/online learning for apprenticeship students willing to combine work and learning. ted in full-time programs, apprenticeship programs, This decision was based on the following institution’s continuing education, and corporate training. Its needs and expectations: annual budget is in the order of C$200 million (Bates, • Facilitate a flexible environment where 2007). registered students could learn at their own pace. SAIT introduced the use of technologies for edu- • Facilitate the combination of workplace and cation in 1997 when it started delivering courses learning in an engaging environment. through the so-called «laptop program». Since then, • Facilitate collaborative learning among students, laptop programs have been running in four of the by promoting critical thinking in a challenging and uni- seven Academic Schools (Business, Information and que environment. Communication Technology, Construction and • Reduce classroom time for students apprentices. Transportation). The laptop program strategy was A team consisting of the academic coordinators for part of the institution’s vision to innovate the way tea- the Electrician and Welding programs, a project ching and learning processes took place and introduce manager, an instructional designer, a multimedia a blended approach to learning. expert, subject matter experts (faculty) and the CISCO By 2009, most of the seven academic schools at Chair of e-learning was put together to design a wor-

king plan, redesigned the classroom taught courses and forums available in the course. At the end of the sur- define the teaching plan. vey, students had an opportunity to write their perso- With a plan in place, research questions and met- nal comments in an open space. hodologies were designed for a «Pilot Research Surveys were followed up by a focus group with Project», between September 2010 and January students. Participation in the focus group was on a 2011, with these research goals: volunteer basis. Information gather from this focus • To analyze student expectations of learning group was compared with the one obtained from the online survey. Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 • To explore the impact of mobile content on stu- Finally, a series of interviews with instructors took dents’ learning place at the end of the course. For these, a question • To learn about online course efficiency and guide was followed and the researcher tried to facili- course engaging capacity. tate an open and free space for instructors to share The online course will combine access to learning their experiences teaching online. materials through an LMS (Learning Management System), with workshop (lab) hours so that students 5.2. Research findings will go the lab to test what they learned in theory. For the purpose of organizing the research fin- The research population for the Pilot stage of the dings, these have been classified under each of the sur- research project included all students registered in the vey sections. Below is an analysis of these. Electric (17 in total) and in Welding (7 in total) Programs. Research tool and findings are analyzed 5.2.1. Students’ experience with online learning below. The first questions in the survey were related to After the course was over, it was important to students’ previous experiences with and previous know the impact of the online materials and mobile information about online environments for learning. content on students’ learning. Research tools were Even if a good number of them (41.4%) had experien- designed in order to obtain information from instruc- ce using the Internet, only one of the students in the tors and students participating in the experience. Electrician cohort and one in the Welding group had taken an online before this one. 5.1. Research Methodology Qualitative analysis of students’ interviews sho- Three research tools were used in this project: a wed that even if students were not familiar with the survey, a focus group and an interview. This last one use of computers for learning, they were extremely included students and instructors. enthusiastic about accessing course materials online. In The first research tool to be designed and applied their own words: «Having access to the course mate- was the survey. In order to include the main issues rials anytime, anywhere, I was able to learn at my own regarding students’ opinions about learning online pace, without needing to wait to receive coaching several surveys were compared, such as the «Student from my instructor». instructional Report –SIR– designed by ETS. The sur- Another interesting finding from this research is vey was anonymous, and had a total of 23 questions that motivation was an important issue for students (likert scale most of them). For the efficiency of the using the LMS (learning management system) to survey distribution and online resource was used: access course content. Motivation helped engage them Surveymonkey. in self-learning. Student participants in this research A total of 23 online surveys were distributed and believed that their instructors encouraged their lear- answered by students between November and ning everywhere, breaking the limits of the classroom. December 2010. The survey had five different sec- These findings are similar to research carried out in tions. Section one intended to obtain information on the United Kingdom and published by BECTA (British students’ demographics and their previous experience Educational Communications and Technology with online learning. Section two was oriented to gat- Agency) in 2007, where students’ motivation was a her students’ opinions with regard to learning goals determinant factor for the successful use of Web 2.0 and course usability. In section three students were technologies. asked about the online learning experience and their learning management processes. Section four gathered 5.2.2. Learning goals and course use capacity information on instructor-student and student-student The purpose of the next section in the survey was interaction by using e-mail or the online discussion to provide feedback to the course development team

(Instructors, IDs, Editors, Multimedia, etc.) regarding the course’s goals and use capacity. Using a likert scale, students were asked four closed-ended questions and one open-ended question, where they were able to provide further comments. Responses show that students felt the course goals were clearly stated in the LMS. 28% stated the goal

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 was very clear, while for 43% was clear and for 29% was moderately clear. In the framework of using an online tool to learn, stating the course goals is very important. Responses should give some feedback to developers to improved clarity in the future. Regarding the course navigation, there was an even distribution between students who found the course very easy to navigate (29% of them), easy (29%) and moderately easy (29%). Only one student found the course «somewhat easy». An important question was targeted to receive feedback on students’ opinion regarding the function of links to websites, videos, PDF documents, etc. Only one student answered that all the links worked «per- fectly», while another one stated they worked fine. 5 Student at SAIT Welding Program during a Welding shop students said links worked «fine most of the time». One procedure. student commented that the quizzes did not work well all of the time, and another one stated he needed more A qualitative follow up of this question took place info that was not available in the LMS. All of these when interviewing the students. Two of them agreed comments should be taken in consideration when that learning online is not for every student but for developing the next online course. those who know how to manage their time properly, Students’ opinions on this matter should be taken and are able to efficiently combine work and study. into consideration in future course development for For another student being able to access the cour- apprentices. Issues of clarity of course goals should be se content online enable him to finish the course faster reviewed by the instructor and the instructional desig- than planned in the academic calendar. In his own ner before the course goes online. words». «I was able to complete my coursework in one month instead of three. This was fantastic!». 5.2.3. Students’ management of learning process In regards the online course workloads, only two The next section in the survey was oriented to students stated that the online course was heavier obtain information regarding students’ experience as compared with the classroom workloads. The majo- online learners, and their time management strategies. rity of the research population (42%) indicated that the Using a likert scale students were asked six questions course was lighter, and 17% felt the course-work was to evaluate these items. heavier than the previous classroom courses. The first question asked students how difficult the In the current financial challenging times, a very course was for them. None of them stated the course important issue for the survey was to analyze if was very difficult, while six indicated it was somewhat students were able to combine work with study. 42% difficult. Five students considered the level of difficulty said they were able to do both activities all the time, as about right, and one of them stated that the course while 25% stated they combined work and study most was somewhat elementary. of the time. The other 25% said they combined both Regarding students’ time management and worklo- activities only «some of the time», while one of them ads, half of the surveyed students stated the online did not combine working and learning. capability of the course helped them to manage their The last two questions of this section gathered stu- time more effectively «most of the time». Five of them dents’ information regarding their online experience managed effectively their time sometimes. One of and their willingness to take another course online. them said he managed effectively his time always. Responses in the likert scale tended to be in the middle

as the majority of the students stated learning online with relation to the fact that technologies per se do not was a good experience «most of the time» (58 %) or change settings, interaction, access to knowledge, etc. «some of the time» (25%). Two students found the The use of technologies to facilitate instructor-student experience a positive «none of the time». A qualitative interaction depends on the instructors’ input and atti- follow up on this issue showed that the time students tude towards the students, as well as the students’ spent in the workshop (or lab) was very valuable for disposition and skill in using the technologies. As them. They were grateful with the fact that the Holley and Haynes (2003) have noted, students who instructor was always available to answer questions in actively contact their instructors and participate in Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 the lab (in a face-to-face environment), and that they collaborative activities tend to be more motivated and could practice immediately what they have learned in are actually more familiar with mobile technologies. If the online materials. Below is a photo of a student in these students encounter a problem, they approach the Welding program interacting with his instructor the instructor to solve it. while he learns how to do metal cutting. 5.2.5. Instructor’s perception of role change after 5.2.4. Instructor-student interactions the use of online content An important factor to analyze in this research was Within the framework of this research, it was the impact online learning had on instructor-student been clear that instructors played a crucial role in brin- interaction both inside and outside the lab. According ging online technologies to their teaching experience. to Collis and Moonen (2001), in order to use techno- Instructors interviewed for this research stressed the logies for teaching and learning, universities have to fact that the changes in students’ learning did not come transform themselves in a number of areas, including only from the use of the online materials, but from the interaction between students and instructors and their use of different learning techniques. The fact that the ways in which students’ access knowledge. they knew that their students were familiar with the For 57% of the students in the research, the online content review in the lab allowed instructors to let the course provided them with a variety of opportunities students help each other solving problems in a collabo- to interact with the instructor. The majority of the stu- rative way. Furthermore, instead of lecturing, instruc- dents (86%) found that directions for contacting the tors developed a «problem based» approach where instructor were always or most of the time clear and students in the lab came to them only if they were not specific. able to solve a particular problem on their own. During the interview students were asked about Instructors’ pedagogic views are decisive when the interaction they had with the online instructor and they use new technologies in teaching. For example, all of them agreed that having previous knowledge of Bates (2000) underlines that new technologies need the workshop (lab) procedures allow them to reduce different teaching approaches and an understanding of the questions to the instructors inside the lab so that instructors could focus more on those students who will have more difficulty with learning the procedure. As one student expressed it: «Online materials allowed us to answer our own questions and therefore reduce the demands on the instructor». These findings concur with what is stated in the literature with regard to what information technologies in general can do to facilitate interaction with instructors (Hiltz, 1990; Moller, 1998; Holley & Haynes, 2003). For example, Moller (1998) remarks that when using technologies to interact with their instructors, students feel they are more involved and that they have learned more. Instructors played a crucial role to support the interaction with students learning online. When interviewed, they stated that they motivate the students to be critical and analytical with what they were learning online. Motivation has been noted in the literature Student at SAIT Electrician Program practicing in the lab.

teaching-learning environment. • Instructors should be aware of the fact that teaching in an online environments requires from them to be able to interact with students using Web 2.0 technologies, such as social media, or e-mail. This Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 interaction is crucial for students’ successful completion of courses and programs. • When teaching online, it is important to consider that not all Model 1. Before using online content Model 2. After using online content the students have the same reading capabilities and learning style. the teaching process itself. The application of new Therefore, online environments pedagogic models has resulted in an ideological shift in should be customized according to individual learning the relationship between instructors and students differences and students’ expectations. (Collis & Moonen, 2001; Laurillard, 2002; Sloman, What can institutions, instructors, and students 2001). In this research, the application of a new peda- expect to see over the next number of years as online gogical framework was crucial for the success of the learning technologies become an even greater part of use online learning technologies inside and outside the education contexts? Although there is not a certain workshop (lab). answer to this question, we suspect that changes will One instructor in the interview emphasized the be seen in all the areas connected to students’ learning, fact that it was his personal challenge to use innovative including pedagogical practices, learning styles, faculty pedagogic techniques that motivated him towards the development, mobile technologies use and appropria- use of online learning materials. It was with the appli- tion. Further areas for research should then be: cation of innovative pedagogic techniques that he • Effective training practices for both instructors made valuable use of online content to prepare teaching and students learning online. students for the workshop (lab): «My challenge is • Analysis and measurement of students’ motiva- more related to an innovative pedagogic practice, not tion in relation to the introduction of online learning to the use online curricula». technologies should be further explored. • Students’ individual differences, such as age, 6. Conclusions, Research Limitations gender, educational experience and learning style Recommendations & Future Research Directions should also be explored when analyzing the potential Research presented in this chapter is only an use of online learning technologies. example of how online learning can contribute to new Acknowledgments pedagogical practices across colleges and universities This research project was possible thanks to the innovative leaders- and how these educational institutions are responding hip of SAIT VP Academic, Dr. Gordon Nixon, and to the valuable to the Net Gen students’ learning expectations. The contribution of the Academic Chairs for the Electrician & the research population in this paper was rather small and Welding Programs, Dr. Lionel Shewchuk and Prof. George Rhodes. My gratitude goes to them, to the instructors involved in the project researchers are aware of the fact that a larger group of and to the students at the School of Construction and the School of students’ opinions should be taken into when conside- Manufacturing and Automation. ring further actions in the design and use of online learning materials. Notes However, from the research findings analyzed in 1 Young (1998) maintains that there are three models that determine this paper, the following recommendations can be educational policies priorities. These models could be compared with the discussion of the transmission versus participative model proposed: discussed in this section. The three models that Young defines are • When changing from a classroom-based tea- the «schooling model», the «credentialist model», and the «access ching environment to an online one, both instructors model». The ‘schooling model’ puts the emphasis on the transmis- and students should be provided with the proper tools sion framework, where learners are expected to have a high degree and training to be able to take advantage of the new of participation in post-compulsory schooling. The «credentialist model» places priority on the aim that learners should have the qua-

lifications to achieve future employment. The «access model» repre- Environment. Ontario: Praeger Publishers sents a vision of society where learners, freed from constraints, learn HILTZ, S.R. (1990). Evaluating the Virtual Classroom. In HARASIM, in any context they find themselves. L. (Ed.). On-line Education: Perspectives on a New Environment. 2 In 2006 the author of this chapter was appointed as the new New York: Praeger Publishers. CISCO Chair in e-learning. Dr. Burkle has continued the work that HOLLEY, D. & HAYNES, R. (2003). The INcoterms Challenge: Dr. Bates started. Using Multimedia to Engage Learners. Education and Training, 45 (7); 392-401. References JUKES, I. & DOSAJ, A. (2004). Understanding Digital Kids: Teaching and Learning in the New Digital Landscape. The InfoSavvy

ANDERSON, P. (2007). What is Web 2.0? Ideas, Technologies and Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 Group. Im plications for Education. JISC Technology and Standards JUNIU, S. (2002). Implementing Handheld Computing Technology Watch. (www.jisc.ac.uk/media/documents/techwatch/tsw0701b. - in Education. The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and pdf) (01-02-2011). Dance, 73. BATES, A. (2000). Managing Technological Change; Strategies for LAURILLARD, D. (2002). Rethinking University Teaching. London: Colleges and University Leaders. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Routledge. Publishers. MASON, R. (1998). Using Communications Media in Open and BATES, A. (2007). Strategic Planning for E-learning in a Polytechnic. Flexible learning. London: Kogan Page. In BULLEN, M. & JANES, D. (Eds.). Making the transition into E- MOLLER, L. (1998). Designing Communities of Learners for Asyn- Learning Strategies and Issues. Hershey, PA: Information Science chronous Distance Education. Educational Technology Research Publishing. and Development, 46, (1); 115-122. BURKLE, M. (2010). E-learning Challenges for Polytechnic Insti- OBLINGER, D. (2005). Educating the Net Generation. Educause. tutions: Bringing mobility to hands-on learning. In EBNER & SCHIEFF- (www.educause.edu/educatingthenetgen) (15-06-2009). NER (Eds.). Looking towards the Future of Technology enhanced OLIVER, B. & GOERKE, V. (2007). Australian Undergraduates’ use Edu cation. IGI Global. and Ownership of Emerging Technologies: Implications and BURKLE, M. (2003). The Impact of Information and Communi - Oppor tunities for Creating Engaging Learning Experiences for the cation Technologies on Higher Education Systems. University of Net Generation. Australian Journal of Educational Technology, 23 Sussex (UK): Unpublished doctoral dissertation. (2); 171-186. (www.ascilite.org.au/ajet/ajet23/oliver.html) (21-02- COLLIS, B. & MOONEN, J. (2001). Flexible Learning in a Digital 2011). World. London: Kogan Page. PERRY, D. (2003). Hand-held computers (PDAs) in Schools. Co - CREANOR, L. & AL. (2006). LEX The Learner Experience of e-lear- ventry, UK: Becta. ning. Final Report. Glasgow Caledonian University, August 2006. PRENSKY, M. (2001). Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants. On the Ho - (www.jisc.ac.uk/uploaded_documents/LEX%20Final%20Report_ rizon. MCB University Press, 9 (5); October. (http://helpdesk.- August06.pdf) (01-02-2011). muscati ne.k 12.ia.us/external/MPrensky.pdf) (21-02-2011). DANIELS, J.S. (1998). Mega Universities and Knowledge Media: SFARD, A. (1998) ‘On two Metaphors for Learning and the Dangers Technology strategies for Higher Education. London: Routledge. of Choosing Just One’. Educational Researcher, 27 (2); 4-13. DEAL, A. (2007). Podcasting. A Teaching with Technology White SLOMAN, M. (2001). The e-learning Revolution. London: Charte - Paper. Office of Technology for Education & Eberly Center for red Institute of Personnel and Development Teaching Excellence. Carnegie Mellon University. (http://connect. - TAPSCOTT, D. (2008). Grown up digital. New York: McGraw- edu cause.edu/files/CMU_Podcasting_Jun07.pdf) (01-02-2011). Hill. EVANS, T. & NATION, D. (2000). Changing University Teaching. TOLEDO, C. (2007). Digital Culture: Immigrants and Tourists. Res - Reflection on Creating Educational Technologies. London: Rout - ponding to the Natives’ Drumbeat. International Journal of Tea - ledge. ching and Learning in Higher Education, 19 (1); 84-92. (www.- GIBSON, T.; KOONTZ, D. & VAN DEN HENDE, M. (2008). The Di - isetl.org/ijtlhe/pdf/IJTLHE152.pdf) (21-02-2011). gital Generation: Teaching to a Population that Speaks an Entirely WESCH, M. (2007). A Vision of Students Today. YouTube Video. New Language. Chair Academy, April 1-4. Denver (USA). (http://- (www.youtube.com/watch?v=dGCJ46vyR9o) (17-02-2011). david.koontz.name/digital/Presentation_files/the_digital_genera- YOUNG, M. (1998). The Curriculum of the Future. From the ‘New tion.pdf) (01-02-2011). Sociology of Education’ to a Critical Theory of Learning. London: HARASIM, L. (1990). On-line Education: Perspectives on a New Falmer Press.

© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 45-53 54 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 All «Comunicar» www.revistacomunicar.com on your screen your on © ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: DOSSIER

Requested: 09-11-2010 / Received: 13-12-2010 l Peter Sloep & Adriana Berlanga Accepted: 27-03-2011 / Published: 01-10-2011 Heerlen (Holland) http://dx.doi.org/10.3916/C37-2011-02-05

Redes de aprendizaje, aprendizaje en red

Learning Networks, Networked Learning

ABSTRACT Learning Networks are on-line social networks through which users share knowledge with each other and jointly develop new knowledge. This way, Learning Networks may enrich the experience of formal, school-based learning and form a viable setting for professional development. Although networked learning enjoys an increasing interest, many questions remain on how exactly learning in such networked contexts can contribute to successful education and training. Put differently, how should networked learning be designed best to facilitate education and training? Taking this as its point of departure, the chapter addresses such issues as the dynamic evolution of Learning Networks, trust formation and profiling in Learning Networks, and peer-support among Learning Network participants. This discussion will be interspersed with implementation guidelines for Learning Networks and with a discussion of the more extended case of a Learning Network for Higher Education. Taking into consideration research currently carried out at our own centre and elsewhere, the chapter will close off with a look into the future of Learning Networks. RESUMEN Las redes de aprendizaje (Learning Networks) son redes sociales en línea mediante las cuales los participantes com- parten información y colaboran para crear conocimiento. De esta manera, estas redes enriquecen la experiencia de aprendizaje en cualquier contexto de aprendizaje, ya sea de educación formal (en escuelas o universidades) o edu- cación no-formal (formación profesional). Aunque el concepto de aprendizaje en red suscita el interés de diferentes actores del ámbito educativo, aún existen muchos interrogantes sobre cómo debe diseñarse el aprendizaje en red para facilitar adecuadamente la educación y la formación. El artículo toma este interrogante como punto de partida, y posteriormente aborda cuestiones como la dinámica de la evolución de las redes de aprendizaje, la importancia de fomentar la confianza entre los participantes y el papel central que desempeña el perfil de usuario en la construcción de la confianza, así como el apoyo entre compañeros. Además, se elabora el proceso de diseño de una red de aprendizaje, y se describe un ejemplo en el contexto universitario. Basándonos en la investigación que actualmente se lleva a cabo en nuestro propio centro y en otros lugares, el capítulo concluye con una visión del futuro de las redes de aprendizaje. KEYWORDS / PALABRAS CLAVE Learning networks, design, education, training, informal learning, lifelong learning. Redes de aprendizaje, diseño, educación, formación, educación informal, educación a lo largo de la vida.

v Dr. Peter B. Sloep is Professor at the Centre for Learning Sciences and Technologies of the Open University in Heerlen (The Netherlands) ([email protected]). v Dr. Adriana J. Berlanga is Professor at the Centre for Learning Sciences and Technologies of the Open University in Heerlen (The Netherlands) ([email protected]).

Comunicar, 37, v. XIX, 2011, Scientific Journal of Media Literacy; ISSN: 1134-3478; pages 55-63 www.revistacomunicar.com 56 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 nweg itnie rdcs n srie demand transi the Also, delivery. their for people highly-skilled services and However, products goods. intensive knowledge bulk of production industrial the or trade do than value economic more generate will products and services knowledge-intensive ultimately, Foray, & that, is idea central A 2007). Jochems, & Sloep 2003; (David communities knowledge-based of advent the and production knowledge of acceleration Introduction 1. go into these arguments any further, but surmise that surmise but further, any arguments these into go not will We 2001). 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Learning 2009): (Koper, instance for could Network a of inhabitants the competences, acquire to efforts their In well. as universities) or (school tion educa- formal of context the in useful are they tations, nal contexts (professional education); with slight adap- educatio- non-formal in experience learning the ching enri- at aim design their by Networks Learning way, tences by sharing information and collaborating. In this compe- their develop to participants help that ments nld, o isac, nie ore, ige learning single courses, entire instance, for include, Resources competences. their develop to order in sary neces- deem they what do to participants help might that links or files of consist Resources etc. seeker, port ner, teacher, coach, mentor, interested bystander, sup- Learning body and will play a the variety of different roles: e.g. lear- any be of can They participants. actors its are main thus Network The so. doing them supports that services of variety a and list) above (see the purposes specific their for the use that may participants resources supports Network Learning any interests; similar roughly share who people of prised erig ewrs r oln lann environ learning online are Networks Learning been have approaches several Recently, A Learning Network as a social network is com is network social a as Network Learning A learning find others, and themselves Assess • the in others to/from support receive and Offer • discus- communities, groups, working up Set • innova- (e.g. projects on collaboratively Work • with knowledge and experiences Exchange • © ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 • Pages 55-63 Pages • 1988-3293 e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: - - - - 57

objects, any kind of online documents, videos, blogs, transient communities (Sloep, 2009b); ad hoc, wikis, etc. They are in part imported into the network, because they are topic bound, transient, because their in part created by the participants themselves. activity wanes once the problem has been solved. In Supporting services are software tools that increase a the context of these ad-hoc transient communities, Learning Network’s viability by facilitating the transac- weak network links are transformed into strong tions of network members (Sloep, 2009a). These tran- community links. Initial research findings suggest that sactions permit participants to collaborate, to explore ad-hoc transient communities provide a mechanism and to exploit the Learning Network. In terms of the for community growth within networks (Fetter, Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 above list, supporting services help participants to Berlanga & Sloep, 2008). This mechanism of commu- exchange knowledge, to work collaboratively and set nity growth is important for fostering the emergence of up tools for that, to provide support and receive it, to social learning in Learning Networks (Chapman & assess themselves or others, to find learning resources, Ramondt, 2005). The social learning which occurs to work on their competence profiles, etc. Supporting services thus always concern a participant’s (a) learning needs, Ever more it becomes evident that Higher Education (b) competences or (c) collective behaviour. Institutions should focus on managing the increasingly Such services could offer advice on the basis of the net- permeable boundaries among universities, and between work members’ collective universities and the world outside them (Benkler, 2009). In behaviour (Drachsler, 2009). So if most people studied cour- Higher Education contexts, Learning Networks could be an se Y after course X, a pertinent service could recommend a excellent means to ensure that faculties and students have learner to do similarly. Or, if the largest possible capacity to act freely, to innovate within most people found document Y useful with respect to a par- the confines of the University, and to liaise with ticular issue X, a pertinent service could recommend partici- external parties. pants dealing with issue X to consult document Y. These kinds of recommender system are useful in that they capture the collective wisdom of within these Learning Networks is also important for the Learning Network ‘crowd’. They can be made the individual in their professional life: emerging more sophisticated by taking into account participant learning communities will, over time, acquire the profile data, so that recommendations become more characteristics of communities of practice (Brown & personalised. The strength of such recommendations Duguid, 2000; Wenger & Snyder, 2002). is that they can be given without any human interven- The social character of a Learning Network, tion, once the recommender system has been set up, it furthermore, fosters the social capital of the partici- just continues to generate recommendations. pants (Fetter, Berlanga & Sloep, 2010), promotes net- Alternatively, support services could consist of working learning and has the potential of minimizing advice provided by fellow learners (peers), hand-pic- the isolation that participants (due to geographical, ked through data-mining, via team and group forma- social or cultural reasons) might have. tion or matching technologies (Kalz, 2009; Van Rosmalen, Sloep, Kester & al., 2008). Unlike recom- 3. Learning Network: design, implementation and mender systems, they have the potential to strengthen impact the social cohesion of the network as they require The design of a Learning Network is context- human intervention. Thus, when peers tutor each dependent, each one of them has its unique characte- other, reciprocal learning occurs: peers learn by ristics; there are no predefined designs or recipes. discussion and explanation. Reciprocal learning occurs Designing a Learning Network is a matter of co-crea- in small groups of about 4 to 5 people, called ad-hoc tion, an interactive process that considers the participa-

tion and feedback of all stakeholders, such as the net- Network will be maintained and controlled by an ins- works’ patrons, its future participants, and possible titution, as is the case in formal education or a com- other agents. One should decide to work with a user- pany-based network. Another dimension pertains to centred approach, such as participatory design, which the importance of knowing the initial position of the has the benefit of addressing not only tool use, but the Learning Network, whether participants already know learning environment in its entirety (Spinuzzi, 2005). each other from face-to-face contacts, or whether they Whatever the methodology used, it should include an are expected to make first-time contacts through the

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 analysis of the objectives of the Learning Network, the Learning Network. Finally, the design of the Learning needs of the stakeholders, and an assessment of the Network should consider if the access of the Learning technology already available. Network will be open or restricted. After an initial design has been sketched, it then is The analysis of participants should determine the evaluated and subsequently improved. The focus type (prototype or persona) of users that will join the Learning Network, the benefits they expect to obtain from the Learning Network, their The way we have organised initial education in our societies experience in online learning contexts, and their digital com- makes it ill-suited for the education of adult professionals. petences. Curricula, classrooms and office hours do not sit well with The analysis of resources delineates what knowledge, the flexibilities of content, didactics and logistics adult information and learning plans/ paths a Learning Net work will learners require in order to acquire the exact competences contain and how participants they need, at their point of need and at their preferred pace, are expected to contribute to the well-being of the Learning place and time. Indeed, many argue that our system for Network; for instance, whether they are expected to create initial education badly needs reform as well. new resources individually or collaboratively. Based on these considerations, the next step is to describe typical usage scena- should be on solving the stakeholders’ challenges by rios or use cases. These should describe the problems proposing solutions that will impact practice and pro- or issues participants have as well as the proposed vide an added value. One should avoid purely techno- solution: how the Learning Network will work. By logical-driven approaches as these only address some means of these use cases, an initial design model is of the stakeholders’ problems. proposed. It details the communication and collabora- Broadly speaking, the analysis of the objectives of tion functionalities the network will have and the the Learning Network should consider the type of par- services it will contain. Additionally, interaction strate- ticipants and resources that will be interacting in the gies needed to stimulate interaction and collaboration Learning Network. It should also take into account a between participants will be elaborated. These strate- variety of dimensions that may impact the Learning gies could comprise resources, methods, activities or Network, such as the nature of knowledge the functionalities. Network is expected to manage (in terms of comple- The initial design is verified and validated with a xity and actuality), or the organization of the learning group of stakeholders, to obtain feedback and sugges- process (formal, informal, non-formal). These two tions for improvement. Afterwards, the Learning dimensions will influence the control participants will Network is launched, which includes training and dis- have in the Learning Network. Control could percola- semination activities. Training should target key stake- te from the bottom-up, as in approaches in which par- holders, to motivate them and set in motion the crea- ticipants are expected to maintain the Learning tion of relevant resources. Also, online or face-to-face Network themselves; or it could seep from the top- sessions are needed to spread the word on the availa- down, as in approaches in which the Learning bility of the Learning Network and on its functionali-

ties, but also to acquire new participants, and to fine- tagging (Berlanga, Rusman, Bitter-Rijpkema & Sloep, tune the network. When the Learning Network is 2009). running, monitor and evaluation activities should be Stakeholders, therefore, are given the option of conducted. They should include an assessment of the creating online learning communities within the pertinence of the proposed solution, the competences Learning Network, in the form of online learning (sub) acquired by the participants, an analysis of the social communities for formal or informal learning purposes. interaction (e.g., centralization versus distribution, For teachers, this could mean that through them, they number of contacts per participants, etc.), the number now can act on their common interest in new teaching Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 of active participants, the number of resources methods. In this community they could have a naviga- accessed, the impact of the services provided by the tion service that will allow them to personalize, share Network, and so on. and find out information and relevant resources. ReMashed (Drachsler & al., 2009) is such a service. 4. Learning Networks and Higher Education This service analyzes collaborative behaviour (using a Ever more it becomes evident that Higher Edu - technique called collaborative filtering) to recommend cation Institutions should focus on managing the incre- learning resources from emerging information of a asingly permeable boundaries among universities, and Learning Network. Participants should specify the between universities and the world outside them Web 2.0 services they use (e.g., del.icio.us, blog (Benkler, 2009). In Higher Education contexts, Lear- feeds, Twitter, YouTube), the subjects they are inte- ning Networks could be an excellent means to ensure rested in, and their knowledge of these subjects. Based that faculties and students have the largest possible on these criteria, participants receive recommenda- capacity to act freely, to innovate within the confines tions for relevant resources. Participants can also rate of the University, and to liaise with external parties. the recommendations they are receiving, and the ser- For instance, let us take the example of a Learning vice takes these preferences into account to fine-tune Network for some Higher Education Institution the recommendations. whose objective it is to provide university stakeholders This Learning Network could also broker learning with opportunities to collaborate interactively with offers available through the universities. Stakeholders peers and tutors on specific issues. (current and potential students, but also teachers and This Learning Network might contain: 1) a profile staff) could then search, find and compare learning service (Berlanga, Bitter, Brouns, Sloep & Fetter, opportunities that fit their interests or needs. To this 2010); 2) functionality for collaboration and sharing of end, learning opportunities should conform to a uni- resources between participants; 3) navigation services form computer interpretable language, as the Learning that will allow participants to search and receive Path Specification (Janssen, Berlanga, Vogten & recommendations for contacts and resources; and 4) Koper, 2008) so a navigational support service could supporting services to help participants to acquire ans- recommend relevant learning paths, considering lear- wers for their problems/questions. ners’ needs and preferences regarding competence A profile service allows participants in the level, delivery mode, time, and so on. Learning Network to create and manage their own Finally, in this Learning Network stakeholders presence in the community, by means of a profile and could use supporting services to be guided to solve contacts, as well as to manage their contributions for their problems or questions. For instance, the Learning the community, by means of creating communities and Network could contain a PhD community on research learning actions (Berlanga, Rusman, Bitter-Rijpkema & methods; in it researchers and PhD candidates could Sloep, 2009). Profiling in Learning Networks enables use a peer-support service to help each other (Van understanding of the participant’s context (Preece, Rosmalen, Sloep, Brouns & al., 2008). Using such a 2000), gives security to build up trust between peers peer-support service, a researcher posts a question, (Rusman, Van Bruggen, Sloep & Valcke, 2010), and and the service finds out one or a few participants, provides safety within the conventions and boundaries depending on how the service is set up, who are best of the community. suited, in terms of their knowledge and availability, to Functionality for collaboration and sharing inclu- help the question asking person to solve his or her des creation of communities (which contain communi- problem. The service sets up a private working space cation services such as email, chat or forum), and faci- (e.g. wiki) so participants can work together on solving lities to create and share resources as, for instance, the posted questions. Once the question is solved the bookmarking, rating, annotations, recommendations or working space is disbanded.

5. Future of Learning Networks Learning Network instantiations may change rapidly, In the previous paragraphs we have attempted to some technology being state of the art a few months sketch a picture of how Learning Networks operate, ago now being replaced by today’s, more powerful defined as online learning environments that help their technology; or, some service being costly or even users to develop their competences by sharing infor- impossible a few months ago, becoming affordable mation and collaborating. First, we have acknowled- and available today. Research that monitors technolo- ged that the advent of the knowledge society is an gical development therefore pays off.

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 important, though not the exclusive driving force Second, much has been said about the way in behind them. Educational reform is another one. which a Learning Network should be stocked with Then we have discussed how such networks are use- resources and services in order for it to function as a ful in contexts of formal, institutional learning and non- collaborative environment for learning and knowledge formal, workplace learning. We have established that exchange. What has received little attention so far is next to participants, they contain resources and servi- how people actually learn in such contexts, what kinds ces. The services unlock the resources, but also foster of resources, services and interactions between people the emergence of multiple, topic-bound communities are needed to optimise learning and knowledge through forging smart ties between network partici- exchange in such environments. pants. We have urged the use of user-centred design This question borders on the kinds of questions approaches when creating concrete Learning addressed by the field of CSCL, computer supported Network instances, taking stakeholder objectives, par- collaborative learning, but is different in that Learning ticipant characteristics, and locally available technolo- Networks do not presuppose the omnipresence of gies into account. Finally, we discussed an example teachers and staff as CSCL seems to do. It is pertinent case of wanting to design a Learning Network in as, obviously, learning and knowledge sharing do not Higher Education. come about automatically (Kirschner, Sweller & Clark, What we hope to have conveyed is the under - 2006). So, if teachers do not assume their traditional standing that: role of organisers of the learning process, who or what • Educating people for the knowledge society does? The problem, of course, is that too much orga- requires an approach different than what we are accus- nisation up front hampers flexibility. But too little is tomed to, certainly in post-initial, professional educa- likely to lower learning efficiency. So the problem is tion, but likely also for initial, mandatory education. one of finding an optimum and determining how this • A Learning Networks approach provides a pos- can be achieved efficiently. Only research can provide sible solution to this demand. such answers. We would like to wrap up our discussion by lis- Third and focussing on Learning Networks for ting a few opportunities for research on Learning non-formal learning, research is needed at the organi- Networks. In due time, the research outcomes should sation and business model level. Allowing for the both deepen and widen the possible uses of Learning obvious variety between different nations, normal lear- Networks as a promising learning environment for the ning has its organisational structures in place. They future. come in the form of schools, faculties, classes, levels First and quite generally, Learning Networks hea- (primary, secondary), orientations (vocational, acade- vily rely on online collaboration; they thrive in the envi- mic), teachers or lecturers, teaching assistants, support ronment the modern Internet provides: Web 2.0 staff, etc. Also the way initial education is paid has (Berlanga, García Peñalvo & Sloep, 2010). However, been sorted out, again allowing for some variation. the social web, as it is often called, is evolving rapidly. Basically, governments are the largest funders, with Natural language processing is becoming more power- some room for private initiatives (Guthrie, Griffiths & ful, whether it employs inferencing techniques based Maron, 2008). Non-formal education is an entirely on ontologies and RDF or statistical techniques such as different matter. Without even attempting to elaborate latent semantic indexing. Recommender systems are the possibilities that there are, let alone go into their becoming ever more powerful, also because data sets various details, it should be clear that the range of pos- become available on which they feed (Manouselis, sibilities is vast (Kollock & Russell Braziel, 2006). Drachsler, Verbert & Santos, 2010). Open standards At the least innovative extreme, a Learning for online networking such as Open Social emerge Network could be fully internal to a single, large orga- and become implemented. This list may be extended nisation that wants to organise its knowledge manage- almost indefinitely. So the precise elaboration of ment and professional development along novel lines.

In this case, it is this organisation that imposes the intellectual property in house but, if more profitable, structure and foots the bill. At the other most challen- go out and simply buy it. Of recent, the notion has ging extreme a Learning Network could be like a com- been extended to include collaborative innovation mons, owned by nobody really, but constituting the across companies in the precompetitive phases of the shared interest of many interested parties, even single innovation process. Adopting a Learning Networks’ individuals. Structure emerges and many costs could approach would extend the playing field for open be deferred to the use of open source, software, by innovation even further ( Sloep, 2009c), and that open content as in, say, Wikipedia and, more specifi- applies as well for Higher Education. After all, a Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 cally, open educational resources. However, some Learning Network fosters the knowledge exchange costs, if only those of the server space and data traffic that is a prerequisite of innovation. Also, it sports the somehow need to be paid for. These could be cove- kind of tools that facilitate collaboration. However, red by allowing the posting of advertisements or by these are only the basics. For a Learning Network fully selling users’ profiling data. Clearly, privacy is a con- to support distributed (as in online), collaborative inno- cern here that needs to be addressed (Gallant, Boone & Heap, 2007). In between these extremes a whole range of possible organisational and Open standards allow any one instance of a Learning financial configurations lives. If Network easily to track and adapt to novel developments, Learning Network-based learning is to be a viable option, such as for example to the advent of the Open Social speci- research needs to chart out these configurations and assess fication for profiling data. Open source software develop- them for their viability. ments allow for the easy expansion or rejuvenation of Fourth, as the organisational model just discussed makes Learning Network services. Obviously, also Learning clear, Learning Networks for non-formal learning in particu- Networks for formal learning stand to profit from openness lar naturally link with open of software, standards and content. content. However, for a learning environment that feeds on Web 2.0 developments, open standards and open source software applications are no less important. Open vation, more is needed. For one, the Network partici- standards allow any one instance of a Learning pants should have a stock of creativity techniques at Network easily to track and adapt to novel develop- their disposal. Also, the Network should possess a ments, such as for example to the advent of the Open collective memory that stores and retrieves, if one so Social specification for profiling data. Open source wishes, the results of collaborative innovation sessions software developments allow for the easy expansion (Dolog, Lin, Grube & Schmid, 2009). Also, a service or rejuvenation of Learning Network services. that handpicks networks participants best suited for a Obviously, also Learning Networks for formal learning particular innovative job, should be available (Sie, stand to profit from openness of software, standards Bitter-Rijpkema & Sloep, 2009). Innovation, parenthe- and content. In terms of research efforts, Learning tically, should be conceived broadly, to include bold Networks research should not merely inventory from attempts at designing the next generation smart phones what kinds of openness Learning Networks profit, it and more modest attempts to design a new environ- should also actively contribute to relevant standards mental science curriculum that better suits societal and tools. needs. Although some work has been done in this Fifth and final, there is one member of the open area, a vast number of questions, fundamental and family that has not been mentioned yet: open innova- practical, need to be resolved. tion (e.g. Von Hippel, 2005). It is a relatively new In conclusion, Learning Networks are a promising development that originally only included the advice means to innovate education, formal and non-formal for corporations not necessarily to develop all their alike, but also a fertile ground for exciting research.

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© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 55-63 S 33-38. m.b.H.; Forschungsgesellschaft Research Salzburg Salsburgo: Mai. 2009, Fachtagung EduMedia 5. der Praxisbeiträgen Web,the Fach-und ausgewähltenin von Competencies Sammlung Innovationskompetenz im digitalen Netz - Creativity and Innovation S ning. H A. & A. S 08. Conference,ICCMSN International I the working.of Proceedings 2007. Eindelijkdigitaal.2007. H In Innovation. Networked Open, Generation: Knowledge of Process © LOEP LOEP LOEP ORNUNG AAN ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 55-63 Pages 1988-3293• e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: Dunedin, New Zealand, June 2008: Springer; 62-75, Springer; 2008: June Zealand, New Dunedin, International JournalInternational of TechnologyLearning.Enhanced AL , , J. D J. , PB & J & P.B. , B P.B.; , . (2011). A European Research Agenda for Lifelong Lear Lifelong for Agenda Research European A (2011). . .. 20c. noain s Dsrbtd Collaborative Distributed, a as Innovation (2009c). P.B. -P E RÄHAUSER & S & OON OCHEMS TEYAERT , J.; C J.; , , V. & L & V. , ORNU Amsterdam: Boom; 171-187. Boom; Amsterdam: , , J. (Ed.). J. . 20) D Elrne ugr In: Burger. E-lerende De (2007). W. UCKMANN , B.; K B.; , Jaarboek ICT en samenleving en JaarboekICT LEBL , M. (Eds.). M. , , M.; L M.; , EFRÈRE Kreativität undKreativität , P.; N P.; , AEVE - , W Press. MIT (USA): Business School University Press. University School Business Knowledge Managing to Guide A Practice: of V 21; in Technology Perspective. Communication Dutch A Education: and Information of Use gogical V 24, Selection. Tutor Peer on M.; V Tech nical2 Communication,52, S PINUZZI AN ON AN ENGER 407-415. 1; 74-86. 1; P R M ANNEKEET H OSMALEN ERRIËNBOER IPPEL , , E.C. & S . 20) Te ehdlg o Priiaoy Design. Participatory of Methodology The (2005). C. , . (2005). E. , P.; S P.; , , K. & K. , J & B & J. , NYDER LOEP AL . , Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, Assisted Computer of Journal , P.; K P.; , (2008). A Learner Support Mo Support Learner A (2008). Based del W.M. (2002). eortzn Innovation Democratizing RAND ESTER -G ; 163-174. ; Computers in Human Behavior,Human in Computers RUWEL , L.; B L.; , Cultivating Communities , ROUNS . 20) Te Peda The (2005). S. . , F.; D F.; , otn Harvard Boston: Cambridge . E C ROOCK - , 63 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 64 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 All «Comunicar» www.revistacomunicar.com on your screen your on © ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: DOSSIER

Requested: 21-01-2010 / Received: 03-01-2011 l Luz Adriana Osorio & Josep María Duart Accepted: 21-03-2011 / Published: 01-10-2011 Bogotá (Colombia) & Barcelona (Spain) http://dx.doi.org/10.3916/C37-2011-02-06

Análisis de la interacción en ambientes híbridos de aprendizaje

Interaction Analysis in Hybrid Learning Environment

ABSTRACT Interaction analysis in virtual and hybrid learning environments is a complex issue, since it is necessary to go beyond a quantitative approach (number of messages) and obtain information about interaction dynamics in the context of educational activities. This article presents a set of interaction analysis strategies, which were designed during the development of a doctoral thesis in response to the two challenges identified: First, how can interaction be observed? And second, how can interaction be related to academic performance? The strategies designed provide elements for the analysis of educational activities, of asynchronous on-line discussions, of interaction representation and of the relationship between interaction and academic performance. For the analysis of educational activities, elements of sociocultural activity theory were used. For asynchronous on-line discussions, a content analysis of discussion transcripts was performed using a group of categories reflecting the knowledge construction process. Interaction was represented using the forograma technique, which is an alternative strategy for evaluating on-line discussion forums. The relationship between interaction and academic performance was established by comparing interaction dynamics and the academic performance results of the groups selected. Finally, an example is given to show how the strategies are applied. RESUMEN El análisis de la interacción en ambientes virtuales e híbridos es un tema complejo, puesto que es necesario superar la aproximación cuantitativa, número de mensajes, y lograr información sobre las dinámicas de interacción, en el marco de las actividades educativas. En este trabajo se presenta un conjunto de estrategias para el análisis de la inte- racción, las cuales se diseñaron durante el desarrollo de una tesis doctoral, como respuesta a dos retos que fueron identificados: ¿cómo observar la interacción?, ¿cómo relacionar la interacción con el rendimiento académico? Las estrategias diseñadas ofrecen elementos para el análisis de las actividades educativas, análisis de las discusiones virtuales asincrónicas, representación de las interacciones y la relación entre la interacción y el rendimiento académico. El conjunto de estrategias permitió reconocer el fenómeno de la interacción en el marco de actividades educativas, así como el proceso o dinámica en la interacción grupal, que muestra la evolución del grupo hacia la construcción de conocimiento. Por otro lado, también permitió analizar los procesos virtuales de interacción y establecer compa- raciones entre las dinámicas de los grupos y la relación entre éstas y los resultados de rendimiento académico. Si bien el grupo de estrategias surgen en un estudio específico, ofrecen herramientas que pueden utilizarse en otros contextos. La manera de utilizar las estrategias se ilustra en este artículo con un ejemplo. KEYWORDS / PALABRAS CLAVE Interaction, interaction analysis, hybrid environments, asynchronous discussions, forogramas, blended learning. Interacción, análisis de interacción, ambientes híbridos, discusiones asincrónicas, forogramas, aprendizaje mezclado,

v Dr. Luz Adriana Osorio Gómez is Assistant Teacher at the Research and Training in Education Centre of the University of los Andes, and Head of the Research and Development of Computer Science in Education Centre (LIDIE) in Bogotá (Colombia) ([email protected]). v Dr. Josep M Duart Montoliu is Vicerrector of Postgraduate Studies and Professor at the eLearn Centre of the Universitat Oberta of Catalonia (UOC) in Barcelona (Spain) ([email protected]).

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1. Introduction mic performance? The strategies employed to deal Hybrid learning environments are those that com- with these challenges are presented below. bine face-to-face learning and instruction mediated by information and communication technologies (ICTs) 2.1. How can interaction be observed? (Reay, 2001; Rooney, 2003; Sands, 2002; Ward & According to Onrubia (2005), in order to analyse LaBranche, 2003; Young, 2002; Osorio, 2010). interaction, it is necessary to identify the joint activity in Dziuban, Hartman and Moskal (2004) consider that which it occurs so that the context and meaning of

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 this combination optimises both environments, provi- interactions can be recognised. It is also necessary to ded that the best of both worlds is put to good use. identify how asynchronous discussions occur in the This concurs with the results of a study by Hinojo, context of educational activities, in the knowledge Aznar and Cáceres (2009) on students’ perception of construction process (Barberà & Badia, 2004). this approach. It is important to explore new forms of In the case study of the RDM programme, the interaction analysis in hybrid environments to ensure following strategies were employed to approach those that they account for the quantity and, above all, the two aspects: quality of participation, processes and conditions that a) Educational activity analysis.The design of lear- favour knowledge construction (Gros & Silva, 2006; ning activities was analysed in accordance with the Meyer, 2004; De Weber, Schellens, Valcke & Van components identified in activity theory (Jonassen & Keer, 2006; Rourke, Anderson, Garrison & Archer, Ronrer, 1999). Recognition of an activity and its struc- 2001). ture allows learning sequences to be identified in Interaction can be defined as cognitive and social various hybrid learning space-times: face-to-face, e- actions among actors of the educational process (stu- learning and independent. In addition, bearing in mind dent-lecturer, student-student) while undertaking lear- that authentic educational activities foster the genera- ning activities. Understood within cognitive and social tion of spaces and times for individual and collaborati- frameworks, interaction requires an analysis of various ve knowledge construction, the categories proposed aspects and several levels. According to Barberà and by Oliver, Herrington and Reeves (2006) were used Badia (2004), interaction analysis should consider: for the analysis of learning activities as authentic activi- • An analysis of a joint activity in which a lecturer ties. and students, and students alone, participate and inter- Analysing and, therefore, designing educational act while undertaking learning activities. activities in accordance with the components of acti- • In order to understand social interaction, vity theory implies a revision of: The system: object, account should be taken of the knowledge that is acti- subject, mediating artefacts (instruments, resources), vated and produced by the group. rules and division of labour (organisation and metho- • While a joint activity includes various times and dological design), activity structure (learning sequen- forms of interaction, various authors concur in recog- ces), system dynamics (interactions). nising the value of asynchronous conversations as In order to analyse activity authenticity, the criteria important expressions and manifestations of interac- proposed by Oliver et al. (2006) were used. Accor - tion. Thus, interaction analysis should be complemen- ding to these authors, authentic activities: are relevant ted with a careful analysis of asynchronous conversa- to the real world; are not very defined; students need tions. to define the tasks and sub-tasks required to complete This article presents a set of interaction analysis an activity; include complex tasks that cannot be strategies designed during the development of a docto- undertaken over short periods of time; foster opportu- ral thesis, the purpose of which was to analyse interac- nities for students to examine a task from several pers- tion in hybrid learning environments on a case study of pectives; foster collaboration; promote reflection; go a hybrid learning postgraduate programme (Regional beyond a specific domain or result; are integrated into Development Management [RDM]) offered by a assessment; generate outcomes that have value in their Colombian university. own right; allow multiple solutions and diverse results. This set of characteristics constitutes the categories 2. Interaction analysis strategies and challenges on the basis of which learning activities can be analy- In the context of the research undertaken, the sed as authentic activities. approach to interaction analysis raised the following b) Asynchronous online discussion analysis. In challenges: First, how can interaction be observed? accordance with various authors (Rourke et al, 2001; And second, how can interaction be related to acade- Schalk & Marcelo, 2010), content analysis is presen-

ted as a technique for analysing information obtained tions. The aim of this category is to reflect the process from transcripts of asynchronous discussion groups. In of a group’s dialogue and negotiation. the literature, it is possible to find several publications • Contribution collecting and summarising a on this issue, with different theoretical underpinnings group’s contributions: this is when, once a group has and different conceptions of interaction (Henri, 1992; made its contributions and, in some cases, has had a Zhu, 1996; Gunawardena, Lowe & Anderson, 1997; discussion, one or several of the group’s members Garrison & Anderson, 2003). collect those contributions and generate a group out-

In the context of the RDM programme case study, come based on them. Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 two sets of categories were used for the analysis of • Contribution completing and enhancing a asynchronous conversations: those proposed by group’s construction: when a group has a collaborative Gunawardena et al. (1997) and by Garrison and construction outcome, this outcome goes through a Anderson (2003). These were selected because their theoretical frameworks are based on knowledge construction. After applying the categories to seve- Interaction in the context of authentic activities can ral forums, it was found that strengthen individual and collaborative knowledge they did not allow interaction dynamics and group work to construction, and thus, in turn, can generate the conditions be reflected, both of which are inherent to this set of courses. necessary for greater learning and better academic It was for this reason that a performance results. However, for this to be potentially so, decision was taken to analyse interaction dynamics in order a prerequisite is the presence of certain conditions and to identify the knowledge construction process that stu- characteristics in the design and implementation of such dents followed on the RDM activities in order to ensure that the greatest advantage is programme’s forums. The transcripts of 17 forums of taken, not only of hybrid environments, but also of certain seven programme subjects were analysed in order to student and lecturer practices and characteristics in identify the process that stu- group work dynamics. dents followed for collaborative knowledge construction, and it was found that messages of the three types suggested by various authors could process of enhancement through contributions made be identified in the groups’ interaction dynamics: affec- the group’s participants. tive/motivational, informative/ organisational, acade- Following the protocol of analysis techniques for mic/knowledge construction (Barberà & Badia, 2004). online discussions (Neuendorf, 2002; Rourke et al., When analysing the collaborative knowledge 2001), the set of categories that emerged in the construction process on forums, a set of sub-categories research was subjected to a process of validation by emerged in the academic/knowledge construction three researchers in order to identify the mean percen- category. These sub-categories allowed messages to tage agreement reached, which turned out to be 70%. be classified as follows: This percentage agreement is considered acceptable • Isolated contribution: a participant makes a con- and reliable for an analysis of asynchronous discussion tribution to the group without establishing any rela- content. tionship with other messages. • Opinion contribution or comment on other par- 2.2. How can interaction be related to academic ticipants’ contributions: this is when participants begin performance? to read each others’ messages and to give their opi- After managing to identify the interaction observa- nions on other participants’ contributions. These com- tion strategies, the challenge was to identify elements ments may be opinions, questions, replies or clarifica- to represent those interactions in order to ensure that

first they were comparable, and second that they could be related to academic performance results. To that end, the following strategies were employed: Categories used in on-line discussion representation.

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 a) Interaction repre sentation. The fo ro grama (Salazar, 2006) was used were: as a tool for discussion representation and analysis. The • Quantity of messages: total number of a group’s technique proposed by Salazar (2006) was adapted to messages. the interests of the study. • Classification of messages: quantity of messages, The main input for the elaboration of forogramas discriminated by the categories identified and by mes- is asynchronous discussion transcripts. To begin the sages sent by the lecturer. graphic representation, each discussion participant is • Group work dynamics: an analysis was perfor- represented by a circle with his or her initials inside it. med of forum progress, of organisation and interaction Each contribution is represented by a circle around its dynamics, and of the spokesperson role (in cases author, with a line colour representing the message where this role was present). type, which is classified in accordance with the cate- • Times: time spent on undertaking an activity. gories identified. Messages are organised chronologi- • Activity assessment: academic performance cally in the forograma; an arrow pointing from the aut- results achieved by a group while undertaking an acti- hor to the message allows the contribution time and vity. author to be identified. When a message is addressed to another participant, the author and addressee of the 3. Exemplification of strategy application message are connected by an arrow. If a message is Shown below is an example of the type of analysis addressed to the whole group, it is represented by a performed in the context of the RDM programme case horizontal line that encompasses all participants. In the study. This example shows how each of the strategies forograma, a representation colour is associated with described earlier was applied. The first two strategies each of the categories identified. Below is a table of allowed the activity design to be analysed, while the the conventions used in forogramas. b) Relationship between interaction and academic performance. An analysis of asynchronous discussion interaction dynamics was performed on the basis of a comparative analysis of the groups’ forogramas. The comparison criteria emerge when analysing the results obtained in a set of forogramas, such as those aspects that discriminate and allow differences to be identified. The comparison criteria Table 1: Activity design characteristics.

could be observed. The two groups selected corresponded to those that had the highest (group 1) and second lowest (group 2) grade for

their respective Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 group work outcomes. In this case, Table 2: Activity action sequence. the group dynamics included the group other two provided elements of analysis of the activity spokesperson role, a specific role requested by the and, in particular, of times of greatest interaction while lecturer. The spokesperson was in charge of mobili- that activity was being undertaken, in order to relate sing the group and guaranteeing the dynamics that interaction to academic performance. The example is would lead to the production of the group document. based on an activity of subject S2, which forms part of Shown below are the forogramas for the two groups. the RDM programme. 3.3. Relationship between interaction and aca - 3.1. Educational activity analysis demic performance Shown below are the general characteristics of the The analysis based on forograma comparison cri- activity design (table 1), as is the action sequence teria was as follows: when the activity was being undertaken in the face-to- • Quantity of messages: Group 1 had a higher face, e-learning and independent working spaces number of messages than group 2. (table 2) of the hybrid environment. The activity was •Classification of messages: When observing the analysed on the basis of activity system components. classification of messages, it was found that the two Below is the activity analysis in accordance with groups had a similar number of academic contribu- the categories proposed by Oliver et al. (2006) for tions. Regarding isolated contributions, group 1 had six authentic activities. messages of this type, while group 2 had three.

3.2. Asynchronous interaction analysis and representation While undertaking the activity, the times of greatest student-student interaction and student- lecturer interaction were: the face-to- face session and times when there was group discussion of documents for each region. In order to understand group work dynamics, two of the four groups were selected so that their asynchronous group discussions Table 3: Analysis of the learning activity as an authentic activity.

Regarding outcome completion and enhancement contributions, group 1 had two messages of this type, while group 2 did not have any. There was a considerable difference in the quantity of informative/organi-

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 Graph 1: Forograma for Group 1 (Group 1 - Spokesperson POG). sational messages; group 1 had 11 messages of this type, while group 2 had two. Each group had two affective/ motivational messages. • Group work dynamics: The spokesperson role was included in the instruction given to the groups. The spokesperson was in charge of facilitating, organising and summarising the group’s outcome. Between the two groups, there were major differences in these roles. The spokesperson for group 1 made several organisational contributions and proposed the group work dynamics. This spokesperson also took charge of the two versions of the summary documents. The spokesperson for group 2 only made one organisational contribution, and the group did not achieve good interaction for the production of the document. • Times: Both groups had the same time available for Graph 2: Forograma for Group 2 (Group 2 – Spokesperson MAA). undertaking the activity. • Activity assessment: The following aspects of the activity were assessed: the group work outcome, the presentation in a face-to-face session, the spokesperson role. Seeking the relationship between interaction and performance, the results of the two selected groups’ final outcomes (analysis documents) were taken; by doing so, the result was not related to the interaction dynamics that the groups managed to achieve. It was found that: the group with the highest rate of interaction and better group work dynamics obtained

the highest grade (5 out of 5), while the group with the discussion analysis needs to go beyond a quantitative lowest rate of interaction and greater difficulties in focus and allow an approach to the dynamics, to the group work dynamics obtained the lowest grade (3.85 whys and wherefores of interaction and interaction pro- out of 5). cess results. It was necessary to have a discussion analy- During the course, an individual exam was held sis mechanism in order to identify group work dynamics after the activity analysed; this provided individual evi- and, in particular, to find relationships between these dence of performance. When correlating this assess- dynamics and academic performance results. ment with participation in the group’s internal forum, The set of categories used allowed group interac- Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 a Pearson correlation coefficient of 0.76722215 was tion dynamics or processes to be recognised, which obtained. As this result shows, there is a significant identified individual participation, negotiation and correlation between the variables for participation in a exchange, and a group’s progress towards group cons- group’s internal forum and the grade students obtained truction and synthesis. Following the protocol of in the assessment done by the lecturer to check the analysis techniques for online discussions, the set of attainment of learning objectives. Bearing in mind that categories that emerged in the research was subjected the students’ participation was in the form of discus- to a process of validation by three researchers in order sions, communication and group work, these data to identify the mean percentage agreement reached. A show the relationship between interaction and the set of forums was selected and coded by the three attainment of learning objectives, and specifically bet- researchers, and a percentage agreement of 70% was ween interaction and academic performance. obtained. While these categories were constructed in the specific context of the case study, they may be an 4. Conclusions on the strategies employed for alternative for the analysis of knowledge construction interaction analysis processes in other contexts. 4.1. Educational activity analysis Recognising the interaction phenomenon in the 4.3. Interaction representation context of educational activities, and not just the mes- Forogramas allowed information about discus- sages exchanged in discussions, allows a closer, more sions at various levels to be represented graphically in detailed approach to be taken to hybrid learning envi- a single schema: the individual recognition of partici- ronments, as environments that promote interaction. pants, the type and quantity of contributions, the chro- Interaction in the context of authentic activities can nological progress of discussions, the senders and strengthen individual and collaborative knowledge addressees of messages, the dynamics and progress of construction, and thus, in turn, can generate the con- negotiations, and the process of group construction ditions necessary for greater learning and better acade- and synthesis. All of this information expands the pos- mic performance results. However, for this to be sibilities for analysing, comparing and contrasting dis- potentially so, a prerequisite is the presence of certain cussions. The forograma technique and the categories conditions and characteristics in the design and imple- identified may be used in different contexts and other mentation of such activities in order to ensure that the research projects. greatest advantage is taken, not only of hybrid environ- A limitation of this discussion representation tech- ments, but also of certain student and lecturer practi- nique is that the graphic representation becomes very ces and characteristics in group work dynamics. complex when the number of participants is higher Examining joint activity and all its components than eight. from a sociocultural activity theory viewpoint allows aspects that determine conditions for interaction deve- 4.4. Relationship between interaction and academ- lopment to be identified, such as: the ultimate goal of ic performance interaction (interaction outcome), the actors and roles The forograma technique for representing online involved, and the mediating artefacts (instruments, discussions, and the categories that emerged from the resources), as well as the dynamics or sequences befo- technique for analysing the content of a large number re, during and after times of interaction, thus recogni- of forums, allowed virtual interaction processes to be sing the continuous process (between face-to-face and analysed, comparisons between group dynamics to be e-learning times) within which interaction occurs. made and the relationship between those dynamics and academic performance results to be identified. 4.2. Asynchronous online discussion analysis The forograma comparison criteria allowed dis- As set out in the theoretical underpinnings, online cussion characteristics to be identified; these impacted

on interaction dynamics and determined major diffe- Frames of Analysis. Journal of Asynchronous Learning, 8 (2); 101- rences between the groups and their academic perfor- 114. NEUENDORF, K.A. (2002). The Content Analysis Guidebook. mance results. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications. The four strategies as a whole offer the potential OLIVER, R.; HERRINGTRON, J. & REEVES, T.C. (2006). Creating to observe and analyse interaction dynamics in the Authentic Learning Environments through Blended Learning context of educational activities, and to establish rela- Approaches. The Handbook of Blended Learning: Global Pers- tionships between those dynamics and academic per- pectives, Local Designs. San Francisco: Pfeiffer; 502-515. ONRUBIA, J. (2005). Aprender y enseñar en entornos virtuales: Ac- Comunicar, 35, XVIII, 2010 formance results. tividad conjunta, ayuda pedagógica y construcción de conocimiento. Revista de Educación a Distancia, 4, 2; 1-16 References OSORIO, L. (2010). Características de los ambientes híbridos de BARBERÀ, E. & BADÍA, A. (2004). Educar con aulas virtuales. Orien - aprendizaje: estudio de caso de un programa de posgrado de la Uni - taciones para la innovación en el proceso de enseñanza y aprendi- versidad de los Andes. Revista de Universidad y Sociedad del Co- zaje. Madrid: Machado Libros. nocimiento, 7 (1). (www.rusc.uoc.edu/ojs/index.php/rusc/article/- DE WEBER, B.; SCHELLENS, T. & AL. (2006). Content Analysis view/ v7n1_osorio/v7n1_osorio) (06-08-2010). Scheme to Analyze Transcript of On-line Asynchronous Discussion REAY, J. (2001). Blended Learning - a fusion for the future. Know - Groups: A Review. Computer & Education, 46; 6-28. ledge Management Review, 4 (3); 6. DZIUBAN, C.; HARTMAN, J. & MOSKAL, P. (2004). Blended Lear - ROURKE, L.; ANDERSON, T. & AL. (2001). Methodological Issues in the ning. Educause Center for Applied Research. Research Bulletin, 7; Content Analysis of Computer Conference Transcripts. International 1-12. Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 12; 8-22. GARRISON, D.R. & ANDERSON, T. (2003). E-learning in the 21st ROONEY, J.E. (2003). Blending Learning Opportunities to Enhance Century. A Framework for Research and Practice. London: Rout- Educational Programming and Meetings. Association Management, ledge Falmer. 55 (5); 26-32. GROS, B. & SILVA, J. (2006). El problema del análisis de las discu- SALAZAR, A. (2006). Forograma, una estrategia alternativa para la siones asincrónicas en el aprendizaje colaborativo mediado. Revista evaluación de espacios virtuales de discusión. Cali (Colombia): VIII de Educación a Distancia, 16; 1-16. (www.um.es/ead/red/16) (04- Congreso colombiano de Informática Educativa. 06-2008). SANDS, P. (2002). Inside Outside, Upside Downside: Strategies for GUNAWARDENA, C.; LOWE, C. & ANDERSON, T. (1997). Inter - Connecting On-line and Face-to-face Instruction in Hybrid Cour - action Analysis of a Global On-line Debate and the Development of ses. Teaching with Technology Today, 8; 6. a Constructivist Interaction Analysis Model for Computer Confe - SCHALK, A.E. & MARCELO, C. (2010). Análisis del discurso asíncro- rencing. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 17; 395- no en la calidad de los aprendizajes esperados Asynchronous. Co - 492. municar, 35; 131-139. HENRI, F. (1992). Computer Conferencing and Content Analysis. WARD, J. & LABRANCHE, G.A. (2003). Blended Learning: The In KAYE, A. (Ed.). Collaborative Learning through Computer Con- Con vergence of e-Learning and Meetings. Franchising World, 35 ferencing. Berlin: The Najaden Papers, Springer-Verlag. (4); 22-23. HINOJO, F.J.; AZNAR, I. & CÁCERES, M.P. (2009). Percepciones del YOUNG, J.R. (2002). Hybrid’ Teaching Seeks to End the Divide alumnado sobre el blended learning en la universidad. Comunicar, between Traditional and On-line Instruction. Chronicle of Higher 33; 165-174. Education; 48 (28); A33. JONASSEN, D. & RONRER, L. (1999). Activity Theory as a Frame - ZHU, E. (1996). Meaning Negotiation, Knowledge Construction work for Designing Constructivist Learning Environments. ETR&D, and Mentoring in a Distance Learning Course. Indianapolis: Natio - 47; 61-79. nal Convention of the Association for Educational Commu ni ca tions Meyer, K. (2004). Evaluating On-line Discussions: Four Different and Technology.

Requested: 21-01-2010 / Received: 24-01-2011 l G. Gómez-Escalonilla, M. Santín & G. Mathieu Accepted: 21-03-2011 / Published: 01-10-2011 Madrid (Spain) http://dx.doi.org/10.3916/C37-2011-02-07

Students' Perspective on On-line College Education in the Field of Journalism La educación universitaria on-line en el Periodismo desde la visión del estudiante

ABSTRACT The advance in new technologies has changed the educational model considerably. On-line education has arrived with a bang at university and those degree courses linked to the field of communication have adopted this type of technologies. In just a few years, the number of courses available in the communication field that include on-line subjects has multiplied. It seems that this tendency of proliferation will continue due to a high demand for degrees in the communication field as well as the possibility of completing these degrees on-line. This paper shows the perspective that on-line journalism students at the Rey Juan Carlos University in Madrid have on their studies. The results of a survey of students of the different courses that include the qualification allow us to gain a perspective of their experiences at the beginning and end of the studies. The questionnaire asks about socio-demographic traits from which we draw a sociological profile of on-line journalism student. It also delves into the motivations and expectations surrounding the decision to enrol in this mode and in its assessment both in terms of learning and the relationship between peers and teachers. Some of the conclusions point to the positive attitude of students and a satisfactory evaluation by the students. RESUMEN El avance de las nuevas tecnologías ha cambiado considerablemente el modelo educativo. La formación on-line ha aterrizado con fuerza en las universidades y las carreras vinculadas al mundo de la comunicación se han incorporado a ese modelo de enseñanza. En pocos años la oferta en las titulaciones de comunicación se ha multiplicado y parece que esta tendencia se pronuncie en un futuro ante la demanda que tienen las titulaciones de comunicación, por un lado, y las enseñanzas virtuales, por otro. En este artículo se da a conocer la perspectiva que los estudiantes on-line de Periodismo de la Universidad Rey Juan Carlos de Madrid tienen sobre sus estudios. Los resultados de una encuesta a los alumnos de los diferentes cursos que engloban la titulación nos permite ofrecer una perspectiva de sus experiencias al inicio y al final de la carrera. El cuestionario indaga sobre aspectos socio-demográficos a partir de los cuales se traza un perfil sociológico del estudiante de periodismo on-line. Asimismo, se profundiza en las motivaciones y expectativas que rodean la decisión de matricularse en esta modalidad y en su valoración tanto en térmi- nos de aprendizaje como de la relación con compañeros y profesores. Algunas de las conclusiones apuntan una acti- tud positiva de los estudiantes y una valoración satisfactoria de la enseñanza por parte del alumnado. KEYWORDS / PALABRAS CLAVE Education on-line, e-learning, journalism, student, case study, virtual classrooms, university. Educación en línea, e-learning, periodismo, estudiantes, estudio de caso, enseñanza virtual, universidad.

v Dr. Gloria Gómez-Escalonilla Moreno is Professor of the Department of Communication Sciences at the School of Communication of the University Rey Juan Carlos in Madrid (Spain) ([email protected]). v Dr. Marina Santín Durán is Associate Professor of the Department of Communication Sciences at the School of Communication Sciences of the University Rey Juan Carlos in Madrid (Spain) ([email protected]). v Dr. Gladys Mathieu is Visiting Professor of the Department of Communication Sciences at the School of Communication Sciences of the University Rey Juan Carlos in Madrid (Spain) ([email protected]).

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1. Introduction nication has multiplied and it seems this trend will con- The age of new technologies has brought with it a tinue into the future if the demand for communication major transformation in the field of schooling and degrees on the one hand, and virtual education on the higher education. More and more centres of education other, are anything to go by. Given then, that the first are offering the chance to study on-line by means of a tentative steps are being taken but that these are alre- virtual teaching system. Internet-based (on-line) edu- ady proving to be successful (in fact this year will see cation has been on offer in Spain for some time now the first cohort of graduates in journalism from the

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 – the first wholly on-line university, the Universitat URJC’s on-line course) it would seem appropriate to Oberta de Catalunya, (UOC), was founded in 1995 take a step back and consider this new experience – and the model has been copied by newer educational new in both the field of education and that of commu- institutions. If, in addition, we take into account that nication. Drawing upon the researchers’ own personal many classroom-based universities that have extended experience in the URJC (itself a pioneer in this area), their syllabi to include on-line courses it simply goes to and seeking to develop knowledge in this field, rese- prove that on-line education, adapted to the philo- arch (needless to say, exploratory in nature) was sophy of today’s information society, has been a suc- carried out to gain an insight into these first ever stu- cess. dents of Journalism on-line and their opinion and Having said that, whilst it is true that on-line edu- assessment of their experience of on-line education. cation programmes have been developing both in It must be added that, despite being a relatively Spain and elsewhere for some time, journalism studies new phenomenon, many research studies have have been a late starter in this area of education, since already been carried out into on-line teaching. These the practical content of many subjects and the use of range from theoretical studies to empirical ones and all technological equipment made it difficult to adapt the from different areas of study. Some favour the techno- syllabus of these degrees to distance and/or virtual logical perspective (Marcelo, Puente & al., 2003; educational models. However, experience from other Baggetun, 2006) or, more frequently, the teaching and areas of knowledge, the development of pilot pro- educational field (Castaño, Duart & Sancho, 2010; grammes which are the result of various pieces of rese- Lara & Duart, 2005). There are even some studies arch (Palomo, 2008), technological breakthroughs and which focus on the profile of the student and their eva- existing demand in this subject area has allowed uni- luation (this is the case of this study), such as those versities to launch on-line communication studies. undertaken by Cabrero, Llorente & Puentes (2010) The Madrid-based Universidad Rey Juan Carlos dealing with the study of Philosophy and Physics in the (URJC), which in 2006 introduced studies in Dominican Republic or about students taking a virtual Journalism in the format of «blended learning», has Masters Degree (Justel, Lado & Martes, 2004). carried out ground-breaking activity in this area. One However, no studies of on-line communication stu- year later this was extended to the Advertising and dies (specifically journalism) have been documented as Public Relations degree course in response to the suc- yet and certainly no research has been done about the cess of the initiative. profile and opinion of students. As such, this piece of Additional on-line communication studies have work may launch a line of study for which some work been introduced, coinciding with the creation of the has been done (Santin, 2009), in an attempt to consi- European Higher Education Area which aims to der not only the teaching practices which have been improve the international competitiveness of European developed but also the challenges faced when tea- universities. In this way, in the university year 2009-10 ching communication in the 21st century – these cha- three exclusively virtual universities added the possibi- llenges inevitably include the use of new technologies. lity of studying communication courses using the e- Not all use of technology is the same in the field of learning format. These were: the Universitat Oberta education. Some terms should be clarified here de Catalunya which offered a Degree in Commu- because, as Grahame Moore (2001) says, there is a nication and a Degree in Information and Documen- certain confusion when talking about «virtual tation; the Universidad a Distancia de La Rioja (UNIR) teaching» given that there are many different teaching offered a Degree in Documentation and the Uni - models encompassed within. First of all, it should be versidad a Distancia de Madrid (UDIMA), a private stated that the use of technologies does not necessarily autonomous university started a Degree in Journalism. mean we are talking about on-line teaching. Almost all As can be seen, in a short space of time the num- universities have brought in some virtual elements in ber of on-line degrees available in the area of commu- their education system. They all have, to a greater or

lesser extent, some form of pilot projects for e-lear- 2. Material and methodology ning. There is a middle ground where we find the In Social Sciences the case study is generally used concept of «b-learning» which is understood to be a as a research method, because reducing the field learning model which allows elements of virtual edu- means efforts are focused and research can be carried cation to be brought in and exist alongside classroom- out which, although more modest than that which is based learning formats (Coaten, 2003); for example, performed using more elaborate methods, allows spe- by using in-class sessions and face-to-face tutorials in cific objectives to be met in a context with limited conjunction with on-line activities such as forums, resources as is the case today. Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 chats, downloads (all associated with e-learning). Obviously, case studies are limited to one particu- Although, as Llorente (2008) says, «b-learning» may lar subject so it is not possible to generalise the findings be «introduced in a series of ways by means of a vir- to other contexts. Having said that, it is a useful tool for tual and in-class design and also to an endless amount obtaining a reliable estimation in one specific context of contexts for which these models are feasible». which is under study and to identify trends and what Therefore it is not the same to use b-learning in the design of one subject for a particular degree as to use it in the context of an on-line degree cour- However, no studies of on-line communication studies se. The basis is different in (specifically journalism) have been documented as yet and each case and the opportunity for students and teachers to certainly no research has been done about the profile and interact is totally different. For the journalism degree opinion of students. As such, this piece of work may launch the different models described a line of study for which some work has been done, in an are available but the one adopted by the URJC and which is attempt to consider not only the teaching practices which the focus of our study, uses the b-learning model which dimi- have been developed but also the challenges faced when nishes the amount of face-to- teaching communication in the 21st century – these face contact between student and teacher in an attempt to challenges inevitably include the use of new technologies. develop on-line resources to the full. Virtually all the activity for the course is carried out on the net and only those subjects which are essentially the thinking is, thus allowing us to describe and better practical in nature or which require the use of and explain the phenomenon being researched. expertise in audiovisual technologies include some in- With all this in mind, our study set out to research class activity. In the same way, the teacher is able to the on-line teaching of journalism, specifically at the determine whether or not an in-class assessment met- Universidad Rey Juan Carlos. The reason for this hod is used so it may well be that in the case of some choice is that it is where the teaching took place, but subjects with on-line assessment, there is absolutely no also because it is a pioneer university for the teaching face-to-face contact between teacher and student. of on-line degrees in the field of communication - and That is the main thinking behind some of the criti- specifically journalism - in Spain. The undergraduate cism aimed at this educational system, namely that it is degree has been taught since 2006. It should also be automated, or, at the very least, de-personalised; wha- said that the first five years of the degree course have tever the case, totally different from the traditional been completed and 2008 witnessed the transforma- model. Be that as it may, it is here to stay and journa- tion which was required by the Bologna process as a lists may now obtain their 3-year of 5-year degrees consequence of which the on-line degree option beca- using this methodology. That being the case, it is well me available. We have carried out a survey among all worth facilitating initiatives which attempt to unders- students who are currently (2010/11) studying the 3- tand what the system is like and what its players think year or 5-year degree because we have direct access about it. to these students and because they are the first.

The population of the study, ie., students of jour- hough no pretence is being made to create a model. nalism on-line at the URJC numbers some 200. We Firstly, it could be said that the proportion of male to have taken advantage of the attendance of students at female students is almost a 50-50 split. This ratio may semester one exams to guarantee a near-full turn-out. be unusual given that journalism tends to have consi- However, the fact that some assessment methods are derably more female students than male – 64% accor- done in groups and in some cases, on-line, together ding to INE (National Institute of Statistics) figures. In with a high number of students who failed to take the the URJC’s on-line degree courses, 57% of students

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 exam –a recurring phenomenon in the case of non- are female. There are proportionally more female stu- classroom-based subjects– has led to many null res- dents, as tends to be the case in most journalism ponses. Summing up, participation has been around degree courses, but not many more. 60% of the total. Altogether 121 surveys were comple- Another socio-demographic characteristic of on-line ted. The distribution of interviewees per year is also students at the URJC –at least in journalism degrees– is that most students are also working – 80%. This percentage confirms that the target public On-line education may be a way of saving costs elsewhere of these degrees are students who already form part of the and a source of added value for reaching other target «mar- labour market. On-line degree kets» –and this is vital as students become fewer and fewer courses are an appealing option for professionals who are see- in number– but it cannot be done for free. Universities must king to resume or begin tertiary studies - for the obvious reason be aware of the stakes and aim to offer a quality service. that the timetable is flexible. Obviously this means selecting the best teachers and giving In fact, the chance to combine studies with a regular job is them as much help as possible for the task in hand. It is only the main reason why on-line students of journalism at the by doing so that on-line degrees will reach the level of exce- URJC chose that format, as llence which we all hope for in order to compete with the opposed to the classroom- based one (and not that the conventional system. entrance requirement is lower – which was one hypothesis, given that it is lower in the on- line format than the conventio- irregular with more students from the first years of the nal degree). Neither can it be shown that living away course, not only because they have answered in a from Madrid (or any other city) is another factor (an more optimistic way but also because in on-line cour- allegedly stronger hypothesis which had been put for- ses, the percentage of students dropping out tends to ward). As it happens, only 30% of students claimed be greater than in classroom-based courses. This that one motivation for choosing to study on-line was means that the latter years of a course tend to have the distance from campus – as opposed to 90% who considerably fewer students than the first years. said their main reason for choosing an on-line course The questionnaire has taken a series of socio-demo- was that it allowed them to combine their studies with graphic variables into account and also questions for another activity. assessing the experience of teaching, with a semantic As was to be expected, many students also work. differential. The resulting data have been processed sta- But where they work is a relevant and significant fact, tistically and frequency and percentage analysis has because students already working in the world of com- been carried out for each variable where appropriate. munication account for almost half of all students who work. This can be explained by the fact that in order to 3. Results work in journalism it is not necessary to have the appro- 3.1. Student profile priate qualification (as opposed to other professions Certain socio-demographic features may be noted where entry requirements are stricter). However, for students of journalism on-line at the URJC – alt- many of those who are already working without any

qualification are eager to obtain one – and the on-line asked directly for their overall assessment of their option affords them better possibilities. So then, almost experience, only 3% had a negative opinion. Just over half of on-line students of journalism at the URJC are 30% were neutral but more than half (about 65%) already working in the field for which they are training were positive. To be precise, half of the students in with a goal of obtaining official qualification and so the 4th scale of the semantic differential and no less progress in their professional career. than 13% classified their experience as very satisfac- As a consequence of this, another socio-demo- tory. graphic trait of URJC journalism students is age. One additional piece of data should be added to Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 Students from all courses are mainly in the 18-23 age this excellent rating for the education process: the vast group. That is the natural age. However, the results of majority would do it again. Almost 96% of currently our study indicate that this age group accounts for only registered students would sign up again. half of students in this field of study. The other half are However, not everything is so positive when it older. That means that on-line education is an oppor- comes to assessing the education experience. The sur- tunity for students who, in their day left university for vey brought to light other data – which, interpreted whatever reason, to go back and resume higher edu- with the appropriate caution, allows us to point out cation. some shortfalls in the system. That is because, even However, it should be pointed out that that though on the whole the interviewees felt the on-line opportunity has a «deadline» because these «older» format –at least in journalism– is at least as demanding students are not much older – only several years older as the classroom-based model, they feel that conven- than the «natural» age. The vast majority are under 30. tional classes are an important part of the teaching pro- These data, whilst not conclusive, may be useful for cess. This is the essence of the new on-line education people who organise or teach on-line courses because system. It is true that there are no classes in the literal although these courses are available for students of any sense – and that is one of the major advantages as it age or stage of life, if UNED (Spanish Open Uni- means students can combine their studies with other versity) students are anything to go by, with almost activities and go at their own pace. Having said that, 40% over the age of 40, as a general rule, students they are still important and on-line students miss them. tend to come from the younger age bracket. On-line For all the educational resources available to virtual students are younger students who go to university or classrooms: forums, chats, videos, virtual classes, etc. – young people who have failed at school but the world these cannot substitute what for centuries has been the of work has persuaded them to take advantage of their traditional (classroom-based) format. Perhaps it is last chance to gain tertiary studies. Whether it be as a simply a matter of time – or perhaps it is a question of result of the technology barrier or the type of qualifica- working to improve the systems which are taking the tion, the on-line university does not have the same place of lectures. target public as the non-classroom-based university par There is one further, perhaps more pessimistic excellence – the UNED (Spanish Open University). detail in the students’ evaluation in this case study: the relative inability of the university qualifications to pre- 3.2. The on-line learning experience pare future professionals in the area they specialise in. One thing which is more significant than the Whilst almost half the students interviewed said that somewhat predictable socio-demographic trait of the the on-line mode trained students as well as the class- students of journalism on-line at the URJC is the infor- room-based one, of the remainder, more are of the mation about their educational experience. This is opinion that it prepares students worse than those because, beyond the theorising about the benefits and who say it prepares them better. This opinion is not challenges of on-line education and of what (we) tea- unsubstantiated given that these are the students who ching professionals research and experience in the are working. area of educational innovation, is the perspective of Finally, there is one question for which the study the students themselves and what they feel about the offers up an opinion trend which could be worrying: experience. the students’ opinion of teaching staff is not very flatte- This experience has been, by and large, very posi- ring. In effect, only a small minority of around 10% say tive. Firstly, because expectations have been met. So that teachers in the on-line option are more dedicated say three of every four students – not only the initial than their counterparts in classroom-based learning. expectation but also additional ones too. This is worrying precisely because virtual teaching is Another positive indicator is the fact that, when more demanding for teachers. However that is not

what students perceive: almost 25% think there is no more about what the first ever on-line students are like difference but almost 65% believe teachers are less and how they think and the results – while they should dedicated on-line than in conventional education. not be generalised beyond the on-line. Journalism To these data regarding how much time teachers Degree at the Rey Juan Carlos University – speak for spend we must add the assessment of the teachers themselves and can be used as a launchpad for further themselves. Half of all those students interviewed research into this new format for teaching communica- believe teachers are neither good nor bad. This neu- tion. In particular they allow us to reflect on what we

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 trality is far from ideal as the teaching and learning pro- are doing, bearing in mind that those of us who are part cess should be centred on the teacher and it is particu- of the university system are committed to change, and larly frustrating that, having given such a high score to to show us how to vastly improve current practice. the learning experience itself, they do not think the One thing which should not be forgotten is that same of the people responsible for their tutoring. Not on-line degrees, at least in journalism, are particularly only that, but of the remaining half, even though more geared towards professionals who, in the face of the established system which requires class attendance which for them is untenable due to work commitments, opt This means there is a niche in the market as a consequence for the on-line format as the of the characteristics of the journalism profession, made up best possible way of combining the two. as it is of many professionals with no official qualifications. It should be pointed out that many of these students On the other hand, this also means that the teaching content who are already working in the and methodologies should be adapted to the professional field of journalism, are only trying to gain the degree to expertise which the student has already obtained. strengthen their professional prestige. This means there is a niche in the market as a consequence of the characteristics of give a positive rating to their teacher-student relations- the journalism profession, made up as it is of many hip (30%), it cannot escape our notice that a conside- professionals with no official qualifications. On the rable proportion of students (20%) rate it negatively. other hand, this also means that the teaching content This may mean that – as one hypothesis suggests – half and methodologies should be adapted to the professio- of the teachers are not particularly outstanding. But it nal expertise which the student has already obtained. could also mean that of the rest of the teachers of jour- One of the other more outstanding features of the nalism at the URJC, a considerable proportion stand student population is they tend to be young, albeit a lit- out for positive qualities – they work hard at their pro- tle older than students who attend class. Whether as fession. But there are other teachers (and not just a a consequence of the new technologies employed or few) who fail the assessment and it may be that these for other reasons, students enrolling for on-line degre- are the ones to blame for the perception which stu- es tend to be no older than 30 years old. Teachers dents have of the lack of dedication on the part of the should bear this in mind and adapt their teaching met- teachers in their profession. hods to students of that age, particularly in terms of their knowledge and use of communication in the con- 4. Conclusion text of new technologies. Even though the research carried out has certain In terms of teaching expertise, the positive feed- limitations – particularly given that it is a case study – back reflected in the study may serve to reinforce the certain trends can be detected which give us some educational system used for on-line Journalism studies useful and reliable insight into a new phenomenon in at the Rey Juan Carlos University. Another, rather the field of education. A phenomenon which will no more critical explanation would be to say that initial doubt gain importance as it is expected to become a expectations are not particularly demanding for on-line major player in university life and to feature strongly on degrees – not only as a consequence of the newness curricular syllabi. The aim of this study was to find out of the offer but also because demand is low when

© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 • Pages 73-79 en mr cnieae hn t oe t allocating to comes or it ratio when considerate teacher-student more the being reducing by it be task, – the university, itself, must be aware of and aid in this professional teaching the of responsibility a only not is It activity. this to commit to them allow availability and time skill, whose teachers are too as required, also are a only not teachers. good finding is of question It teacher. the is process, learning any pro- and planning gramming to name but a few, but the key to it all, as in correct the supply, and demand players in virtual teaching – the platform itself, the fit of see future problems. 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It is only by doing so that on- the best teachers and giving them as much help as pos- selecting means this Obviously service. quality to a offer aim free. and stakes for the done of aware be be must cannot Universities it but number– in fewer kets» «mar- target other reaching for value added of source a and elsewhere costs saving of way a be may cation edu- On-line course. of type this for load teaching the G (07-01-2011). web.com/esp/servicios/monografico/formacionvirtual/1181076.asp) 01-2011). descargas/ (14- APP_EJE2_Espana%20-%20Marina%20Santin.pdf) (www.dialogosfelafacs.net/ Social. Comunicación de Facultades España. en nicación B L 2010) gico. estraté recurso como información de objetos de uso y acceso ning: S 36; tura: Periodismo interactivo y Creación de medios digitales. P (2003). s euaio e a TC l euain ita organizadas. virtual educación J la y TIC (www. las de (14-01-2011). uoc.edu/web/esp/art/uoc/moore/moore.html) educativo uso el sobre conferencias de Ciclo cuestión. la de estado Unidos: tados M Sevilla: Facultad de Ciencias de la Educación, tesis doctoral inédita. caso.de estudio un educación: la a aplicadas tecnologías Nuevas USTEL ANTÍN ALOMO AGGETUN LORENTE ARA ABRERO RAHAME OATEN ASTAÑO ARCELO 183-195. 35; , P. & D UC 2 RUSC, and this is vital as students become fewer and fewer become students as vital is this –and , A.; L A.; , , M. (2009). E-learning. Teleform@ción 149-157. , , , J.; L J.; , C P C; , , J.; D J.; , B. (2008). Propuesta de un modelo virtual para la asigna- la para virtual modelo un de Propuesta (2008). B. N. (2003). Blend learning. M , M.C. (2008). M.C. , , . 20) Pátcs mrets n a e y nuevas y web la en emergentes Prácticas (2006). R. OORE UART ADO LORENTE ; 29-42. ; UART UENTE , N. & M & N. , wwuceurs///teplr.d) (20-12- (www.uoc.edu/rusc/2/2/dt/esp/lara.pdf) , , J.M. (2005). Gestión de contenidos en el e-lear- M. (2001). M. La enseñanza on-line en el ámbito de la comu Revista Internacional de Marketing Público y PúblicoMarketing de Internacional Revista , J.M. & S & J.M. , Felafacs: XIII Encuentro Latinoamericano de Latinoamericano Encuentro XIII Felafacs: D; B D.; , , C. & P & C. , Blended Learning para elparaaprendizaje en Learning Blended Telos,67; ; 97-110. 1; 13, RIED, ARTES ALLESTEROS La educación a distancia en los Es Es los en distancia a educación La UENTES ANCHO , . Madrid: Gestión, 2000. Gestión, Madrid: . M. (2004). Barreras a la educa- la a Barreras (2004). M. 81-87. Educaweb, 69. , , T. (2010). Necesidad de Necesidad (2010). T. A. (2009). La satisfacción La (2009). A. MA & P & M.A. , (www.educa- ALAZÓN Comuni- Anàlisi, , A. - - - - 79 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 80 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011

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Received: 17-02-2011 / Revised: 10-03-2011 l Juan Carlos Torres & Alfonso Infante Accepted: 28-03-2011 / Published: 01-10-2011 Loja (Ecuador) & Huelva (Spain) http://dx.doi.org/10.3916/C37-2011-02-08 Digital Divide in Universities: Internet Use in Ecuadorian Universities

Desigualdad digital en la universidad: usos de Internet en Ecuador

ABSTRACT New technologies have transformed higher education whose application has implied changes at all levels. These changes have been assimilated by the university community in various ways. Subtle differences among university students have emerged; these differences determine that the resources the network offers have been used in different ways, thus creating gaps in the university population. This study seeks to determine the level of incidence of the variable of university students’ incomes on the uses and intensity of use of the Internet tools and resources. Students were classified using factor analysis complemented through cluster analysis in order to obtain user profiles; these profiles were verified by means of discriminant analysis. Finally, chi-square was applied to determine the relationship between income level and user profiles. As a result, three profiles were identified with different levels of use and intensity of use of the Internet tools and resources, and statistically the incidence of income in the creation of those profiles was proved. To conclude, we can say that the income level falls mainly on the variables that define the access possibilities; gender has a special behavior; however, since the profile of the highest level has a double proportion for men, though women have better performance in general terms. RESUMEN Las tecnologías han transformado la educación superior impulsando cambios que han sido asimilados por la comunidad universitaria de distintas maneras. Como consecuencia, los estudiantes han presentado diversas formas y niveles de aprovechamiento de los recursos que nos ofrece Internet, delineándose brechas sutiles en la población universitaria. En este estudio se puntualizan algunas características de estas brechas; concretamente se analiza la incidencia de la variable ingresos del estudiante sobre los usos e intensidad de uso de las herramientas y recursos de Internet. Para lograrlo se clasificó a los estudiantes aplicando análisis factorial, complementado por análisis clúster para obtener perfiles de usuarios; estos perfiles se contrastaron con análisis discriminante y, finalmente, se aplicó chi- cuadrado para verificar la relación entre el nivel de ingresos y los perfiles de usuarios. Se determinaron tres perfiles con distintos niveles de las herramientas y recursos de Internet; y se comprobó estadísticamente la incidencia del nivel de ingresos en la conformación de estos perfiles. Se concluye que el nivel de ingreso incide mayormente en las variables que definen las posibilidades de acceso; el género tiene un comportamiento especial, puesto que, si bien el perfil más alto tiene el doble de proporción de hombres, las mujeres tienen un mejor desempeño en general. KEYWORDS / PALABRAS CLAVE Digital divide, university, Internet use, information, digital inclusion, internauts. Brecha digital, universidad, uso de Internet, información, inclusión digital, internautas.

v Dr. Juan Carlos Torres Díaz is Professor and the Head of the Unit of Research on Distance Teaching of the University Técnica Particular of Loja (Ecuador) ([email protected]). v Dr. Alfonso Infante Moro is the Head of the Online Campus and Associate Professor of the University of Huelva (Spain) ([email protected]).

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1. Introduction depend on income, education, age, gender, among In spite of the widespread use of Internet, there other demographic variables. Of these variables, inco- are groups that are unable to take full advantage of the me and education are the uppermost when determi- benefits that the Web provides. There are many rea- ning the extent of digital inequality (Van Dijk, 2005) sons why the social and economic structure provides and of user behaviour with technologies once access unequal access to knowledge and information. This limitations are controlled (Keil, 2008)3. assertion falls within the theory of knowledge gaps There is a direct relation between family income

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 (Tichenor, Donohue & Olien, 1970) which states that and levels of Internet use (Taylor, Zhu, Dekkers & the highest social-economic strata tend to have more Marshall, 2003), proving that digital inequality is an rapid access to media-generated information than the extension of social inequality and that its effects go lower strata. This theory was formulated with televi- beyond the dichotomy of being connected or not. The sion and newspaper media in mind; however, traditio- differences can affect digital natives. Livingstone & nal media are being absorbed by cybermedia and the Helsper (2007) found differences in the take-up levels Internet in general (Cebrián-Herreros, 2009) which of the opportunities and resources available on-line in leads to differences in how information is used, the middle-class and working-class children, meaning that tools deployed, and intensity of use, among other fac- the incidence of factors such as the availability of an tors that constitute this so-called digital inequality. Internet connection at home and the time spent on- DiMaggio, Hargittai, Rusell & Robinson (2001) line, among others, can affect the level of Internet point to differences in the NTIA1 reports of 1995- usage; in the case of university students, the socio-eco- 2000 which indicate that the highest social-economic nomic level affects Internet use which in turn influen- strata had greater access to Internet; studies on the ces student academic performance (Castaño, 2010). digital divide find different variables that are determi- At the macro-economic level, there is also a direct rela- nants of the usage of Internet tools, which support the tion between gross domestic product (GDP) and a knowledge gap theory and the implications for the country’s digitalization rate (Iske, Klein & Kutscher, digital divide. 2005), and although this is not the only reason, it is the DiMaggio, Hargittai, Celeste & Shafer (2004) sug- most important in terms of analysing the dynamic of gest that those who have Internet access use the Web the digital divide (Keil, 2008). in different ways; these researchers go beyond the There are significant differences that are focus on the possibilities of Internet connection to offer determined by level of education. Users with a higher an analysis from a broader, more theoretical context level of education make better use of their time on-line that searches out differences in the effects of Internet and Internet tools and resources (Graham, 2010; Van use on people and society. The digital divide is not Dijk, 2006). The level of education is the variable that only about conditions of access to technology and con- most affects Internet use for searching for information nection; certain other aspects also come into play in and communication (Iske & al., 2005; Graham, 2010), determining good use of that technology and its resour- and differentiates the uses made of information, possi- ces. This new approach to what is known as the «digi- bilities and resources by each user. tal divide» is also called «digital inequality» by some The digital divide depends on social and econo- authors. mic factors that reveal differences among internauts. A review of the current literature on the subject These differences form a heterogeneous set with shows that in general terms there are two approaches regard to their composition and the use they make of to digital inequality. In the first, the authors’ analysis the Net. This paper analyses the differences in Inter - covers dimensions such as access, user competence, net use among university students in Ecuador; the rela- main uses and intensity of use (Castaño, 2010; Van tion between the income of the student’s family and Dijk, 2005; Warschauer, 2003). The second approach centres more on demographic variables that include income, education, race, gender, job, age and family structure among others (Castells, 2001; Di- Maggio & al., 2004; Wilson, 2006). Beyond the seg- mentation of these dimensions of analysis, we find that the first approaches adapt to a relationship that depends on the second2; that is, access, user competence, main uses and intensity of use are variables that Table 1. Income level distribution.

Internet use. We aim to verify if there is a difference obtain a broader sample representation as possible, the between students from low – and high-income fami- final spread being 50.5% men and 49.5% women. lies when utilizing Web resources, as well as their The variables and instruments for data gathering habits and levels of intensity of Internet use. were based on those used in the Proyecto Internet Cataluña4, and adapted to Latin American needs. This 2. Method investigation worked with 31 variables divided into the Forty universities in Ecuador were surveyed for following groups: student family income, knowledge information on technological infrastructure, institutional of and access to Internet, academic and social use of Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 policy and the level of use of on-line tools in student Internet, and student perceptions of the usefulness of education. The five universities with the highest values the Internet. The variables are documented in table 2. were selected and a significant sample was taken of Income level was calculated using a scale that inclu- each; a total of 4,897 students answered the question- ded the country’s quintile income values, as developed naire. The survey managed to maintain a gender balan- by the National Census and Statistics Institute ce in accordance with the total number of students (INEC)5; the other variables were classified on a scale enrolled in each institution and specialism in order to of 1 to 5.

Table 2. The resulting components of the factor analysis.

The information was collected and the students teristics that describe the user’s level of knowledge and classified according to their uses of and intensity of use experience. of the Internet. Factor analysis was used to reduce the • Component 4: Usefulness. Referring to student number of variables to 8 factors covering the 62% perceptions on the usefulness of the Internet in acade- variance. These were then used as initial data for the mic activities. cluster analysis that produced classifications for three, • Component 5: Social tools. This groups those four and five groups. Finally, the composition of the characteristics of the use of tools and social resources

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 clusters was contrasted by a discriminant analysis of in academic activities. each classification. The aim of this analysis was to • Component 6: Social networks. These variables make the classification more accurate; the dependent refer to the use of live chat, email and social networks. variable was the cluster number to which the student • Component 7: Interactivity. Describes the belonged, and the independent variables were the degree of student interactivity with the teacher and remainder that was used in the factor analysis. other students. The relation between income and the use of • Component 8: Databases. This refers to a single Internet profile (cluster) was verified by the chi-square variable that describes the intensity of use of scientific test that enables two quantitative variables to be rela- databases and / or on-line journals. ted via a null hypothesis in which there is no relation A cluster analysis was applied to all these compo- between variables. nents, and classifications were obtained for three, four and five groups. The classifications are: 3. Results A discriminant analysis was applied to each classi- 3.1. Level of student family income fication to verify the validity of the clusters. The result The student distribution according to level of inco- of each case indicates that the element percentage is me is shown in the following table. The levels corres- classified correctly; so, in the three-group classification pond to each quintile of the student’s family income. 96.5% of the sample elements are correctly classified; 92.4% of the sample elements are correctly classified 3.2. Profile of Internet use in the four-group classification, and 90.3% of the sam- The factor analysis produced 8 factors (compo- ple elements are correctly classified in the five-group nents) that justify the 62% variance, details of which classification. The results show that the classification appear in the table below. with the lowest number of groups is the most accurate. The resulting components are described by the The decision to work with three groups was student characteristics, and are clearly differentiated: based on this analysis. • Component 1: Downloads. This component Figure 1 shows the classification results of the dis- describes those students who download videos, pro- criminant analysis. grams and general software from the Web. The names assigned to the profiles forms part of a • Component 2: Transactions-leisure. This context in which the research is carried out, such that groups features buying and selling on the Internet, their names cannot be compared to other realities. watching television, listening to the radio, playing on- • High profile: Cluster 1 represents 11.6% of the line games and reading the press. students, with an average level of downloading of • Component 3: Knowledge. This covers charac- videos, programs and general software: they have the

Table 3. Classification in three, four and five clusters.

3.3. Verification of relations between variables The chi-square test was used to verify the null hypothesis, the critical value for the given parameters being 20.09. The chi-square value was calculated at 418.63, significantly higher than

the critical value and which enables us to Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 reject the null hypothesis. To complete the analysis, we calculated the correlation indices between the level of income and the proportion of Figure 1. Classification in three clusters resulting from the discriminant analysis. students on each level of the scale used to extract the information. The variables most experience and the broadest knowledge in terms considered were: level of Internet knowledge, number of computer and Internet use; they see Web tools as of hours and days per week spent on the Internet and useful for learning; they are the ones who most use the number of years as an Internet user. There was a social networks and interaction tools; and they use significant correlation between all the variables. The library databases with greater intensity than the other exceptions were the level of computer and Internet groups. knowledge variables where there were two levels on • Medium profile: Cluster 2 accounts for 48.8% of the scale with no significant correlation, and the num- students; the members of this group have similar cha- ber of days connected to the Internet variable which racteristics to those in Cluster 1. All Cluster 2 compo- showed no significant correlation. The same occurred nents present inferior values except for downloads; in live chat, video and program downloads and the use the perception of usefulness and level of interactivity of social networks. are practically the same. The biggest differences between the two are found in the components that cover 4. Discussion of the results transactions, use of social tools in academic activities The chi-square test result rejected the null hypo- and use of databases. Here the values presented by thesis, demonstrating that level of income influenced the first group are palpably superior. the students’ Internet use profiles; and there is further • Low profile: This group’s values are less intense evidence to support this finding. The analysis of inco- for the use of the various Internet instruments and it me distribution levels in each profile revealed that stu- accounts for 39.6% of the students. The main charac- dents with better economic prospects gathered mainly teristics of this group are that they have an average in the high profile while those with lower income con- level of knowledge and experience in Internet use; perception that the use of Internet tools could be useful for their education is low, and they interact infre- quently with their teachers and fellow students. This group downloads very little and hardly ever uses the Internet for transactions or gaming, and their use of social tools, social networks and interactivity is minimal. Figure 2. Profiles of Internet use.

gregated around the low profile. This fits in with the women are in a majority7; in the latter, representing differences found by DiMaggio & al. (2004) for Inter- 39.6% of the sample total, women are in a minority. In net use and low income levels. other words, it is women rather than men who tend to The coefficient correlation between income levels make more use of Internet tools. This enables us to and the variables of the knowledge components6 are picture a scenario that favours women, which is a sig- significant. However, it can be deduced that the hig- nificant finding in the investigation that shows a redu- her the student’s family income level, the greater the ced female presence in the high profile, with its broa-

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 possibility of computer use and Internet connection; der and more intense Internet performance, but a gre- and the greater the number of years’ experience as an ater presence in the medium and lower levels. Further Internet user, the broader the knowledge and the lon- investigation is needed to acquire more precise infor- ger the number of days and hours spent connected to mation on the true incidence of gender in the uses and intensity of use of the Internet among university students. Differences appear in the In spite of the widespread use of Internet, there are groups intensity of use of the various Internet tools. The profiles that are unable to take full advantage of the benefits that the show low intensity use of Web provides. There are many reasons why the social and Internet in 40% of the student total; 49% register an average economic structure provides unequal access to knowledge intensity and only 11% classify their use as high intensity. This and information. This assertion falls within the theory of leads us to think that an ade- knowledge gaps which states that the highest social- quate infrastructure and appropriate incentives would signifi- economic strata tend to have more rapid access to cantly increase student use of the Internet and the range of media-generated information than the lower strata. This tools and resources, particu- theory was formulated with television and newspaper media larly for academic work. The profiles present in mind; however, traditional media are being absorbed by differences and similarities between them, with the biggest cybermedia and the Internet in general which leads to differences occurring in these differences in how information is used, the tools deployed, components: transactions-leisure, know ledge, downloads and intensity of use, among other factors that constitute and social networks. The transactions-leisure component this so-called digital inequality. consists of variables that measure sales and purchases via Internet, watching television and on-line gaming, among the Internet. Yet when the correlation is ordered for others. The differences found in this component coin- income level, we find that income level has greatest cide with the user’s ability to access Internet and reveal influence on the user’s years of experience followed a certain uniformity in relation to the profile; the know- by the number of hours connected per session, the ledge component shows differences that are minimal days per week spent on the Internet and level of and uniform while the higher the profile, the greater Internet knowledge and computer knowledge. the number of years’ experience, the time spent on- Turning to gender, we find that the proportion of line and the level of knowledge, all of which is directly men is twice that of women (66.5% to 33.5% respec- related to the level of income; the download and social tively) in the high profile, which generally coincides network components behave in such a way that the with the findings of Chen & Tsai (2007). However, high and medium profiles have similar values while these shares differ in the medium and low profiles; in they differ significantly in the low profile. the former, accounting for 48.8% of the sample total, The similarities found were contained in these

components: usefulness, social tools, interactivity and the Internet per week and knowledge level; gender is databases. The first two have similar values in each of ambiguous in that only a third of women in the high the profiles, the difference between them being that profile use Internet tools but they are in a majority in the usefulness component registers higher values than the medium profile and in a minority in the low profile; the social tools component, meaning that Internet is this reveals that women generally make better use of deemed useful for learning; yet the social tools are the Internet than men. hardly used. The social tools component refers to the An analysis of the profiles shows that low profile use of blogs, wikis and social markers in academic acti- Internet users spend most of their time and resources Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 vities; the use of these tools is at a low level of intensity on academic work when on-line; this changes in the across the three profiles demonstrating that the culture medium and high profiles, and is attributable to the of the use of resources and social tools could be better level of knowledge of these users, and the fact that developed; something similar, although to a lesser they have more time to indulge in other on-line activi- degree, occurs with the interactivity and database ties. The distribution of users into profiles that measure access components whose intensity of use is low across Internet use works against high level users who only the three profiles. account for 10% of the sample total. Yet far from being The low profile reveals several differences when a drawback, this is an opportunity to foment technolo- compared to the other two profiles, which are limited gies among university students and by extension to the to the download, transactions-leisure, knowledge and entire educational system. social network components. However, these limited differences do not necessarily mean that students can Notes get better academic results from the time they spend 1 National Telecomunications and Information Administration. on the Internet. The components that should best be 2 Van Dijk (2005) considers that physical access is motivational, developed for improving academic performance are: dependent on age, gender, race, intelligence among other factors. the use of social tools and resources, interactivity and 3 Keil (2008) experimented with users of different socio-economic access to databases. strata who were given access to Internet, and the behavioural differences were later examined. One particular characteristic of the low profile is 4 www.uoc.edu/in3/pic/cat/index.html. the level of database use, which is higher than those of 5 www.inec.gob.ec. downloads, transactions and social use of tools and 6 Consisting of these variables: Internet knowledge, computer resources. This reveals a profile of students who pre- knowledge, number of days and hours connected to the Internet fer to use the time and information resources available and the number of years as a user. 7 Of the medium profile total, 58% are women. to them to do academic work; yet this could also be due to the lack of knowledge and experience as inter- Support nauts so typical of this profile. This research was financed by Ecuador’s Universidad Técnica An analysis of the profile graphs shows that they Particular de Loja (UTPL). are all similar in form; the differences and similarities relate to the level of intensity assigned to the variables References of each component; this enables us to determine the CASTAÑO-MUÑOZ, J. (2010). La desigualdad digital entre los alum- potential areas in which Internet use can be better nos universitarios de los países desarrollados y su relación con el exploited, and it would be very interesting to research rendimiento académico. Revista de la Universidad y la Sociedad del Conocimiento 1; 43-52. (http://rusc.uoc.edu/ojs/index.php/ - which particular areas would benefit students’ acade- rusc/ article/view/ v7n1_ castano) (13-02-2011). mic performance the most. CASTELLS, M. (2001). La Galaxia Internet: Reflexiones sobre In- Conclusions ternet, empresa y sociedad. Barcelona: Areté. The level of the student’s family income influences CEBRIÁN-HERREROS, M. (2009). Nuevas formas de comunicación: the use and intensity of use of Internet tools, so there cibermedios y medios móviles. Comunicar, 33; 10-13. CHEN, R. & TSAI, C. (2007). Gender Differences in Taiwan Uni - is a difference or a digital divide that corresponds to versity Students Attitudes toward Web-based Learning. Cyber - socio-economic reality. The biggest differences bet- psychology & Behavior: the Impact of the Internet, Multimedia ween users appear in the variables that measure and Virtual Reality on Behavior and Society, 5; 645-54. buying and selling on the Internet, gaming on-line, DIMAGGIO, P.; HARGITTAI, E. & AL. (2004). Digital Inequality: from watching television and listening to music. These Unequal Access to Differentiated Use. In NECKERMAN, K. (Ed). Social Inequality. New York: Russell Sage Foundation; 355-400. variables reveal the differences that exist between DIMAGGIO, P.; HARGITTAI, E. & AL. (2001). Social Implications of users, and are in line with the number of years of user the Internet. Annual Review of Sociology, 27; 307-336. experience, the number of hours and days spent on GRAHAM, R. (2010). The Stylization of Internet life? Predictors of

© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 81-88 88 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 L K 223. Ine Education. Informal and quality I (10-03-2011). ne.org.uk/13/5/5.html) 5 On-line, Research SociologicalPerspectives. Group Status and Inequality Digital Using Patterns Leisure Internet otne Ue eairl oes f h Socio-economically the of Models Advantaged. Behavioral Use Continued T Society,4; sion: Children, Young People and the Digital Divide. New SKE EIL IVINGSTONE AYLOR , S. & K & S. , , . 20) Udrtnig iia Ieult: Comparing Inequality: Digital Understanding (2008). M. , W.J.; Z W.J.; , 671-696. LEIN MIS Quarterly,1; MIS , S. & H & S. , , A. (2005). Differences in Internet Usage - Social - Usage Internet in Differences (2005). A. HU , G.X. & G.X. , ELSPER , E. (2007). Gradations in digital Inclu digital in Gradations (2007). E. AL 97-126. . (2003). Socio-economic Factors Socio-economic (2003). Social Work & Society,SocialWork& 2 ; (www.socresonli- ; Media & ; 215- ; - . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. MIT MA: Cambridge, Countries. V Society mation W Digitalthe RethinkingDivide. W Shortcomings. ifrnil rwh n Knowledge. in Growth Differential V 150-170. T Queensland. Central Journal,Science 6; Informing in Patterns Usage Internet Home Affecting AN AN ICHENOR ILSON ARSCHAUER D D IJK IJK , E. (2006). E. , , , J. (2005). , P.J. & D & P.J. , . 20) Dgtl iie eerh Aheeet and Achievements Research, Divide Digital (2006). J. , Poetics,4-5; . London: Sage. London: . . (2003). M. © The The Deepening Divide: Inequality in the Infor ONOHUE The Information Revolution and Developing and Revolution Information The ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 81-88 Pages 1988-3293• e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: 221-235. .A. (1970). Mass Media Flow and Flow Media Mass (1970). G.A. , echnology and Social Inclusion: n o i s u l c n I l a i c o S d n a y g o l o n h c Te 233-246. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. MIT MA: Cambridge, ulc pno Qatry 2 Quarterly, Opinion Public - ; DOSSIER

Received: 16-12-2010 / Revised: 31-01-2011 l R. Martínez, R. Cabecinhas & F. Loscertales Accepted: 28-03-2011 / Published: 01-10-2011 Sevilla (Spain) & Braga (Portugal) http://dx.doi.org/10.3916/C37-2011-02-09

University Senior Students on the Web

Mayores Universitarios en la Red

ABSTRACT The Internet is increasingly prominent in all walks of life, and Web connection is a key factor in social integration. The rise in life expectancy and quality of life mean that our active seniors now represent a growing sector in society. This study analyses what senior citizens use the Internet for and why, as well as the main benefits of its usage and the perceived obstacles of those who are non-users. The results derive from a questionnaire completed by senior citizens enrolled on university courses for older people, and they show that university seniors frequently connect to the Internet –daily or 2 or 3 times per week–, and use it mainly to look up facts, contact family and friends, for course work and to read the press. They consider the Internet easy to use but they could survive without it. For those who do not have access to the Internet, lack of knowledge about how to use it is the main barrier; yet they do not consider themselves incapable of learning how to use the Internet if they wished to do so. The data gathered from the survey challenge negative stereotypes of older people, and encourage us to modify our view of active seniors as disconnec- ted from and incapable of using the Web and instead see their progress and motivation to learn as something highly positive. RESUMEN Hoy día la relevancia de Internet es cada vez mayor en todos los ámbitos. Participar en la misma es fundamental para estar integrados socialmente. El aumento de la esperanza y la calidad de vida conllevan que los mayores activos supongan un volumen significativo de la población. En este trabajo se analiza el uso que personas mayores activas realizan de Internet, así como los principales beneficios o motivaciones de su utilización, y las barreras que encuentran aquéllos que no la utilizan. Se administró un cuestionario a personas inscritas en programas universitarios de mayores. Los resultados muestran que estos mayores universitarios se conectan a Internet frecuentemente, a diario o entre dos o tres veces por semana. Se destaca la relevancia de Internet para estar actualizados, contactar con la familia y los amigos, el uso académico, y consultar la prensa. La consideran fácil de utilizar aunque afirman que podrían vivir sin ella. Por otro lado, para los que no acceden a Internet no saber utilizarla es una de las principales barreras, si bien las personas que no la utilizan consideran que serían capaces de aprender. En su conjunto los datos animan a romper estereotipos negativos sobre los mayores y a no considerar a los mayores activos como personas incapaces o desconectadas de la Red sino a valorar positivamente los avances que realizan y la motivación por aprender. KEYWORDS / PALABRAS CLAVE Internet, elderly, university, ICT, technology, social inclusion, stereotypes. Internet, mayores, universidad, TIC, tecnología, inclusión social, estereotipos.

v Dr. Roberto Martinez-Pecino is Professor of the Department of Social Psychology at the School of Psychology of the University of Seville (Spain) ([email protected]). v Dr. Rosa Cabecinhas is Associate Professor at the Institute of Social Sciences of the University of Minho in Braga (Portugal) and Researcher at the Communication and Society Research Center ([email protected]). v Dr. Felicidad Loscertales Abril is Professor of the Department of Social Psychology at the School of Psychology of the University of Seville (Spain) ([email protected]).

Comunicar, 37, v. XIX, 2011, Scientific Journal of Media Literacy; ISSN: 1134-3478; pages 89-95 www.revistacomunicar.com 90

1. Introduction how young people use the Web (Livingstone & The influence of Information and Communication Helsper, 2010; Yang & Tung, 2007). Technologies (ICT) is increasingly evident worldwide Although such attention is warranted as young as they permeate all aspects of our lives, from interper- people represent the future, this should not be at the sonal communication to education, politics, health and expense of research into senior citizens and their atti- the economy. The arrival and consolidation of ICT in tude towards the Internet since they now represent an our daily lives is undoubtedly one of the most increasingly relevant sector of society. The number of

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 distinctive features of these times (Cabero & Aguaded, senior citizens worldwide is on the rise, and in Spain 2003), as evidenced by the interest in and recognition they are already a considerable force in today’s society, of ICT by international organizations ranging from the and will be even more so in the future (IMSERSO, European Parliament and Council of Europe, UNES- 2009). CO and the UN (Aguaded, 2009; 2010a; 2010b). The Internet can provide senior citizens with The most important of these ICT is the Internet, innumerable potential benefits, helping to promote whose influence on society has been immense. creativity, writing, sociability, memory, to communi- Internet has caused a true social revolution with its cate more and learn things they were unable to study widespread use. It has transformed the exchange of before, etc (Pavón, 2000). However, senior citizens knowledge and information, enabling access to any tend to be stereotyped negatively as being less capable resource anytime anywhere. Internet allows us to per- of performing activities in general (Cuddy, Norton & form any number of tasks traditionally associated to Fiske, 2005), an attitude that extends particularly to other technologies. We can talk and communicate, technology (Cutler, 2005). read, listen to music, watch films and television pro- Old age is frequently cited in relation to the digital grammes; in short, it allows us to carry out a wide divide, which is defined as the inequalities in Internet range of functions and activities. Internet also lets us access and the extent to which it is used, knowledge interact with it in a passive way, like with other media of the Web and its technical properties, social support such as television, or manage it in a more active way. and the ability to evaluate the quality of information The user can now interact with such media and this and the diversity of its uses (DiMaggio & al., 2001). interaction is limitless. But Internet is not just about We believe we should not subscribe to a negative information transmission; it has become a potent socia- association between senior citizens and Internet use. lization tool, a disseminator of ideas and values This negative viewpoint tends to cling to old people (Fainholc, 2006; Xavier & Cabecinhas, 2000). And when they are perceived as disabled, inactive or suffe- just as with television, cinema and videogames in their ring from some form of cognitive deterioration (Sheets, time (Núñez & Loscertales, 2008; Loscertales & Nú- 2005; Manna, Belchiorb, Tomitac & Kempd, 2005; ñez, 2008; Carnagey, Anderson & Bushman, 2007), Slegers, Van Boxtel & Jolles, 2009). Not all senior citi- Internet arouses curiosity and concern regarding the zens are disabled or inactive. The rise in life expec- values that can be propagated via the Web and the tancy and quality of life mean that more and more impact it has on society. It potentially offers benefits elderly people stay active for longer and continue to and drawbacks in equal measure, and the scientific offer a lot to and receive from society. As Gatto & Tak community is not immune to such debate. To take just (2008) point out, technological progress makes it one example of scientific interest in the Internet, the essential to find out how senior citizens use these tech- prestigious Annual Review journal has dedicated seve- nologies, and the barriers and benefits they perceive in ral issues to the Internet (Bargh & Mc Kenna, 2004; these technologies to be able to adapt them to their Skitka & Sargis, 2006; Bennett & Glasgow, 2009; own needs. However, as we have already indicated, Strecher, 2007). scientific research into senior citizens and new techno- With the arrival of Internet, the main interest and logy is insignificant when measured against output for concern of parents, professionals and society is the young people (Selwyn, Gorard, Furlong & Madden, impact of the media in general and of the Internet in 2003) and has tended to concentrate on seniors who particular on children and young people (Villani, are inactive (Hernández-Encuentra, Pousada & 2001). The influence of the Internet on the young has Gómez-Zuñiga, 2009). been analysed with some urgency as they are deemed This is a study of active senior citizens enrolled on to be the most vulnerable members of society. university courses for older people at the University of Numerous studies have tried to pinpoint the positive Sevilla as part of its Aula de la Experiencia (Classroom and negative effects of the Internet, and determine of Experience) programme.

The aim is to analyse what active senior citizens b) Familiarity with the Internet. Certain indicators use the Internet for, what motivates them to use the were used to collect information on participants’ fami- Internet and the main benefits of its usage, as well as liarity with the Internet, such as whether they used the the obstacles encountered by those who do not use Internet or not, how long they have been using the the Web. Internet and a computer for, if they had an Internet connection at home, what device they used to connect to 2. Method the Internet and how frequently they used it, how they

2.1. Procedure and participants learnt to use computers, a self-assessment of their know- Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 The study analysed 165 senior citizens enrolled at ledge of the Internet, how they rate the Internet as a the University of Sevilla on the Aula de la Experiencia source of information (main source, secondary but programme which was developed by the university important, secondary but unimportant, Internet not used with the backing of the local Ministry of Equality and as a source of information), whether Internet usage Social Welfare. This is a scientific-cultural and social reduces the time spent on other activities, if they use it programme aimed at people over 50, and is a good to search for information on health issues, to look up example of older people who want to keep active, and communicate with friends, or if they had ever been having enrolled on a series of courses that promote so absorbed on the Internet that they had lost all sense scientific and cultural knowledge, and interpersonal of time. relations among fellow students who are sufficiently motivated to sign up to the programme. We enlisted the help of the We wish to highlight the vital importance of the Internet as university lecturers to distribute and gather in a questionnaire a tool that generates social inclusion; Internet outsides are that the course participants completed, anonymously and unable to take advantage of its myriad possibilities which voluntarily, regarding their use leads to social exclusion and marginalization. Senior citizens of new technologies. Of the 165 participants in are an important sector in today’s and tomorrow’s society, our study, 33.3 % were men and 66.7% were women. The so their participation in the information society is crucial. average age was 62 with a The positive effects of their access to and usage of the standard deviation of 5.46. The majority of participants, Internet are many, both for them as individuals and 56.7%, were either married or lived with a partner, 22.6% for society at large. were widowed and the rest were separated, 11%, or single, 9.7%. c) The benefits of and motivation for using the 2.2. Materials Internet. To know how senior citizens perceive the An ad-hoc questionnaire that was voluntary and benefits of the Internet and their reasons for using it, we anonymous was used to obtain information on Internet asked them to grade 11 indicators on a 5-point scale use. We adapted the questionnaire in line with the ranging in opinion from total agreement to total disagre- recommendations of certain authors who had pre- ement. Examples of these indicators include: I find the viously gathered data from older people, by using a lar- Internet easy to use; Internet helps me to keep up-to- ger font size (14 point) and greater spacing to make the date; I have made new friends on the Internet; I like the document clearer to read (Boechler, Foth, & anonymity of the Web; I cannot imagine my life wit- Watchorn, 2007). The questionnaire was designed to hout the Internet. collect data on the following: d) To know what senior citizens use the Internet a) Socio-demographic information: the question- for, we asked them to grade 25 indicators on a 4-point naire asked the participant to state age, gender, civil scale of responses: daily, weekly, monthly, never. status and educational qualifications. Examples of these indicators include: e-mail, chat

rooms, information search, music and film downloads, four possible responses (every day, two or three times online banking, reading newspapers, discussion a week, once a month, never). When asked about boards, phone calls. how they had learnt to use the Internet (self-taught, e) The obstacles faced by those who do not use family, courses, friends, others) the results showed that the Internet. To know the obstacles faced by non- the family followed by self-taught as the most common Internet users, we asked the non-users to rate 16 indi- factors (X=54.701; p<.001). Most participants’ self- cators on a 5-point scale ranging in opinion from total assessment of their computer knowledge (beginner,

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 agreement to total disagreement. These indicators average user, advanced, expert) was either beginner or include: I am not interested in the Internet or it does average user (X= ¡72.601; p<.001). The Internet not motivate me; I am too young or too old to use the was classified as a secondary but important source of Internet; I don’t know how to use the Internet; I don’t information (X=102.789; p<.001) by those polled, have access to Internet at home from four possible options: main source, secondary but important, secondary but not important, I don’t use Internet as a source of information. In This study shows what senior citizens use the Internet for terms of information search, 68.2% used the Internet to and why, and the main obstacles that hinder non-users. We read up on health issues. find that senior citizens are optimistic and motivated, in that When questioned about personal contact, 54.6% said they many already use the Internet, while non-users feel they are used the Internet to keep in touch with family members, capable of learning how to use it if they chose to. As mem- followed by friends or collea- bers of society, we have a shared responsibility to help those gues (31.8%), while 13.6% stated that they did not use the who already use the Internet to make the most out of it, and Web to communicate with people. The seniors were instruct them on functions and areas which they can explore asked whether Internet usage to expand their knowledge. We are also bound to give those reduced time spent on other activities (friends, sleeping, non-users that initial push to get them started. work, studying, television, sports, family, radio, reading the press, other activities), of which television followed by 3. Results sleeping were cited as losing out to Web use (X= Descriptive analyses and the Chi square test were 112.326; p<.001). The participants were also asked used to analyse the results. about the sensation of losing all sense of time when on the Internet (hardly ever, sometimes, quite often, 3.1. Familiarity with the Internet almost always); 61.1% said they had hardly ever expe- Of those surveyed for familiarity with the Internet, rienced losing all sense of time when on the Internet 64.4% defined themselves as users while 35.6% said and 35.6% said they had sometimes lost all sense of they were non-users. The users stated they had started time. using a computer before venturing onto the Internet. They had been using a computer for an average of 3.2. Benefits of or motivations for using Internet 12.01 years and the Internet for 7.88 years, and 100% Those surveyed declared that, in terms of the of users had an Internet connection at home. main benefits of the Internet and their motivations for Connection to the Internet in 98% of cases was via a using it, they found the Internet to be a useful tool that computer, with link-up by mobile phone, television, helped keep them up-to-date and that it was easy to personal digital assistant (PDA) and video game conso- use. However, they insisted that they could live les negligible. Chi square test analysis showed that without it. They also stated that they did not use the users connected to the Internet every day or two or Internet to meet new people or to find people with three times a week (X=96.580; p<.001), based on similar interests or concerns; neither did they believe it

was easier to express themselves via the Internet rather designed to be used for. All participants had Internet than speaking face-to-face. They were not comforta- connection at home and generally used it once a day ble with the anonymity of the Web, and had issues or several times a week. They first learnt to use the with Internet privacy (X=513.416; p<.001). Internet through family members or taught themselves. The family seems to have played a key role in encou- 3.3. What do they use the Internet for? raging these new users and in helping them to adapt to The results show that the participants use the Internet use. The results clearly show that they do not

Internet principally to search for information, then to use the Web to start new social relationships but to Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 check e-mails, for course work, to read the press and connect with family and friends. The Internet is to navigate for no particular reason and, to a lesser viewed as a tool that helps them keep in touch. extent, to share photos and for online banking (X= Scientific literature has frequently shown concern 974.406; p<.001). The users send an average of about whether Internet use contributes to to social 15.83 e-mails a week and receive 27.71. isolation (Nie, 2001). Our results show that Internet use among older people does not lead to social isola- 3.4. Internet’s non-users tion rather it allows these users to communicate with The results were statistically significant for those family and friends. This is supported by their response participants in the survey who stated that they did not to whether Internet use deprived them of time spent use the Internet, in terms of the obstacles they face as on other activities; the participants stated that their use non-users (X=569.373; p<.001). They stated that of the Internet did not mean a reduction in time spent their non-use of the Internet was not due to old age, with family or friends, only less time spent watching or to the lack of time or because they were in bad television or sleeping. health. Nor did they attribute their non-use to being It is noteworthy that the Internet was not used to unaware of what the Internet could be used for, or to join discussion boards to exchange opinions with other the difficulty in finding a place to use the Internet. likeminded citizens. This is an area that could be pro- They said they had no home access to Internet and did moted further since virtual communities can be of sup- not know how to use it, although they considered port to and have a positive effect on those who take themselves capable of learning how to use the Internet part (Katz, Rice & Aspden, 2001; Ellison, Steinfield & if they put their minds to it. Lampe, 2007). Another interesting fact was that the Internet was 4. Discussion considered an important but secondary source of news The aim of this study was to analyse the use made and learning. The participants stated that the Web by active senior citizens of the Internet and to know enabled them to keep up-to-date and that they used the what they considered to be the main benefits of and Internet to search for information, for course work, to their motivations for using the Web, as well as the read the press and also to navigate for no particular obstacles faced by non-users. For this study, we reason. We think that this motivation to use the Web recruited senior citizens who had enrolled on univer- as a learning and information tool is highly positive sity courses specifically for older people, and we now since the Internet allows the user to access a vast and present the main conclusions from the results obtained wide range of information. However, we believe there from the data. is a greater need than ever for media literacy instruction We note that the Internet users already had pre- to enable this type of user to filter information more vious knowledge of computers, which was a signifi- critically on the Web. This is particularly relevant in cant factor in leading them to use the Web especially light of the fact that a large majority of those polled as virtually all the survey participants used their com- stated that they use the Internet to search for informa- puters to connect to the Internet at home, with no tion on health. Internet could be a useful tool for provi- other devices cited. As Hernández, Pousada and Gó - ding health-related information (Tse, Choi & Leung, mez (2009) have shown, older people prefer to use a 2008) although the quality of information often varies device for the specific reason it was purchased; for (Morahan, 2004). Hence, the need for instruction in example, a phone to make and receive calls, a televi- media literacy, especially in matters of health, to enable sion to watch programmes and Internet connection the user to evaluate the credibility of the information only via the computer. However, we believe this atti- found and to help the user to search more diligently. tude could change once the user becomes familiar Older people use the Internet primarily to look for with various devices and the new functions they were information and, to a lesser extent, to read and send e-

© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 89-95 94 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 it is important to point out that they do not attribute not kno not to but health ill or age to status non-user their do they that out point to important is it Internet whose numbers are still significant. However, Web. the on interactions and transactions for security of sense greater a with Internet the use to and the up privacy, and weigh anonymity of drawbacks and advantages to and contexts to Web, user between the distinguish the enable can on literacy media information in instruction screen to ability user’s (Christopherson, effects 2007). negative and positive both generating in controversial highly also but Internet, the Web. As regards privacy, this is a distinctive feature of increases and the users become more familiar with the security online as diminish will concern this think We cern cited by the majority of users (Suh & Han, 2003). con- common a is confidentiality transactions financial online to regard with Indeed, Internet. the on privacy and anonymity over worries of because less functions of type latter that use they that believe We banking. for no particular reason, to share photos and for online navigate and press the read to work, course for mails, nent usds r ual t tk avnae f its myriad possibilities of which leads to social exclusion and advantage take to unable are outsides Internet inclusion; social generates that tool a as Internet the of situation. similar a in people younger on among data in found also is people seen older inactive use Internet negligible the if determine age groups with similar inactivity and disability levels to stereotype. negative this to conforming as themselves see not do citizens senior We believe that the data in our study reveal that active technology. using when citizens senior of stereotypes to find and affirm different behaviours to the traditional necessary is it which for and for, us prepares nobody that life in stage a is age old that in (2008) Rodríguez with agree We incapability. to age old links that type stereo the down break to help should barrier a be to age consider not do they that and learn to ability their (Cutler, technology use to 2005). ability their of terms in the in stereotyped negatively state are people we older as introduction, because, important very is This It so. do started. get to push gentle to a need only they that seems decided they if Internet the use to how learn to able be would they that consider They tion. connec no having and Internet the use to how wing Our study also deals with elderly non-users of the of non-users elderly with deals also study Our the improving of terms in mentioned previously As In sum, we wish to highlight the vital importance vital the highlight to wish we sum, In Future research could focus on comparing various about optimistic are people older that fact The - - - G B A A C Dog’. a Behavior,23; You’re Knows Nobody In the ternet, ‘On Interactions: Social Internet in Anonymity ca of tions C globalización. la de era B Life. aplicación de sus recursos. sus de aplicación D 67-72. References started. them get to push initial that non-users those give to bound also are We knowledge. their expand to explore can it, and instruct them on functions and areas which they of out most the make to Internet the use already who of those help members to responsibility As shared a have to. we society, chose they if it use to how ning the use already Internet, while non-users many feel they are capable of lear that in motivated, and mistic that obstacles main the hinder non-users. We and find that senior citizens are opti why, and for Internet the use citizens senior what shows study This large. at society for and individuals as them for both many, are Internet the of usage and to access their of effects positive The crucial. is society information the in tion participa- their so society, tomorrow’s and today’s in marginalization. Senior citizens are an important sector B Potential. their AnnualPublicHealth,of 30 Review Actualizing Internet: the Via Interventions Health C type. Stereo Elderly the of Persistence and reo Pervasiveness The type: A E Internet. the Sociology,27; of Implications Social (2001). alfabetización mediática. alfabetización Europa. en digital entorno el en mediática alfabetización sobre Recomendación mediática. tización F Communication,12 Sites. Network Social On-line of Use Students’ College and Capital Social ‘Friends’: Facebook of C 489-496. Violence. 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GUADED ORTON TEINFIELD ARGITTAI , AK C Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,SocialExperimental 43; Journalof Comunicar,32 OTH NDERSON K.M. (2007). The Positive and Negative Impli Negative and Positive The (2007). K.M. © K ; 1143-1168. ; , S , LASGOW ENNA ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 89-95 Pages 1988-3293• e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: , M.I. & F & M.I. , .H. (2008). Computer, Internet and E-mail and Internet Computer, (2008). .H. , J , Comunicar,12-14. 21 ; , D. & W Comunicar,35 .I. (2003). Presentación: tecnologías en la en tecnologías Presentación: (2003). .I. , E.; N E.; , , ; 7-8. ; , C. & L & C. , Comunicar,26 EducationalGerontology, 33; .. 20) Te nent n Social and Internet The (2004). K.Y. , C.A. & B & C.A. , , R.E. (2009). The Delivery of Public of Delivery The (2009). R.E. , ATCHORN EUMAN ora o Computer-Mediated of Journal ISKE ; 7-8. ; AMPE ; 273-292. ; , ; 573-590. ; S.T. (2005). This Old Ste Old This (2005). S.T. 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Research Studies Analysis 98 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 All «Comunicar» www.revistacomunicar.com on your screen your on © ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: INVESTIGACIONES / RESEARCH

Received: 13-01-2011 / Revised: 27-02-2011 Accepted: 28-03-2011 / Published: 01-10-2011 l Irma Hirsjärvi & Samy Tayie Jyvaskyla (Finland) & Cairo (Egypt) http://dx.doi.org/10.3916/C37-2011-03-01 Children and New Media: Youth Media Participation. A Case Study of Egypt and Finland Niños y nuevos medios: estudios de caso en Egipto y en Finlandia

ABSTRACT This article focuses on a single case study; the first findings of a qualitative part of the Youth Media Participation (YMP) project in Argentina, Egypt, Finland and India (2009-11) on 10-18 year-old children’s participation through media. Youth Media Participation is funded by the Academy of Finland (2009-11). It collects and analyses three kinds of data from children and young adults; 1) focused interviews collected in Egypt, India and Finland (24 in each country), 2) a questionnaire for statistical data collected from Argentina, Egypt, India and Finland (1,200 in each country, N: 4,800) and 3) media diaries for a separate publication about «One Day of Media» (100 collected in Argentina, Egypt, India, Finland and Kenya, N: 500). The purpose was to undertake an exploratory study to find new ways to approach research questions on children’s participation through media in different countries. The YMP project was launched with focused interviews in Finland and Egypt. This paper focuses on the qualitative, explorative part of the project: the focused interviews that were used to test the original research questions, to explore the many forms of media participation, and to create the questionnaire needed in further research. The project aims at enhancing our understanding of media literacy and its connections to media participation and civic activity. RESUMEN El artículo recoge un estudio de caso único sobre los primeros resultados del análisis cualitativo del proyecto PJM (Youth Media Participation), desarrollado en Argentina, Egipto, Finlandia e India. PJM es apoyado por la Academia de Finlandia (2009-11). Se analizan tres tipos de información provenientes de niños y jóvenes: entrevistas focalizadas en Egipto, India y Finlandia (24 en cada país); cuestionarios para recolección de datos estadísticos de Argentina, Egipto, India y Finlandia (1.200 por país, 4.800 totales); y diarios de medios para una publicación adicional sobre «Un día de medios» (500 totales, 100 obtenidos en Argentina, Egipto, India, Finlandia y Kenia respectivamente). Se indagaba, mediante el estudio exploratorio, nuevos enfoques a preguntas de investigación sobre la participación de niños de distintos países en medios. El proyecto PJM se inició con entrevistas focalizadas en Finlandia y Egipto. Este artículo se centra en la parte cualitativa y exploratoria del proyecto: entrevistas focalizadas para ratificar las preguntas originales de investigación, explorar múltiples formas de participación mediática y crear el cuestionario necesario para investigaciones posteriores. El proyecto busca mejorar nuestra comprensión de la alfabetización mediática y sus vínculos con la participación en los medios y actividad cívica. KEYWORDS / PALABRAS CLAVE Media literacy, new media, children, civic, participation, interviews, youth. Alfabetización mediática, medios, niños, actividad cívica, participación.

v Dr. Samy Tayie is President of the Mentor Association and Professor at the Faculty of Communication in the University of Cairo (Egypt) ([email protected]). v Dr. Irma Hirsjarvi is Assistant Professor of the Department of Cultural Studies of the University of Jyvaskyla in Finland ([email protected]).

Comunicar, 37, v. XIX, 2011, Scientific Journal of Media Literacy; ISSN: 1134-3478; pages 99-107 www.revistacomunicar.com 100 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 community. The converging media offer local and glo media publicity and pedagogy understood as a learning media literacy through education projects involving media production, supported be may citizenship communication. Youth new one-way the than more radio, provide media Unlike children. among especially 2010). (Kotilainen, of world? the regions different in developing and practicing ple world? the of regions different in media to relation in agents as position their in facing people young are challenges countries? developing and Western regarding especially –and internationally, non-participation– participation media youth in found be can ces research original the test to questions. used were that views inter focused explorative the of results India, first the 1; part on focuses Egypt, article This 500). Argentina, N: Kenya, and in Finland collected (100 of Day One Media about publication separate a for diaries Finland (1200 in each country, N: 4800) and 3) media and India Egypt, Argentina, in and collected for data statistical questionnaire A India 2) country); 1) Egypt, each in adults; (24 in Finland young collected and interviews children Focused from three data analyses of and collects kinds It (2009-11). India and Finland Egypt, Argentina, includes project YMP project. The 2009-11) (YMP, Participation Media Youth pation through media, held in Egypt and Finland, in the focused interviews on 10-18 year-old children’s partici Introduction 1. of it in Asia. Finland has a population of 5.4 million 5.4 of population a has Finland Asia. in it of part with Africa, North-Eastern in mainly lies million, gest Arab country, Egypt, with a population of over 80 big The mediascapes. and cultures, areas, graphical geo different very represent They other. each from Finland and Egypt countries: The 2. interviews Finland. the and Egypt India, from of analysis comparative forthcoming the analyzing the test to Finland, and Egypt to from results preliminary limited is article This this through background. project YMP the of interviews focused the analysed We 2006a). Jenkins, 2009; Kotilainen, 2009; (Carlsson, scale unprecedented an on activity civic in productivity of ways and networks venues, bal h cneprr ue o mda ay greatly, vary media of uses contemporary The peo- young are literacies media of kinds What 3) and possibilities prerequisites, of kinds What 2) differen- and features common of kinds What 1) the of findings first the examines article This iln ad gp ae egahcly ut far quite geographically are Egypt and Finland - - - - - llites working in the Arab World (Media Committee, (Media World Arab the in working llites sate 17 through broadcast They owned. privately are llite channels; 97 are owned by governments, and 599 In sate- channels. 696 are there channels, TV TV land the to addition of number great a to exposed are Egypt. in living expatriates for serves and French, and English in mainly adcasts some and private TV channels channels. The national Channel Two bro local six channels, TV national vise radio and television broadcasting. There are three super Information, of Ministry the of part a is which Union, Television and Radio Egyptian media. private Finland and Egypt in Media 3. 2010). Finland, (Statistics es demic education, and many Finns hold multiple degre- Almost 2010). aca- or vocational their completed have Finns (PISA, of 65% tests PISA countries’ OECD deci sions. So far Finland has gained excellent results in the political latest the to due apparent already are inequalities although education, special including ties, school Finnish The system today provides rather equal learning Internet. opportuni- also offering free are libraries and email- pupils their for pages home and accounts offer Practically schools access; polytechnics. computer has and everyone universities i.e. level, education higher and education, broader to eligibility with students provide They school. secondary upper or school vocational for required qualifications with pupils the provide 1-9) (classes levels elementary The private religious mostly schools. School is obligatory for all children aged few, 7-16. are There all. for free admission. university for qualifications the of one is which Secondary Certificate School General the receive children education, of years 12 After curricula. and systems educational schools. education, German or British French, owned American, high-quality following some provide privately schools also Expensive are There age. of years 6 over children for fees low with education provide schools Governmental 12-year-olds. under all for compulsory is Education million. 17 is universities Finnish the of cities. in live population 65% over people; million 1.3 nearly has Helsinki around area metropolitan 18 The land. of of population a 3% only on live has population the of 95% almost million; Cairo city Europe. capital Northern Egypt’s in Sweden and Russia between eeal sekn, iwr i te rb World Arab the in viewers speaking, Generally and governmental of range wide a has Egypt is education higher and elementary Finland, In and schools in students of number the Egypt, In © ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 • Pages 99-107 Pages • 1988-3293 e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: - - - - users, and 863 public libraries providing Internet con - Internet providing libraries public 863 and users, library million 2.1 are There popular. still are TV and movies, Libraries, daily. newspapers read age of years media 12 over people of 80% traditional popularity: their retained have Still, months. three last the during online been have 16-84 aged people of 82% almost connections. Internetuseiscommoninallagegroups; programmes. Egyptian Arab TV channels rely to a significant degree on these World. Arab the over all of popular very that are grammes to similar role pro TV and films a Egyptian West. the in Hollywood World Arab the in plays media. print for organization regulatory the is which Council, Press Higher the of approval the to subject is newspapers partial and vate pri- of publishing The 2009). Council, Press (Higher Egypt in magazines and newspapers 600 than more are there that estimated is It rous. nume- also are Newspapers Arabic, German. and French in English, magazines and houses newspapers of dozens publish publishing mental people. young by favoured popular programmes music mainly which broadcast (FM), stations radio private also are There Egypt. over all stations radio local are there addition, In 40 languages. than more in Radio, broadcasts Overseas of the One them, country. the over cities. big in cafes by provided is access Internet Moreover, areas. other in homes of 40% and Cairo in homes of 65% reaches Internet The services. phone mobile have Egyptians 75%) (nearly million 58 from broadcasting channels world. the of parts other and America, North Europe, satellite to exposed also are countries Arab other and Egypt in Children Urdu. and Hebron, Indian, Spanish, Persian, French, (20%). They also broadcast in other languages such as specialized. 438 English and (76%) Arabic in and broadcast channels Most general are private channels the satellite of 161 whereas specialized, are 48 and general are 49 channels, governmental the Of 2010). © ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 • Pages 99-107 Pages • 1988-3293 e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: n iln 7% f oe hv broadband have homes of 70% Finland In which industry, film modern highly a has Egypt govern- important Three There are seven radio networks people listen to all According to estimations regarding the new media, developing in different regions of the world? the of regions different in developing and practicing people young are literacies media of kinds What world? the of regions different in media to relation in agents as position their in facing people young are challenges and possibilities prerequisites, of kinds What countries? developing and Western regarding especially internationally, non-participation– –and participation media youth in found be can differences and features common of kinds What - mirn bcgons Te ia itriw, 4 in 24 interviews, final The backgrounds. immigrant areas, rural connected and to art and media cities projects, and children with from age of years 9-17 ween bet- children included children) 12 Finland: children; Sample Study The 4. indivi- of duals. use media the to comes it when countries of children, and especially the differences between the mediascapes complex the understand to aim we point from this at Thus, comparisons. draw to difficult is it which situation unbalanced an reveal literacy, media and media and children of strategies national the ding inclu possibilities, educational the countries, two the country. the in published 2010) Finland (Statistics are magazines 3300 and newspapers 200 Over country. the of parts the of most in available are channels cable and satellite of of their programmes are also available online. A variety other national and 10 commercial TV channels; many all in five channels, TV state-owned supported two are There media. is programming Children’s regulated duling. is use sche and limits age media as such measures, special through Children’s immigrants. Finnish by spoken the languages minority in by rarely but supported government, is Swedish, especially Finland. in use in mobiles million 8.1 are there nes; pho mobile several have to seems Everyone Internet. Most oftheover60 charge. of free all, to services and databases, nections, h peiiay et neves Eyt 14 (Egypt: interviews test preliminary The in available media the of comparison mere The languages, minority in broadcasting and Publishing radio stations can be heard on the - - - 101 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 102

each country were done in small groups (1-4 people) In Finland most of the interviews were done next of 12-14 and 16–17 year old children. In practice, to a computer with Internet access. In Egypt that was some older and younger children were also among the done whenever possible. In Egypt, on average, each interviewees. The preliminary interviews were inclu- focused interview lasted for an hour. In Finland, the ded in the analysis of the final data. shortest interview lasted for half an hour, and the The final interviews. The total amount of the longest more than two hours, and the average length children in the final interviews was 85: of the interviews was 1.5 hours. All interviews were

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 • Egypt: 24 interviews, 38 children; 19 boys (10 recorded and transcribed. from the metropolitan, 9 from rural area); 19 girls (10 from the metropolitan, 9 from rural area) 6. Methodology • Finland: 24 interviews, 47 Children: 21 boys (8 The preliminary interviews were used for testing from the metropolitan, 13 from rural area); 26 girls (12 the focused interview as a method of approaching from the metropolitan, 14 from rural area) children about their participating through media. The In Egypt Cairo represented the metropolitan area, final interviews used the tested strategy covering ques- Fayoum (100 kilometres south of Cairo) the rural area. tions of media literacy and media participation through All the interviews were carried out in homes, with the those interests. Focusing on the special interests, desires, needs, and activities seemed to bring up the most valid results in the preliminary Finnish results express the importance of the early interviews. The focused interviews accessibility and availability of media, also through schools concentrated on all children’s and libraries. They also indicate the positive results of media uses of media. The focused interview has proved success- education. The results hint at certain cultural differences ful for collecting qualitative data on every day practices within Finland – such as in the case of the children of (Merton, Fiske & Kendall, immigrant families, and the special individual uses. 1990). The conversation can be carried out flexibly, thus giving space for unexpected themes or issues. This also offers possibilities for reaching consent of the parents. In Finland, Helsinki represen- the deeper structures of the conversation as well as the ted the metropolitan area, and the countryside of meaning-making processes (values, identities, feelings Northern Central Finland the rural area. The inter- and attitudes etc.). Practically, due to the explorative views took place mainly in schools, but also once in nature of the interviews the study embarked on the private facilities of a public library and three times ‘grounded theory’ (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Glaser & at home. Holton, 2004). We aimed at coming up with ‘rich description’ (Geerz, 1973) that would help to create 5. The procedure more specific questions for the questionnaire later in In Egypt the interviews were carried out with the the research project. help of two PhD students from the Cairo University. In Our analysis was multi-sited in nature (Marcus, Finland one researcher conducted all the interviews. 1995: 117) for describing research where spaces and The principles of the research were approved by landscapes are analyzed simultaneously in a larger the Academy of Finland, and the Ethical committee of social context. Multi-sited approach is useful when the University of Jyväskylä. The consent forms to the people from different socioeconomically classes, of dif- administration, schools, parents, and children were ferent sex and gender, of different age group and in created, and each country followed also its own proce- different social contexts are interviewed. Marcus dure of administrative and ethical practices. The inter- (1995, 105-106) stresses the ability of multi-sited viewees were informed about the tasks of the project, research to highlight the complex chains, paths, rela- about anonymity and reporting practices and the volun- tions, and positions as well as the processes tary nature of the interviews before the interview. (Appadurai, 1990: 21-24) – in our case in the perso-

nal, social, global, and local media participation and its showing off. They also created more content online meaning-making processes. than the older children. Older children were mainly Along the main issues coming up in the close rea- interested in listening to music, watching films and ding, the data was classified into three main categories: downloading them. • Mediascape: access to the new media on a In Finland, children’s main media uses in general national level; how and in what quantity media were have shifted rapidly during the last two decades from available, and also the frequency of media use. listening to radio and watching TV to gaming and

• Socioscape: the larger contexts, and social using the Internet. Belonging to virtual communities Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 aspects of media use. and groups is usual; expanding the special skills starts • Genderscape: the possible differences in media early and is many times completely separated from the use between girls and boys. children’s school identity; chatting, sending text messa- These aspects will form the starting point in the ges and gaming area part of everyday life – as has been forthcoming final analysis of all interviews from Egypt, seen in national surveys (Kangas, Lundvall & Sinto nen, India and Finland. In this article, the main question in 2007). all the categories is the nature of media literacies of The interviews of Finnish children also show how children different regions. fast media use has changed in general, on a national level. In 1997, 94% of Internet users used Google 7. Findings weekly. In our small sample, all children in 2010 prac- 7.1. Mediascape tically used it daily. Indeed, spending time online In the Cairo metropolitan area, the interviewed throughout the day is a norm. Watching YouTube children had access to all media, except for one young seems to have increased; however, uploading content boy (S, 9 years) who mainly had access to television to the service (in 1997 8% of the population) has sta- and the Internet, and used his mother’s or his grand- yed the same – just like in our small sample shows. mother’s mobile phone to make calls. All interviewees Compared to the 1997 study, downloading movies had access to the Internet at home; their parents (52% of the population) and TV programmes (45% of mainly use DSL connections, and also usually pay for population) is very common now among our intervie- all Internet use. wees. Our Finnish interviewees –like Finns in gene- In the rural area, only one interviewed girl (F, 13 ral– clearly use the Internet more than people did on years) reportedly did not have a mobile phone, but she average in 1997. Our material also supports the recent told getting one from her father after passing that year’s study on children’s active media use, which includes exams: «I think I will need it then so that my parents very young age groups (Kotilainen, 2011). Our inter- can contact me and know where I am». One of the viewees seemed to have a clear notion of their own girls in Fayoum did not have a computer at home, but limits and dislikes concerning media use, especially used Internet either in her friends’ or relatives’ houses. about age limits or pornographic material in media. The other two interviewed girls had Internet access at (Kangas, Lundvall & Sintonen, 2007). home. It was to be expected that there are differences not The children in the rural area used other traditio- only in media policies but also on the technological nal media, i.e. newspapers, magazines, television, and level of media influence, access and use of media in radio more than those in Cairo. In the rural area, tele- Egypt and Finland. The differences in media use vision was more important for the interviewed chil- between the rural and metropolitan areas in Egypt, dren than any other medium. These support the and between different groups inside the metropolitan findings of previous studies carried out on Egyptian area in Finland, opened more complicated questions. children (Kamel, 1995; El Semary, 1995; El Sayed, 1996; Asran, 1998). 7.2. Socioscape The frequent use of traditional media is normal for Social background was influential in the Egyptian children in the rural areas, who do not have as many children’s access to and relationship with media. In out-door activities as the Cairo children. Also this sup- our case, children from high-income families had port the findings of previous studies (Tayie 2008). Age access to all media, especially the new media. Some factor emerged as an important difference, with children from low-income families, as in the cases of respect to children’s uses of the new media. Younger girls interviewed in Fayoum (F, F and R), did not have children were more interested in games and being access to the new media. They used newspapers and visible online. They saw this as a kind of prestige and particularly TV more than children from high-income

families. Their preferred programmes were mainly when the Finnish interviewees talked about owning or religious and educational. purchasing media. There were few examples of The parents of children from low-income families economic inequality; however, it did not follow the (for instance the girls from Fayoum) were more invol- geographical distribution, but became visible when ved in their children’s media use. The children also comparing the groups of children of immigrant families mentioned that they tend to discuss some contents of with others. The other clear distinction was a religious newspapers and magazines with their parents, mainly one: a certain evangelical wing of the Finnish

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 fathers. Lutheran church prohibits all TV use. However, wit- The children from high income families talked hin this religious group children and young adults were more openly about many things, including the private allowed to watch movies, TV-series, or TV-program- and personal uses of mobile phones or Internet. mes online, as did one of our interviewees. However, it took the interviewers a bit of time to Thirdly, in Finland there was a special aspect encourage the children to talk about personal matters. connected to families’ social situations. This aspect of They did not mention sex or sexuality at all. Instead, media use focused on reducing the distance between children talked about having friends (boyfriends or girl- family members and relatives. This was apparent in friends, but without mentioning sexual relationships). two different situations: one is divorce (more than half Children from low income families were less open in of marriages end in divorce after c. 12 years) – the an interview situation and sometimes even very reser- other the situation of the children of immigrant ved compared to other interviewees. families. For them social media provides contacts to In Finland, the availability of media was unders- their own culture and relatives, but also a way of lear- tandably good amongst all children due to schools and ning a new culture – ‘doing a special identity work’, as libraries. Old and new media, as well as social media, our interviewees called it. In Finland it has become were part of their everyday lives through the day. common practice that children of divorced parents Generally, their media use appeared quite similar to stay with both of their parents, for example on alterna- that described by the Egyptian children; many children te weeks. In this situation social media provides a pos- followed some newspapers, practically all read several sibility and neutral place for contacts of old and new magazines. Almost all followed TV programmes and siblings and parents. watched movies, some listened to music on the radio; Fourthly, being a fan, or having particular hobbies everyone used more than one device for listening to seem to support participation in international networks, music. In general, there were no clear divisions betwe- such as websites, groups or communities. Football fans en girls and boys or children from rural and urban –and especially the fans of Japanese popular culture– areas. However, a closer look at the uses of new seemed to skip the national websites and go straight to media made it clear that there are big individual diffe- the major English or Japanese sites. Also, gaming lowe- rences in Finland. red the children’s threshold of using international sites, First of all, the age factor became crucial in our supporting the learning and using of English. As Jenkins sample. Playing and learning by doing was a major fac- (2006a) has showed, joining international fan-based tor at the age group of 10-year-olds and younger, and communities is clearly something worth following in so was the social factor –playing with friends. Still, the national and international studies on children and media children aged 11-13 used new media mainly for plea- (Jenkins, 2006a; Hirsjärvi, 2010). sure– for gaming and being in contact with friends and Surprisingly, according the interviews of our sam- the family. In the interviews of the older children, ple, participation in Finland –in the traditional sense of especially from the age 14 onwards, the change from the term– is not fostered through the media themsel- visibility to privacy, as well as gaining special skills ves, but locally, in everyday social worlds – at school becomes central. Young people gain pleasure from or in community activities. specialized media uses connected to one’s own interests, such as making music videos for YouTube, 7.3. Genderscapes in media use collecting fashion items to a picture gallery, or arran- • Egyptian girls. Gender emerged as an important ging football fan info on a website. However, the factor when comparing the media use of girls and boys social uses, the importance of communication, and the in the rural area. In the urban area, no such striking frequent use of mobile phones are prominent in all age gender differences emerged. However, the variation categories also in Finland. between the responses of the urban (Cairo) and rural Secondly, the social factor made some difference (Fayoum) areas was remarkable.

In the urban area, both girls and boys frequently area were more cautious, and did not talk about priva- used the Internet, iPods, and mobile phones. Only one te or personal matters. They used media for education girl (I) claimed that she did not need a mobile phone; and informative purposes, and they used mostly tradi- this was a matter of principle rather than an economi- tional media, especially television. Still, all except one cal issue, as she is from a high-income family. All girls had access to the Internet (F). Two girls (F & R) had mentioned that they mainly used mobile phones to mobile phones they had received recently. keep in touch with parents, relatives, and friends. The Girls in the rural area used newspapers, magazi- father paid the phone bills in all cases. Boys used the nes, and television more than the girls in Cairo. They Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 mobile phone more than girls; however, girls were also mentioned that in most cases they watch televi- more frequent Internet users. sion with other members of the family, i.e. parents, Radio and newspapers were hardly used by this brothers and sisters, and that they talk frequently about group of girls. All girls had email accounts. They also media contents with their parents. Conversely, the mentioned that they used the Internet to download Cairo girls said they never talk with their parents about music and movies. Friends were the main source of media contents. the information on media. • Boys. All, but especially Cairo boys were avid Among the traditional media, the interviewees users of the new media. All boys from Cairo (10) had mentioned television most often. This matches the fin- an Internet connection at home, paid by their parents. dings of previous studies (Reda 1994; El Shal 1997; El Abd 1988). All girls had satellite receivers at home. The most The differences of media uses were clearly not so much popular TV programmes were mainly films and serials. One connected to the interviewee’s sex but to the availability of girl (I) also indicated that she the media, children’s personal interests, and the support liked programs which encourage viewers’ participation, available on everyday media use and its purchasing. and added that she would like to see more programmes open Similarly, boys and girls alike spent plenty of time on using for viewers’ participation media, including the Internet, and for both the mobile through landline, not just via mobile phones. This girl did phone was the most important single medium. have a mobile phone, but an anti-mobile phone attitude. One girl (M) preferred religious programs, which educate people on the basics of Internet was used mainly for gaming or chatting with religion. friends, most commonly on Facebook and YouTube. The girls in the metropolitan area could use new One boy from the rural area (A) had had an Internet media without limitations, but watching TV at home connection for only three months. Before that, he had was controlled. One girl (M) said that she herself used his friends’ or relatives’ web access. avoids the programs that are not in tone with her cul- The Internet was mainly used for chatting, espe- ture and traditions (apparently programs dealing with cially among younger boys. Only one boy indicated sexual matters/relations). that he went online to do his school assignments. When asked about their hopes or expectations Downloading programmes and films was common. concerning media, the girls said that they would like to One boy indicated that he watched downloaded films see TV programs tailored for specific age groups, not on TV. Facebook was the most visited website. All just children and adults generally. The girls in rural boys indicated that they had learnt about it and other areas indicated that they expected more serious and websites from their friends. All boys except for one (S, educational programmes, and more programs which 9 years) had mobile phones. S used his friends’ or his reflect the reality in their own geographical area. grandmother’s and mother’s mobile phones. Boys from The girls from Cairo talked openly about their Cairo had owned and used mobile phones for many media uses, though at the beginning of the interviews years, whereas the boys from the rural area had been they were reserved. However, girls from the rural using theirs for a shorter time.

The Cairo boys had state-of-the-art mobile pho- YouTube, writing and publishing fan fiction (fiction nes, whereas the rural boys had older models. All written about certain media texts, such as movies or Cairo boys indicated that they used the mobile phone TV series) and attending discussions on web pages. on a daily basis and at any time of the day. Boys used This supports the findings that fans of science fiction mobile phones more than girls; however, they used literature (Suoninen 2003, Hirsjärvi 2009) or fandom the Internet less frequently. in general (Jenkins 2006a, 2006b) tend to be excep- All children in Cairo indicated that they used tionally active in their media use.

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 mobile phones during the breaks, though it was forbid- The gender factor became most apparent in the den, telling that they put their phones on silent mode group of younger girls from immigrant families of the so that the teachers would not find out. Boys in the metropolitan area. In particular, only a group of four rural area said that they never took their mobile phones girls of the single interview had the least opportunities to school as it was forbidden. of influencing their purchase of media, and their media Boys in Cairo used mobile phones for surfing the uses seemed to be more strictly supervised that those Internet. One boy even indicated that he always views of the other Finnish children. Their competing with films on his mobile phone. Boys in the rural area used the quality and the style of mobile phones as well as the mobile phone only for making calls: «I use it only the knowledge of using the media (especially social in cases of emergency, the mobile phone was meant to media) became evident during the interview. be used only for these cases». The differences of media uses were clearly not so The Cairo boys frequently used their mobile pho- much connected to the interviewee’s sex but to the nes for messaging their friends. Even at home they never availability of the media, children’s personal interests, used landlines, preferring their mobile phones. Rural and the support available on everyday media use and boys used SMS less and they used landline at home. its purchasing. Similarly, boys and girls alike spent Boys in Cairo hardly mentioned newspapers, plenty of time on using media, including the Internet, magazines, or even TV; in rural areas these media and for both the mobile phone was the most important were frequently mentioned. Two boys from Fayoum single medium. told they usually watch television with the other family However, one particular gender factor came up in members. The Cairo boys usually watched TV alone, both preliminary and final interviews. The children as all of them had TV sets in their own rooms. interested in Japanese popular culture, especially All boys listened to radio. Cairo boys used radio anime, seemed to use media a versatile manner, such and musical services on their mobiles. Boys in the rural as writing fan fiction or creating fan pages of music area listened to radio at home, not on their mobile videos. One 14-year-old interviewee talked about her phones. They liked listening to religious, educational, identity work involved in seeking her lesbian identity. and news programmes. All Cairo boys used the iPod, The questions of sex and gender came up also in other whereas boys in the rural area had never even heard interviews in a very natural way. about it. • Media Budgets. All the girls in Cairo mentioned In sum, the data indicates that in Egypt, the social that they were allowed to use mobile phones, which and geographical factors emerged as important were paid by their parents. The situation for boys was influences on children’s new media literacy, their somewhat different. Three of them (in Cairo) were media use, and participation. given a certain amount of credits (paid by their • Finland. In Finland there was striking equality in fathers); after those ran out, they bought prepaid cre- the access and ownership of media among the inter- dits with their pocket money. These children spent viewed girls and boys. However some smaller differen- most of their pocket money on credits for their mobile ces were apparent in this sample. The IRC gallery, an phones, and for going out with their friends during the online forum that is based on uploading one’s pictures weekends. Two boys in Cairo were allowed unlimi- to a profile (it has also other qualities of social media, ted credit, paid for by their fathers. The youngest boy such as chat) was used more by girls than boys. Also (S) did not have a mobile phone, or any money for any use of social media and for example commenting on other media. blogs or websites etc. was more common among girls. Boys and girls from the rural area had limited Producing content for public sites was connected mobile use, paid for by their fathers. They had what to special interests. Those few girls who were active they called «controlled lines», meaning that they could fans of certain genre (fantasy, anime) were also very use them only for speaking for a limited number of productive, like makers of anime music videos on minutes per month. Newspapers and magazines were

mainly bought by their parents. In Finland parents Egyptian Children’s Habits of Reading. Cairo: Childhood Studies usually supported the notion of buying children mobile Centre, Ein Shams University. EL SHAL, I. (1997). Relationship of the Child with Print and phones. Certain limits were set, either by using pre- Electronic Media. Dar Nahdet: El Shark. paid connections or by setting the limit that the parents GLASER, B.G. & HOLTON, J. (2004). Remodeling Grounded Theory. would pay. It was usual that children got gadgets, Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 5 (2); May. (www. cual- games, or programmes as a reward for good school soft.com/pdf/2-04glaser-e.pdf) (01-04-2011). grades or for taking care of small chores at home. If GLASER, B. & STRAUSS, A.L. (1967). The Discovery of Grounded Theory. Strategies for Qualitative Research. Chicago: Aldine Pu- they needed computer programmes –for example for blishing Company. Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 creating websites– the children could find what they GEERTZ, C. (1973). Thick Description: Toward an Interpretative needed online. The interviewed children usually got Theory of Culture. In GEERTZ, C. (Ed.). The Interpretation of Cul - the magazines they wanted, as well as books. tures. New York: Basic Books. However, as the children pointed out, the Finnish HIGHER PRESS COUNCIL (Ed.) (2009). Statistics. Cairo: Higher Press Council. library system gave the interviewees equally access to HIRSJÄRVI, I. (2010). Fandom, New Media, Participatory Cultures. In the magazines and books they were interested in. CARLSSON, U. (Ed.). Children and Youth in the Digital Media Culture from a Nordic Horizon. The Yearbook, 2010. Gothenburg: 8. Conclusion The International Clearinghouse on Children, Youth and Media. The results discussed above show clearly that 133-142. JENKINS, H. (2006a). Convergence Culture. Where Old and New media in Egypt –especially the Internet– set the agenda Media Collide. New York: New York University Press. for children. The Internet provided them with conver- JENKINS, H. (2006b). Fans, Blogger, Gamers. Exploring Parti ci - sation topics with peers and friends, and the social ele- patory Culture. New York: New York University Press. ment of media use is important. Media was hardly JENKINS, H. (1995b) Out of the Closet and into the Universe. used for educational purposes. The younger children Queers and Star Trek. In TULLOCH, J. & JENKINS, H. (Eds.). Science Fiction Audiences. Watching Doctor Who and Star Trek. were more active than the older ones in creating and London: Routledge; 237-265. producing online content. Moreover, there were tra- KAMEL, O.M. (1995). Children’s Perception of Personality ces of addiction for the new media among children. Characteristics which are portrayed in Children’s Programmes. Finnish results express the importance of the early Cairo: Childhood Studies Center, Ein Shams University. accessibility and availability of media, also through KANGAS, S.; LUNDVALL, A. & SINTONEN, S. (2008). Lasten ja nuorten mediamaailma pähkinänkuoressa (The Media Environment of schools and libraries. They also indicate the positive Children.) Lasten ja nuorten mediafoorumi. Helsinki: Liikenne - ja results of media education. The results hint at certain viestintäministeriö (Ministry of Transport and Communications). cultural differences within Finland – such as in the (www.lvm.fi/c/document_library/get_file?folderId=22170&name case of the children of immigrant families, and the =DLFE-4803.pdf&title=Lasten) (15-03-2011). special individual uses. KOTILAINEN, S. (2010). Global Digital Culture Requires Skills in Media Literacy. In CARLSSON, U. (Ed.). Children and Youth in the The deeper analyses of the interviews of all three Digital Media Culture. Yearbook, 2010. Gothenburg: The Inter - countries are on the way. They shall also compare the national Clearinghouse on Children, Youth and Media. 65-74. meaning-making processes of media uses, identity KOTILAINEN, S. (2009). Promoting Youth Civic Participation with work and participatory culture – especially in connec- Media Production: The Case of Youth Voice Editorial Board. Co - tion to the converging media (Jenkins 2006a, 2006b). municar, 32 (16); 181-192. MARCUS, G. (1995). Ethnography in/of the World System: the Emer gence of Multi-sited Ethnography. Annual Review of Anthro - References pology, 24; 95–117. APPADURAI, A. (1990). Disjuncture and Difference in the Global Media Committee of the Arab League (Ed.) (2010). Statistics. Cai- Cultural Economy. Public Cult, 1 (2); 21-24. ro: Arab League. ASRAN, S.S. (1998). Role of Television Drama in Providing School MERTON, R.K.; FISKE, M. & KENDALL, P.L. (1990/1975). The Leavers with Social Values: A Study on a Sample of Egyptian Focused Interview. A Manual of Problems and Procedures. Illinois: Chil dren Who Have Left Education. Faculty of Arts (Egypt): Za - The Free press. gazeeg. PISA (2010). www.pisa.oecd.org/pages/0,2987,en_32252351_ - CARLSSON, U. (2009). Young People in the Digital Media Culture. 322 35731_1_1_1_1_1,00.html (10-01-2011) In CARLSSON, U. (Ed.). Children and Youth in the Digital Media REDA, A. (1994). Impact from Television Violence on Children’s Culture from a Nordic Horizon. Sweden: The International Behaviour. Journal of Communication Research. Cairo, July. Clearing House on Children, Youth and Media. STATISTICS FINLAND (Ed.) (2010). www.tilastokeskus.fi. EL ADB, A. (1988). Children’s Programmes on Television. Dar El TAYIE, S. (2008). Children and Mass Media in the Arab World: A Fekr: El Arabi. Second Level Analysis. In CARLSSON, U.; TAYIE, S.; JACQUINOT, G. EL SAYED, L.H. (1996). Children’s Realization of Televised Reality. & PÉREZ-TORNERO, J.M. (Eds.). Empowerment through Media Cairo: Childhood Studies Center, Ein Shams University. Education: An Intercultural Dialogue. Sweden: The International EL SEMARY, H.B. (1995). Influence of Watching Television on Clearinghouse on Children, Youth and Media, Nordicom. 67-87.

© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 99-107 108 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 All «Comunicar» www.revistacomunicar.com on your screen your on © ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: INVESTIGACIONES / RESEARCH

Received: 13-02-2011 / Revised: 06-03-2011 Accepted: 28-03-2011 / Published: 01-10-2011 l Javier Marzal & Maria Soler Castellón (Spain) http://dx.doi.org/10.3916/C37-2011-03-02 Consumption Patterns and Uses of Photography in Digital Era among Communication Students Hábitos de consumo y usos de la fotografía en la era digital entre estudiantes de Comunicación

ABSTRACT This paper presents the results of a research study exploring consumer behaviour and uses of photography among first-year students of the Degrees in Journalism, Audiovisual Communication, and Advertising and Public Relations in four Spanish universities (University of Malaga, University of Santiago de Compostela, University of the Basque Country and Universitat Jaume I in Castellón). As it is well known, the emergence of digital technologies has caused far-reaching transformations in the field of photography. These changes have affected production, distribution and circulation processes. However, digital technology has particularly changed the concept of photography itself as a means of expression and communication, above all among young people. Changes in how photography is perceived nowadays, brought about by the onset of digitalization, in turn raises a series of questions that merit reflection. To this end, a survey was designed and administered to a total of 467 communication sciences students in Spain. The results of this research reveal, on the one hand, how these communication students relate to the use of photography today; on the other hand, and more importantly, the results throw some light on how to approach the teaching of digital photography in a higher education context.

RESUMEN Se presenta una investigación sobre los hábitos de consumo y usos de la fotografía entre estudiantes de primer curso de las licenciaturas en periodismo, comunicación audiovisual y publicidad y relaciones públicas, en cuatro universidades españolas (Universidad de Málaga, Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Universidad del País Vasco y Universitat Jaume I de Castellón). Como es sabido, la aparición de las tecnologías digitales en el campo de la foto- grafía ha provocado profundas transformaciones en el panorama fotográfico. Estos cambios han afectado a los procesos de producción, a los modos de distribución y circulación de las imágenes. Pero, sobre todo, ha tenido notables consecuencias en la forma misma de conceptualizar la fotografía como forma de expresión y comunicación, y en los usos de la fotografía, en especial entre los más jóvenes. La digitalización ha contribuido a transformar, asimismo, la propia percepción del medio fotográfico, que merece una reflexión en estos momentos. A tal fin, se ha diseñado una encuesta que ha sido realizada a un total de 467 estudiantes de ciencias de la comunicación de nuestro país. En defi- nitiva, el análisis de las respuestas que ofrece la presente investigación nos ha permitido, por un lado, tomar concien- cia sobre cómo se relacionan estos estudiantes de comunicación con el medio fotográfico en la actualidad. Pero, sobre todo, se trata de una investigación que nos ofrece algunas pistas sobre cómo abordar, en plena era digital, la enseñanza de la fotografía en el contexto educativo universitario. KEYWORDS / PALABRAS CLAVE Photography, digital, consuming, audiovisual education, digital culture, image analysis, postphotography. Fotografía, digital, consumo, educación audiovisual, cultura digital, análisis de la imagen, postfotografía.

v Dr. Javier Marzal-Felici is Full Professor of Audiovisual Communication and Advertising and the Head at the Department of Communication Sciences at the University Jaume I in Castellón (Spain) ([email protected]). v Dr. Maria Soler-Campillo is Assistant Professor of Audiovisual Communication and Advertising at the Department of Communication Sciences at the University Jaume I in Castellón (Spain) ([email protected]).

Comunicar, 37, v. XIX, 2011, Scientific Journal of Media Literacy; ISSN: 1134-3478; pages 109-116 www.revistacomunicar.com 110

1. Introduction doubts have even been cast on the nature of the It is well-known that the dramatic emergence of photographic image itself (Marzal, 2007). This even digital technologies in the field of photography, which affects its validity now, as many scholars of the image in began twenty years ago, has ultimately achieved a far- the sphere digital visual culture, such William Mitchell reaching transformation of the means of producing (1992), Nicholas Mirzoeff (2003), Hans Belting images. Still more importantly, this revolution has led (2007) or Fred Ritchin (2009), speak openly of «the to an extension and generalisation of images without death of photography» as a result of the appearance of

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 precedent in human history. In order to fully under - digital photography. This is understood as an occu- stand this fact, there is nothing better than looking at a rrence that has transmuted the very nature of the few figures. photographic medium in such a way that photography According to the statistics published recently by has been diluted in the universe of the digital image. institutions like the Photo Marketing Association One of the main references for this research is the (PMA)1, around 755 million digital cameras were sold study carried out in the mid-1970s by Bourdieu (2003) in 2006 and 85% of these were integrated into mobile on the social function of photography in France, a phones. The forecast for 2011 is for the number of moment when photography was extended to millions mobile phones worldwide to reach 4.2 billion, and of citizens of the whole world with the appearance of that 75% of these will have an integrated camera. compact and reflex cameras. That study demonstrated Meanwhile, the Camera and Imaging Products that very little relating to photographic activity by Association (CIPA), an organisation bringing together enthusiasts is improvised or spontaneous: even the the main manufacturers of photographic equipment in most modest photography reflects a way of under- Japan, indicates that, in that country alone, almost 120 standing the society in which it exists. million digital cameras were manufactured in 2008, Both Chalfen (1987) and Spence and Holland most of them intended for export. This represents a (1991) have approached the study of the uses of 19.3% growth in sales compared to the previous year domestic photography based on a visual anthropology and a 29.7% growth in the sale of digital reflex came- approach. These scholars focus their attention on ras compared to the previous financial year2. Sales analysing family photographs and their personal and forecasts are optimistic for 2010 and 2011, with fore- social significance, in that, despite the deep subjectivi- cast increases of 2.4% every year, although this repre- ties they express, domestic photographs are a faithful sents a considerable reduction in the strong growth of reflection of public conventions, supported by the previous years due to the far-reaching economic crisis existing technologies at each historical moment. In the affecting all international markets since 2007. last few years, the appearance of digital photography No less surprising are the data offered by the and the integration of photographic cameras into GFK-Emer consultancy3. Every day in the United mobile phones have stimulated much research into the States, more than 500 million photographic images are new uses of photography and user behaviour. From taken (which gives us the astonishing figure of 182,500 this, we would highlight the studies by Van House, million photographs a year). In Germany during 2007, Davis and others (2005) of the uses of photography on around 7,102 million photographs were taken, of the Inter net and the effects of sharing images on young which 3,390 received a digital photo editing, while just people, and by Van House and Ames (2007) on usage 47% (that is, about 1,605 million photographs) were habits for mobile phones with integrated cameras as printed (or digitally developed). instruments for affirming identity, constructing every- These figures clearly show the extraordinary way day memory and as a banalising communication tool in which digital technology has popularised the pro- among young people and teenagers. duction and consumption of photographs. Alongside In this sense, the appearance of phenomena like this technological revolution, a double suspicion has Flickr, a website for sharing photographs used by tens been growing up around the photographic medium. of millions of Internet users throughout the world, has Firstly, digitalisation has accentuated the capacity to provoked reflections from many researchers. Cox, manipulate photographs, which means that photo- Clough and other (2008) stress that Flickr cannot be graphy as a procedure has less and less value for understood as just another expression of the consumer «certifying the real», in the words of Bazin (1990) or culture in which we live. Instead it is also a symptom Barthes (1990). This compromises the commonly of the cultural changes occurring at the moment. Its accepted nature of photography as a record. Mean- ease of use and the reciprocal comments among users while, and as a logical development of this idea, of this virtual community cause moral dilemmas, gene-

© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 109-116 uivsa cmuiain ad detsn and courses. advertising degree relations public and communication, audiovisual the on students first-year Castellón): Sciences, Social below: mentioned universities, several at dents stu- first-year of consists determine to able been finally communication studies in Spain. The sample we have from obtained only four out of a total of 44 university centres offering were responses positive but centres, ten of total a to research the extend to was idea initial The relations. public and advertising and journalism, communication, audiovisual of courses the degree on three students by to completed necessary be to was survey a it design believed we purpose, this For studies. their begin they when students science cation current perception of digital photography of communi - research the of design Methodological 2. sphere. scientific Anglo-Saxon of the in prolix particularly is which studies, photography uses of tradition a of forms part present we research 272). 2007: (Lister, occurring are practices» in photographic changes that important all, «very above reveals, tion circula whose objects geable exchan- are photographs kets, mar- financial on happens capital with as economy: tion informa- the in step lutionary evo logical fairly a constitutes photography the of Secondly, digitalisation 17). 1997: (Lister, object» cultural a all, above is, «it photography a at socially very complex time that has made us forget that occurred has photography digital Firstly, We his work. from ideas highlighted. fundamental two be stress to like must would photography, digital of rence for the analysis of the social and cognitive effects 147-163). 2008: (Murray, them witness to tography better much known that would be possible without the use of pho become can anecdotes or details small that in life, everyday of idea the construct and perceive reality we way the condition deeply photographs sharing and photography digital how highlighting idea, and interaction this on say to stimulate deal great a has Murray communication. and opinion of states rate © ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 109-116 Pages 1988-3293• e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: Uiest o te aqe onr (aut of (Faculty Country Basque the of University • and Human of (Faculty I Jaume Universitat • the discover to necessary is it opinion, our In the seen, be can As Finally, the work of Martin Lister, a first-class refe - - images without precedent in human history. human in precedent without images of generalisation and extension an to led has revolution this importantly, more Still images. producing of means the of transformation far-reaching a achieved ultimately has ago, years twenty began which photography, of field the in technologies digital of emergence dramatic The - - sual communication and journalism degree courses. degree journalism and communication sual audiovi- the on students first-year Communication): of courses. advertising and public relations, and journalism degree communication, audiovisual the on students first-year Vizcaya): Leioa, Communication, and Sciences Social graphs photo- taking students for conditions Material 3.1. research the of Results 3. follows. as is courses degree by students women [308] and 34% [159] men. The are distribution of 66% [467], surveyed people of number total the Of in. it filled have who students of sample the about extracted been has information following the survey, tools. computer as used been have program processing data statistical SPSS the and heets the aforementioned university centres of heads the of inter- cooperation the the had have out we views, carry and information the all process sation of photography among communication students. conceptuali and perception and culture photographic about knowledge specific photographs; of taking the concerning habits consumption on questions graphs; photo taking students for conditions material aspects: basic four touches It mentioned. already studies the type of questionnaire implemented in on several of the based been has questions, closed-answer twenty courses. degree journalism and relations, public and advertising communication, audiovisual the on students first-year Sciences): cation Uiest o Mlg (aut o Communi of (Faculty Malaga of University • (Faculty Compostela de Santiago of University • isl, h gnrl rn twrs purchasing towards trend general the Firstly, the of top the at requested details the on Based h fnl ape osss f 6 sres To surveys. 467 of consists sample final The of consisting questionnaire, the of creation The 4 . Excel spreads- - - - 111 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 112

«viewpoint» –in the sense of «way of looking»– appears with a score of 3.61 points, while «the historical value of the photograph» appears

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 in fourth place, with domestic digital cameras is confirmed, with a large per- a score of 3.20 points, with the «economic value of the centage of students using compact digital cameras photograph» bringing up the rear (2.05). Something (78.59%), while the vast majority own neither a photo- similar happens concerning students’ preferences for chemical reflex camera (83.51%) nor a digital reflex photography in black and white (B/W) or in colour. A camera (75.37%). Our attention is drawn by the fact preference for colour photography (40.6%) as against that, out of the total of 467 responses, 153 students B/W (33.1%) is confirmed, while the option «either» (32.75% of the total) state that they never or hardly is favoured by only a quarter of students (23.6%). ever take photographs, while the majority take between Finally, the students state that they regularly use 1 and 5 a week (56.96%), with only a really small per- social networks such as Flickr, Facebook or MySpace centage taking more than 5 a week (10.29%). to share their photographs, with a really very high Meanwhile, half those surveyed never use retouching percentage (81%), that is 4 out of every 5 students. By or photo processing programs and, among those who university centre, we should highlight the fact that do, the majority use the Adobe Photoshop program. between Universitat Jaume I (85.6%) and the centre Finally, the responses confirm the general trend for stu- where fewest students use social networks, the dents to store photographs (61.7%), with only a quarter University of Malaga (77.6%), there is a difference of of students taking their photographs to the laboratory to just 8 points, which does not seem a very great one to be developed and few printing them at home (13.5%). us. Concerning distribution by sexes, it is significant The data examined makes it possible to confirm that that the percentage of social network users is higher the differences between degree courses and university among women (86%) than among men (73.6%), a dif- centres are, in principle, not very significant. ference of 13 points.

3.2. Photographic culture consumption habits 3.3. Specific knowledge of photographic culture The questionnaire then included different When students were asked to mention 3 photo- questions about the photographic culture consumption graphers whose work particularly interested them, habits among communication science degree students. their answers revealed a lack of clear references. Of The study reveals that 51% of the students in the all the photographers mentioned, the following names sample analysed never visit photography exhibitions. stand out in terms of the number of references from Meanwhile, when it comes to expressing their prefe- those surveyed: Annie Leibovitz (47), Chema Madoz rences for photographic genres on a 1 to 5 scale, a (31), Robert Capa (21), David Lachapelle (15), Oliviero majority interest in artistic photography is shown (with Toscani (14), Andy Warhol (11), Henri Cartier- an average score of 4.17 points out of 5), followed by Bresson (11), etc. In total, more than 150 names appear advertising photography (with a score of 3.78). Press mentioned, many of whom are not actually photo- photography receives a score of 2.89 out of 5 points. graphers and many of whom either do not exist or have There is no relationship between this difference in been invented. results and the students’ courses. Meanwhile, the students state that they largely We find the analysis of the responses on what is know little about leading magazines in the field of considered most important when it comes to judging photography studies, such as «Enfocarte» (96.8%), the value of a photograph, also on a scale of 1 to 5 (5 «PC Foto» (89.9%), «Revista Foto» (94.6%), the web- = greatest interest) more significant. The highest rated site «Masters of Photography» (95.3%) and «La foto- aspect is «surprise», with 4.11 points on a 5-point grafía Actual» (web-site) (95.3%). Although the survey scale; «composition» appears in second place (3.77 was carried out at the end of the 2008-09 academic points), almost equal with «quality» (which, spelt out year, when they had already studied at least one sub- like this, referred to technical quality, although it is a ject directly related to the field of photography, such as difficult item to interpret as it is fairly ambiguous). The image theory, communication and audiovisual informa-

tion, audiovisual media technology, etc., the students’ 4. For discussion: assessment of the uses of pho- memory of leading scientists such as Roland Barthes tography (33.6%), Susan Sontag (25.5%) and Walter Benjamin 4.1. Main reflections for debate (22.1%) was quite vague. Finally, the confirmation that From the results presented above, we consider it very few of those surveyed (17.6%) state that they have is necessary to pause and consider certain responses any idea about whether they know the rights and duties that deserve some kind of qualitative assessment. In of a professional photographer in terms of the authors- our opinion, it is worrying that, among a group of hip and reproduction of a photograph is significant. communication science students from four university Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 centres, there should be 27.42% who state that they 3.4. The perception and conceptualisation of pho- hardly ever take photographs and 5.33% who never tography among communication students take photographs. This is an indication of quite a The last five questions in the survey focused on widespread perception among the students (at least in aspects related to the importance of photographic cul- practice) of the unimportance of taking photographs ture in relation to working as a professional communi- for their future professional development as communi- cator. cators. The first significant aspect is that, despite some Meanwhile, the fact that 80% of communication responses offered at other points in the survey, the students never use computer programs to create digital majority of students (95.1%) stated that «having know- albums draws our attention. We relate this with the ledge of photography could be important for their generalised trend towards accumulating captured future professional development in the communication photographs in computers (61.7%) without preparing sphere» in any field. Meanwhile, when it comes to them to be shown to other users, at least not in tradi- giving an opinion over whether «press photography tional album format. This situation coincides with the has lost credibility as a result of the advent of digital general trend towards not developing or printing technologies in the field of photography», the students photographs, largely for financial reasons. This was show themselves to be quite divided in their detected years ago by the principal manufacturers of responses: while 54.8% state that credibility has been photographic products –Kodak, Fuji, Nikon, etc.– (in lost, 45.2% believe that digital technology has not their annual reports), by consultancy firms such as under mine credibility of press photography. GFK and by other agents in the photographic sector Thirdly, a very large majority of students (79.9%) (Soler Campillo, 2005, 2007). consider that «the quality of photographic production, In our judgment, it is very worrying that 51% of in general, has undergone a substantial improvement students never visit photographic exhibitions. It should with the application of digital technologies in the field be pointed out that the centre where there is the gre- of photography». Fourthly, the majority of students atest percentage of students who never visit photo- (77.3%) reject the idea that «thanks to the technical graphic exhibitions is the Universitat Jaume I, with improvement in photography, with the arrival of digital 59.7%, whereas at the University of Santiago de Com - photography, it will no longer be necessary in future to postela this percentage is 57.89%, at the University of have professional photographers, as it is becoming the Basque Country it reaches 47.92%, and at the increasingly easy to obtain good results at a technical University of Malaga, the percentage falls to 41.67%. level». There is a difference of 20 points between Universitat Finally, the vast majority of the group of students Jaume I and University of Malaga, which is quite a surveyed (86.7%) reject the idea that «the improve- considerable one. ment of the quality of digital video and the generalisa- In this sense, we believe that the disparity and, in tion of its use, as well as the growing influence of other many cases, incongruence of their responses when forms of entertainment, such as video games, Internet they were asked to mention three photographers use, etc., point, in the medium or long term, to the end whose work particularly interested them, points of photography as a form of expression and communi- towards a worrying lack of photographic culture cation». among communication science students, which must In this way we complete the presentation of the be related to the lack of general culture that we have results of the fieldwork we have carried out among been seeing for years. Meanwhile, it also seems communication science students. We now propose to worrying to us that the majority of communication make an assessment of selected aspects of the research science students are not interested in all photographic and draw a series of conclusions. genres, as we believe the average should have been

higher. The survey has not made it possible to esta- tochemical or digital, always involves a form of mani- blish a correlation between the speciality studied and pulation of reality. Thirdly, although a majority of interest in the most closely related photographic genre students (79.9%) coincide in indicating that digital pho- (photojournalism, advertising photography and artistic tography has broadly achieved improvements in pho- photography and their respective specialities), which tography, a large majority of those surveyed (77.3%) we relate to the lack of strong motivation among com- believe that the digitalisation of photography is no munication science students for their own courses. threat to the profession of photographer and that these

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 The analysis of the answers to the question about professionals should survive in communication sectors. what is considered most important when it comes to Finally, quite a large majority of communication judging the value of a photograph deserves particular students (86.7%) do not have the perception that attention. The fact that the majority give the highest photography is going to disappear as a form of expres- rating to «surprise» (4.11 points out of 5) is a response sion differentiated from other media. This contradicts that must be related to the society of spectacle in which the supposedly widespread belief in the death of we live. This figure is above the value of «viewpoint» photography, an expression belonging to a certain (with 3.61 points out of 5, which seems a worryingly current of sensationalism of which the academic low score to us for future communication professio- world is not entirely free. nals). With the formulation of the question about 4.3. Limits of the research carried out students’ preferences for B/W or colour photography, The following aspects should be highlighted as we expected to find a very high percentage of respon- main problems involved in the research. Firstly, the ses in the «either» option, as this is a choice between survey has been carried out in April/May 2009, that is, representational options making it possible to commu- at the end of the academic year, so it does not offer us nicate very different information, emotions, etc., depen- information about students’ levels of prior knowledge, ding on the context and the specific communication but rather what they have learned during the first year objectives. The fact that the «either» option should of their degree courses. have been picked by just 23.6% of those surveyed Secondly, as their curriculums are not homogene- points to the low cultural level of our students in terms ous, we find that, depending on the university, of visual culture. students may or may not have studied photography- related content in the first year. Even in core subjects 4.2. The conceptualisation of photography among with content directly related to «Image theory» or communication students «Audio visual media technology» it is possible that the The analysis of the answers to the last questions study of photography has been purely tangential. In on the questionnaire deserves particular attention. some cases, students may have studied an optional Firstly, despite the fact that many answers might make subject with content directly related to the photograp- one think of the students’ lack of interest in photo- hic medium. In the 2008-09 academic year, the jour- graphy, the vast majority of communication science nalism and audiovisual communication degree courses students in any of the three specialities perceive that at the University of Santiago de Compostela contain, the study and knowledge of photography are very in the first year, the year-long core subject «Commu - important for their future professional development. It nication and audiovisual information»; at the Univer- must be remembered, in this sense, that many commu- sity of the Basque Country students on the three nication science curriculums at Spanish universities do degree courses have studied the one-semester core not include the study of photography as a compulsory subject «Audiovisual media technology»; at the subject. University of Malaga the three degree courses include Secondly, there is a division of opinion concerning the year-long core subject «Image theory, history and the idea that press photography has lost credibility in technique», while at the Universitat Jaume I audio- information terms as digital technologies have burst on visual communication and advertising and public rela- to the scene in this field. In our opinion, this lack of tions students take the compulsory year-long subject agreement in the answers could be interpreted in two «General image theory», and they may also study an ways: either the perception of the manipulation capa- optional subject called «Introduction to photographic city of digital technology in photography is not suffi- theory and technique». On new degree courses, this is ciently widespread or it is considered that, as a repre- likely to become even more complex, with very consi- sentational device, all photography, whether it is pho- derable changes in all curriculums.

We are fully aware of these problems, but, graphy in newspapers and magazines, on websites, beyond them, we consider that this field work consti- etc.), but also with the more than 175 years of history tutes a valuable source of information about the level of the photographic media and with the considerable of knowledge of communication science students, as economic and commercial activity driven by the we have been able to show. This research has been photographic sector in our country and throughout the approached as a pilot study in the form of a bank of world. tests for future application in better conditions, once Along these lines, we must remember the genealo- the new degree courses are fully established (in about gical value of photography when it comes to histori- Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 2014). cally conceptualising the contemporary image. In this context, photography continues to occupy a very 4.4. Conclusions important position. We do not believe it is possible to By way of a final summary, a majority of current approach the study of the cinematic, televisual and communication science students have adopted digital videographic image seriously and rigorously without photography, are users of social networks, have a low level of visual culture and have little motivation to study or It is clear that, based on the lack of visual culture among our look in depth at the field of photography but they are communication students – a vocational, strongly motivated aware of the importance of studying photography for their group – we have an education system which, even today, in future professional develop- the age of the image, continues to ignore education ment. Meanwhile, the research about/with images. This situation is still more alarming in the makes it possible to see, not without a degree of frustration, field of the photographic image, historically very much the low level of visual culture ignored in all educational environments, even universities, these students have when they begin their studies (even at the but which should be promoted from infant school. end of their first year, which is even more worrying). It is clear that, based on the lack of visual culture among our communication students – a starting from a solid base of photographic knowledge vocational, strongly motivated group – we have an (composition, photometry, colorimetry, densitometry, education system which, even today, in the age of the etc.). In our judgment we must accept that photo- image, continues to ignore education about/with ima- graphy has to play a much greater role on communica- ges. This situation is still more alarming in the field of tion science degree course curriculums if we want to the photographic image, historically very much ignored train more competitive professionals. in all educational environments, even universities, but Carrying out research of this nature makes it pos- which should be promoted from infant school sible to discover the cultural level of communication (Granado, 2008) and which could be very effective in science students as both consumers and as creators of visual education (Alfonso, 2002). images. In our opinion, the critical analysis of the In fact, it can easily be confirmed that few studies results offers some keys on how to focus teaching in of photography are published in scientific journals, that the subjects making up the degree courses we are very few PhD theses are written on photography and involved in. that photography subjects are present on current jour- If this type of study was carried out at a broader nalism, audiovisual communication and advertising sample of educational centres and if it was expanded and public relations curriculums only in very isolated to other aspects of communication (cinema, press, cases at most Spanish universities. This contrasts with radio, advertising, etc.), the information extracted the considerable volume of photographic production would be very used for the academic management of and activity that surrounds us (exhibitions, publication degree courses and even for educational administra- of catalogues, presence and importance of photo- tion. It is clear that we cannot remain inactive in the

© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 109-116 116 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 B ae oprtd ih s n adn ot h sres Mrn Ga Miren surveys: the out handing in us with cooperated have 4 We would like to thank those responsible for degree courses who (16-03-2009). www.gfk-emer.com website the See 3 inestimable help in processing large amounts of information. of amounts large processing in help inestimable the as well as her for Tarín Trilles Elisabeth I), student research I Jaume Universitat Jaume (Universitat Tarín Gómez Javier cisco Fran and Ripollés Casero Andreu and Malaga) of (University lindo Ga García Antonio Juan Compostela), Pérez de Santiago Soengas of (University Xosé Country), Basque the of (University bantxo Barcelona: Paidós. Barcelona: A References Felici. Marzal Javier Dr. by directed CSO2008-00606/SOCI, R+D+i code the with National Innovation, and Science of of Ministry the from round grants 2008-2011 the by financed project, and hybridisations of contemporary audiovisual discourses» research Trends «New the of aid the with out carried been has study This Support 2 1 university. at year first the of end the at even faculties, our deficient in and students level of competence cultural audiovisual low clearly the of face en torno a la obra de Joan Fontcuberta. Joan de obra la a torno en Notes media. communication the in/about education promote to knowledge and ties capabili resources, our provide can universities text, con this In together. working system education the of levels all without eradicated be cannot problems such that clear seems It (EHEA). Area Education Higher European the of creation the of context the in mented delicate imple- being and are courses degree new complex the when time, a such at particularly pro blems, these correct to measures appropriate the take deficits in photography suffered by our students and to educational important the of aware become to us ped ARTHES LFONSO See the website www.cipa.jp/english (16-03-2009). www.cipa.jp/english website the See (16-03-2009). www.pmai.org website the See Ultimately, this study we have presented has hel has presented have we study this Ultimately, , R. (1990). R. , E SCUDER , P. (2002). La mirada desconfiada: reflexiones desconfiada: mirada La (2002). P. La cámara lúcida. Nota sobre la fotografía. la sobre Nota lúcida. cámara La Comunicar,19; 152-155. ------eair n h Cnet f htgah a Sros Leisure. Serious 13-1. as Research, Information Photography of Context the in Behavior G 336. (15-01-2011). html) S Inc. Company, & ton M the Post-Photographic Era. M Media New Technologies,into 13-3; Convergence: Information. L tal. L 31 B cine? el C Press. Popular University State Green Bowling Ohio: R 147-163. Aesthetics. Everyday of Notions V ren (28-02-2011). (www.chi2005.org) (USA) Oregon Portland, ce. Sharing. and Photos Camephone of Study Empirical An Imaging: Digital Networked C fotografíala de V Sociales. Ciencias Valenciana Comunidad la de caso El S (15-01-2011). (www.tesisenxarxa.net) I. Jaume Universitat Valenciana las Comunidad la de en comunicación fotografía de de empresas políticas las de y económica actividad B M Paidós. lona: S Photography. Domestic San Diego, California (USA). (www.chi2007.org) (28-02-2011) (www.chi2007.org) (USA). California Diego, San Conference. 2007 Interaction Computer/Human Images. phones B Ediciones. Katz M mirada la de OLER OLER PENCE OURDIEU ELTING AZIN ISTER ISTER ITCHIN AN AN OX HALFEN RANADO ; 563-570. ; URRAY IRZOEFF ITCHELL ARZAL Barcelona: Paidós. Barcelona: , A. M.; C H H , , M. (2007). 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OLLAND © Ontología de la imagen fotográfica, en ¿Qué es ¿Qué fotográfica,en imagen la de Ontología Estructura del sector fotográfico: análisis de la de fotográfico:análisis sector del Estructura Las empresas de fotografía ante la era digital. era la ante fotografía de empresas Las ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 109-116 Pages 1988-3293• e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: AVIS After PhotographyAfter Cómo se lee una fotografía. Interpretaciones fotografía. una lee se Cómo MES Un arte medio.Un arte Ensayo sobre los usos sociales , P.D. & optrHmn neato 20 Confe 2005 Interaction Computer/Human Unaintroducción ala cultura visual. npht esos f ie Bwig Green, Bowling Life. of Versions Snapshot nrplga e a imagen la de Antropología , M & M. , Londres: Virago. Londres: P. (1991). P. , La imagen fotográfica en la cultura digi cultura la fotográficaimagenen La The Reconfigured Eye. Visual Thruth in VisualEye.Reconfigured Thruth The M. (2007). M. The International Journal of Research of JournalInternational The Cambridge, Massachussets: MIT Press. (http://informationr.net/ir/13-1/paper AL AL . (2008). Flickr: a Fist Look at User ora o Vsa Clue 7-2; Culture, Visual of Journal . Family Snaps: the Meaning of Meaning the Snaps: Family (2005). 251-274. The Social Life of Camera of LifeSocial The Mdi: dcoe d las de Ediciones Madrid: . . Nueva York: W.W. Nor The Uses of Personal of Uses The Beo Aires: Buenos . Comunicar, Castellón: . Barce . IR ------INVESTIGACIONES / RESEARCH

Received: 15-02-2011 / Revised: 03-03-2011 Accepted: 31-03-2011 / Published: 01-10-2011 l C. Medrano, A. Aierbe & J.I. Martínez-de-Morentin Donostia (Spain) http://dx.doi.org/10.3916/C37-2011-03-03 Values Perceived in Television by Adolescents in Different Cross-cultural Contexts

Valores percibidos en el medio televisivo por adolescentes en contextos transculturales

ABSTRACT This study was carried out on a sample group of 1,238 adolescents from eight different cultural contexts, and aimed to determine the values perceived by subjects in their favorite television characters. It also aimed to identify any possible differences between cultural contexts. The basic hypothesis for the study was that television conveys values and constitutes one of the forces for socialization at play during adolescence. The total sample group was made up by: three Spanish sub-groups, four Latin American sub-groups and one Irish sub-group. The instrument used for exploring perceived values was the Val.Tv 0.2, which is an adaptation of Schwartz’s scale. The data were collected both by means of an on-line platform and in person. In relation to the results, in general, the values most commonly perceived by adolescents are self-management and benevolence. As regards contextual differences, although significant differences were observed in all values, in no case were they particularly notable. The only exceptions were hedonism and achievement, for which no significant differences were found at all between the different contexts. The most relevant differences were found in the values of conformity, tradition, benevolence and universalism. From an educational perspective, we can conclude that the measurement instrument used may constitute an adequate tool for decoding the values perceived by adolescents in their favorite television characters. RESUMEN El objetivo general de este trabajo fue conocer los valores percibidos en su personaje favorito de televisión en una muestra de 1.238 adolescentes pertenecientes a ocho contextos culturales y establecer las posibles diferencias entre dichos contextos. Se parte de la hipótesis básica de que el medio televisivo trasmite valores y es una agente de socia- lización, entre otros, en la etapa de la adolescencia. La muestra total estuvo constituida por: tres submuestras espa- ñolas, cuatro latinoamericanas y una irlandesa. El instrumento utilizado para indagar los valores percibidos ha sido Val.Tv 0.2 que es una adaptación de la escala de Schwartz. La recogida de datos se realizó a través de una plata- forma on-line y presencialmente. Respecto a los hallazgos encontrados, tomados globalmente, los valores que más perciben los adolescentes son autodirección y benevolencia. Respecto a las diferencias contextuales los datos nos indican que, a pesar de que existen diferencias significativas en todos los valores, éstas no son muy destacables. Hay que exceptuar los valores de hedonismo y logro, donde no se encontraron diferencias significativas entre los diferentes contextos. Las diferencias más relevantes se hallaron en los valores de conformidad, tradición, benevolencia y universalismo. Desde una perspectiva educativa se concluye que el instrumento de medición utilizado puede ser una herramienta adecuada para decodificar los valores percibidos por los adolescentes en sus personajes preferidos. KEYWORDS / PALABRAS CLAVE Adolescence, cross-cultural study, favorite character, television, perceived values, socialization, measurement. Adolescencia, estudio transcultural, personaje favorito, televisión, valores percibidos, socialización, medición.

v Dr. Concepción Medrano is Full Professor of the Department of Developmental Psychology and Education of the University of País Vasco (Spain) ([email protected]) v Dr. Ana Aierbe Barandiaran is Professor of the Department of Developmental Psychology and Education of the University of País Vasco (Spain) ([email protected]). v Dr. Juan Ignacio Martínez de Morentín is Associate Professor of the Department of Developmental Psychology and Education of the University of País Vasco (Spain) ([email protected]).

Comunicar, 37, v. XIX, 2011, Scientific Journal of Media Literacy; ISSN: 1134-3478; pages 117-124 www.revistacomunicar.com 118 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 tt ta aoecns ac tlvso fr wide a for them entertain to as: such reasons, television different of range watch adolescents that state Introduction 1. Aeb, ern & atnz e oetn 2010; 2006). Pindado, 1997; Morentin, Fisherkeller, 2009; Castells, de Martínez & Medrano content (Aierbe, media through values different learn nagers tee- and manner, multi-directional and reciprocal a in identity adolescents’ media of development the to the contribute general, In viewers. adolescent on effect negative and positive a both have screen the on seen contents the context, development other any with as turn, in and programs, television of contents the with identify they words, other In interests. and concerns own their with identify to or life about learn to selves, Ellis & Berry, 2008). Berry, & Ellis (Asamen, process acquisition value and socialization adolescents’ influences and affects being it, call may we always as not despite time, screen this and set; TV traditional time, a on watched that of majority different screen-based media, with television accounting for the with engaging day a hours 4 of average an spend adolescents 2010), 3, Antena (Fundación cates Aot (03 fud ht ooba adolescents Colombian that found (2003) Acosta & Medina (or Muñoz, Pinilla, sense, this In counter-values). ones negative and values positive both transmits by television that indicate found 1996) (Pasquier, authors other results the However, contents. television in ones positive than intensely more appeared values antisocial that calculated (1983) Raffa as such authors other and class, middle American the of values tional & Dong conven- the conveys television that found (1997) Tan Nelson, Tan, and (1990) Potter example, For complex. and disparate are results the that reveals television by conveyed values the regarding findings 2006). Bowden, & Downs Ferris, Yoo, Pieper, Smith, (Smith, behaviors altruistic convey to tends television American that fact the example, for highlight, also dies & Stedman, 2008; Méndiz, 2005), although other stu more and values Fears (Dates, a contents television in values materialistic prosocial reveals fewer papers find previous to of tendency review a general, In Río, Del Álvarez & del Río, 2006; 2004; Murray & Muray 2008). Villalustre, & Moral Del 2006; & Vorderer, Bryant 2003; (Bauman, studies recent a of by number demonstrated as also, context own our within but internationally, only not time, over changed have values these Nevertheless, now. decades for three research over empirical of object the been has vision e urnl hv eog dt t eal u to us enable to data enough have currently We We should not forget that, as a recent study indi study recent a as that, forget not should We The analysis of the values conveyed through tele through conveyed values the of analysis The oee, mr dtie rve o published of review detailed more a However, - - - - the consistency of demonstrate his model is that of multidimensional to himself Schwartz by used technique The applied. are Analyses) Factorial Confirmatory or (Exploratory techniques the reduction when dimensional problems usual verification poses also it tency, consis conceptual of degree good a has structure this Although dimensions. large four into grouped be can dimensions 10 These versions. item 41 the and item 21 the in both scale, value & their for authors these Schwartz by by developed model Boehnke (2003) and on the 10 dimensions established the on work our based have we television, in values of perception field. this in work of piece neering is why this cross-cultural study is, in some ways, a pio- the which scarce, is values of perception the into research within character, Prior 2010). (Orozco, theory reception of favorite framework their in adolescents 2009). (Guarinos, music and activity normal para adventure, we love, which as such among topics highlight tastes, could their suit to adjusted and time prime of expanded been has percentage offer the Consequently, viewers. large a for account and presence strong a are They the 2010). to (EDEDA, relation media in considered be to group important an become doubt, a without have, Adolescents sing. the to due pas- are subjects perceptions, which through transition these of moment on work to also but characters, favorite teenagers’ to related perceptions value the identify to only not difficult so is it why and This explains the vulnerability of the adolescent phase, vious stage, but have not yet adopted their adult views. in which they no phase, longer adhere to the beliefs of interim their pre neutral, a in exist Adolescents ted. consolida be to yet has beliefs of system their which in stage a at still are individuals these since particularly and unstable, are adolescents development, of of values the aspects moreover, other than measure to difficult more much are values sense, this In itself. medium the by conveyed values the to not character, favorite their in adolescents by perceived values the to values is a complex undertaking. In this study, we refer 2007). Cortés, & own their Medrano 2010; Orejudo, & Aierbe (Medrano, values with the accordance select in watch viewers they television contents that suggest to work) previous our from (derived exists evidence empirical respect. of lack and hypocrisy gue, intri- jealousy, as: such anti-values mainly perceived ept te miia dfiute o epoig the exploring of difficulties empirical the Despite This study aims to explore the values perceived by of perception the of assessment the However, study, our to relevant is this and Nevertheless, © ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 117-124 Pages 1988-3293• e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: - - - - listic and collectivist values. collectivist and listic individua both include which contents provides level, follows: as up summed be can model Schwartz’s and research vertical to akin happiness collectivism. of kind a as altruism and 2000) (Bendit, engagement social 2000), Flanagan, & (Jonson justice social about of concerned people existence young the to pointing present, fact in are that they indicate to exist does data although period, this homogenous. means no during frequently least appear values Community-type by are values these to tion rela in available currently data research The values. of construction the fosters also television identity, nal perso adolescents’ form helps the undertaken. being research for tool rigorous valid, a constitutes Schwartz by posed we believe that the model pro group, sample cross-cultural a with so do television, to moreover, and in adolescents by perceived to values the is explore aim our since pective, 2000). Boehnke, & Sagiv (Schwartz, cultures different and comparing in working for mework fra conceptual and empirical an provide values Schwartz’s Thus, collectivism. prioritize to tend others while vidualism, attach more importance to indi cultures lie in the fact that some different between The differences Israel. and Kong Hong also, countries and such as Germany, Australia, the United States, cultures Finland, different in but Spanish society, in just not prevail which values the of highlight existence authors the cultures, different to model systems. In relation to the theoretical applicability of the value human of backbones articulatory the constituting thus conflicts cultures, all in present and being types value between compatibilities these which of systems, some in interaction results and psychology human structure. this of configuration lar circu the to solution spatial purely a is which analysis, © ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 117-124 Pages 1988-3293• e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: • Television, both in Spain and at an international current to relation in situation the Consequently, it as insofar sense, this In pers- educational an From of aspects universal of existence the on based is It - - - - much more effective than restricting or limiting it. limiting or restricting than effective more much is television sharing and about teaching that doubt no be can There knowledge. acquire to effort an make to need the promote which and attractive learning render which values of dissemination the on effect constructive enormously an have may television authors, different of number a by shown As them. to attitude critical a develop and others with them share television, by conveyed messages implicit the translate us help may here presented instrument The field. psychoeducational the within strategy important an is values upon reflect and identify explicitly to adolescents Prompting - - - television. contents. television in viewers by perceived values are polarized between individualism and collectivism. and individualism between polarized are character. television favorite their in cultures ring the values perceived by adolescents from different ture, this study has a twofold objective: twofold a has study this ture, 2.1. Participants 2.1. and male female. 55.4% were group sample the of 44.6% 19. and 14 between aged adolescents of group a of programs TV favorite the of characters the in perceived values the explores It study. cross-cultural tive-correlational, method and Materials 2. cultural different contexts. in adolescents by perceived values model. Schwartz’s of framework the within character, favorite their in adolescents of group sample cultural • Schwartz’s model is an adequate tool for explo for tool adequate an is model Schwartz’s • • Adolescents tend to perceive their own values in the regarding exists evidence empirical Scarce • In accordance with the prior review of the litera the of review prior the with accordance In • Differences regarding values in different cultures T ietf te aus ecie b a cross- a by perceived values the identify To • Once all the extreme cases (such as subjects who subjects as (such cases extreme the all Once descrip- post-facto, ex an is project research This the in differences and similarities analyze To • - - 119 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 120

the Spanish language version of the PVQ-21 scale by Schwartz (2003), called Val.Tv 0.2. The scale measures the values perceived in subjects’ favorite characters, grouped into 10 basic values: self-direction, stimula-

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 tion, hedonism, achievement, power, security, conformity, Table 1: Distribution of the sample group by city of residence. tradition, benevolence and universalism. The scale consists of gave inconsistent responses) had been eliminated from 21 items, the responses to which are scored on a Likert the different cultural contexts, the sample group was scale, from one to six. distributed as follows. In order to check the reliability of the instrument, The total sample group encompassed 1,238 sub- the spatial configuration of these items was verified jects from 8 different cultural contexts; three from using the «multidimensional scaling» technique presen- Spain, four from Latin America and one from Ireland. ted by the SPSS, which is very similar to the SSA The gender percentage was balanced for all cities. (Small Space Analysis). The configuration obtained Nevertheless, in San Francisco de Macorís and Ran- was circular, very similar to that proposed by Schwartz ca gua, the percentage of male subjects was 28.1% and and Boehnke (2003). Nevertheless, one exception 35% respectively. In total, the sample group was com- should be highlighted: the value «power» was found to prised by 545 boys and 676 girls. Some cases were have an inadequate spatial configuration. lost, since no information was provided regarding this This spatial configuration, which is similar to that variable. proposed by Schwartz, coupled with the fact that this The sample group was selected on the basis of instrument is comparable to those used in international convenience, in accordance with the following crite- studies, enables us to calculate the scores for each ria: age, academic year and type of school. Subjects subscale or dimension. The analysis of the internal were from the 4th year of secondary school or the 2nd consistency of each dimension using Cronbach’s alpha year of the Spanish Baccalaureate (higher education) coefficient resulted in reliability indexes of over 0.50 system, equivalent to the Latin American PREPA and/ (the maximum was obtained for universalism α=.798 or Baccalaureate years 1 and 3 and the 3rd year of and the minimum for security α=.529), with the Junior Certificate and 2nd year of Leaving Certificate exception of the value «power», which had an α= in Ireland. As regards type of school or college, the .389. sample group was taken from two or more schools for each sub-sample (city), both state and private, or with 2.3. Procedure different socioeconomic levels (although no extreme For the data collection process, the first phase con- cases were included). sisted of adapting the Val.Tv 0.2 scale from the The 23 schools and colleges from which the sam- Spanish version to a Bolivian, Chilean and Mexican ple group was selected were distributed as follows: version. Also, the original version was translated and Málaga (2 schools, one private and the other state); San adapted to an English version. These adaptations Sebastián (2 schools, one state and the other private but were all carried out without changing the meaning of with some state funding); Zaragoza (2 schools, one state the values. The scale was revised by eight experts and the other private); Rancagua (Chile) (2 schools, one prior to its definitive approval. In addition to other state and the other private); Guadalajara (Mexico), aspects, the experts were asked to assess whether the (one private middle-class school); Macorís (Dominican definitions of the values were applicable to each cultu- Republic) (2 schools, one state and the other private); re. The majority of participants completed the ques- Oruro (10 state and private schools) and Dublin (2 tionnaires on-line. In the Bolivian and Dominican sam- schools, one state and the other private). ples, the data were collected on paper, due to the lack of computer facilities required for this kind of on-line 2.2. Variables and measurement instruments questionnaire. Subsequently, the data gathered on The instrument used to assess the values percei- paper were entered into an on-line version, in prepa- ved in the character of subjects’ favorite TV show was ration for their statistical processing.

Between 20 and 30 minutes are required for the tible to processing using parametric tests. In the first application of this scale. In relation to the data analysis, analysis, as shown in table 2, the highest means were the SPSS program was used and a number of different obtained for self-direction (items 1 and 11), with descriptive and inferential analyses were carried out, means of 5.03 and 5.01 respectively, followed by mainly the means comparison test and parametric tests benevolence (items 12 and 18), with means of 4.70 (Anova). These not only enabled the identification of and 4.79 respectively. On the other hand, the values the different means, but also verified the significance with the lowest means were item 2 (power), with a of these results and the effect size, or in other words, mean of 3.14 and items 7 and 16 (conformity), with Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 the magnitude of said differences. means of 3.41 and 3.96, respectively. We believe it is important to highlight the fact that self-direction can be 3. Results understood as an individualistic value, while benevo- The analysis of the results focused on the study’s lence is conceptualized as a collectivist value. two established objectives. Thus, first of all, the means Thus, self-direction is defined as applying to «an of the values perceived in subjects’ favorite characters active person with independent thought. Also a person were analyzed for the whole sample group, along with who stands out for their creativity, freedom and for their significance level. This was then followed by an choosing their own goals. The value ‘benevolence’, analysis of the differences between the eight sub-sam- on the other hand, is understood as applying to a per- ple groups studied in relation to the values perceived son who values the preservation and enhancement of in each one. the welfare of people with whom they have frequent If we focus on the first objective, as shown in table personal context; a benevolence person is helpful, 2, only some items presented asymmetries higher than honest, indulgent, loyal and responsible». 1, and almost none of them were over 1.5. It was Thus, the two values with the highest scores therefore considered that these variables were suscep- effectively reflect two different dimensions which are

Table 2: Means of the values perceived by the whole sample group in their favorite TV character.

not necessarily contradictory, as explained in the conformity (items 7 and 16). Thus, the mean for Dublin clusions. was 3.332 and the mean for Zaragoza 3.385. However, both the value «power», which is Conformity is understood as referring to a person defined as applying to a person who values social sta- characterized by their restraint of those actions, incli- tus and prestige, and who seeks to gain control or nations and impulses likely to upset others. It was dominance over people and recourses, and the value important to determine the statistical significance of «conformity», which is defined as applying to a person these differences, and their magnitude. The Anova

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 characterized by their restraint of those actions, incli- revealed that all differences were statistically signifi- nations and impulses likely to upset or harm others and cant (p= .000) except in the dimensions of hedonism violate social expectations or norms, obtained the F (7.1165 =.753; p=.627) and self-promotion F lowest means. The value «power» is also an indivi- (7.1158= 1.834; p=.077). dualistic value, while «conformity» is collectivist and Nevertheless, when the effect size was analyzed refers to a person who is excessively conventional or taking these differences globally, they were found not concerned about living up to others’ expectations. to be great enough to be notable. Having conducted In relation to the second objective, as shown in the «eta» coefficient analyses, it can be stated that the table 3, following an analysis of the differences differences between the eight contexts studied are between contexts, in general terms we can state that hardly relevant at all. The highest results were found significant differences were found between the eight for universalism (η2=.073), followed by tradition cultural contexts studied. Nevertheless, it is important (η2=.068) and conformity (η2=.042), and the lowest to remember that the value «power» was not included results were found for hedonism (η2=.005), followed in the calculations, due to its low level of reliability. by stimulation (η2=.021). On an initial reading, clear differences emerge bet- In other words, the greatest differences were ween the different cities; thus, San Sebastián, found in items 7, 16, 9, 20, 12, 3 and 8, which belong followed by Zaragoza, have the highest means (5.097 to the values of conformity (which scored very low in and 5.003 respectively) in the self-direction dimension all contexts), tradition (with a mean of 3.804 in Dublin in Spanish sub-groups.. and 4.910 in San Francisco de Macorís) and benevo- If we look at benevolence (items 12 and 18), anot- lence (with a mean of 4.688 in Málaga and 5.162 in her of the values with the highest scores, San Fº de San Francisco de Macorís). In relation to universalism, Macorís has a mean of 5.162, followed by Oruro with the mean for Dublin was 3.592, and the mean for San a mean of 4.875. These scores are the highest of all Francisco de Macorís was 4.983. those obtained on a scale where the maximum score was six. We should remember that when we talk 4. Conclusions about benevolence, we are talking about people who If we carry out a global assessment, taking all the value the preservation and enhancement of the welfa- data into account and focusing on the pre-established re of the people with whom they have frequent perso- objectives of the study, we can state that adolescents nal contact. perceive both individualistic values (self-direction) and However, the lowest values were found for con- collectivist values (benevolence) in their favorite TV

Table 3: Cross-cultural differences in perceived values: means.

character, while the values «power» and «conformity» and moreover, the value «power» and the value «con- seem to be perceived less by the sample group on the formity» are those perceived less frequently. Bearing in whole. Cross-cultural differences were found in all mind that a relationship exists between our values and values, with the exception of hedonism and achieve- the values perceived through television, this would ment. However, these statistically significant differen- seem to indicate that the adolescents in our study ces are not particularly relevant, as shown by the analy- evince little interest in becoming successful, ambitious ses of the results. It is likely that this is due to the size of and/or influential people (power). Furthermore, they the sample, since in a detailed analysis of the data, perceive those characters they «like best» as fairly Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 these mean differences are not particularly extreme, unconventional. Bearing in mind the age range of the and no clear differentiating trends can be detected bet- sample group and that one of the characteristics of ween the different cultures. In other words, our data adolescence is the transgression of conventional do not enable us to state that some cultural contexts are norms, this last result is consistent with the assessment more inclined to perceive individualistic values, while instrument itself. others tend more to perceive collectivist ones. Do these findings indicate a trend in the values of These results coincide with those of the studies today’s society? Many authors have already warned of cited in the introduction to this paper (Bendit, 2000; the ambivalence of value transmission; however, the Dates, Fears & Stedman, 2008; Del Río, Álvarez & adolescents in our study did not perceive ambivalent Del Río, 2004; Méndiz, 2005). As in previous research values and curiously enough, one of the quintessential projects, our results also indicate that television individualistic values, power, was found to be one of conveys individualistic or presentist values, while at the the least perceived. The fact that values such as same time transmitting prosocial values. Nevertheless, conformity, defined as restraint of those actions, incli- it is important to clarify that our data refer only to the nations and impulses likely to upset or harm others and values perceived by adolescents. violate social expectations or norms, as well as cour- Prior research concludes that television conveys tesy, obedience, self-discipline and honoring one’s both individualistic and collectivist values, values parents and the elderly, scored lowest in our study is which are not only typical of adolescents, but which extremely interesting, and to some extent contradicts also constitute one of the characteristics of postmodern the findings of other research projects. These data are society (Castells, 2009; Goldsmith, 2010; Maeso Ru- not consistent with the results of other research studies bio, 2008). In our research, however, although we carried out in the American context, which assert that define the value self-direction as the achievement of television conveys the conventional values of the personal goals, we should not necessarily interpret this middle class (Potter 1990; Tan, Nelson, Dong & Tan to imply that self-direction clashes with benevolence. 1997). Both values, self-direction and benevolence, enable a Before concluding, we would like to highlight person to be competitive and to develop their abilities some limitations of the study, and to add a comment to the full (achievement), while at the same time being which goes beyond the scope of the specific results. As concerned about others. These tendencies are per- regards the limitations, might it not be that the design fectly compatible from the perspective of value deve- of the trial itself (a six-point Likert scale with the lopment. definition of the values in each item) fosters the social Nevertheless, one aspect of our data that does desirability bias? In other words, could it be that warrant attention is the absence of major contextual respondents give what they consider to be politically differences; this may indicate a globalization of the correct answers, rather than state what they really values conveyed and perceived through television. feel? Moreover, we should not forget that, in accor- Although this claim requires further exploration dance with the reception theory (Orozco, 2010), through more qualitative studies using semi-structured adolescents do not perceive messages as blank pages, interviews with young people from different cultures, open to any manipulation, but rather interpret them in the working hypothesis is of enormous interest in our accordance with their own prejudices, values and attempt to understand how television may foster socia- ways of thinking, etc. lization and the acquisition of values during adolescen- As regards the comment, we should point out that, ce, a phase of particular vulnerability. Could it be that in addition to its assessment function, the Scale of in the global village, the perception of values by ado- Television Value Domains (Val.Tv 0.2) can also be lescents is becoming increasingly similar? An initial rea- used as an instrument for fostering the explicit expres- ding of our data indicates that this is indeed the case, sion of the values perceived by adolescents in the

characters of their favorite TV shows. Prompting ado- Education Quaterly, 28, 4; 467-492. lescents to explicitly identify and reflect upon values is FUNDACIÓN ANTENA 3 (Ed.) (2010). En busca del éxito educativo: realidades y soluciones. Madrid: Fundaciones Antena 3. an important strategy within the psychoeducational GOLDSMITH, S. (2010). The Power of Social Innovation. San Fran - field. The instrument presented here may help us cisco: Jossey Bass. translate the implicit messages conveyed by television, GUARINOS, V. (2009). Fenómenos televisivos ‘teenagers’: Prototipias share them with others and develop a critical attitude adolescentes en series vistas en España. Comunicar, 33; 203-211. to them. As shown by a number of different authors JONSON, B. & FLANAGAN, C. (2000). Les idées des jeunes sur la justice distributive, les droits et les obligations: étude transculturelle. 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Received: 21-02-2011 / Revised: 20-03-2011 Accepted: 06-05-2011 / Published: 01-10-2011 l Elias Said & Carlos Arcila Barranquilla (Colombia) http://dx.doi.org/10.3916/C37-2011-03-04

The Cyber Media in Latin America and Web 2.0

Los cibermedios en América Latina y la Web 2.0

ABSTRACT Technologies 2.0 are changing the spaces dedicated to interaction and participation in cyber media. The goal of this research is to determine the adoption of cyber journalism features and web 2.0 in media in Latin America. To achieve this objective this paper analyses 19 digital media in the region, based on two studies held in 2010 and fra- med on the project «Cyber media in Colombia and Latin America», which is supported by the Universidad del Norte (Colombia) and recently by the Universidad de los Andes (Venezuela). The study uses the method proposed by Rodríguez-Martínez, Codina & Pedraza-Jiménez (2010), which has been tested in previous research by the authors of this paper. According to the results, a good part of digital media in Latin America are incorporating web 2.0 tools, but there still exists notable quality differences in the ranking proposed between the best rated media (Colombia and Mexico) and the worst rated (Chile and Bolivia). This ranking allows, for example, to clearly identify how digital media in Latin America have important weaknesses in their general indicators, like accessibility mistakes, popularity and visibility levels; and in their specific indicators, in special those related to available resources for information deepening and interaction tools. As authors state in the article, showing these evidences of inequality can orientate future plans of Latin-American cyber media, especially if indicators related to users’ active participation are considered. RESUMEN Las tecnologías 2.0 están transformando los espacios destinados a la interacción y la participación en los cibermedios. El objetivo de esta investigación es determinar el grado de adopción del ciberperiodismo y de las web 2.0 en América Latina. Para ello se analizaron 19 medios digitales de la región, a partir de los resultados obtenidos de dos olas de recopilación de datos llevados a cabo durante 2010, en el marco del proyecto «Los cibermedios en Colombia y América Latina», realizado desde la Universidad del Norte (Colombia), con el apoyo de la Universidad de los Andes (Venezuela). El estudio parte del modelo de análisis propuesto por Rodríguez-Martínez, Codina & Pedraza- Jiménez (2010). Los resultados apuntan que los medios latinoamericanos están apostando por la incorporación de herramientas de la web 2.0, pero que sin embargo existen notables diferencias de calidad entre los medios mejor calificados por el «ranking» del estudio (Colombia y México) y los peor valorados (Chile y Bolivia). Este «ranking» permitió, por ejemplo, identificar claramente cómo los medios digitales analizados en América Latina, aún siguen perdiendo importantes puntos en lo que se refiere a los aspectos relacionados con los indicadores generales, como por ejemplo los errores de accesibilidad, los niveles de popularidad y visibilidad de sus portales; y los indicadores específicos internos, en especial en lo que respecta a los recursos puestos a disposición para la profundización de la información y las herramientas de interacción. KEYWORDS / PALABRAS CLAVE Cyber media, cyber journalism, Web 2.0, index, develop, ICT, digital, media, ranking. Cibermedios, ciberperiodismo, Web 2.0, índice, desarrollo, TIC, digital, medios, ranking.

v Dr.Elias Said-Hung is Professor at the Department of Communication and Journalism’s at the Universidad del Norte (Columbia) ([email protected]). v Dr. Carlos Arcila-Calderón is Professor at the Department of Communication and Journalism’s at the Universidad del Norte (Columbia) ([email protected]).

Comunicar, 37, v. XIX, 2011, Scientific Journal of Media Literacy; ISSN: 1134-3478; pages 125-131 www.revistacomunicar.com 126

1. Introduction from Spain and the United States, for a total of 21 The rapid transformation of digital media requires media. Even though there are many important diffe- a constant monitoring of their quality and especially rences between the countries where these media are the influence that new tools and platforms has on con- produced, we consider a significant factor that our tent. The so-called Web 2.0 technologies are a good study collects the characteristics of the cyber media example of how the cyber media are struggling to offer analyzed to be able to obtain a common measuring or their users spaces for interaction and participation reference point.

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 (Briggs, 2007; Fumero & Roca, 2007; Flores, 2008), For the measurements developed in April-May even in academic spaces (Codina, 2009). In Latin and October-November 2010, «The New York America, efforts are underway to develop the follow- Times» from the United States and «El País» from up to this evolution (Castro, 2008). The monitoring in Spain were taken as control or reference. The selec- Colombia (Said, Arcila & Méndez, 2011) and in tion of these two cyber media was based on the crite- Venezuela (Said & Arcila, 2011) is worthy of rion that both are the main digital communication comment especially if we take into account that this media in the world, according to Alexa’s Web follow-up can contribute to the improvement of media Ranking. practices. The study used the analysis model for cyber media This monitoring and follow-up of cyber media in proposed by Rodríguez-Martínez, Codina & Pedraza- the Latin American sub-continent opens up compara- Jiménez (2010) where a set of indicators are taken as tive strategies, new fields for the empirical verification referents: 1) general, which measure the accessibility of the theoretical-methodological proposals being of the Web site, its visibility and popularity, among developed in scientific literature (Díaz-Noci, 1997; other aspects which all web sites of digital media must Zamith, 2008; Palacios & Diaz-Noci, 2009), taking as have; 2) internal specific which account for the deepe- reference designs which have already been tested ning of the information, the interaction tools used in such as that carried out by Rodríguez-Martínez, the digital media as well as the personalization of the Codina & Pedraza-Jiménez (2010). This article aims information and those elements that should be inclu- to contribute to this research line within the frame- ded in the site of a digital medium; and 3) external spe- work of the «Cyber media in Colombia and Latin cific related to the impact of the social webs in digital America» project started by the authors in 2008 and media, where the loyalty mechanisms of users through developed at the Universidad del Norte (Colombia) the Web 2.0 and other tools available in digital media with the support of the Universidad de los Andes are measured as well as the diffusion mechanisms of (Venezuela). The classifications proposed allow us to the contents generated in the digital media. have a clearer and more updated view of how fast The study analyzed the main page and all the sec- media are adapting to the dynamics imposed by tions of the 21 selected digital media. The data mea- technology and, above all, what the deficiencies in this surement was developed on alternate days (from domain are. Mondays through Sundays) during the two months of analysis: the first one from the 25th of April to May 25th 2. Materials and methods and the second one from October 4th to November 5th The objective of this work is to analyze and of 2010. During these periods repetition and verifica- measure the development level of cyber journalism tion measurements were developed which guaranteed and the Web 2.0 in 19 countries of Latin America the consistency of data. based on the comparison of the data collected between the periods of April-May and October- 3. Results November 2010. The set of data shown and analyzed 3.1. General indicators in this article will be articulated around a development 3.1.1. Access index, which will serve for understanding and ranking There are three adequacy levels of Web pages Latin America within the digitalization process of com- according to the access possibility of the contents emit- munication media. This study was developed with the ted to people with impaired vision, hearing or move- most accessed and visible digital media of the countries ment or those using limited capacity technology (elec- of the region according to Alexa’s «Web Ranking» tronic agendas and mobile phones): A, double A (AA) (http:// www.alexa.com). That is, 19 digital media of or triple A (AAA). Each of these levels is regulated Latin America (one per country, except for Venezuela, through the fulfillment of the standard norms elabora- which is represented by two) and two control media ted by the Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) of the

World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)i. The ade- 2010 an average value of 7 to 8/10 points, according quacy levels correspond to: web sites «without» errors to Google’s PageRank. From the world popularity or with a «reduced» number of them (less than 45); point of view, according to «Alexa’s TrafficRank», the sites with a moderate number of errors (45-85); sites digital media with the highest number of visitors was with a «great number» of errors (85 to 200) or with an Globo (Brazil) which was ranked 102 at world level, «excessive» number of errors (more than 200). very near from «New York Times» which was ranked According to the data obtained, most of the 92. On the other side, «El Deber» (Bolivia) was the studied media (including control media) had a great least visited and is ranked in position 35,361. Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 number of errors, showing up to a maximum of 1519 According to the popularity of the analyzed digital errors as was the case of «La Prensa» (Honduras). media at national level, data allow us to identify digital The exceptions correspond to «Las Últimas Noticias» media with a high popularity (they are located in the (Chile) and «Listin Diario» (Dominican Republic) Top 10 of the most seen portals in each country) as for which reflected a «moderate» number of errors (51 example «Globo» (Brazil), «Las Últimas Noticias» and 83, respectively) and «La Prensa» (Panama) (Chile) and «ABC» from Paraguay. The rest of the which was the only one to reach the category «wit- media obtained a medium popularity. The data refe- hout» errors or with a reduced number of errors rring to the links and indexed pages received lets us see (42).It is surprising, therefore, to see how the national the impact that each of these media have from inter- diffusion digital media which are referents in each of net, highlighting that a group of these media have a the countries of Latin America are located in the last high number of indexed pages in «Yahoo! Search», and lowest accessibility level which could mean that (100,000 or more) and they also have a high number for them, the improvement of access to their contents of links related with their contents (with a difference of is not a priority. 500,000 or more pages related with respect to the indexed ones). This is the case of «El Clarin» from 3.1.2. Visibility and popularity Argentina, «El Tiempo» from Colombia, «La Nación» The visibility and popularity of a cyber medium from Costa Rica, and «La Prensa» from Honduras. can be measured by the number of links received from other web sites, the number of pages published or 3.1.3. Access to information indexed by this medium as well as by the number of Part of the general indexes related to digital media visitors received by the site and the number of pages it is their capacity to offer fast and easy access of users to serves. The averages obtained from the descriptive information. For this study, four aspects were taken as data extracted from the measurements of April-May referents: they have simple search, advanced search, and October-November of 2010 allow us to classify online newspaper library and a sitemap. the analyzed Latin American digital media with a high The results are rewarding (Chart 1) since along level of visibility and popularity as we observe how with observing the generalized presence of the simple 73% of the digital media of the study presented in search tools in all the media analyzed, in most cases, the use of other tools, such as advanced search, online newspaper library and sitemaps are also found to a greater extent. At the same time we can also state that during 2010 an improvement process was observed when making use of the applications considered in this part of Chart 1. Percentage of use of simple search, advanced search, digital newspaper library and map of the web the study. We site. Data: 1 = Yes, 2 = No. The control media considered in this work are not included in the chart. noticed a slight

increase between the first and the second measure- section and the inclusion of photos/digital graphics as a ment in the use of the advanced search and the online contextual element of published contents. The rest of newspaper library. the resources related with deepening of information show a very low use level if we take as referent the 3.2. Specific internal indicators data observed on both charts at the moment of Rodríguez-Martínez, Codina & Pedraza-Jiménez comparing the use of these tools with the median of (2010) consider a total of 25 indicators to analyze the the news published on the main page of these media,

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 degree of adoption of cyber journalism and the Web during the two measurements made and what was 2.0. As in our former studies (Said, Arcila & Méndez, observed on the digital newspapers taken as control 2011; Said & Arcila, 2011), these indicators were media (www.nytimes.com / www.elpais.com). increased to 37 and they were divided in three categories: deepening of the information, interaction tools 3.2.2. Interaction tools and personalization of the information. The total With the aim of measuring the use of the inter- number of indicators measured in this section was action tools available on the cyber media we have decided based on the fact that the presence or absence partially followed the recommendations of Rodríguez- of certain resources in the web portals of the analyzed Martínez, Codina & Pedraza-Jiménez (2010), with Latin American media was not only important, but also respect to the use of a set of indicators, such as: the to measure the degree of use of computer graphics, statistical follow up of news, the use and creation of multimedia, podcast and other aspects. Except for the blogs, the inclusion of comments on the web portals, numerical indicators which were used to measure availability of Web 2.0 tools and the existence of media and other descriptive statistical procedures, forums among other aspects included in the 18 indi- affirmative answers in the indicators formulated as cators used for approaching this section. questions will show us a positive trait, while a negative The results obtained in this work (Chart 2) along answer will show a lack that should be provided by with the opportunity to observe the variations made on each media analyzed. the portals of the media analyzed during 2010, also allow us to highlight the low-moderate level of use of 3.2.1. Deepening of information the interaction tools. Of the 19 digital media analyzed, The results let us see how, in general, the evolu- 58% («El Clarín» from Argentina, «ABC » from Para- tion of digital media analyzed in Latin America in 2010 guay, «La Prensa» from Nicaragua, «El Universal» from shows a low deepening of information context and Mexico, «La Prensa» from Honduras, «El Tiempo» generally centered in the use of news links of the same from Colombia, «El Salvador» from El Salvador, «La

Chart 2. Evolution of the use of interaction tools. * These media presented an improvement in the use of tools for the deepening of information in the II-2010 compared to the I-2010. ** These media presented a draw back in the use of tools for deepening the information in the II.2010 when compared with the I-2010.

Chart 3. Evolution of the levels of users’ participation in the areas of comments and voting of news. Note: 1=Yes / 2=No. The averages exposed in this chart come from the formula: ni (number of comments/votes of each section during I- 2010 and II-2010/ N total (total average of news exposed on each front page of the media analyzed in this study in 2010). * These media presented an improvement in the use of tools for deepening of the information in I-2010 when compared with I-2010. ** These media presented a draw back in the use of tools for the deepening of information in the II-2010 when compared with I-2010.

Nación» from Costa Rica, «El País» from Uruguay, 3.2.3. Personalization of information «Noti cias24» from Venezuela, «El Comer cio» from According to the data obtained, 57% of the digital Peru) used at least half of the tools considered in this media analyzed in Latin America present a medium study. The other 42% do not use them or use them level of use of tools that allow the personalization of poorly. the information by users and the most used options are Even though Rodríguez-Martínez, Codina & the RSS, the sending of news by e-mail and the prin- Pedraza-Jiménez (2010) only proposed the measure- ting option. In 42% of the media analyzed we still ment of the use of the interaction tools in digital media, observe a low level of use of this type of tools, which we have considered pertinent to analyze the participa- shows that a high percentage of media in the region tion levels exerted by users in the media analyzed have not been able to potentiate in their users the through the inclusion of comments and news voting in opportunity to have a maximum access to information. spite of the clear limitations of a study like this, centered in the analysis of the media rather than on the 3.3. External indicators news; additionally of the potential variations of the The capacities allowed by the Web 2.0 and the participation levels generated by the appearance of a advances in ICTs open new opportunities for cogni- news which will promote an increase in comments tive appropriation coming from the alternation of roles and the votes of certain news published and socialized assumed by journalists and users. In chart 6 we can by a given digital medium analyzed in this study. see, in general, a high level of use of this type of tools The data in Chart 3 show the low levels of parti- in the Latin American cyber media. In this respect we cipation of users of the digital media analyzed concer- can say that according to the data obtained in 2010, ning news published. We can see how the media stu- these media seem to be applying a strategy of using the died mainly aim at offering users the option of introdu- Web 2.0 as scenarios for participation, personaliza- cing comments in their news and not in the evaluation tion and deepening of information. of the news contents by the users. We see how only 21% of the media analyzed have applications oriented 3.4 Cyber media ranking in Latin America to voting for evaluating contents. It is also worth men- Just as in the study we developed about tioning the total lack of participation tools in some of Co lombian cyber media (Said, Arcila & Méndez, the media analyzed as for example, «Las Últimas 2011), the former results allowed us to design a new Noticias» from Chile, «El Deber» from Bolivia, and «El quality ranking and this time with a wider coverage. In Universo» from Ecuador; among others, during 2010. this sense, this qualification tries to appreciate the

degree of development of Latin American cyber media. For this measurement we did the following calculation: DC- AL (Development of Cyber media in Latin

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 America) = IG (general indicators) + IEi (Internal specific indicators) + IExt (external indicators – Web 2.0). All the sections that form the DC-AL give a value of X over 100 points which correspond to the total of points taken for the measurement (see Chart 4). The weight of each section varied in rela- Chart 4. Ranking and development index of Latin American cyber media. tion with the number of variables taken in each one; the 100 points were distributed as follows: Here 1 point was given for the presence of aspects • General indicators (IG): 26 maximum points, such as the presence of tools for statistic follow up of from which: 3 points correspond to accessibility errors news, blog disposition, web 2.0 tools disposition, of the digital media analyzed; being the highest point among other aspects. 7 points for those variables that (3 points) for those media with an error range lower measured the personalization capacity of the informa- tan 45; the media that presented 45 to 85 errors were tion exposed on the digital media analyzed, as for assigned 2 points; the media with 86 t0 200 errors example, the presence of RSS alert, sending news by were assigned 1 point in their accessibility while the e-mail, among others. media with more than 200 errors were assigned a • External indicators (IExt): a total of 24 points reference value of 0.5 points. 20 points were assigned distributed as follows: 23 points for those digital media to all concerning visibility and popularity of digital that make use of the Web 2.0 to allow their users media according to the «Google’s» PageRank and the share and disseminate information in other platforms; world and national «Alexa’s TrafficRank», links recei- 12 points for those digital media that only make use of ved in «Yahoo! Search» and pages indexed in Yahoo! the Web 2.0 to enable their users to add the informa- Search. Each section was assigned a maximum value tion published in those portals; and 0 points for the of 4 points. 4 points were assigned to the presence of analyzed media which do not make use of the Web simple searchers, advanced searchers, digital media 2.0 in any of their modalities. library and map of the web site in each of the digital Chart 4 shows us how the top 10 of Latin media analyzed in this work. American cyber media is composed by «El Tiempo» • Internal specific indicators (IEi): 50 points distri- from Colombia (80,46/100 points), «El Universal» buted as follows: 28 points for the variables taken for from Mexico (78,97/100 points), «La Prensa» from its measurement with respect to deepening of the Nicaragua (77,49/100 points), «El País» from Uruguay information, specifically the presence of updating (75,98/100 points), «El Comercio» from Perú hours, identification of authors of the news, average of (75,65/100 points), «La Nación» from Costa Rica news with internal and external links, digital media (75,14/100 points), «Prensa» from Panama (71,3/100 library, photos and videos, among other aspects. 15 points), «La Prensa» from Honduras (70,96/100 points for the variables considered for measuring the points), «El Clarín» from Argentina (69,3/100 points), level of use of interaction tools in the Colombian digital «El Universal» from Venezuela (69,3/100 points), and media analyzed. «ABC» from Paraguay (66,63/100 points).

This ranking allows the clear identification of how Deber» from Bolivia (P=55,48). The evidence of the digital media analyzed in Latin America are still these inequities can contribute to the elaboration of a losing important points with respect to the aspects rela- Route Guide for the regional media, especially if we ted to general indicators, as for example accessibility pay attention to the indicators referring to the active errors, the popularity and visibility levels of their por- participation of users. tals and the specific internal indicators, especially with respect to the resources available for the deepening of Notes 1 information and the interaction tools. Check the Web accessibility test on (TAW) in www.tawdis.net. Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011

4. Discussion References The scenario observed in Chart 4 leads to the BRIGGS, M. (2007). Periodismo 2.0. Una guía de alfabetización di- presentation of the state of cyber media in Latin gital. Knight Foundation. (http://knightcenter.utexas.edu/Perio dis- mo_20.pdf) (05-02-2011). America where it seems that the conditions for trans- CASTRO, C. (2008). Industrias de contenidos en Latinoamérica. Do- cending are not given to realize the process of appro- cumento de Grupo de Trabajo eLAC2007. (www.razonypa la bra.- priation and transformation of the opportunities offe- org.mx/libros/li bros/Gdt_eLAC_meta_13.pdf) (15-02-2011). red by internet and the ICTs in spite of the advantages CODINA, L. (2009). Ciencia 2.0: Redes sociales y aplicaciones en lí - mentioned by Briggs (2007), Fumero & Roca (2007) nea para académicos. Hipertext.net, 7. (www.hipertext.net) (25- 05-2010). and Flores (2008). This is not only regarding how DÍAZ-NOCI, J. (1997). Tendencias del periodismo electrónico. Una digital media are being produced in these countries (at aproximación a la investigación sobre medios de comunicación en In- least at the level of structuring of their web portals), ternet. Zer, 2. (www.ehu.es/zer/zer2/6artdiaz.html) (05-12-2010). but also from the lack of users interested in developing FLORES, J. (2008). El Blog Band de la información. In FLORES, J.; communicative processes emphasized in transversal CEBRIÁN, M. & ESTEVEZ, F. (Eds). Blogalaxia y periodismo en la Red. Estudios, análisis y reflexiones. Madrid: Fragua. production and knowledge nets, exchange of ideas FUMERO, A. & ROCA, G. (2007). Web 2.0. Fundación Orange. and particularly the evaluation of the news published (www.fundacionorange.es/areas/25_publicaciones/web_def_com- by the journalists of each media. pleto.pdf) (07-03-2009). The classification developed in the ranking, to PALACIOS, M. & DÍAZ-NOCI, J. (Eds.) (2009). On-line Journalism: measure the development level of the cyber media in Research Methods. A Multidisciplinary Approach in Comparative Perspective. Bilbao: Universidad del País Vasco. (www.argitalpe- the region lets us complement the measurements deve- nak.ehu.es/p291-content/es/contenidos/li bro/ se_indice_cien - loped by Said, Arcila & Méndez (2011) in Colombia cinfo/es_ciencinf/ad juntos/journalism.pdf) (05-06-2010) and Said & Arcila (2011) in Venezuela, and to clearly RODRÍGUEZ-MARTÍNEZ, R.; CODINA, L. & PEDRAZA-JIMÉNEZ, R. identify the strong and weak points of these media to (2010). Cibermedios y web 2.0: modelo de análisis y resultados de advance at the same pace of the opportunities offered aplicación. El Profesional de la Información, 19 (1); 35-44. SAID, E.; ARCILA, C. & MÉNDEZ-BARRAZA, J. (2011). El desarrollo de by the ICT advances in internet. In this sense, even if los cibermedios en Colombia. El Profesional de la Información, 20 we know that some of the most visited media of these (1); 47-53. countries are aiming at quality and citizens’ participa- SAID, E. & ARCILA, C. (2011). El desarrollo de los cibermedios en tion, as is the case of «El Tiempo» from Colombia (P= Ve nezuela. III Congreso de Investigadores Venezolanos de la Co - 80,46)* or «El Universal» from México (P= 78,97). municación, Invecom 2011. Mérida, mayo. ZAMITH, F. (2008). A Methodological Proposal to Analyze the The difference between them and those in the lowest News Websites use of the Potentialities of the Internet. 9th Intl positions of the ranking is very big, as are the cases of Symposium on On-line Journalism. (http://online.journalism.ute- «Las Últimas Noticias» from Chile (P=31,15) and «El xas. edu/ 2008/ pa pers/Zamith.pdf) (25-05-2010).

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Received: 19-09-2010 / Revised: 22-12-2010 Accepted: 01-04-2011 / Published: 01-10-2011 l Núria García-Muñoz & Maddalena Fedele Barcelona (Spain) http://dx.doi.org/10.3916/C37-2011-03-05 Television Fiction Series Targeted at Young Audience: Plots and Conflicts Portrayed in a Teen Series Las series televisivas juveniles: tramas y conflictos en una «teen series»

ABSTRACT This paper presents the main findings of a research project on teen series, which are television fiction series featuring teenagers and specifically targeted at a young audience. The analysis of the portrayal of young people in television fictional series specifically targeted at a young audience has a meaningful value both for television production and for audience reception. In fact, the potential consumers of the teen series –the teenagers– find themselves at a key moment in the construction of their identities. First, the article presents a review of the background literature on young people’s portrayal in television fiction series. Secondly, it discusses the concept of teen series and their relationship with youth consumption. Finally, the article presents a case study that consisted of a content analysis of the North American teen drama Dawson’s Creek. Content analysis was conducted on a representative sample of three seasons of the show, in order to analyse two groups of variables: the variables of the characters’ personalities and those of plot and story characteristics. The article discusses the results of the second group of variables, focusing on the main characteristics of the plots and on the characters’ roles in the development and resolution of the conflicts. Acceptance of one’s personal identity, love and friendship have been identified as the most highly recurring themes. In addition, the importance of social relationships among the characters in the development of plots and conflicts has been highlighted. RESUMEN Se presentan los principales hallazgos de un estudio sobre las «teen series», es decir las series de ficción televisiva protagonizadas por personajes adolescentes y dirigidas expresamente a una audiencia juvenil. El análisis del retrato de los jóvenes representados en productos específicamente dirigidos a un público juvenil tiene un valor muy significativo tanto por la producción de ficción como por la recepción, ya que los consumidores potenciales se encuentran en un momento clave del proceso de construcción de sus identidades. Después de repasar los principales antece- dentes en el estudio de la representación de los jóvenes en la ficción televisiva, se describe el marco conceptual relativo a las «teen series» y se discute su relación con el consumo juvenil. Sucesivamente se presenta un estudio de caso que consiste en un análisis de contenido de la serie norteamericana «Dawson’s creek», realizado sobre una muestra representativa de tres temporadas de la serie, para analizar dos grupos de variables: variables relativas a los personajes y variables relativas a las tramas y a los conflictos. Se discuten los resultados relativos al segundo grupo de variables, con particular atención a las características de las tramas y al papel de los personajes en el desarrollo y en la resolución de las mismas. La aceptación de la identidad personal, el amor y la amistad han resultado ser las temáticas más recurrentes. Además, las relaciones sociales entre los personajes han resultado ejercer un papel fundamental en el desarrollo de las tramas y de los conflictos. KEYWORDS / PALABRAS CLAVE Young people, teen series, television fiction, characters, content analysis, audience, adolescents. Jóvenes, series juveniles, ficción televisiva, personajes, análisis de contenido, audiencia, adolescentes.

v Dr. Nuria García-Muñoz is Professor at the Department of Audiovisual Communication and Advertising I of the Autonomous University of Barcelona ([email protected]). v Maddalena Fedele is Assistant Professor at the Department of Audiovisual Communication and Advertising I of the Autonomous University of Barcelona ([email protected]). Translation: Suzanne Clack.

Comunicar, 37, v. XIX, 2011, Scientific Journal of Media Literacy; ISSN: 1134-3478; pages 133-140 www.revistacomunicar.com 134 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 studies are also of interest in much research, both rela fields (Meyer; 2003; Aubrey, 2004). Gender character has behaviour been of significant sexual interest both in social and academic characters’ fictional young of TV primetime on image (Signo study The people’s 2000). Heintz-Knowles; 1987; rielli, young on work the highlight can we framework reference first the In programs. fiction television specific into research using by or teens, and/or people young of image the on ses as one of fiction many other programme content types that focu- includes either that research using studied fiction television in portrayed are people young How 1.1. 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Crossdale, 2001; Brooker, 2001; drews, «Daw and 2002) Creek» Lavery, son’s & (Wilcox yer» Hills 90210» (McKinley, 1997), «Buffy the Vampire Sla «Beverly as such programmes fiction other on compiled that is as important, particularly is 90s the on the in series teen (2004) Dickinson respect, and Davis this by gathered In research productions. television specific analysing by out carried been also have people young 2008). al., & Lauzen 2001; Glascock, 1999; Bacue, & rielli (Signo generally and 2009), al., & Barriga 2008; al., & (Robinson image body as such areas specific to ted How young people are portrayed in fiction can be people young and fiction television into Research Some, though fewer, studies related to fiction and fiction to related studies fewer, though Some, - - - o 0 iue ad ae en rdcd rm the from produced been have 90 and minutes 60 to targeted 40 style, last They people. young at in specifically and mainly dramatic generally products, tion García-Muñoz, fic- serialised & considered be can series Teen (Fedele 2010b). teenagers at and for targeted devised expressly products multimedia and relationship with generic teen TV, that is their to say the set of television teen and target, in teen the denominator namely common series, of a way By is offer. there TV synthesis, the in presence and content their characterise are to us allow there that elements genre, certainly autonomous and independent an as them the of talk to us on enable to series background teen of concept theoretical Although enough market. not media is culture there youth the of mats audience. potential a as people young nels and taken over the thematic channels which target chan- general the of offer programme the of part plied sup has feedback This fiction. the serialised of feedback creation which at audiences, targeted teenage movies and TV young of phenomenon the about and merchandising TV brought both has fact This 1992). (Lewis, products cinema a creating up by ended has that generated approach partly been has audience young the for product consumer a as series Teen 1.2. Pérez- & Perales 2008). Chica, 2005; Cuenca-García, López- & 2009; Téllez al., & (Fernández-Villanueva racters cha young on focused specifically not are which but must we Lastly, audiences. mention studies conducted in Spain on fiction analysis, young at targeted Spain in and broadcast products television fiction in ted depic- prototypes teenage on (2009) Guarinos by ted presen- study the and people; Spanish young amongst series TV seen widely most the in stereotypes gender on (2008) Guillamón y Belmonte by out carried study the (2007); Galán-Fajardo by directed series Spanish ting: the gender stereotypes analysis conducted on two on pol bscly ae no en i 50 in being into came basically people young 2009). (Guarinos, friendship and love have and especially relationships, interpersonal period on centred plots school high the during occur characters; they lead of group a or character a main have single may They teenagers. of lives and stories the hy oe it tlvso canl fo te 60 the from channels television into moved They s especially in English-speaking countries to narrate to countries English-speaking in especially In Spain the following studies are worth highligh- worth are studies following the Spain In Teen series make up one of the star content for- content star the of one up make series Teen context media a in culture youth of concept The Audiovisual products targeted at and acted out by out acted and at targeted products Audiovisual © ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 133-140 Pages 1988-3293• e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: s films. - - s 135

onwards accompanied by music and young people focus on themes related to love and friendship; Hp 2: and teenage characters (Mosely, 2001). These two Plot and conflict development is closely linked to the elements appeared both in series and sitcoms which interactions and the relationships between the charac- were placed in a family setting. However, it was the ters; Hp 3: Behaviour analysis of the characters within 80s fiction genres in which young people or teenagers the stories reveals more complex and less stereotyped were the main characters or co-stars. In this period, portrayals of these characters. several internationally successful soap operas began to incorporate young characters in the cast and many sit- 2. Methodology Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 coms, initially US in origin, had teenagers as sole A case study was conducted on the US teen series protagonists1. «Dawson’s Creek» as part of a research project on Without forgetting the financial aims of fiction fiction series aimed at a young target. This fiction products (Davis & Dickinson, 2004), the birth of the series is made up of six seasons broadcast for the first concept of teen series is related to television content time from 1998 to 2003 in the United States on WB targeted directly at teens and/or the young. This for- Television Network. In Spain, this series was shown mat chose contexts already commonly seen in other kinds of fiction that were of interest to young people, like family Therefore, the study of television fiction products specifi- and school. The scenarios portrayed are therefore the cally targeted at young audiences can contribute knowledge home of one or several of the on what kind of images and portrayals of teenagers they will main characters and the settings, more interior than exte- consume. In addition, teen series are products closely linked rior, mainly in high schools2. These portrayals do not lead, to global media and cultural phenomena, such as teen however, to a greater interest culture, teen movies and teen TV. As consumer products in family plots, as it is precisely the social relationships within they are being consumed not only through television but also a group of equals, of friends, that becomes the themes of through multimedia and cross-media formats, and can there- teen series. These audiovisual fore be adapted to new consumer formats for a typically products recreate and offer the audience a symbolic transcrip- multitasking audience as are young people. tion of reality that intervenes in some way in the construction process of the young people’s identities, in most cases through parasocial relations- on La 2 of Televisión Española, on ClanTV and on hips that are created thanks to the fictional characters Canal+ as «Dawson crece»3. (Livingstone, 1988). These relationships make up the There are several reasons why we chose to social functions of fiction, like narrative, fable, ritual, conduct the case study on this teen series as a represen- bard, modelling, familiarising, community, socialising tative product of the teen series phenomenon that came and identity (Fiske & Hartley, 1978; Davis; 1990; about during the 90s. Firstly, the series has been inter- Casetti & Villa, 1992; Signorielli & Lears, 1992; Arnett, nationally successful and broadcast in over 40 countries. Larson & Offer, 1995; Keddie & Churchill, 1999; Buo - Secondly, of all the teen series produced in the USA in nanno, 1999, cited by Fedele & García-Muñoz, the second half of the 90s, «Dawson’s Creek» is highly 2010b), and in some way influence audiences on the realistic, if we leave aside the fantastic or science fiction basis of meaning-making processes in reception studies elements which occur in other products. Lastly, in the (García-Muñoz & Martínez-García, 2009). seasons chosen for this study, the series affords the pos- From a review of the background studies, the sibility of following a group of six teenage characters, following hypotheses have been formulated leading to equally distributed between the genders. the analysis of the plots and conflicts portrayed in the The study we present analysed a random sample US teen series «Dawson’s Creek»: Hp 1: Most plots of the episodes from seasons 2, 3 and 4 of the series.

The main reasons why these three seasons were cho- «Dawson’s Creek», where women tended to occupy sen is summed up in the following points: the presence less favoured social positions than men (Fedele & of the same six characters; a common and regular set- García-Muñoz, 2010a). This did not occur when ting throughout the sampled episodes (the fictional analysing personality trait and stereotype variables, town of Capeside); the portrayal of the main teen based on behaviour and attitude analysis in the deve- years (15-18), coinciding with the US high school lopment of the plot. cycle; and the possibility of analysing the family typolo- The most significant themes occurring in this series

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 gies depicted in the series, as the main characters have were personal acceptance (27.98%), love (26.94%) not yet left home, unlike the last two seasons. and friendship (17.1%), as shown in Table 1. Personal The sample brought together 18 episodes. Two acceptance included those plots linked to growth researchers conducted a content analysis to measure a processes and the formation or acceptance of charac- total of 29 variables, following prior instruction on ter identity. cataloguing criteria. Variables were defined by the While love and friendship are usually the most researchers and based on contributions from their commonly occurring themes in young people’s series, previous works as well as from other authors, among as seen in the background review above, personal whom we can include Pignotti (1976), Smith (1980), acceptance seems to be a specific characteristic of Pauwels (1998), Goddard and Patterson (2000), Se - «Dawson’s Creek». In this fiction series characters ger (1990), and Robinson & al. (2008). talked constantly of the internal processes they were Analysis variables corresponded to the main going through, showed their anxieties, dreams, plans characters‘ traits (physical, socio-demographic, social and problems and put them into words. Job expecta- and psychological descriptors) and to categories con- tions in the plots were less likely to be associated with cerning the characters’ relationship with the stories main characters than with secondary roles. Finally, and plots depicted. This article focuses on the findings there were no plots directly linked to drugs and violen- in the second group of variables. ce. Alcohol consumption and drug-taking, albeit rare, These variables allowed us to ascertain not only was almost always related to processes of personal what the main themes and conflicts existed in the acceptance and character identity. Therefore no pro- series, but also what attitudes and behaviour patterns blem of dependence on illicit substances per se was the characters held in the plots. Among the variables in described in the series. Moreover, characters often this group we can highlight: the kind of relationship explicitly condemned this kind of behaviour as being established between the secondary and main charac- immature and not constructive at all. ter; the attitude adopted by the character in each epi- In character analysis during the series, it was sode; plot theme; plot origin; type of conflict; the cha- observed that character development was linked to the racter’s role and involvement in resolving the conflict. different plot themes unfolding throughout the three The data was gathered in a database of the SPSS seasons. In the first two seasons, almost all the main program used by the Statistics Service at the Univer- characters were recurrently involved in themes rela- sidad Autónoma de Barcelona to obtain univariable, ting to love and friendship and, to a lesser extent, bivariable and multivariable analysis using SAS v9.1.3, family conflicts. However, in the fourth season, the SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA, taking the value most prominent themes dealt with acceptance and 0.05 as the mean level. personal growth. Interestingly, the period narrated in In addition to this, character development was this season corresponded to the main characters’ last analysed over the three seasons. Finally, in order to year at high school, a moment in which they had to complement quantitative statistical treatment, a quali- take important decisions about their future after reflec- tative analysis of the sample episodes was also perfor- ting on their identity. At this time they asked themselves med, as was its relation to the whole set of episodes in the series.

3. Results A total of 31 characters: 6 main and 25 secondary characters were analysed. Several findings related to the socio-demographic descriptors allowed for the affirmation that gender stereotyping persisted in the series Table 1. Plot themes.

what they were passionate about, they questioned character had no real role. This conflict typology, their childhood projects, considered getting into where the character was a mere spectator in the degree courses that might allow them to fulfil their narrative, was usually linked to secondary characters dreams, and they even had full-blown identity crises, (81%) that were often in the background of the plots and didn’t know what to do with their lives. Here we involving the main characters. This data is shown in must highlight the theme revolving around personal acceptance that one of the main characters was involved Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 in: the theme was linked essentially to the boy’s sexual identity, in which he defined himself as a homosexual tee- nager who had to face twice the number of problems as other boys of his Table 2. Conflict type according to character typology. age. As Meyer (2003) has shown, the character defines his identity and homosexuality above table 2, which shows that internal conflict is more fre- all through conversational dynamics. quently associated with main characters than secon- Plot origin was clearly social in nature (71.5%), but dary ones. there were others of less quantitative value which Internal conflict was almost exclusively found must be mentioned including: personal (9.84%), when amongst teenagers (93.1%), and was especially linked the character took the initiative and got involved in to plots on personal acceptance, and secondly, to some kind of conflict; family (9.84%), when the romantic entanglements, as shown in table 3. conflict was sparked off inside the family; love However, social conflict type tended to be linked to (7.77%), when it was because of the partner or loved romantic plots, although it was more equally distribu- one; or financial (1.04%), when the reason why there ted within the diverse plot categories. was conflict was economic in nature. It is interesting to A key element in personality stereotypes was in note that personal origin referred almost exclusively to fact the role the characters played in handling conflict, teenage characters, while romantic conflicts were especially with regards to active or passive involve- found amongst «teenagers» (53.3%) and adults ment, as shown in graph 1. (46.7%). An active role tended to be associated above all Conflict setting was also social in nature (54.92%), with stereotypes like tenacity (or stubbornness), idea- that is, it occurred in relation to the other characters. lism, activity or rebelliousness, i.e. to a series of perso- As indicated above, one of the characteristics of nality traits that are intrinsically assertive, affirmative «Dawson’s Creek» was indeed the constant interac- and proactive. Yet at the same time, this was also tion, especially verbal, among the characters. There linked to other traits that involve greater reflection and was also a certain complexity in the language and dia- reflexivity, such as maturity, tenderness, integrity and logues used by the characters to build up their charac- caution. On the other hand, a passive role in dealing ter, define their relationships with others and finally with conflict was linked more closely to stereotypes develop and resolve the plot conflicts. These state- that have passive connotations, such as fragility, imma- ments were also supported by the findings on two des- turity or a passive nature. In this instance, apparently criptive character variables: explicit character responsibility and leisure activities. In both cases the most common occurring activity undertaken was social relations. The least common types of conflict discovered in the analysis were internal in nature (15.03%). These were conflicts that the characters could not resolve by interacting with others, but through their own reflections and internal struggles. Finally, 30.05% of the conflicts analysed were classified as contextual conflicts. These were incidental conflicts where the Table 3. Conflict type according to plot theme.

contradictory associations were formed, as the passive narrative: self-consciousness, intense emotionality, role is also linked to more positive and generally pro- high self-referentiality, analytical dialogues, and the active traits like ambition, intelligence and reason. hypertextual strategy that the series sets in motion with This analysis verifies a three-dimensional, versatile other media products or other communication media and even contradictory portrayal of teens, thereby (Mosely, 2001). This series has also been analysed in enhancing, to a certain degree, the realism of the cha- accordance with the concept of mainstream cult, a fact racters in the series. that has allowed it to be described as a quality product

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 for three reasons: the high reflexivity of the characters, 4. Conclusions the romantic relationship models depicted, which refer The teen years are a key, crucial stage in the deve- to the romantic relationship models proposed by lopment and construction of both individual and Giddens; the authorship of the series, created by the collective values and identities. During this sensitive director Kevin Williamson (Hills, 2004). Many of and complex process, individuals usually turn to role these elements have been highlighted in this analysis. models and examples of people important to them, i.e. In the study on characters relationship to plot, it has the so-called socialising agents, like family, peers’ firstly been possible to identify the most highly recu- group or school. But, besides models, patterns or real rring themes in the series, namely acceptance of one’s stereotypes, young people turn to others that are to be personal identity, love and friendship. In addition, the found in media. Though we are now in the digital era importance of social relations among the characters, television still carries a certain weight in socialising interpersonal dynamics, especially dialogue inter- young people, together with the new electronic action, in the development of plots and conflicts, has media. In particular, its function as a role model been highlighted. becomes even clearer in fiction products, which are Finally, it has been shown that there is a certain also placed at the top of teenagers’ preference list (von complexity in the portrayal of young people, especially Feilitzen, 2004; Livingstone, 1998; Garitaonandia & the main characters in the series. They are shown as al., 1998; Ramírez de la Piscina & al., 2006; Medrano- multidimensional and versatile characters, with varied Samaniego & al. 2007; Pindado, 2006). Therefore, and variable personality traits and stereotypes, who the study of television fiction products specifically tar- offer an image that shies away from stereotype canons geted at young audiences can contribute knowledge found in teen series and, more particularly, in sitcoms. on what kind of images and portrayals of teenagers They are people who develop constantly within the they will consume. In addition, teen series are pro- three areas commonly related to adolescence: first ducts closely linked to global media and cultural phenomena, such as teen culture, teen movies and teen TV. As consumer products they are being consumed not only through television but also through multimedia and cross-media formats, and can therefore be adapted to new consumer formats for a typically multitasking audience as are young people (Jordan & al., 2007). In particular, «Dawson’s Creek» has been considered as a good example of convergence in relation to crossover and cross- media mobility (Brooker, 2001; Wee, 2004). Furthermore, «Dawson’s Creek» has been considered a high quality teen series due to the different characteristics of fiction Graph 1. Personality stereotypes by character role in handling conflict.

love, first conflicts in the group of friends, first existen- los jóvenes con las viejas y nuevas tecnologías de la información. tialist doubts and decisions regarding the future. Zer, 4; 131-161. Nevertheless, the reality presented by teen series GERBNER, G. & AL. (2002). Growing up with Television: Cultiva- tion Processes. In BRYANT, J. & ZILLMANN, D. (Comps.). Media aims to capture the attention of an audience that is Effects. Advances in Theory and Research. Mahwah, NJ: Law - trying to create its own personal identity. At the same rence Erlbaum Associates; 43-68. time, it does not ignore the permanent scrutiny of the GLASCOCK, J. (2001). Gender Roles on Prime-time Network Tele - cultural industry market producers. vision: Demographics and Behaviors. Journal of Broadcasting &

Electronic Media, 45; 656-669. Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 Notes GODDARD, A. & PATTERSON L.M. (2000). Language and Gender. London/New York: Routledge. 1 Televisión Española produced «Verano Azul», a fiction series sta- GUARINOS, V. (2009). Fenómenos televisivos «teenagers»: prototi- rring teenagers and young people in 1981. pias adolescentes en series vistas en España. Comunicar, 33; 203- 2 Referential context which is explicitly present even in the title of 211. some fiction, such as the Spanish produced series «El Internado» HEINTZ-KNOWLES, K.E. (2000). Images of youth: A Content Ana - (The Boarding School). lysis of Adolescents in Prime-time Entertainment Progra mming. 3 While this study was being conducted, the series was being bro- Washington, DC: Frameworks Institute. adcast as «Dawson’s Creek» every day at 14.30 on the second chan- HILLS, M. (2004). Dawson’s creek: ‘Quality Teen TV’ and ‘Main - nel of Televisión de Cataluña, channel 33/K3. stream Cult’? In DAVIS, G. & DICKINSON, K. (Eds.) (2004). Teen TV: Genre, Consumption, Identity. London: BFI. Aid HOFFNER, C. & BUCHANAN, M. (2005). Young Adults’ Wishful This study forms part of research project SEJ2006-10067 financed Iden tification with Television Characters: the Role of Perceived Si - by the Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia, of project CSO2009- milarity and Character Attributes. Media Psychology, VII; 325-351. 12822 of the National R&D Plan, financed by the Ministerio de IGARTUA, J.J. & MUÑIZ-MURIEL, C. (2008). Identificación con los Ciencia e Innovación, and also had the support of the Comissionat personajes y disfrute ante largometrajes de ficción. Una investiga- per a Universitats i Recerca del Departament de Innovació, Uni - ción empírica. Comunicación y Sociedad, XXI (1); 25-52. versitat i Empresa de la Generalitat de Catalunya and the European JORDAN, A. & AL. (2007). Measuring the Time Teens Spend with Me- Social Fund. dia: Challenges and Opportunities. Media Psychology, 9 (1); 19-41. LAUZEN, M.M. & AL. (2008). Constructing Gender Stereotypes References through Social Roles in Prime-time Television. Journal of Broad - casting & Electronic Media, 52 (2); 200-214. ANDREWS, S. (2001). Troubled Waters: an Unauthorised and Uno- LEWIS, J. (1992). The Road to Romance and Ruin: Teen Films and fficial Guide to Dawson’s Creek. London: Virgin. Youth Culture. New York: Routledge. AUBREY, J.S. (2004). Sex and Punishment: An Examination of Se - LIVINGSTONE, S. (1988). Why People Watch Soap Opera: An xual Consequences and the Sexual Double Standard in Teen Analysis of the Explanations of British Viewers. European Journal Programming. Sex Roles, 50 (7/8); 505-512. of Communication, 3; 55-80. BARRIGA, C.A. & AL. (2009). Media Context, Female Body Size and LIVINGSTONE, S. (1998). Mediated Childhoods. A Comparative Perceived Realism. Sex Roles, 60; 128-141. approach to Young People’s Changing Media Environment in Eu - BELMONTE, J. & GUILLAMÓN, S. (2008). Co-educar la mirada con- rope. European Journal of Communication, 13 (4); 435-456. tra los estereotipos de género en TV. Comunicar, 31; 115-120. LÓPEZ, J.A. & CUENCA, F.A. (2005). Ficción televisiva y represen- BROOKER, W. (2001). Living on Dawson’s Creek: Teen Viewers, tación generacional: modelos de tercera edad en las series naciona- Cultural Convergence and Television Overflow. International les. Comunicar, 25. Jour nal of Cultural Studies, 4 (4); 456-472. MCKINLEY, E.G. (1997). Beverly Hills 90210: Television, Gender CROSSDALE, D. (2001). Dawson’s Creek: the all new official com- and Identity. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. . London: Ebury Press. pa nion MEYER, M.D. (2003). ‘It’s me. I’m it’. Defining Adolescent Sexual DAVIS, G. & DICKINSON, K. (Eds.) (2004). Teen TV: Genre, Con - Identity through Relational Dialectics in Dawson’s Creek. Commu - sump tion, Identity. London: BFI. nication Quarterly, 51 (3); 262-276. FEDELE, M. & GARCÍA-MUÑOZ, N. (2010a). Representaciones y MOSELY, R. (2001). The Teen Series. In CREBER, G. (Ed.). The estereotipos juveniles en la serie televisiva Dawson’s Creek. La per- Television Genre Book. London: BFI. petuación de modelos en la era digital. II Congreso International PAUWELS, A. (1998). Women Changing Language. London/New AE-IC. Málaga 2010. York: Longman. FEDELE, M. & GARCÍA-MUÑOZ, N. (2010b). El consumo adolescen- PERALES, A. & PÉREZ-CHICA, Á. (2008). Aprender la identidad: ¿qué te de la ficción seriada. Vivat Academia, 111; 48-65. menores ven los menores en TV? Comunicar, 31; 299-304. FERNÁNDEZ-VILLANUEVA, C. & AL. (2009). Gender Differences in PETERSON, G.W. & PETERS, D.F. (1983). Adolescents’ Cons truc- the Representation of Violence on Spanish Television: Should Wo - tion of Social Reality: The impact of Television and Peers. Youth men be More Violent? Sex Roles, 61; 85-100. and Society, 15 (1); 67-85. GALÁN-FAJARDO, E. (2007). Construcción de género y ficción tele- PIGNOTTI, L. (1976). La Super Nada. Ideología y Lenguaje de la visiva en España. Comunicar, 28; 229-236. publicidad. Valencia: Torres. GARCÍA-MUÑOZ, N. & MARTÍNEZ-GARCÍA, L. (2009). La represen- PINDADO, J. (2006). Los medios de comunicación y la construcción tación positiva de la imagen de las mujeres en los medios. Comu - de la identidad Adolescente. Zer, 21; 11-22. nicar, 32; 209-214. RAMÍREZ DE LA PISCINA, T. & AL. (2006). Estudio sobre la alfabeti- GARITAONANDIA, C. & AL. (1998). Las relaciones de los niños y de zación audiovisual de los adolescentes vascos: Recopilatorio de acti-

© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 133-140 140 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 S S 255-268. 7(3); devaluation. of pattern consistent S Company. and Holt Henry R acríticas. y críticas tudes Decades. three across Characters Television Prime-time of Analysis Content S Analysis. Content A Sitcoms: Television MITH IGNORIELLI IGNORIELLI EGER OBINSON , , L. (1990). L. P.M. (1980). Judging Masculine and Feminine Social Iden Social Feminine and Masculine Judging (1980). P.M. Sex Roles,Sex (7-8); 40 , T. & , , N. & B & N. , N. (1987). Children and adolescents on television: A television: on adolescents and Children (1987). N. AL . New York: UnforgettableNew CharactersCreating . . (2008). Portrayal of Body Weight on Chil dren’s ACUE Zer,177-202. 21; . (1999). Recognition and respect: A respect: and Recognition (1999). A. , 527-544. ora o Ery Adolescence, Early of Journal Body Image, 5 Body ; 141-151. ; - Little Slayer Vampire field. the Buffy in Stake W Identity W Reality TV G. & D & G. S & W.P. V pectives. Conglometarion Reshaped Teen Television in the 1990 the in Television Teen Reshaped Conglometarion iis rm otn-otold peh In Speech. Content-Controlled from tities ON ILCOX EE , V. (2004). Selling Teen Culture: How American Multimedia F EILITZEN ICKINSON . London: BFI. London: . , R. & L & R. , Oxford: Pergamon; 121-126. Pergamon; Oxford: MITH . Göteborg: Nordicom, Götenborg University. Götenborg Nordicom, Göteborg: . , P.M , , , oung People, Soap Operas and People, Operas Young Soap (2004). (Ed.) C. AVERY © K. (Eds.) (2004). (Eds.) K. ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 133-140 Pages 1988-3293• e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: . (Eds.). . , D. (2002). D. Language:Social Psychological Pers Teen TV:Genre,Consumption, Fighting the Forces: What’s at What’s Forces: the Fighting Lna, D Rwa & Rowman MD: Lanham, . G ILES H; R H.; , s . In . OBIN SON D AVIS - , , INVESTIGACIONES / RESEARCH

Received: 11-02-2011 / Revised: 05-03-2011 Accepted: 31-03-2011 / Published: 01-10-2011 l Juan Carlos Checa & Ángeles Arjona Almería (Spain) http://dx.doi.org/10.3916/C37-2011-03-06

Spaniards’ Perspective of Immigration. The Role of the Media

Españoles ante la inmigración: el papel de los medios de comunicación

ABSTRACT With the transformation of Spain into an immigration country, society has become a major change by setting up a social space characterized, increasingly, by cultural, ethnic and religious diversity. In this new frame is interesting to investigate the overall value of diversity into the Spanish society. The two aims for of this paper are, on one hand, to process feedback on Spanish opinion on immigration between 1996 and 2007, and, on the other hand, to find out the role of the media in the construction of that opinion. For the first aim, an index of anti-foreigner sentiments was constructed using data provided by the national survey on opinions and attitudes on immigration, published annually by ASEP. For the second, an analysis, using the Agenda-Setting Theory, of articles published on immigration that appeared in the newspapers, «El País» and «El Mundo». The results show that a negative sentiment towards the outgroup has increased over time. The main variables explaining these trends are a sense of threat, to the population and to identity, and competition for resources and political decisions in integration – legalisation. The media analysis has six dimensions, the main ones refer to the illegality of the phenomenon, linking immigration to crime, and the social integration policies, highlighting the role of the media in creating public opinion. RESUMEN Con la transformación de Spain desde hace unas décadas en país de inmigración, la sociedad ha experimentado un importante cambio configurando un espacio social caracterizado, cada vez más, por la diversidad cultural, étnica y religiosa. En este escenario novedoso es de gran interés indagar sobre la valoración que de dicha diversidad tiene la sociedad española. El objetivo de este artículo es doble, por un lado, conocer la opinión que tienen los españoles sobre la inmigración entre 1996 y 2007. Por otro, comprobar el papel que juegan los medios de comunicación en la configuración de ese sentir. Para el primer objetivo se ha construido el índice de sentimiento anti-inmigrante, a partir de los datos ofrecidos por la encuesta nacional sobre opiniones y actitudes ante la inmigración, administrada, anualmente, por ASEP. Para el segundo, se analizan, utilizando la teoría de la «Agenda Setting», las noticias publi- cadas por los periódicos «El País» y «El Mundo» sobre inmigración. Los resultados muestran que el sentimiento nega- tivo hacia el exogrupo se va incrementado con el paso del tiempo. Las principales variables que explican esa tendencia son: el sentimiento de amenaza –poblacional e identitaria–, competencia por los recursos y decisiones políti- cas en el proceso de integración –regularización–. Del análisis de los medios resultan seis encuadres, los principales hacen referencia a la irregularidad del fenómeno, a la vinculación inmigración y delincuencia y a las políticas de inte- gración social. Por tanto, se pone de manifiesto el papel que juegan los medios de comunicación a la hora de crear opinión. KEYWORDS / PALABRAS CLAVE Immigrants, xenophobia, communications media, threat, competition, insecurity, media framing. Inmigrantes, xenofobia, medios de comunicación, amenaza, competencia, inseguridad, encuadre mediático.

v Dr. Juan Carlos Checa Olmos is Professor of the Department of History, Geography and Art History at the Faculty of Humanities of the University of Almería (Spain) ([email protected]). v Dr. Ángeles Arjona Garrido is Profesor of the Department of Humanities and Social Sciences at the Faculty of Humanities of the University of Almería (Spain) ([email protected]).

Comunicar, 37, v. XIX, 2011, Scientific Journal of Media Literacy; ISSN: 1134-3478; pages 141-148 www.revistacomunicar.com 142

1. Introduction on a certain subject or social issue, the greater the In just a few decades Spain has seen a substantial public concern it generates, such as in the case of increase in its immigrant population. According to the migration (Brader, Valentino & Suhay, 2004; Igartua National Institute of Statistics (INE), there were only & Muñiz, 2005; Igartua & al., 2007). Igartua & al. 542,314 foreigners in Spain in the mid-nineties. This (2004) found a significant positive correlation between figure rose to 1,370,657 at the beginning of the millen- the number of news items published in the news- nium and, according to the latest data published in papers and the percentage of interviewees who indi-

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 January 2011, currently stands at 5,730,667. This is cated that immigration was a problem for the country. the sharpest rise in the number of foreign residents in This association demonstrates that news coverage can any member state of the European Union. convert the migratory phenomenon into a perceived The arrival of immigrants from all over the world, social problem and, thereby, into a source of prejudice forming the largest cultural melting pot in the country’s and stereotyping that can lead to racism. history, has not gone unnoticed by native Spaniards. The dual purpose of this article is to present the The Centre for Sociological Research (CIS), in its evolution and variables that define public opinion monthly surveys, shows that Spanish attitudes towards regarding the outgroup using an anti-immigration immigrants have changed significantly in recent years. sentiment index, and to find out how Spain’s communi- In 1996, a majority was in favour of immigration, cations media cover this phenomenon, since we believe judging it as necessary and not excessive in terms of they represent the first step in cementing such feelings. the number of arrivals, whereas today there is more We have chosen two different time periods for xenophobia directed at or rejection of the immigrant this longitudinal analysis: 1997/1998, during which (Cea D’Ancona, 2009; Díez Nicolás, 2005; Pérez & Spain was in economic recession but the immigrant Desrues, 2005), although this is not the result of a line- population was small; and 2006/07, when the immi- ar process. More specifically, in 2000 immigration was gration rate was high and economic expansion was considered to be the fourth most pressing issue after peaking but also showing signs of imminent stagnation ETA terrorism, unemployment and the economy. In and recession. 2006, 38.3% of Spaniards stated that immigration was the most important problem faced by the country, rising 2. Method and data to second place after unemployment. According to the For the first objective, we collected data from a latest 2010 survey, immigration has dropped back to national survey by the polling company «Análisis fourth place behind unemployment, the economy and Sociológicos, Económicos y Políticos» (ASEP). Between the state of the mainstream political parties. 1995 and 2007, it carried out several statistically signi- The transformation of a social phenomenon such ficant surveys, with the same items throughout, on the as immigration into a social problem is a process in attitudes of the Spanish adult population towards which many different agents play a part, the most pro- foreigners. The sample was proportionally stratified by minent being the communications media. Cachón the number of immigrants settled in the various auto- (2009) points to the media as responsible for turning nomous regions. The data were collected at random. immigration into a contentious public issue, since an For the two-year period 1996/1997, the aggregated event reported in a particular way can foment sample comprised 2,413 people. In 2006/07, 2,405 discrimination and social exclusion (Van Dijk, 2003). people were surveyed. The matrix was completed In the wake of the Agenda-Setting Theory, it has been with official statistics on the foreign population and shown that perception of social issues is largely condi- unemployment rate. tioned by media reporting (Dearing and Rogers, 1996; The Anti-Immigrant Sentiment Index (Semyonov & Scheufele, 2000). This framing is related to two basic al., 2006) was used to measure the attitude of Spaniards operations, selecting and emphasizing expressions and towards immigration. This model is based on the images to attribute a viewpoint, a perspective or a following four items, «Immigration will cause Spain to certain angle according to the given information. As lose its identity» (Agree=1), «Influence of immigration understood by Valkenburg, Semetko and de Vreese on unemployment» (Increase=1), «Influence of immi- (1999: 550), «A media frame is a particular way in gration on Spanish salaries» (Decrease=1); and which journalists compose a news story to optimize «Influence of immigration on delinquency» (Increase=1). audience accessibility». The index varies from 0 to 4, where 4 represents the Studies developed from this theoretical perspec- strongest anti-immigrant attitude. tive demonstrate that the greater the media emphasis However, as Cea d’Ancona (2009) points out, the

measurement of xenophobia through surveys has limi- sentiment (Coenders & Scheepers, 2008): Sex (male= tations that exceed the technique itself, basically due to 1), age (in years), education (university=1), income the social desirability bias defined by the stigma of (lowest quartile =1), political orientation (right=1), admitting to racist sentiment. Any declaration or beha- activity (unemployed=1) and marital status (married viour deemed to contravene the constitutional princi- =1). ples of equality and non-discrimination is liable to Two national newspapers were chosen to gauge censure and even prosecution. news treatment of immigration, «El País» and «El

In order to find the variables that best predict this Mundo». All news items referring to immigration in the Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 sentiment we carried out a regression analysis, taking standard two-year reporting phases, 1997/98 and into account the following dimensions: threat, insecu- 2006/07, were taken as recommended by Lorite rity and social rights (Cea d’Ancona, 2009). Threat is (2007), excluding new items from vacation periods. measured, on the one hand, by the real size of the Also exempt from analysis were news stories about foreign population, i.e., the rate of foreigners, and the migration in which immigrants were not the protago- perceived size (Quillan, 1995; 1996; Schenider, nists. In all, the study used 217 news items from both 2008; Schlueter & Scheepers, 2010; Semyonov & al., newspapers. 2008), with a score of (1) for agreeing with the statement that there are too many immigrants in Spain, and on the Therefore, efforts must be made in increasingly multiethnic other hand by identity threat, which is visible in the percep- societies to strengthen a pluralistic view, and the communi- tion of conflict in questions of identity, measured by the exto- cations media must modify their strategies, for example, by lling of either ethnic or civic inserting other news frames that counterbalance the view of virtues. To do this, we used the variable effects that immi- immigration as a perceived threat (identity or population), to gration has on Spanish culture (bad or very bad=1), typical of reduce the rising trend of anti-immigrant sentiment that an ethnic identity. advances almost regardless of the real economic situation. Insecurity, derived from threat, is expressed via two elements: one material, quanti- fied by the attitude of only admitting immigrants when there are no Spaniards to News frames were established by news type and carry out the activity (Agree=1), and the unemploy- factor analysis (Igartua & al., 2005; Muñiz & al., ment rate. And, political insecurity, referred to in two 2008). News items where the description of the event questions related to migratory policy and the granting or its consequences could be judged undesirable for of citizenship (Díez Nicolás, 2005). The first element immigrants, for example crime, were coded negative. is: «The economic situation is complicated enough for Information was coded neutral or ambiguous when no Spaniards let alone allotting money to help immi- negative or positive slant towards immigrants was grants» (Agree=1) and the second: «The best attitude observed, and positive if the event or its consequences towards illegal immigrants» (legalize them=1). were desirable, such as legalisation. Social distance, understood as the lack of interaction with immigrants, is constructed by three dimen- 3. Results sions used in intergroup contact (Allport, 1954; We first analysed the intensity and evolution of Escandell & Ceobanu, 2009), that is, intense if they anti-immigrant sentiment and the variables that define have a close affective relationship (No=1), occasional it. Later, we examined the communications media’s if they have ever had a long conversation (No=1), frame and treatment of news about immigration. and at the workplace, when there is a labour relations- The initial result of the longitudinal study is the hip with foreign workers (No=1). gradual increase in anti-immigrant sentiment in Spain. Finally, the variables on individual character are Whereas in 1997 the mean was 1.4, in 2007 it had also extremely important in predicting anti-immigrant risen to 2.1 (see Graph 1). In other words, the foreig-

ner is identified more and more as a generator of unemployment, delinquency, lower salaries and an enemy of cultural identity. This evolution occurs during three distinct time periods within the 10 years analysed.

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 Sentiment in 1997-99 remains almost constant at around 1.4. With the beginning of the new millennium, rejection jumps to Graph 1. Evolution of anti-immigrant sentiment in Spain (1997-2007). 2.1, and from 2004 to 2007 it Source: ASEP Data: Authors. again increases, to 2.4. As Blalock (1967) suggests, there is no linear growth in the less xenophobia is aroused. Spanish attitudes towards the outgroup. Therefore, the perceived threat created by various In the second stage of the analysis, two regression agents and institutions, and economic and political models were estimated based on the individual and competition is more important in creating sentiment contextual variables (table 1). In Model 1, we exami- towards foreigners than the real population size or the ned the role of threat and insecurity, and intergroup unemployment rate, even when the immigration rates contact variables in the construction of anti-immigrant are relatively low, as occurred in 1997/98. sentiment. In Model 2, we added the individual varia- In the second model, the data corresponding to bles. threat, insecurity and intergroup contact remained In the first model, in 1997/98 both the threat and almost constant with the individual variables. In insecurity variables are seen as the best explanation for 1997/98, negative sentiment towards the outgroup the sentiment, in this order of importance: perceived was predicted by, in this order: age, political orienta- threat, money allotted to integration policies, negative tion, education, negatively, marital status, sex and effects on the host culture and allowing immigrants to unemployment. In other words, being older with a enter when there are no Spaniards to perform the acti- conservative ideology and low-level of education, vity, all positively signalled, explaining 39.3% of the married, male and unemployed revealed itself in anti- variance of anti-immigrant sentiment. In other words, immigrant sentiment. the stronger the sensation of invasion and money allot- In 2006/07, unemployed and male are the most ted to integration policies, and the more they think that important socio-demographic variables, even though immigration has negative effects on the culture, and unemployment was at its lowest during the period that immigrants should only be allowed to enter when analysed. Also, education and income lost predictive no Spaniards can be found to occupy the job, the ability during this period. stronger the negative sentiment is. The size of the real How, then, is this sentiment constructed? The population appears to have less weight, and negati- elements that contribute to constructing the view of vely, legalizing immigrants. In the contact variables, otherness are multiple and of different depths. In our only occasional contact appears statistically significant, interest to discover the role of the communications so the more often they have a long conversation with media in configuring this process, as shown in table 2, a foreigner, the less negative the perception of the out- we found that there was a considerable increase in the group is. number of news items from the first to the second In 2006/07, the variables increased their weight in two-year period. There are two main reasons for this: explaining the sentiment. Rejection of allotting money the huge increase in the number of immigrants at that to immigrant integration policies was important, follo- time, and immigrant demands and related political wed by population and cultural threat, and admitting action. For example, in 2006, the fallout from legalisa- immigrants when there are no Spaniards to do the job. tion passed the year before could still be felt, especially Legalisation again appeared in negative and, with because of the so-called «call effect» it may have gene- fewer incidences than in the previous period, the rated. In the space of 10 years, the migratory pheno- unemployment rate. Concerning intergroup contact, menon went from being a matter of secondary impor- statistically significant intense relationships appeared tance to being a top priority on political and social for the first time, such that the more intense contact is, agendas.

Delving deeper into the analysis, news items grants, followed by document processing and legalisa- published in both periods were found to have had a tion, while immigration and crime appear most distinctly negative character. In 1996/97, 65% of the frequently in 1997/98; the third frame in both periods news items had a negative profile and only 18% high- refers to social integration policies. The, smallest num- lighted the positive aspects of immigration, and in ber of frames are for racist acts, xenophobia and lega- 2006/07, negative news items rose to 69% and the lisation on the one hand, and immigration and social positive to 21%. We find headlines citing undetailed opportunities on the other. The news frames say little affirmations by political and religious leaders, etc., about the positive effects of immigration on the host Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 such as: «An Islamic centre endangers coexistence in country, such as the economic contribution of immi- the Babel of Extremadura» (El Mundo, 17/8/2006); grants to the State or its importance in a nation’s deve- «Muslims ask for the «Moros y Cristianos» fiestas to be lopment. Neither do they touch on the immigrants’ eliminated as unfitting for Spanish democracy» (El experiences of discrimination or racism that they are Mundo, 5/10/2006); «Islamic fundamentalism and subjected to almost daily, as reported by «SOS immi gration threaten Europe» (El Pais, 10/10/2006); Racismo». However, the social opportunities frame «Living here is to die over a slow fire» (El País, increased considerably in 2006/07, coinciding with 28/10/2006). the economic boom. The increase in positive news also responds to migrations over time that aroused less suspicion in 4. Discussion and conclusions journalists, especially during times of economic expan- This article analyses the image of foreign immi- sion, such as the period from 1997 to 2007. grants in Spain, since the opinions and attitudes Six news frames resulted from the factor analysis: towards immigrants represent new forms of racism 1) illegal flows of immigrants (entering the country in and xenophobia. For this we took two different time makeshift boats, hidden inside lorries, etc.); 2) immi- periods, one that coincided with economic recession gration and social opportunities (job market, housing, and low immigration rates, and the other at the high social services, etc.); 3) processing documents and point of economic expansion and migratory consolida- legalisation of immigrants; 4) immigration and delin- tion. quency (crime, mafias, etc.); 5) racist and xenophobic The data show that hostility towards immigrants acts, and discrimination; 6) social integration policies increased over a 10-year period. Whereas in 1997/98 (central, regional and local governments). We might the index showed a mean of 1.4, in 2006/07 it had add that, with exceptions, each news item only fits into risen to 2.4. However, this trend is not just explained one frame. by the increase in the real population over a short time. The top frame in 2006/07 is illegal flows of immi- This is only the trigger at the beginning of immigrant

Table 1. Effects of the independent variables on anti-immigrant sentiment. *P < 0.00; **P < 0.05; *** P <0.200

Consequently, Spaniards believe that the continual arrival of foreigners has a negative effect on the national culture, and money should not be allotted to their integration, nor should they be legalized. Moreover, in the speeches of some politicians that appear in the Table 2. Number of news items per frame (1997-2007). communications media, semantic structures

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 prevail that stress the difference in appearan- entry flows, as the variables predicting the sentiment in ce, culture and behaviour, or deviation from norms 1997/98 are not far from those 10 years later. There- and values, and which take the form of slogans such fore, the sentiment responds to daily and/or institutio- as, «defend your identity», «defend your rights». This nalised discursive practices dictated mainly by the is boosted by a nationalist awareness, one in particular communications media. that has an ethnic basis. They demand of others what The construction of immigration is not per se the native Spaniard would not ask of himself. Spanish through numbers or immigration inflows but responds identity has been configured in opposition to the other to a symbolic construction, the product of speeches and defined on the basis of dimensions of an abstract from a variety of actors and social scenes, in which the and symbolic nature rather than on quality. communications media are preeminent. Suffice it to The feeling of threat is complemented by compe- recall that the top news frame in both periods referred tition for limited resources such as jobs, housing, to illegal entry flows. Thus when referring to figures healthcare, etc., which also leads to a magnification of on immigration, metaphors are used to quantify the the immigrant presence. This is a response to news flows as: a wave, avalanche, invasion, etc., descrip- frames, or in other words, to immigration and social tions that promote the idea that there are too many opportunities, and not to positive aspects such as the immigrants and which provoke hostility and fear. «El contribution to economic development, rather to the Pais» expressed it like this in an article (08/08/1998): negative, and the excess demand for resources. Thus «Immigration: the tide grows». As a result, the immi- most Spaniards think that foreigners should only be grant is transformed by the host’s fear of hyper-foreig- accepted in situations where there are no Spaniards to nization. In other words, immigration is seen as a the job required. Following on from this, economic problem rather than a phenomenon typical of interna- insecurity is accentuated in times of recession as, sup- tional society presented with a new challenge. posedly, it reduces labour market opportunities and But the threat transcends the numerical to become lowers the quality of the jobs available. Nevertheless, consolidated in identity (Schiefer & al., 2010; our study shows this to be secondary in the case of a Schwart, 2008). As we are reminded by Worchel negative sentiment towards the outgroup, since in (1998), any type of group identity serves as a basis for 1997 Spain was in the midst of an economic crisis that conflict, especially when ethnic content is assigned to raised unemployment to record levels and the number it based on stereotypes;, so, certain groups come to be of foreigners in the country was the lowest among the conceptualized as culturally incompatible. They are then 15-member European Union; however, distinguished by the exaggeration of cultural differen- xenophobia was lower than in the two later periods, ces through subtle prejudice. Culture is perceived as a especially in 2006/07 when the country experienced hereditary trait that nobody can shed, or that, «there is its highest ever economic growth and lowest unem- a genealogical, and therefore, racial conception of the ployment rates but, by contrast, the immigration rate culture and its transmission» (Todd, 1996: 343). stood at over 10% of the population. This is also Immigrants are faced with open rejection or subordi- confirmed first by the fact that unemployment in the nate «integration» since the beliefs of the others are first period was statistically insignificant in predicting almost always seen as containing elements of funda- variability in anti-immigration sentiment, while it was mentalism, the equivalent of a focus of conflict, espe- statistically significant in the other two periods; cially if this involves Muslims, who are the archetype. secondly because being unemployed carried greater Therefore, the best response to this situation, accor- predictive weight during economic expansion and ding to native Spaniards, is cultural assimilation but when the immigration rate is at its highest. denial of full citizenship rights, which is acceptable This is due to the fact that the labour market occu- even to those locals who do not consider themselves pied by immigrants (mainly agriculture and construc- racists. tion) complemented that dominated by native

Spaniards. In fact, labour discrimination against the reotypes which are constructed and consolidated due immigrants gave locals access to jobs for which they to lack of intergroup contact. In Spain, the results were initially unqualified. However, immigrants then show that although contact has increased, relations started to move into other labour sectors (services, for between natives and immigrants hardly exist, be they example) in which they competed directly for jobs affective or occasional in nature. This is not due so with the national population, especially with those much to the lack of common spaces as to the instru- nationals who were at a disadvantage in terms of mentalization of the immigrant as a degrading agent. social and human capital. At the same time, immigra- There is no shortage of news referring to problems of Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 tion featured more prominently as a newsworthy neighbourhood coexistence among groups or the dete- topic, and in the 10-year period analysed the number rioration of environments where immigrants reside. of news items on immigration doubled, especially Social cognitions are acquired and deployed, and those with a negative slant. Moreover, the national transform within situations and social interactions, and population also perceived competition for welfare social structure contexts (Van Dijk, 2003). state benefits (housing, education and healthcare). To judge by the results, there is a definitive and They would, therefore, be prepared to accept the clear correlation between the variables that define anti- award of a minor payment towards the integration of immigrant sentiment and the news frames of the immigrants, or they would legalize them. This is what Zapata (2009) calls the gover- nance hypothesis, such that if The educational system not only provides a space for inter- the government confronted immigrant integration inclusi- group interaction, as an important element in casting judgment vely, offering them civic inste- on the outgroup, it must also impart values of equality and the ad of credentialist citizenship, or stopped reassuring the acknowledgment of difference to counteract negative images population about its efforts to control flows, the negative disseminated by other institutions. To do nothing and allow sentiment towards the out- the current situation to prevail is to tolerate a process that will group would be even greater. That is why the media empha- lead to xenophobic acts against groups and individuals. size government actions to control borders. According to Van Dijk (2003), these are the definitive stereotypes held by the majority of those who feel thre- communications media. As in other national studies atened by the presence of ethnic groups that concur already mentioned, and international studies on the with semantic structures that reflect racist discourse, subject, (Dursun, 2005; d’Haenens & de Lange, 2001; and which Echevarría and Villareal (1995) summarise Ter Wal, & al., 2005), the results show that the migra- as: 1) different appearance, culture and behaviour; 2) tory phenomenon is viewed in negative terms. Further - deviation from norms and values; 3) competition for more, media representation through news frames, such scarce resources; 4) perceived threat. as those linking immigrants to violence and/ or delin- As we can see, the perception of immigration is quency, or illegal entry in «pateras» (makeshift boats), also closely related to social position; young people contributes to the development of prejudice through show a more moderate anti-immigration sentiment, as the legitimization of certain xenophobic and racist do people with a higher level of education or income. discourses. The error stems from the selection of the They do not see immigrants as a threat or in competi- event within the paradigm and standardized parame- tion for resources, and they also understand that some ters of what is deemed newsworthy, and impacts little news stories and speeches by politicians on immigra- or not at all on what is revealed. Such a journalistic tion respond to specific agendas and are far from strategy replaces balanced news reporting, and the objective. Relational experience (direct or indirect) progressive monopolization of this sector leads to con- with immigrants also affects perception, since attitudes tent homogenization by prioritising commercial interests towards the outgroup are rooted in prejudice and ste- over journalists’ vocational sense of social responsibility.

© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 141-148 148 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 I octubre. de 11-16 tina), D´H OPI. Madrid: inmigración. la de caras dos Las (2005). J. Nicolás, Díez Sage. Oaks: sand E Austin, Conference. USA. International Biennial Ninth Asso ciation’s. Agenda- of Kingdom. United Study the in Case Effects Setting A Opinion: Public and Union ropean C inmigrantes y las políticas de integración. de políticas las y inmigrantes the Social Integration of Foreigners in Germany 1980-2000: In 1980-2000: Germany di in Foreigners of Integration Social the D Studies,(1); gration 34 Determinants. Contextual and vidual I Studies,(1); 32 Ex Autónomas. Comunidades Spain´s in clusionism Foreinger and Attitudes Interethnic Threat, matters migrants D 847-60. 23; Newspapers. Regional Dutch in kers almost regardless of the real economic situation. 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(2010). The Relationship between . 285-295. Madrid: Observatorio Español de Ra AL HA & H.A. , (2008). El tratamiento informativo de ; 5-29. ; HENG 550-69. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 32 (7); 32 Studies,Racial and Ethnic New York: Worth Publishers. Worth York: New . (2007). Efectos cognitivos y afec- y cognitivos Efectos (2007). . Migraciones,17; ORODZEISKY mrcn ora o So of ciolo Journal American gy, Opinión de los españoles en ma AL OEMAN ORODZEISKY . , L. (2005). La inmigración en inmigración La (2005). L. 21) Clua Vle and Values Cultural (2010). ocw Uiest Eco University Moscow: DE , 937-50. International Journal of J. (2005). (Re)presenta- (2005). J. 87-104. uoen Sociological European V , REESE , A. (2006). The Rise The (2006). A. A. (2008). Foreig (2008). A. 143-181. Barcelona: Tus Barcelona: ; 297-316. ; , .. (1999). C.H. I GARTUA Commu ni ; 586-611. ; ; 635-651. ; , J.J. ; 97- ; ------© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: 149 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 150 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011

© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 INVESTIGACIONES / RESEARCH l R. Repiso, D. Torres y E. Delgado Received: 10-02-2011 / Revised: 08-03-2011 Accepted: 31-03-2011 / Published: 01-10-2011 Granada & Pamplona (Spain) http://dx.doi.org/10.3916/C37-2011-03-07 Bibliometric and Social Network Analysis Applied to Television Dissertations Presented in Spain (1976/2007) Análisis bibliométrico y de redes sociales en tesis doctorales españolas sobre televisión (1976/2007) ABSTRACT This paper analyses the productive structure in Spanish television research. Data from theses about Spanish television which had been defended in this country over the period 1976/2007 was extracted. Two methodologies are used within this analysis: a bibliometric analysis and Social Network Analysis (SNA). Results show the production of theses by time period, university, these advisors and examination board members. The use of social networks leads us in the identification of notable academic groups operating in the present period as well as tendencies in the composition of the board in terms of university of origin and thesis advisor. There are 404 theses on television written in this period. The results indicate a general and constant increase in the number of theses, especially noticeable over the last 15 years. Regarding scientific production, the Complutense University of Madrid stands out as the most productive. The structural analysis shows that only the Complutense University of Madrid, the Autonomous University of Barcelona, University of Navarre and the University of La Laguna generate their own research groups. Professors shaping the Spanish research system for television are found through the analysis of social networks. Leading positions within the network structure are held by professors of communication from the Complutense University of Madrid and the Autonomous University of Barcelona. RESUMEN El presente trabajo es un análisis de la estructura productiva de la investigación española sobre televisión a través de los datos extraídos de las tesis doctorales sobre televisión en Spain en el período 1976/2007. Para ello se utilizan dos metodologías diferentes; el análisis bibliométrico y el análisis de redes sociales. Para localizar las tesis doctorales se ha utilizado la base de datos bibliográfica Teseo. Los resultados describen la producción según quinquenios, universidades, directores y evaluadores. Se generan redes sociales para identificar grupos académicos que caracterizaron el período estudiado y tendencias de selección en tribunales según director y universidad. El número total de tesis producidas en el período estudiado es de 404 títulos. La tendencia general indica un incremento constante en todos los períodos con un crecimiento exponencial en los últimos 15 años. Son las universidades históricas de Comu- nicación las que destacan en la producción, siendo la Universidad Complutense la que capitaliza el mayor número de tesis leídas. El análisis estructural demuestra que solamente la Universidad Complutense, la Universidad Au - tónoma de Barcelona, la Universidad de Navarra y la Universidad de la Laguna generan grupos propios. A través del análisis de redes sociales se localiza a los profesores que estructuran el sistema de investigación español en tele- visión. Las posiciones predominantes dentro de la estructura de la red son ocupadas principalmente por catedráticos de Comunicación de la Universidad Complutense y Autónoma de Barcelona. KEYWORDS / PALABRAS CLAVE Social network, bibliometric, dissertations, thesis, university, audiovisual communication, television. Redes sociales, bibliometría, tesis doctorales, comunicación audiovisual, televisión, universidad.

v Rafael Repiso is Lecturer at the Social Sciences Department and is Head Director of the library at Escuela Superior de Comunicación (ESCO) of the University of Granada ([email protected]). v Dr. Daniel Torres-Salinas is Research-Support Assistant at the Applied Medicine Research Centre (CIMA) of the University of Navarre ([email protected]). v Dr. Emilio Delgado López-Cózar is Full Professor of the Library Studies Department at the Communication and Information Studies School of the University of Granada ([email protected]).

Comunicar, 37, v. XIX, 2011, Scientific Journal of Media Literacy; ISSN: 1134-3478; pages 151-159 www.revistacomunicar.com 152

1. Introduction Communication, leading to a vast compendium of The study of doctoral theses is extremely valuable, papers and books on this matter. since they are one of the best reflections of research The aim of this study is to characterize the produc- areas, trends and capabilities in university settings. tion of doctoral theses on television in Spain between Further more, it is an ideal way to understand the 1976 and 2007, through two complementary social structure of research, which allows us not only methods: biobliometric analysis and social network to analyse the evolution of research for a given area of analysis (SNA). Therefore, this paper has a two-fold

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 study, but also to identify the main stakeholders and aim: to quantify and track the production of doctoral the existing relationships between them. Various theses per university, thesis advisor and participation in factors influence and enable the processes of creation committees, and to identify the main stakeholders in and subsequent evaluation of a successful doctoral television research in Spain and how they related to thesis. In other words, the research topic, related dis- each other. The latter objective requires the use of cipline, department, thesis advisor and current univer- two methods: bibliometrics and SNA. Existing rela- sity regulations may determine the final characteristics tionships between the different stakeholders in the of a thesis. For a PhD candidate, choosing a thesis process of creating and evaluating a doctoral thesis are advisor may be one of the most important decisions, as identified thanks to SNA. In particular, the advisors students consider their advisor as someone who has and members of committees are identified, thus the right research background to advise them throug- making it possible to identify schools and faculties con- hout a long process, during which both theoretical and ducting research on television that were invisible at the methodological doubts normally arise. University and moment. The social network relations can be extrac- research policies also play a crucial role. They are ted from the composition of the examining committees stimuli for boosting research production in most acade- because as the committee composition is suggested by mic areas, resulting in an increasing number of theses. the PhD student and their advisor. The university will Finally, research tradition in university departments then endorse their suggestion. SNA has been used in plays a decisive role in the quality and quantity of this study to visualize the invisible structures underlying doctoral theses. Tradition articulates the ways of high television research in Spain, as has been the case in education in the different universities, and therefore previous group studies (Cross, Borgatti & Parker, the postgraduate and PhD studies offered by each 2002). school. This factor becomes the motor that drives thesis production. 2. Material and methods The fact that doctoral theses themselves are a A descriptive longitudinal and retrospective study research topic proves their relevance. Numerous stu- of doctoral theses on television that were defended in dies on doctoral theses have been conducted in Spain. Spain between 1976 and 2007 was conducted. The Fuentes and Arguimbau (2010) presented a classifica- Teseo database, kept by the Spanish Ministry for tion of studies on theses based on the methodology Education, was the main data source. This database used (either general or field-specific); up to 18 diffe- consists of a compilation of information on doctoral rent topics were identified as research areas. Due to theses presented in Spanish universities. One of the their similarities in terms of method and topic, it is most important features of Teseo is that it comprises worth mentioning studies in doctoral theses in the field records of the theses produced over a long period of of Bibliometrics (Delgado, Torres, Jimenez & Ruiz- time (since 1976), together with exhaustive descrip- Pérez, 2006), Public Relations (Castillo & Xifra, 2006: tions of bibliographical records, which include highly 141-161) (Xifra & Castillo, 2006: 302-308), and interesting data like the names of the members of Radio (Repiso, Torres & Delgado, 2011). Never the - committees. Nevertheless, there are some problems less, similar studies have not been conducted in every related to record standardization with Teseo, as has field. No studies have addressed television research in been mentioned in previous studies (Delgado, Torres, Spain. Similarly, no specific descriptive studies have Jiménez & Ruiz-Pérez, 2006; Delgado, Fernández & focused on television research in Spain apart from Torres, 2011). In terms of inclusiveness, it is worth those carried out in the framework of broader studies mentioning that not every doctoral thesis in existence on Communication. In this regard, the research can be found in the database: only those that have carried out by Daniel Jones (1994, 1997, 1998, 2000) been submitted by the PhD candidate or university are stands out, since it has triggered a massive interest in included in the catalogue. However, the most proble- measuring and understanding research in the field of matic aspect regarding coverage, affects recent theses,

since not enough time has elapsed from the submis- Finally, all the records were exported to an ad hoc sion/entry of every file. According to Fuentes and Microsoft® Access 2007 database. Arguimbau (2010: 76), it is estimated that Teseo The software program Pajek 2.0 was used to contains 74.9% of the total number of theses produced analyse social networks. The resulting social networks in the academic year 2006-07 and 66.7% of those pro- were mainly related by co-participation of the different duced in 2007-08. These percentages were calcula- stakeholders in committees of theses on television, ted in 2010, the year when the data for this study namely the candidate, advisor and members of the were collected. Despite such limitations, Teseo is the examination committee. The analysis of social net- Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 only tool compiling the theses presented in Spanish works generated by exam committees required desig- universities and virtually the only one used in quantita- ning different symmetrical matrixes for type-1 net- tive studies. works. Members of the committee are represented by The time period analysed covers three decades, starting in 1976, when the first records were entered in the database, In this study 404 doctoral theses on television written in and ending in 2007. Over the first two years only one thesis Spain between 1976 and 2007 were identified. Most of was recorded, the one written them (67%) were defended between 1998 and 2007. This by Mariano Cebrian. There - fore, the first «five-year» period is probably due both to the massive increase of the potential in this study actually includes seven years (1976-82). This of Spanish university for producing research and to the enables a better time distribu- effect of different policies and reforms in the research arena. tion. As shown in previous studies (Jones & al., 2000), Likewise, the evolution of the number of theses compared to only one thesis on television was written before 1976 the total number of theses presented in Spain indicates that (Moragas, 1974). This work research on television has followed the same pattern as in can be considered the start of television research in Spain. other fields in Spain. This study covers the first thirty years of dissertation studies about television in Spain. Exhaustiveness in data retrieval was paramount in means of a node and co-participation or coincidence designing a strategy to search for relevant theses. For in the same committee is represented by means of a this reason, we opted to retrieve the data and create a non-directed edge. In order to increase network visibi- targeted database of theses written on the field of lity, edges with values exceeding two relationships2 Communication and to then narrow these down to were used in medium networks (of up to one thou- those theses specific to television. To this end, all the sand nodes) and those exceeding three relationships in theses written in departments of universities offering large networks (with over one thousand nodes). Communication studies were collected in the first It is relevant to identify existing relationships sho- «round». Next, analysis of the terms used in the theses wing communication between nodes during the struc- titles was conducted by using the keywords «Tele - tural analysis. Research breakthroughs in this and other vis*», «audiencias» [audiences], «series» [series] and fields are highly dependent on communication betwe- «canal» [channel] in the fields «Title» and «Abstract» en researchers (Cole & Cole, 1973). of the Teseo search engine. The number of resulting theses totalled 387. Inserting data manually solved the 3. Results problem of absence of data in some fields, such as the 3.1. Production of theses on television: evolution advisor or the members of the committee. Results and universities were contrasted with those obtained in Jones et al. The total number of doctoral theses on television (2000). As a result, 19 more theses absent in Teseo defended in Spain between 1976 and 2007 amounts were included in the compilation, totalling 404 theses. to 404. Figure 1 shows the evolution of production in

(14%) and the University of Navarra with 27 (7%). Given their short tradition in Communication studies, the presence of the Universities of Seville, Malaga and Valencia in the ranking is worth mentioning. Regarding the evolution of the five most productive universities per five-year period, the Complutense University in Madrid stands out. It registers a constant increase in

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 the number of theses and is systematically the leading university in every period. Only those universities with at least four doctoral theses are included.

Figure 1. Evolution of theses on television written in Spain bet- 3.2. Doctoral thesis advisors and participation in ween 1976 and 2007 per five-year period. examination committees five-year periods since 1976. There has been an Table 2 shows the names of professors who have ongoing increase in the number of theses written on been the advisors of at least three doctoral theses3. this topic, which coincides with the increasing number The Complutense University of Madrid is the leading of theses produced in the rest of academic fields. The school, with 14 different advisors. Two notable advi- first theses on television in Spain were written in the sors at this University are Mariano Cebrian Herreros, late seventies and the numbers increased in the eigh- the advisor with the highest number of theses (10), ties. However, a significant breakthrough was not and Jose Ramón Pérez Ornía, who has advised on registered until the late nineties, with 129 theses pro- five theses. The Autonomous University of Barcelona duced between 1998 and 2002. The highest produc- is the second school with the highest number of advi- tion turnover was registered in the last period (2003- sors, in particular six professors. Two of them, Emilio 07) with 142 theses, although production increased Prado Pico and Miguel de Moragas Spa, rank second less rapidly and seemed to stabilise around similar figu- and third, with eight and six theses, respectively. The res. Complutense University and the Autonomous Regarding the schools where theses were presen- University of Barcelona are the schools with the most ted, 41 different universities were identified in the productive advisors. The ten professors with at least analysis. The ten most productive ones generated 70% five theses are from one of those two universities. of the theses (table 1). The Complutense University in Other universities have an important presence in the Madrid ranks first with 128 (32%) theses, followed by list, such as the University of Navarra with four advi- the Autonomous University of Barcelona with 56 sors with at least three theses and the salient Juan José García Noblejas, as well as the universities of Malaga and La Laguna. The absence of advisors from the Uni - versity of Seville is striking, since it ranks as the fourth most productive university in the period analysed. This gap is due to the fact that research production generated in this University is distributed among a large number of professors instead of being linked to one specific advisor. Table 3 contains the names of scholars with the Table 1. Number, percentage and evolution of the number of theses on television written in highest participation rate in Spanish universities between 1976 and 2007 per five-year period. exam committees. Prado Pi -

co, Fernández del Moral and Bustamante Ramírez have been appointed examiners on over 20 occasions. In this regard, the Complutense University and the Autonomous

University of Barcelona Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 are the leading universities. Apart from their participation in examining committees, we were interested in analyzing Table 2. Professors who have advised more than two theses written on television theses where this examining 1976 and 2007. committees took place. for the period 1978-87 (no data on the members of This provides valuable information about the influen- the committee is available for theses written before ce of the professor based on the number of theses that 1978) featuring two highly differentiated components. were discussed at the professor’s own university, the The first component is found on the left-hand side and number argued at other universities, and how many comprises a united group of researchers who have different universities the theses were argued at. García participated in examining committees of theses advised García presents an interesting case, since he has parti- by Tomas Ferré (Polytechnic University of Valencia). cipated in 17 exam committees, six of them at the Mattalia Alonso is one of the main committee mem- Complutense University in Madrid, where he teaches, bers included in this group. The second component is and 11 committees held in seven different Spanish uni- of a more heterogeneous nature. Even though most of versities. This fact indicates that he is a figure of natio- the researchers included come from the Complutense nal re nown. On the contrary, some researchers with a University of Madrid (Antonio Lara García, J. María high participation rate like Palacio Arranz (Complu - Desantes and Pedro J. Pinillos), members from other tense University of Madrid), Moragas Spa (Autono - universities, such as the Autonomous University of mous University of Barcelona), or García Fernández Barcelona (Miquel de Moragas) and the University of (Complutense University of Madrid) have mainly par- Navarra (Alfonso Nieto Tamargo and Angel Benito), ticipated in committees held at their universities. are also present. An evolution of the co-participation network is 3.3. Networks of co-participation in examining identified in the second period (1988-97). Firstly, a committees Once the main stakeholders are identified, graphs enable us to observe the social structure of co- participation in examining committees. They may represent invisible schools. As a general rule, the total network for 1976-2007 comprises 1,593 participants interrelated by means of 7,505 links. Among them, 7,021 (93.5%) are attached to value 1, which may mean a single coincidence in a committee. The network increasingly incorporates a higher number of nodes, increases in cohesion and density, thus requiring superior measurement units for representation. Figure 2 shows the Table 3. Number and type of participation in committees of theses on television in the reduced co-participation network period 1997-2007.

higher number of professors with at least two co-participations is registered. Secondly, sub-groups are more interrelated even though there are still two main components. The mediating task of scholars like Fernández del Moral is clearly

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 visible in the network (figure 3), showing the strong connection between the Complutense University of Madrid and the University of Na - va rra. Similarly, Bustamante Ramí - Figure 2. Network of scholars with at least two co-participations in examining committees rez has strong links connecting the of theses presented between 1978 and 1987. Complutense University of Ma drid, the University of Barcelona and the University of the Basque Country. Exchanges of members of examining Figure 4 shows the network for the period 1998- committees affect the same teachers. Universities tend 2007. In this case (due to limited space), the graph is to appoint certain members systematically. A striking based on three instead of two co-participations. A fact is the isolated nature of the node led by Ventín higher number of stakeholders and interactions is regis- Pereira of the Complutense University of Madrid, tered. Two components are identified: the one for the who participates in committees that are not connected Complutense University of Madrid and the one rela- to the rest of the network. The cohesion of the net- ted to the Autonomous University of Barcelona. As work for this period suggests that the studies on tele - shown in Table 1, these components represent vision are more mature and consolidated. A shift is leading groups in theses production. One of the cha- registered, with nodes that changed from representing racteristics of this period is the incorporation of new, slightly interconnected groups attached to specific uni- properly-defined sub-groups within universities. Two versities in the first study period to a network with a sub-groups linked by Cebrián Herreros and Pablos higher frequency of exchanges. Coello, respectively, are found in the node on the right-hand side, which is regarding the Complutense University. The one for the Autonomous University of Barcelona on the left-hand side also includes two groups. One of them is strikingly large and related to Bustamante Ramírez. The second group has strong links with the first one through Bustamante and Palacio Arranz. It is worth mentioning that other universities orbit around the Complutense Uni- versity or the Autonomous Uni - versity of Barcelona rather than being tightly grouped. A further group could be considered if the graph were based on two rather than three co-participations. It would be grouped around the University of Navarra and led by Sánchez Tabernero. Figure 3. Network of scholars with at least two co-participations in examining committees for The same display method theses written between 1988 and 1997. was used to create a figure of

the «Network of scholars with at least 3 co-participa- worth mentioning (eight times). Likewise, the ten- tions in committees of theses defended between 1976 dency of Pérez Ornía to appoint García Fernández is and 2007» (https://sites.google.com/site/ torressalinas- salient. One of the most interesting aspects is the triad /archivos1/Red1978-2007.tif). The total network made up by Bustamante Ramírez, Lara García and (1976-2007) comprises 1,593 members of committees Prado Pico, who are consciously rather than randomly related to each other by means of 7,505 links. Once selected, as may be the case in co-participations. The reduced, the network comprises 13 components. Four Complutense University of Madrid and the Autono- of them have three nodes each. The main component mous University of Barcelona are connected and the Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 has 54 scholars, including the main researchers doing leading figures identified. In addition, various general television research in Spain collected by means of phenomena are identified. First of all, the majority of doctoral theses. The Complutense University of Ma - advisors tend to appoint someone from their own uni- drid, the Autonomous University of Barcelona, the versity, which is in agreement with the logics of Uni versity of La Laguna and the University of Navarra relevant regulations. Secondly, preferences are not are the only ones capable of generating their own reciprocal except between Orive Riva and Fernández research groups in the field of television. Other univer- del Moral. Finally, very few members of committees sities do not have their own groups. Therefore, their are preferred by two advisors, except Bustamante scholars depend on the Complutense University of Ramí rez. Madrid and to a lesser extent on the Autonomous An increase in the aggregation level and the prefe- University of Barcelona to form a group. The thickness rential appointment of certain examiners by universi- of connecting lines represents the level of the relations- ties is obtained in the «Network of preferences in hip between the different stakeholders. As a result, appointment of examiners for theses on television solid connections can be identified, such as the one shown by universities in Spain between 1976 and between Franquet Calvo and Prado Pico or the one 2007». The reduced network implies that only those between Moragas Spa and Prado Pico. relationships with values over three are included. Co- appointment of certain examiners by specific universi- 3.4. Networks of committee selection per advisor ties indicates that similarities exist between their prefe- and university rred research topics and scholar exchanges. In this res- The analysis of social networks enables us to iden- pect, the Complutense University of Madrid and the tify preferences in member selection. Selection has Autonomous University of Barcelona are the ones with been analysed at two different levels: first, the profes- the highest number of common preferences. Five pro- sors that are most frequently appointed by a given fessors participate in committees held at either school advisor, resulting in the «Network of preferences in (Franquet Calvet, Prado Pico, García García, Busta- member selection per advisors of theses on television mante Ramírez and Ledó Andion). Apart from these defended in Spain between in 1976-2007» (https://- professors, the following stand out as scholars who are sites.google.com/site/torressalinas/archivos1/redselec- normally selected by two universities: Pablos Coello ciontribunal.jpg), and secondly, professors who are (Complutense University of Madrid and University of most frequently selected by universities, resulting in the La Laguna), Méndiz Noguero (from the University of «Network of preferences in member selection per university for theses on television defended in Spain in 1976-2007» (https: // si tes. goo - gle.com/si te/torressalinas/archivos1/- Redseleccionuniversi - dades.tif). In the network of selection preferences per advisor, preference given by Ce- brián Herreros to Fer - Figure 4. Network of scholars with at least three co-participations in examining committees presented nández del Moral is between 1998-2007.

© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 151-159 158 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 their field. their within nature multidisciplinary their from suggest, studies some as or, relationships up set to gift their from result may positions Leading community. research the of consolidation Commu of extent the portrays fact This nication. Audiovisual of field the in also and above mentioned areas the in research conduct who professionals specialized highly are (1998-2007) period last the in figures leading The of Madrid and the University of Na of Agui University and the varra), and Madrid of University the by appointed preferably is and Malaga iain tde cm tgte i dfeet periods different in together came studies nication Commu 1971-72. in tradition research shorter a with versities year uni- some that is fact academic interesting An production. thesis determining fact only the the not is history Nevertheless, in three those universities in offered first were studies munication com- studies: Communication in universities leading (6.65%). Navarra Autonomous of University the the and (13.7%) Barcelona of University by followed thesis (31.7%), leads production Madrid of University Complutense the universities, to regard With Spain. in fields other in as pattern same that the followed has indicates television on Spain research in presented theses of number total the to compared theses of number the of lution evo the Likewise, arena. research the in reforms and policies different of effect the to and research ducing pro- for university Spanish of potential the of massive increase the to both due probably is This 2007. and 1998 between defended were (67%) them of Most identified. were 2007 and 1976 between Spain in ten conclusions and Discussion 4. national higher renown. a with those by are preferred universities are several who professors those cases, most professors are preferably selected by one university. In University of Malaga). As a general rule, the rest of the and Madrid of University (Complutense Moyano lera This fact is related to the longer tradition of the of tradition longer the to related is fact This In this study 404 doctoral theses on television writ- - - - oos nvriy f acln ae h universities Complutense The groups. of number highest the with the are Barcelona of University nomous Auto the and Madrid of University Complutense the 2007b). 2007a; their from multidisciplinary nature within their field (Leydersdorf, suggest, studies some as or, relationships up set to gift their from result community. may positions research Leading the of consolidation of extent Commu Audiovisual of the portrays fact This nication. arch in the areas mentioned above and also in the field rese conduct who professionals specialized highly are television on focusing created. were groups research of addition, departments In the fields. other in of detriment the to Sciences written Information theses of increase network. They the contributed to the consolidation and quantitative in included were professors new 98), (1987- period second the Over as Moragas. de such Miquel cases special except television, in specialise research on television. Regarding participation in com- of consolidation and inception the to contributed and eighties Communi the Audiovisual since taught cation have Both advise. theses of number highest the with University of Barcelona stand out as the two professors Autonomous the from Pico Prado Emilio and Madrid of University Complutense the from Cebrian Mariano universities. other at studied had was due thanks to This the incorporation of professors who Seville. of University the and Malaga of versity Uni the of case the was as 2003-07), (1998-2002; In addition, the chronological evolution shows that The leading figures in the last period (1998-2007) Spain, in television on theses advising of terms In © ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 151-159 Pages 1988-3293• e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: rs eatet ad i not did and departments Arts came and Sciences Information from professors most 87), (1976- period first the time. During over specialized more becomes and net increases works in scholars of number the which in way the SNA shows Period-based origin). of university their universities (excluding different in tees commit- of number highest the in participated have they universities, since Spanish in ned renow- most the are Prado E. and García García F. figures. notable two are Moral del dez E. Fernán J. A. Pico, and Bustamante Prado E. mittees, - - - - - D Collaboration. Strategic Support to Analysis Network Social Using Visible: Work C Press. 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ORGATTI OCHE CaliforniaManagementReview, (2); 44 ERNÁNDEZ ORRES OLE IFRA , C.; E , , S.P. & P & S.P. , , , D.; J D.; , . (1973). S. J. (2006). Investigación bibliométrica de las de bibliométrica Investigación (2006). J. SCOBAR -C ANO IMÉNEZ ARKER , A. & T P oil taiiain n Science. in Stratification Social ÉREZ , E. & R & E. , , , B. & L A. (2002). Making Invisible Making (2002). A. ORRES UIZ ARRINAGA , -P D. (2011). Control ÉREZ , , 25-46. R. (2006). R. C. (2007). Arbor - - - ; M J Citation Index. Science Citation Social the and Index Citation Science the between faces J 87-98. Comunicació; ibérica. Europa y tina J cooperativos. (1) DocumentaciónCientífica,Española33 de Revista repositorios y estadísticas análisis, (1997/2008): ña X Mujer. la bibliométrico y bibliográficorepertorio . Sevilla: Instituto Andaluz de Análisis (1976/2005): España de universidades las en mujeres las (3); Dissertation of Study Quantitative Development. Theory to A Contribution Spain: in Research lations R masses.de L noranta. anys iberoamericana. ción J perspectivas. y Evolución J Autonomies. les de panya En noranta. F Documentación de Española (4); Científica,29 Revista académicas. redes y ficas T (4). Científica,28 investigación. de en indicador un finitivo de propósito A (1976/2002): España en mujeres las L and Science InformationTechnology, (9) 58 Journals.the Interdisciplinary Journal Society of forthe American T número]. del editor el estructura la de social de visualización una especialidad académica. y análisis de instrumento un 2008: 1976/ período el en so radio de doctorales tesis las a aplicado ciales J aa Arxmcó bbimtia ls ei dcoae (1926/ doctorales 1998). tesis las a bibliométrica Aproximación paña. ONES ONES ONES ONES ONES ONES EYDESDORFF EYDESDORFF UENTES EPISO IFRA ORRES ORRES ORAGAS 302-308. , J. & C , D.E. (2000). Investigació sobre comunicació a Catalunya als , España. en comunicación sobre Investigación (1998). D.E. , l’Es a social comunicació sobre Investigació (1997). D.E. , , , D.E. & , R.; T R.; , Barcelona: Comcat. Barcelona: D.E. (1994). Investigació sobre comunicació al’Espanya dels , I. & T & I. , , I. & T D.E. (1999). Investigaciones en España sobre la comunica- la sobre España en Investigaciones (1999). D.E. , E. & A S Barcelona: Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona. de Autónoma Universitat Barcelona: PÁ V , , ORRES ASTILLO , TreballsComunicació,de 13-14 ARIOS L. (2007a). Betweenness Centrality as an Indicator of L. (2007b). Mapping Interdisciplinarity at the Inter the at Interdisciplinarity Mapping (2007b). L. M. (1974). AL ORRES ORRES Scientometrics,(3) 71 RGUIMBAU . (2000). 493-524. , D. & D & D. , : , Cultura y comunicación social: América La América social:comunicación y Cultura , . (2007). D. , Comunicación y Sociedad, 35 ComunicaciónSociedad, y D. (2005). Tesis doctorales sobre estudios de A. (2006). Forty Years of Doctoral Public Re Zer,5; acln: ete ’netgcó e la de d’Investigació Centre Barcelona: Anàlisi, 21; Anàlisi, Perspectiva semiótica de la comunicació Investigación sobre comunicación en Es , L. (2010). Las tesis doctorales en Es pa ELGADO eit Epñl d Documentación de Española Revista 13–52. Tesisdoctorales de estudios sobre , E. (2011). El análisis de redes de análisis El (2011). E. , ; 391-405. ; Arbor 101-120. PublicRelationsReview, 32 ; 1303-1319. ; [Artículo aceptado por ; 41-55. ; ; 229-268. ; ; 63-89. ; ------159 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 160 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011

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Received: 02-02-2011 / Revised: 03-03-2011 l G. Brändle, M.A. Cárdaba & J.A. Ruiz Accepted: 01-04-2011 / Published: 01-10-2011 Murcia & Madrid (Spain) http://dx.doi.org/10.3916/C37-2011-03-08 The Risk of Emergence of Boomerang Effect in Communication against Violence Riesgo de aparición del efecto boomerang en las comunicaciones contra la violencia

ABSTRACT Violent behaviors cause concern among people, policy makers, politicians, educators, social workers, parents associations, etc. From different fields and perspectives, measures are taken to try to solve the problem of violence. Institutional communication campaigns against violence and the publication of news related to violent events are often some of the actions used by policy makers. But some of the literature and data have shown that its effectiveness is not always exactly as expected. And even some anti-violence messages, can have the opposite effect and reinforce the attitudes of those who thought that violence is necessary. The hypothesis is that most people assume with no problem the core message of anti-violence campaigns. But, and this is the key issue and most problematic, individuals who are more likely to be violent (precisely those who should address such communications) could react to anti- violence message in a violent way. There is a tragic paradox: the anti-violence message could increase the predisposition to violent behavior. This would be a case of what some literature called boomerang effect. This article highlights the need for detailed empirical studies on certain effects of media (desensitization, imitation, accessibility and reactance), which could help explain the emergence of the boomerang effect. RESUMEN Los comportamientos violentos causan inquietud entre los responsables públicos (políticos, educadores, asistentes sociales, asociaciones de madres y padres, etc.) que, desde diversos ámbitos, toman medidas que tratan de dar solu- ción al problema de la violencia. La difusión de campañas institucionales de comunicación en contra de la violencia y el fomento de la publicación de noticias relacionadas con sucesos violentos suelen ser algunas de las acciones uti- lizadas. No obstante, parte de los datos y de la literatura disponible han demostrado que su eficacia no siempre es la esperada e, incluso, dichas acciones pueden llegar a tener efectos contrarios al deseado y reforzar las actitudes de los que piensan que la violencia es necesaria. Se sostiene la hipótesis de que la mayoría de la población asumiría como propios los mensajes contrarios a la violencia. Sin embargo –y esto es la cuestión clave y más problemática– son justo aquellos individuos con mayor propensión a la violencia (precisamente aquellos a quienes deberían dirigirse tales comunicaciones) quienes podrían reaccionar ante el mensaje antiviolencia de un modo no deseado. Se da una dramática paradoja: el mensaje antiviolencia podría aumentar la predisposición a desarrollar comportamientos violentos. Estaríamos ante un caso de lo que cierta literatura denomina efecto boomerang. Por último, se señala la necesidad de un estudio detallado sobre determinados efectos de los medios de comunicación (insensibilización, imita- ción, accesibilidad y reactancia), que podrían ayudar a explicar la aparición de dicho efecto boomerang. KEYWORDS / PALABRAS CLAVE Media effects, violence, institutional campaigns, the boomerang effect, desensitization, imitation, accessibility, reactance. Efectos de los medios, violencia, campañas, efecto boomerang, insensibilización, imitación, accesibilidad, reactancia.

v Dr. Gaspar Brändle Senan is Assistant Professor of the Department of Sociology and Social Policy at the Faculty of Economics and Business of the University of Murcia (Spain) ([email protected]). v Dr. Miguel Angel Martin Cardaba is Associate Professor of the Department of Communication at the University Centre Villanueva in Madrid (Spain) ([email protected]). v Dr. José Antonio Ruiz San Roman is Professor of the Department of Sociology VI at the Faculty of Information Sciences of the University Complutense of Madrid (Spain) [email protected]).

Comunicar, 37, v. XIX, 2011, Scientific Journal of Media Literacy; ISSN: 1134-3478; pages 161-168 www.revistacomunicar.com 162 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 against violence, but at the same time, b) the data sug data the b) time, same the at but violence, against made being is effort communicative important an a) facts: proven two with begin We failing. be may they to why extent explain and effective the are measures consider these which to order in violence against campaigns sensitization and awareness on focus that possible. as much as conduct violent minimize to implement different initiatives to eradicate or at least begun have organizations etc.) associations, Anti-violence social-action (NGOs, diverse and institutions public Numerous whole. a as society concerns most problem social a as Violence Introduction. 1. rcsl we mr maue ae en pt into put being problem social serious this eradicate are to place measures is more now that when fact precisely the despite trend worrying similar a show also decade last the during Spain in violence increase: significant a of experienced has crimes violent number total the decade, last the in example, For some of the with indicators reflecting truly alarming statistics. decreased, not has awareness behavior these violent campaigns, of existence the Despite achieved. million 4 cost fund. cero to euros tolerancia maltratador, violence el gender Ante against campaign state-funded the 2008 in Equality, of Ministry Spanish the to example, according For economic years. several last significant the over a investment required have campaigns awareness anti-violence the that is underway is effort gest that this effort is not generating the desired results. h saitc o te curne f ilne remain violence of significant a show not do occurrence or unchanged, the on statistics the why explain would This violence. of use the against population the sensitize to designed campaigns the of social that possible reasons may evident be the clearly limited effectiveness is it phenomenon can Although result from diverse causes, one of the wrong? going is Sources: Interior Security Studies Cabinet. Ministry of Interior, and Ministry of Health, Social Policy and Policy Social Health, of Ministry and Interior, of Ministry Cabinet. Studies Security Interior Sources: In this article we concentrate on those initiatives those on concentrate we article this In Today violent behavior is one of the problems that enhl, h saitc o vcis f gender of victims of statistics the Meanwhile, beenyet Nevertheless,nothave desiredresults the dissemination important an that evidence The Therefore, the question that needs asking is: What decrease. Equality. 1 . - even on occasion have used their cellular phones to phones cellular their used have occasion on even and Internet, or the on to posted violence indifference watching enjoy show others, of hooliganism the record to desire their confess people young these that (García reveal study this of behavior results The 2008). violent al., & Galera to prone particularly are population adult young and that child the demonstrates of minors 10% age roughly of 1053 years 16 of and 10 Madrid between of Region Autonomous the from sample a minors, among phones cellular of expected. those than them in responses different generate could campaign the to exposure their case the in and diverse quite be may campaign the of means that the characteristics of the intended recipient This is. audience target our who directed, is message the whom to determine to is follow to steps first the problem the of root The 2. detail. in them of some discuss will we article, this lines of reasoning can aid in explaining the problem. In Several violence. of types all against effective more be would that campaigns new developing to key the find their apparent failure, and at the same time allow us to behind causes the identify anti-violence and campaigns awareness of consequences social the determine effect. boomerang the violent behavior; resulting in what some literature calls developing for them in predisposition higher a cause may very message campaign’s the a that in way, in undesirable messages these towards to propensity react may higher that violence a with individuals of ber anti- the num reduced a is there own, their as message violence on take people of majority the although that is hypothesis Our generated. being is effect unforeseen perverse an that possibility the issue: problematic of ineffectiveness these campaigns, the but also of a much about more relevant and talking only not are we case, this In campaigns? awareness after increase acts According to data from a 2008 survey on the use the on survey 2008 a from data to According of one campaign, awareness an designing When to needed is reflection critical context, this In violent of number the that explain one can How © ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 161-168 Pages 1988-3293• e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: ir n that and vior beha- violent to prone more are people some that mind in keep to important cially espe- be may it violence, against campaigns sensitization of - the one by Bushman and Stack (1996) in which they which in (1996) Stack and Bushman by one the as such studies cite could one although investigations, consumption alcohol on 2002). (Ringold, focus that those or 1997); 1999); campaigns against drug use (Feingold & Knapp, al., & Unger 1997; Killen, & Robinson 1979; Birrell, & (Hyland smoking of risks the stress that campaigns following: the are significance special Of effect. rang boome- of the on gathered abundance being is evidence an empirical behaviors, certain developing of risks the about warn to used are campaigns tional message. institutional the from effect boomerang the experience or reject to prone more are who addicts) drug- or smokers target (alcoholics, campaigns these very of audience the precisely be may it that appear would it fact, In one. intended the to contrary effect an generating be could campaigns these ces, circumstan- certain in that ted other demonstra- been has or it drugs), tobacco of alcohol, (abuse problems public health and social different to respect with population the sensitizing at aimed campaigns awareness of dissemination the undesired of consists behavior social combat to used strategy institutional main the dence evi- Empirical campaigns: awareness in effect boomerang the of risk The 3. intended message. the the of recipient is unquestionably that audience target this sensitize to aim our that campaigns anti-violence ning In desig when in. considered be should participate data this opinion, sometimes occasion on but enable, only not they which violence, of an acts certain demonstrate toward tolerance youths and insensitivity of degree certain elevated which in a scenario witnessing are We coexistence. social to relevant qualitatively and quantitatively is that phenomenon a these posted have MySpace). (YouTube, Internet the on recordings or professors) on example, played (for acts pranks violent or humiliating fights, film © ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 161-168 Pages 1988-3293• e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: In the field of violence, there is a limited corpus of corpus limited a is there violence, of field the In institu- where fields of variety a in respect, this In above, mentioned as If, with us presents and data, alarming clearly is This sensitization campaigns in the media). the in campaigns sensitization and awareness anti-violence the as (such used strategies communication the and conduct) violent all of eradication the as (such policy social for responsible those by proposed objectives the between adaptation of lack the to related be could behavior violent ending of difficulties the summary, In violence. on dissemination information and campaigns ness aware the in reactance psychological and accessibility tion, imita desensitization, of effects the consider to need The - on media effects media on effects media proven the on based explanation An 4.1. campaigns awareness lence anti-vio- in effect boomerang the of risk The 4. violence. real of level higher a consequence, a as and violence, measured of consumption higher a the violence, of to leads labels these of use the acts that be would problem and impulses subsequent the the hip exists between the exposure to violent content and viewing for relations- a demonstrated, been has it as If, interest programs. audience’s the the about increase alert could content that violent with labels programs of of broadcasting use the how reveal n yug dl population adult young and child the in behavior violent develop to tendency the and violence audiovisual of consumption the between exists that relationship the on community scientific the ted empirical evidence, such as the ample consensus in e a cite can we of situations studied in different countries. Among others, variety a in obtained been equally have and results women, significant and men both have for conclusions made been Relevant term. long and medium short, the for demonstrated been have effects These the with media games) generation of violent thoughts, attitudes, and behavior. video the in in and television content on violent (mainly to exposure the ting correla when results significant achieved have studies There is a long tradition of in depth studies done studies depth in of tradition long a is There h suis y usan n Moise and Huesmann by studies the 2 . Some of these effects have contras- have effects these of Some . 3 I fc, nme of number a fact, In . - - - 163 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 164

(1996), Anderson (1997), Anderson and Dill (2000), with smoking: while in the opinion of this author it is Anderson and Bushman (2002), Huesmann & al. evident that drinking bleach has an immediate adverse (2003), Anderson & al. (2003), Gentile & al. (2004), effect, smoking a cigarette does not appear to have and Huesmann and Taylor (2006). any, which makes the warning labels on cigarette In order to demonstrate the influence that the packs less effective. consumption of audiovisual violence may have on the When applying this reasoning to the question of generation of violent behavior, different mechanisms violence, it may be that some especially violent people

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 are used; among which the desensitization effect and feel a type of immunity effect regarding their actions, the imitation effect stand out. The former allows us to since the immediate consequences for the aggressor of explain why the anti-violence campaigns are ineffec- a violent action (for example the prison sentences tive in reducing the number of violent acts; while the associated) are seldom discussed. Violent people who latter could explain not only why the campaigns are consider violence to be a normal part of daily life not effective, but also why sometimes these campaigns (cognitive desensitization) may believe (the same as generate an effect contrary to the one desired by some smokers) that their violent conduct will not result increasing the probability that violent acts take place. in any negative consequences for them. Although the desensitization effect may not neces- 4.1.1. Desensitization effect sarily be related to the appearance of a boomerang Although it is true that the exposure to violent effect, it is important to highlight that the greater the content initially produces a rejection response, it is also desensitization the person experiences towards true that repeated exposure to violence ends up crea- violence, the less efficient the anti-violence awareness ting a process of decreased response or habituation. campaigns will be. Furthermore, if a person’s level of When presented with successive violent images, the desensitization impedes them from reacting to real-life spectator tends to show progressively smaller psycho- violence it is unlikely that the anti-violence messages logical and emotional responses. A state of emotional (that usually deliberately avoid using damaging images) desensitization can be reached in which there are no will have any effect on them. emotional responses to stimuli that when viewed for the first time caused a strong response. Similarly, a 4.1.2. Imitation effect cognitive desensitization is produced when violence is A social creature by nature, the human being no longer considered as something infrequent or learns to repeat or imitate behavior that is apparently abnormal and begins to be viewed as an inevitable and valid or common by observing the other members of its normal aspect of daily life. Both emotional and cogni- community. Because of this, one of the most characte- tive desensitization can influence behavior, resulting in ristic effects associated with the media is known either a decrease in the probability that the desensiti- precisely as the imitation effect. In the context of anti- zed person is critical of violent conduct or an increase violence awareness campaigns, this effect is produced in the probability that desensitized people develop solely in the case of messages that contain violence: aggressive conduct, which in turn may be more inten- news stories that contain explicit violence or cam- se (Drabman & Thomas, 1974; Drabman & Thomas, paigns that use images with violent content. 1976; Thomas & al., 1977; Molitor & Hirsch, 1994; This imitation effect can be produced through two Carnagey, Anderson & Bushman, 2006). different mechanisms, both possibly resulting in an The desensitization effect has also been studied in undesirable boomerang effect. They can be observed investigations on the effectiveness of warning labels on through increased violent conduct immediately follo- certain products that may be harmful to a person’s wing an awareness campaign or media piece contai- health or security. In these studies, the repeated expo- ning violence: sure to warning labels of all types (food, road safety, a) Instrumental validity: the spectator imitates the etc.) is found to be a contributing factor when people behavior they view because they deduce that it is use- stop paying attention to them, even leading them to ful, since the person who has carried out the action ignore many of them altogether (Twerski & al., 1976). has obtained something beneficial by behaving a This is especially true in those cases in which the certain way. In particular, in the context of violence, harmful consequences do not immediately arise after studies exist that demonstrate how children and engaging in the risky behavior, leading us to what adolescents not only tend to imitate the behavior of Breznitz (1984) calls false alarms. An example of this those people they interact with most frequently (family would be the messages warning of the risks associated members, parents, etc.) but also media personalities.

Along these lines, classic studies not only show that explanation is possible, based on the fact that the children imitate aggressive conduct exhibited by adult exposure to these images could cause these violent role models (Bandura & al., 1961), but that they also behaviors to be more accessible to the recipients’ imitate the conduct of fictional characters (Bandura & minds. Taking it a step further, accessibility (the ease al., 1963a). This is especially true when the imitated or speed that a construct or concept comes to mind) action is seen to have a reward (instrumental learning) could also help to explain the possible perverse effect or when the role model is admired or identified with. of anti-violence awareness campaigns even when they

Therefore, one can deduce from this that if the awa- do not contain violent content. In line with previous Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 reness campaigns contain violence, they could genera- investigations that found that the attempt to eliminate te more violence by imitation. Or in other words, it certain thoughts can make them even more accessible would be preferable that awareness campaigns and (Wegner, 1994), a hypothesis could be made that the news stories on violence avoid displaying violent con- mass media’s use of messages that refer to violence tent in order to avoid the imitation effect. (even when the ultimate purpose is to criticize it) can b) Social validity: the spectator imitates a conduct have a negative effect by activating and increasing that they perceive many people to be carrying out, and accessibility to violent thoughts and ideas, especially therefore, they presume that it must be correct beha- for those individuals already particularly prone to vior. Numerous studies show how people tend to violence. behave the same way other people do since the fact that other people behave a certain way is interpreted 4.2.2. Psychological reactance as a validating factor about the appropriateness of the Psychological reactance has been defined as the behavior (Gould & Shaffer, 1986; Reingen, 1982). state of psychological stimulation that arises when our This is a factor to consider when designing anti-violen- freedom appears to us to be limited or threatened ce awareness campaigns. Recent studies have shown (Brehm and Brehm, 1981). The most direct conse- that when trying to eradicate an undesirable behavior quence of this state is a tendency to resist everything (for example violent behavior) a message that states that could be considered as a threat to one’s personal that unfortunately many people still behave in a certain liberty (Brehm, 1966). Therefore, in the same way way may have the exact opposite effect since many of that we tend to show reactance when, for example, the campaigns focus the public’s attention (especially we are told how to think or we are given orders, we those with higher tendency towards the behaviors in tend to experience reactance when certain behaviors question) more on the prevalence of the action, provi- are forbidden (Dillard & Shen, 2005; Miller & al., ding it with more visibility, than the undesirability of 2006; Miller & al., 2007). This means that those the action (Cialdini, 2003; Cialdini & al., 2006; Shulz people who behave in a way that is criticized by the & al., 2007). Along these lines, recent studies (Vives, authorities reaffirm their actions as being a defense Torrubiano and Álvarez, 2009) have brought to light against a threat to their way of life. that television news reports on gender violence have a This is also the same motive that leads people to negative influence on the number of deaths attributed more intensely desire information that has been censo- to male violence. red (Worchel & Arnold, 1973). The explanation is found in the need that some people feel to engage in 4.2. Other mechanisms that could explain the risky or taboo behavior, or to violate societal norms. boomerang effect Stewart and Martin (1994) believe that the warning In addition to the aforementioned documented messages about the risks associated with certain beha- media effects, we deem appropriate the mention of viors attract the attention of some people, impelling two mechanisms that could explain the emergence of them to behave in the manner that was trying to be the boomerang effect after the dissemination of anti- prevented. It is like eating the forbidden fruit (Bushman violence awareness and sensitization campaigns: & Stack, 1996). enhanced accessibility and psychological reactance. As a result, many researchers have identified psychological reactance as one of the main factors for 4.2.1. Enhanced accessibility explaining the boomerang effect caused by different As we have already suggested, the use of images media campaigns (Bushman & Stack, 1996; Ringold, with violent content in anti-violence messages could 2002; Hornik & al., 2008). From our perspective, this increase the probability that violent behavior is repro- could also apply to the anti-violence campaigns that duced in the future. We believe that a new alternative generate a boomerang effect when individuals who

© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 161-168 166 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 awareness campaigns or portraying violence in the news. the in violence portraying or campaigns awareness anti-violence any designing when account into taken be should effects media on studies the in shown risks different the effects, negative any generating avoid to order in That 5. Conclusions 5. with contact into violence. criticize or use prohibit that campaigns come routinely lives daily who their or in violence violence to prone more are ht n mtto efc i psil big generated, being possibly is effect imitation an that mind in kept be should it hand, second the On nated. the dissemi- being messages the of ineffectiveness possible the suggesting thus to recipients, led the have of desensitization may messages those of reiteration the violence, of eradication the towards effect positive a had have may campaigns and information of tence exis- the first at Although consulted. be desensitization necessitate on the one hand that the existing studies on news. the in violence portraying or campaigns ness aware anti-violence any designing when account into risks different the taken be should effects media on studies the in shown effects, negative any generating consumption). drug of rang effect) just as in other areas (for example, the boome- case (the effects harmful in result could initiatives information these that and violence, preventing of goal their reach anti-violence or campaigns institutional well-meaning the of all not that out point to rather but violence, of causes only the are campaigns awareness institutional certain in or media the in violence about media). the in campaigns zation sensiti and awareness anti-violence the as (such used strategies communication the and conduct) violent all responsible for social policy (such as the eradication of those by proposed objectives the between adaptation of lack the to related be could behavior violent ending of difficulties the summary, In violence. on mination disse- information and campaigns awareness the in ce reactan- psychological and accessibility imitation, tion, h ne t cnie te fet o desensitiza of effects the consider to need The A two-fold proposal for reaching this goal would goal this reaching for proposal two-fold A avoid to order in that therefore, belief, our is It messages the that assert to not is here aim Our - - - 1 Social Policy and Equality) that has implemented diverse measures diverse implemented has that Equality) and Policy Social Health, of Ministry new the of General Secretary as 2010 October Notes paper. this in proposed hypothesis the of verification experimental the for allow would that cularly necessary that empirical research be developed parti- is it Specifically, campaigns. communication ce anti-violen- future for design efficient more a create to on conducted ced accessibility, and psychological reactance, in order be to study phenomenon such as desensitization, exhaustive imitation, enhan- more a for need the shows out carried have we that review cal bibliographi- and reflection theoretical the result, a As messages. sensitization or informative of dissemination the after occurs behavior violent that probability the implemented, orwhatisworse,wemaybeincreasing target the are messages. anti-violence for audience conduct violent developing to prone more are who those since worrying especially is This conduct. violent developing to prone particularly that are individuals those violence in intensify combat could to effects these designed messages the of case On effects. psychological relevant especially two to related be also could objectives their fulfilling not are 2009). Álvarez, & Torrubiano (Vives, standards these with bigger comply always a not does it presents since problem media the through disseminated awareness information The mind. in it institutional keep generally campaigns therefore evidence and empirical it, abundant supporting has The effect behavior. violent imitation cause actually may violence containing those or violence about messages the that risk the also but campaigns, useless have we do not only case, the is this If worrying. more even is which n 04 h Mnsr o Eult ws rae (noprtd in (incorporated created was Equality of Ministry the 2004 In hs ugss ht nfiin srtge ae being are strategies inefficient that suggests This the in that add to important is it time, same the At violence against messages the that risk the Finally, © ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 161-168 Pages 1988-3293• e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: their freedom or self-esteem. or freedom their threaten may that message any against themselves position to the tendency for consider certain people to us beg reactance on studies hand, other the On thoughts. people’s in more be present to violence of cept con- the cause can it, combat to is aim whose those even ce, violen- about message any that show on accessibility research construct the hand, one A 81-110. Youth. on Violence Media B Psychology,(6) 67 Imitative and cement A (15-12-2010). diatrics.org) A Behavior,23 Thoughts. Aggressive and Feelings Hostile on Hostility Real-life Violence. Real-life to Desensitization Psychological on Violence Videogame of Effect B Control.and Freedom of Theory hlrn n aoecns se mrcn cdm o Pediatrics, of Academy 2009) is evidence of the consensus among the scientific community. American (see adolescents and by children displayed conduct aggressive violent subsequent of the use and games the video between exists that relationship proven the of Association Psychological American warned that (AAP) Pediatrics the of Academy American the and (APA) by States United the in B chology,(1); 66 Models. Aggressive mediated A Society. on Violence B Life. in and JournalPersonalityof Social Psychology,and Laboratory (4) 78 the in Behavior and Feelings, Thoughts, B Associates. & Erlbaum Lawrence NJ: Hillsdale, e ádz ilnea a. 20) Chn 19) ad Barrios and (1998); Cohen (2005). (2008); al. & Villanueva Fer nández Brändle, (2001); al. & by Igartua (2009); Roman work San Ruiz the and Cárdaba, Martín consulting by had is Spanish in research the McQuail authors by work in background a time, the same the At out. stands (1994) Wolf or (1991) classics, the Among effects. the on research the of information published systematize to tried have texts A References 3 2 campaigns, etc. line, awareness telephone attention personal a and activities, pedagogical Violence), Gender against Measures tion Protec Integral on (Law 1/2004) (L.O. Género de Violencia la tra con- Integral Ley the as such action and sensitization prevention, of C ce. violen television to attraction on labels warnings of effects fruit: ted B espera? nos ción contra la violencia. Discusión de una hipótesis de trabajo. In N trabajo. de hipótesis una de Discusión violencia. la contra ción (2009). El riesgo de efectos no queridos en campañas de comunica- B empírico. y teórico estudio un evolutivos: B Press. Academic York: B SocialPsychology,normaland (3); 63 Models. Aggressive of Imitation through gression © ANDURA ANDURA ANDURA USHMAN REZNITZ REHM REHM RÄNDLE ARRIOS NDERSON NDERSON NDERSON NDERSON MERICAN ARNAGEY The recent elaboration of a text presented to the Supreme Court Supreme the to presented text a of elaboration recent The Due to the abundance of publications on media effects, several effects, media on publications of abundance the to Due OVA ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 161-168 Pages 1988-3293• e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 2; Applied, Journal ExperimentalPsychology: of , P.; D P.; , , S.S. & B & S.S. , (1966). J.W , C G; M G.; , A; R A.; , R A.; , R A., , , S. (1984). S. , , B.J. & S & B.J. , ACHAZO , N.L.; A N.L.; , , C.A. & D B & C.A. , B C.A.; , , A Madrid: Asociación Madrileña de Sociología; 191-198. Sociología; de Madrileña Asociación Madrid: EL CADEMY ; 161-178. ; .. 19) Efcs f iln Mve ad Trait and Movies Violent of Effects (1997). C.A. P OSS 3-11. 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Received: 30-09-2010 / Revised: 14-12-2010 Accepted: 28-03-2011 / Published: 01-10-2011 l María Domingo & Pere Marquès Barcelona (Spain) http://dx.doi.org/10.3916/C37-2011-03-09 Classroom 2.0 Experiences and Building on the Use of ICT in Teaching

Aulas 2.0 y uso de las TIC en la práctica docente

ABSTRACT Recognising the importance of new technology in the classroom, our aim is to promote the integration of information and communication technology (ICT) in teaching practice from a collaborative research in which action research style methods are applied involving 21 primary and secondary schools in Spain. In these research seminars, the participating teachers receive a progressive educational and technological training orientated towards the experiment and reflect on the possibilities of using a computer per student in the classroom and a digital whiteboard or interactive whiteboard (IWB). After the first period of research, we bring to the table significant ideas that have guided the training and put forward findings on the testing of teachers in their classrooms denoted classrooms 2.0 for being equipped with an IWB and computers with Internet access. In specific, from this experiment, we provide relevant results on the intensity of use of IWBs and computers, the usual activities conducted with these technological resources, their advantages and disadvantages found from use and their impact on student learnings. In the conclusions, the results are analysed and assessed, noting possible criteria for taking action in order to move twenty- first century teaching practices forward and promote the inclusion of ICT in classrooms. RESUMEN Asumiendo la importancia de las nuevas tecnologías en las aulas, pretendemos impulsar la integración de las tecno- logías de la información y de la comunicación (TIC) en la práctica docente desde una investigación colaborativa donde se aplican metodologías cercanas a la investigación-acción y participan 21 centros de educación primaria y secundaria de España. En los seminarios de esta investigación, el profesorado participante recibe progresivamente una formación didáctica y tecnológica orientada hacia la experimentación y la reflexión de las posibilidades de uso de un ordenador por alumno, en el aula, y de la pizarra digital o pizarra digital interactiva (PDI). Después del primer periodo de la investigación, aportamos ideas significativas que han guiado la formación impartida y avanzamos infor- mación de la experimentación del profesorado en sus aulas denominadas aulas 2.0 por estar dotadas de una PDI y de ordenadores con acceso a Internet. Concretamente, de esta experimentación, aportamos resultados relevantes sobre la intensidad de uso de la PDI y de los ordenadores, las actividades habituales realizadas con estos recursos tecnológicos, sus ventajas e inconvenientes destacables al utilizarlos y sus incidencias de uso en los aprendizajes de los estudiantes. En las conclusiones, se analizan y se valoran los resultados, apuntando posibles criterios de actuación para ir avanzando en la práctica docente del siglo XXI y en la inclusión de las TIC en las aulas. KEYWORDS / PALABRAS CLAVE ICT, education, technology, training, teachers, students, IWB, computers, Interactive whiteboard. TIC, educación, tecnología, formación, profesorado, alumnado, PDI ordenadores, pizarra digital.

v Dr. Maria Domingo Coscollola is Associate Professor of the University Internacional de Catalunya and of the University de Barcelona (Spain) ([email protected]). v Dr. Pere Marques Graells is Full Professor at the Department of Applied Education of the University Autónoma de Barcelona (Spain) ([email protected]).

Comunicar, 37, v. XIX, 2011, Scientific Journal of Media Literacy; ISSN: 1134-3478; pages 169-174 www.revistacomunicar.com 170 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 context. interpreted management and/or teacher are biased positively a within they because limited somewhat are classroom. Therefore, the results and conclusions of this research the in ICT of use the and/or research in institutions haveapositivestancetowardsintervention in our society, it goes without saying that the educatio ICT of emergence the its with Faced society. to on impact due change social of agents effective most the of one now is (ICT) technology communication and ted (Cabero, Lorente & Román, 2007: 1). Information implemen- been has it where societies those changed Introduction 1. o tahr, n, s mhssd y arn (2010), Gairín knowledge. of creation collective the facilitates ICT by emphasised as and, teachers, for resource available readily a is ICT Marquès using; already are time, we resources the same to adds ICT the that highlights (2008) At learning. and in interactivity flexibility enhancing as well as self-learning, and work collaborative facilitating barriers, time-space eliminating opportunities, tutoring and training mation, infor- of range the expanding as, such features, ficant offers signi with ICT training for settings and environments new (2006), Cabero to According teachers. and students both for environment learning and ching changes. these to immune be cannot world nal h tcnlgcl eore udr td i our in study computers): and under (IWB research resources technological the teachers. by felt frustration the and esteem self- on effect the training, technical of lack change, to highlighted by Calderón and Piñeiro (2007), resistance that hamper teachers’ use of technology, such as those 117). Our research also examines the stumbling 2009: blocks Prada, & García-Valcárcel (Tejedor, practice teaching in use its conditions ICT of potential cational ih h am f osdrn te urn dmns of 21 demands current the considering access, of aim Internet the with with computers and IWB an classrooms, with equipped are their they as 2.0 in Classrooms call we experiments which out carried staff 21 at primary and secondary schools in Spain. The teaching integration ICT analysed research This student. per computer one of notion the of study a with along classroom, the in (IWB) whiteboard interactive or whiteboard a of use the around designed is riment st Evidently, what the teacher thinks about the edu the about thinks teacher the what Evidently, participating these of managers and/or Teachers hogot itr, e tcnlg hs always has technology new history, Throughout In line with these approaches, our research expe research our approaches, these with line In tea- a provide can ICT education, of field the In • Plenty of research into IWBs confirms that they that confirms IWBs into research of Plenty • of review bibliographic brief a present we Then, century society on schools that use ICT. use that schools on society century - - - - moderator who organises 5 seminars at the at seminars 5 organises who moderator research local a has area Each Spain. of parts different from are schools participating 21 The students. 3,000 approximately of total a with education secondary and Spanish public and private schools at all levels of primary period). (second 2011 July to 2010 September and period) (first 2010 July to 2009 December from periods: two in conducted is research educational the applications of on IWBs and students’ computer use. training, The experimentation classroom and following reflection practice teaching te investiga to research action to applied are procedures methods and Materials 2. (OECD, classroom the 2010). in fre use the computer than of test quency PISA the in performance generates home greater at use computer of frequency The classroom): the in or home (at performance and usage 2007). Henkel, & (Kuhlemeier performance school for this strategies cognitive using valuable when useful of development the prove favour also but school, at medium which skills digital and computer Internet access not household only contribute to the acquisition of the Hence, increase. the on is performance academic improving and home at 2007). Valcke, (Ton & Braak Van deur, support information teaching valuable interesting an a and school, resource at tool effective an for makes computer contradictory. the discrepancies, these are Despite performance and student classroom the improving in use computer of contribution the on findings the but classroom, the in computers of 2011). 2010; Domingo, the & (Marquès DIM group research the by investigations notably resource, this of Iberian Research Project (Gallego & Dulac, 2005) and benefits the to point have that results promising with there investigations several been Spain, In SMART. company Canadian the and NCEF agency agency government US government the BECTA, UK the centres: research IWB three mention also can we and (2003), Walker and (2002) Levy (2001), Miller and Glover (2002), Bell from IWBs on contributions research significant are for use IWB teachers and students. In Anglo-Saxon countries, there of advantages the highlights generally research The teaching. in use for resource good a are hs eerh novs 2 tahr fo 21 from teachers 120 involves research This which in research collaborative a present We computer on comparison recent a highlight We • • Research into the benefits of using the computer use the into research considerable also is There • © ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 169-174 Pages 1988-3293• e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: centres. - - - 5). Finally, after each workshop, teachers will experi will teachers workshop, each after Finally, 5). discuss 2007: (Area, practices classroom in technology we of use and actions Also, the on problems. guidelines and or recommendations questions up ging brin- and weaknesses and strengths highlighting ties, 30). 2009b: (Sancho, achieved be might what foresee and do to left is what at look lead, may actions these where on reflect to mental (Sancho, funda is It 2009a). tance ins- each at nology tech- the using tely appropria nology… tech emerging and existing both with up-to-date be to ple peo train to mental 74). 2008: Villalustre, & Moral (Del space virtual a within generated work collaborative facilitates also It participants. among in exchange and formation interaction cation, communi of bilities capa the extends re tion of social softwa (Camps, 140). 2009: media traditional than sally univer and directly more children affect screens) standard other and television (Internet, tainment enter- and media 45). 2009: the pluralistic world that we live in (Tello & Aguaded, in belongings relational and cognitive own their find s transmission of information in the face of a new form of significant Some are: training the activities. guide that ideas learning and teaching on training didactical progressive and classroom the in ters basic giving while process research action the of supervisor © tudent and society. Their work aims to make students ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 169-174 Pages 1988-3293• e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: In each of these seminars, the moderator acts as a as acts moderator the seminars, these of each In In these seminars, teachers comment on the activi funda is It • • The introduc Today’s • the regarding monopoly his loses teacher The • technical training on the use of IWBs and compu ------h lte cs. e mhsz ta 5% f teachers of 50% that emphasize We case. latter the of the IWB and computers, although somewhat less in use intensive fairly a out carried students and teachers classrooms in use computer and IWB of Depth 3.1. period of investigation (December 2009 to July 2010). Results 3. be: will plan work investigative the of activities were: plan work investigative the of activities ficant has questionnaire research. DIM the other in used been already of the format of The period first investigation. the of end assessment the completed by questionnaires 130 be will There seminar. each of minutes the complements that tool collection 2010). UAB, (DIM portal research the appropriate in information online to access have most also they and seem that activities the with ment uig hs is pro o rsac, ay f the of many research, of period first this During first the from results the presents section This significant most the period, second the During signi- most the period, first the during summary, In data the is questionnaire assessment The 171 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 172

use the IWB in almost 50% of their teaching and sharing among students and/or teachers (92%). instead only use computers in about 25% of their tea- • Facilitating the teaching, learning and achieve- ching. ment of objectives (90%). These results are partly logical because of the • Increased student participation and involvement short experimental period and the fact that teachers (88%). only attended 2 seminars. In addition, most teachers • Facilitating the contextualisation of activities and had little experience in the use of IWBs and very little diversity management (82%).

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 in the integration of computers into classroom activi- Also, positive feedback is collected on activities ties. Probably in the second period of research, with carried out with a more active student role. The most the completion of the 3 remaining seminars, the usage important activities are: rates of these technological resources would increase • Research (93%). in teaching and learning processes. • Developing creativity (86%). • Making group corrections (85%). 3.2. Types of activities most used in classrooms 2.0 • Conducting collaborative activities (82%). During this first period of research, we gather in Additionally, the teaching staff values certain bene- the more frequent uses of IWBs and computers along fits that directly affect the teachers: with their ratings. Initially, the most common types of • Enables a refreshing of methodology (88%). activities are those that are focused on the teacher’s • Increasing satisfaction, motivation and self- activity and those that are developed with the IWB: esteem (87%). • Keynote addresses (95%). To a lesser extent and with lower assessment • The carrying-out of group exercises (82%). rates, the teaching staff mentioned that continuous • Collective comments on information from the assessment and presentations are facilitated. In Internet, mainly videos or newspapers (80%). contrast, there is a neutral stance on whether time is • Class correction of exercises (68%). better used in class or as to whether reflection and rea- Later, and progressively to a lesser extent, other soning are nurtured. types of activities are also carried out by students with the IWB: 3.4. Notable classroom 2.0 disadvantages • Presentation of papers and materials used in the During this first period of the investigation, the work (68%). routine use of technological resources (in teaching and • Presentation of information from Internet (62%). learning processes) also has drawbacks for teachers, • Explanation of items to classmates on the role of few but significant. The outstanding issues are: the teacher (62%). • Needing more time to prepare their teaching In some cases, students have also previously used (75%). computers for work or for looking for resources, the • Internet connection problems (65%). most frequent activities requiring a more active student • Software failures and problems with students’ role being: computers (37%). • Doing self-correcting exercises and exercises for further correction (52%). 3.5. Impact of classrooms 2.0 on student learning • Development projects (41%). During this first period of research, virtually all Less common actions and with lower assessments teachers (91%) and a majority of students (75%) are for the use of simulators and learning platforms believe learning is better with new ICT activities and (Moodle or similar), creating blogs and wikis, the use they like to perform them. The majority of teachers of WebQuests and videoconferencing. insist that this represents a significant increase in work, but it is worth it for the learning improvements gained. 3.3. Advantages of classrooms 2.0 However, students do not always improve their During this first period of research, the teaching academic qualifications, as emphasized by almost half staff appreciates many advantages in using technolo - of teachers (46%). gical resources in teaching. The most important advan- The impact on learning improvement from ICT tages that affect teaching and learning processes are: activities is analysed in various student profiles. In this • Increased attention and motivation (100%). case, it is stated that the greatest impact in improve- • Facilitating understanding (98%). ment (84%) is seen in the students who progress • Increased access to resources for debate and normally, well or very well during the process of

© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 169-174 optr) bt hr ae infcn avnae that advantages significant are there but computers), and connection Internet prepare with problems to and teaching time more (devoting drawbacks nificant resources. these of abilities and of use technical skills and teaching the in the increase teachers as results better with more used and be will they Probably, low. was rencing videoconfe and WebQuests wikis, blogs, platforms, educational simulators, as such potential educational works. and consultations development, project were self corrective exercises and exercises to correct, common most The extent. lesser a to but computers, with performed students that activities of types several 2011). 2010; Domingo, & (Marquès IWBs on research other in red they are initially the most common activities is conside- that and activities teacher-centred out for IWB the start using teachers that fact The explanations...). presentations, (project IWB of the use extensive make dents stu which in activities other came results, good with also mation and corrections). Next, ceptualisation of Internet infor con- exercises, of carrying-out addresses, (keynote of teaching work the on focused that those those and IWB the with made were activities rated double. highly- and frequent most The almost computers, of that than greater was ching tea- in IWBs of use the ment, discussion and Conclusions 4. depth. in studied was development skills for way make can ICT with activities certain performing how research, of period second the Throughout initiative. personal ments in linguistic communication skills, autonomy and improve identify also they extent, lesser a To learn. tion, digital competence and competence in learning to informa- processing in competence of acquisition the are motivated. not who or up keep cannot who students on (68%) lower is impact the contrast, In learning. and teaching © ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 169-174 Pages 1988-3293• e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: Obviously, the use of ICT in teaching still has sig- has still teaching in ICT of use the Obviously, great of resources other of use classroom The At the end of the first period of research, there are experi the of end the At in improvement an notice teachers Additionally, - - - information and learning to learn. to learning and information processing literacy, digital as such skills certain of acquisition the on impact the underline also They corrections. and efforts collaborative research, for opportunities more provide and diversity manage better can activities, contextualized more class, in share and use to resources more have now they that appreciate staff teaching addition, In - - used for this purpose. Probably, if the assessment pro- assessment the if Probably, purpose. this are for used programs specific when long-term contents sing memori benefit only computers or / and IWBs by ted still memorising that prevails in the assessment. In in fact, the activities suppor resides contradiction this of cause the Perhaps, assessment. not final inconsistency their is in reflected learning an student in is improvement the there because Therefore, teachers. their of improve always half almost by emphasized as not qualifications, academic do students However, and / or computers in teaching and learning processes. IWBs of use the with improved learning that believe failure. academic reducing to contributing be in helpful could resources these We perhaps that classrooms. assert today’s further in use for choice wise a is of IWBs and / or computers (in teaching and learning) use the that note we advantages, these with Together learn. to learning and information processing literacy, impact on the acquisition of certain skills such as digital the underline also They corrections. and efforts rative collabo research, for opportunities more provide and diversity manage better can activities, contextualized more class, in share and use to resources more have self-esteem. objectives. of achievement the and learning teaching, participation. most The being: advantages significant unanimously. almost expressed teachers ital al eces n a aoiy f students of majority a and teachers all Virtually In addition, teaching staff appreciate that they now and motivation satisfaction, teacher in Increases • issues, methodology. of refreshing A • of understanding the Facilitating • student and motivation attention, Increased • - - - 173 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 174 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 A dagogía,222 prácticas pedagógicas con las TIC en el aula. el en TIC las con pedagógicas prácticas A References Bar of University Autonomous the of Group Research Multimedia and Teaching the and Microsoft between agreement collaboration a of part as out carried was project research 2.0 Classrooms The grades student competence, would also be higher. Therefore, a significant challen learning more vided eoa UB. h areet oe ewe te A and UAB possible. saying research this made has who everyone the thank without we that goes It between 18/03/2010). (starting code 11,566 is agreement Microsoft The (UAB). celona Acknowledgement skills. and strategies experts. with and together practices. needs. practical their classroom: the in ICT of incorporation the eased have which seminars, the since out carried mentation. experi ICT active and practice teaching through ning plemented by an increase in new realities such as lear- com- been have experimentation and considerations progressive the investigation, this & In 2010). Domingo Fuentes, 2010b; 2010a, (Adell, schools century 21st in learning and teaching about issues necessary raise to opportunity good a provide can classroom the assessment. the in outcomes learning validating and ge lies ahead to design reliable strategies for identifying C 28; realidad. hizo se pigmalión efecto el escenarios: los bió C (20-10-2010). Reasons! Dozen el uso de las tecnologías educativas. Implicaciones afectivas. Implicaciones educativas. tecnologías las de uso el A (04-09-2010). dim.pangea.org/revistaDIM16/revistanew.htm) B 19-32. aules.les a metodologia.Ordenadorsla claués La en Primaria y Secundaria y Primaria en C (04-09-2009). 456.pdf) nología Educativa de la (http://tecnologiaedu.us.es/ bibliovir/pdf/ Ba ses ELL DELL REA DELL ABERO ALDERÓN ABERO 167-175. , • Supporting and encouraging the testing of new of testing the encouraging and Supporting • work to teachers for opportunities Providing • sound and experiences exchanging Teachers • to attends that training teacher Contextualising • activities significant underlining by up round We in ICT of incorporation or use the that found We , M.A. (2002). , , J. , M. (2007). Algunos principios para el desarrollo de buenas de desarrollo el para principios Algunos (2007). M. J. (2010b). Educació 2.0. In , , J.; L J.; , J. (2006). (2010a). Web 2.0 y Escuela 2.0. Escuela y 2.0 Web (2010a). , P. & P ; 42-47. ; ORENTE IÑEIRO (http://teachers.net/gazette/JAN02/mabell.html) Bases pedagógicas para la integración de las TIC Why Use an Interactive Whiteboard? A Baker’s , C. & R & C. , , N. (2007). Actitudes de los docentes ante . Universidad de Sevilla: Grupo de Tec de Grupo Sevilla: de Universidad . OMÁN B , ARBA P. (2007). La tecnología cam- tecnología La (2007). P. , C. & C DIM-UAB,16. Comunicación y PeComunicación y APELLA Barcelona: Graó; Barcelona: Comunicar, , S. (Eds.). (http:// Mono ------M gea. (04-06-2010). org/peremarques/exito.htm) T G (04-09-2010). 16. UAB, 2.0. escuela y conocimiento del Gestión (2010). J. Gairín, 171-180. uso. su sobre reflexionar y TIC las con perimentar digitales, en digitales, G (04-09-2009). final.doc) Project. search nalidades,ventajas, problemáticas... D Comunicar,32; W Education. (3); Learning,23 Primary Assisted Computer in Use Computer of Typo logy K Techno for logy Teacher Interactive School. 10; Education, Secondary of One Introduction in Scale Whiteboards Large the of Impact Pedagogic M (20-10-2010). eirg/projects/wboards.htm) Sheffield: DepartmentofInformationStudies.(http://dis.shef. ac. uk/ Study Developmental a Schools: SheffieldTwo in D (04-09-2010). org/aulas20) (http://peremarques.pan Aplicada. gea. Pedagogía de partamento (2010). UAB DIM WebQuest. de Relatec,(1) 7 través a universitario colaborativo trabajo del ras S (04-09-2010). gea.org/revistaDIM15/revistanew.htm) rras interactivas según resultados de últimas investigaciones, en nicación en los centros educativos. centros los en nicación ante los nuevos retos de las tecnologías de la información y la comu- L & R. ro próximo? ro T grafías.com. C tiva/ (09-09-09). tecnologiaeducativa.shtml) M 273-284. Studi; Degli Universita TRE tigación en innovación y calidad educativas.. T TIC. las de integración la hacia universitario profesorado del actitudes de S (04-10-2010). DF) Pisa. in (http://browse.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/pdfs/browseit/9609101E.P Performance Educational and Use Technology Grade? (2010). OECD Editrice. Scuola & Marfil coy: información.la de Innovacióndad investigacióntravésla a de L 460-480. (2); 49 Skills. Internet Students' on Home at Use ANCHO ANCHO UHLEMEIER EVY OMINGO EL AMPS LOVER ALLEGO ONDEUR EJEDOR ELLO ARQUÈS ARQUÈS ARQUÈS ALKER M , Comunicar,33 P. (2002). , , J. & A & J. , ORAL ANEVE , D. & M & D. , V. (2009). La educación en medios, más allá de la escuela. la de allá más medios, en educación La (2009). V. , , , J.M. (2009b). ¿Qué educación, qué escuela para el futu- el para escuela qué educación, ¿Qué (2009b). J.M. , , F.J.; G D & D & D. , , P. & D D & P. , , J.M. (2009a). Escuela 2.0. D. (2003). Quality at the Dockside. , M. & F & M. , J; V J.; , P. (2008). P. , M.E. & V & M.E. , (http://dim.pangea.org/revistaDIM16/revistanew.htm) , D. & H & D. , R Educatio Siglo XXI, 27 (2); 27 XXI, Siglo Educatio , ; 73-83. ; OIG (www.monografias.com/trabajos14/tecnologiaeduca C. (Eds.) (2011). (Eds.) C. GUADED 139-145. Interactive Whiteboards in Learning and Teaching AN r te e Mlenu Lanr Mkn the Making Learners Millennium New the Are , R. & F & R. , ILLER (www.dulac.es/Iberian%20research/In forme% 20 ARCÍA OMINGO © OMINGO ULAC UENTES Investigación Aulas 2.0. Aulas Investigación ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 169-174 Pages 1988-3293• e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: B ; 115-124. ; Pizarra digital:Pizarra deléxito.razones las Fun cio ENKEL RAAK , , -V ILLALUSTRE D. (2001). Running with Technology: The Technology: with Running (2001). D. , J.I. (2009). Desarrollo profesional docente profesional Desarrollo (2009). J.I. ALCÁRCEL IORUCCI . (2005). J. , , J & V & J. , M. (2011). Presente y futuro de las piza- , M. (2010). Aplicaciones de las pizarras las de Aplicaciones (2010). M. , J. , M. (2010). Innovación educativa: Ex educativa: Innovación (2010). M. (2007). The Impact of Computer of Impact The (2007). La práctica educativa en la socie - la en educativa práctica La , , M. (Eds.). M. , A. & P L. (2008).Laswikisvertebrado- Pixel Bit, 34 PixelBit, ALCKE DIM-UAB,15. nom fnl e Iein Re Iberian del final Informe Barcelona: UAB. (www.pan UAB. Barcelona: 197-206. 257-276. 13-32. , Computers & Education, & Computers RADA ora o Information of Journal . 20) Twrs a Towards (2007). M. TES Online, 3 Al coy: Marfil & Roma Claves para la invesla Claves- para Barcelona. UAB. De UAB. Barcelona. , ; 31-47. ; S. (2009). Medida (http://dim.pan- Uiest of University . Píxel-Bit, 36; Píxel-Bit, ora of Journal ; 66-67. DIM- R . Al . OIG ------© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: 175 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 176 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 © ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293 e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: INVESTIGACIONES / RESEARCH

Received: 29-11-2010 / Revised: 02-02-2011 Accepted: 01-04-2011 / Published: 01-10-2011 l Amparo Porta Castellón (Spain) http://dx.doi.org/10.3916/C37-2011-03-10 The Musical Offers of Children’s Programming on «Televisión Española» as its Hearing Universe La oferta musical de la programación infantil de «TVE» como universo audible

ABSTRACT The music that children are exposed to in their everyday lives plays an important role in shaping the way they interpret the world around them, and television soundtracks are, together with their direct experience of reality, one of the most significant sources of such input. This work is part of a broader research project that looks at what kind of music children listen to in a sample of Latin American and Spanish TV programmes. More specifically, this study focuses on children’s programmes in Spain, and was addressed using a semiotic theoretical framework with a quantitative and musical approach. The programme «Los Lunnis» was chosen as the subject of a preliminary study, which consisted in applying 90 templates and then analysing them in terms of the musical content. The results show that the programme uses music both as the leading figure and as a background element. The most common texture is the accompanied monody and the use of voice, and there is a predominance of electronic instrumental sounds, binary stress and major modes with modulations. Musical pieces are sometimes truncated and rhythmically the music is quite poor; the style used is predominantly that of foreign popular music, with a few allusions to the classical style and to incidental music. The data reveal the presence of music in cultural and patrimonial aspects, as well as in cognitive construction, which were not taken into account in studies on the influence of TV in Spain. Such aspects do emerge, however, when they are reviewed from the perspective of semiotics, musical representation, formal analysis and restructuring theories. RESUMEN La música de la vida cotidiana del niño tiene uno de sus referentes, junto a su experiencia real, en la banda sonora de la televisión, configurando una parte de su interpretación de la realidad. Este trabajo forma parte de una investi- gación más amplia sobre la escucha televisiva infantil en una muestra iberoamericana. El objetivo, conocer qué escu- chan los niños en la programación infantil de «Televisión Española», ha sido estudiado desde un marco teórico semiótico con un enfoque cuantitativo y musical. El artículo presenta un resumen de los resultados obtenidos en un primer análisis del programa «Los Lunnis» mediante la aplicación de noventa plantillas y sus análisis musicales corres- pondientes. Estos resultados indican que el programa utiliza la música como fondo y figura, textura de monodía acompañada y utilización de la voz, predominio del sonido electrónico instrumental, acento binario y modo mayor con modulaciones. Aparecen piezas musicales cortadas y cierta pobreza rítmica, su opción estilística es la música popular no propia, con algunos guiños al estilo clásico y a la música incidental. Los datos muestran la presencia de la música en aspectos culturales, patrimoniales y de construcción cognitiva no considerados en los estudios sobre la influencia de la TV en Spain, pero que emergen cuando son revisados desde la semiótica, la representación musical, el análisis formal y las teorías de la reestructuración. KEYWORDS / PALABRAS CLAVE Soundtrack, observation, analysis, television, children, listening, music, audience. Banda sonora, observación, análisis, televisión, infantil, escucha, música, audiencia.

v Dr. Porta Amparo Navarro is Associate Professor and Researcher of the Department of Education at the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences of the University Jaume I in Castellón (Spain) ([email protected]).

Comunicar, 37, v. XIX, 2011, Scientific Journal of Media Literacy; ISSN: 1134-3478; pages 177-185 www.revistacomunicar.com 178

1. Introduction elements to be taken into account from the perspective In the twentieth century, music emerged as a of education is sound. This element of expression, powerful new force that was to reshape the borders of which became liberated in the twentieth century, as a number of areas including aesthetics, expression and shown by the Theory of Art (Cage, 1961; Hauser, communication. This redefinition of course also had 1963), is crucial in the production of TV programmes. significant effects on the field of education. Additionally, The second element to be borne in mind owing to its this new sonic space, widely used by the avant-garde presence and repercussions in everyday life is how

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 artistic movements of the twentieth century, has been sound is recorded and published on a material support a key element for the mass media such as the radio, (Delalande, 2004: 19). The third element is the nature cinema and, more especially the one dealt with here, of the actual medium, in our case, television. With namely television. Yet, despite its importance and regard to the generation of paradigms, Stiegler (1989: repercussions, it has received very little attention from 235) spoke about the effect produced by «memory education as a discipline. Some of the most important technologies», such as television, because they cons- works found in a review of the Spanish literature on truct the coherence of their discourse from a combina- children’s television include those by Vallejo-Nágera tion of techniques, social practices and sound shapes. (1987), De Moragas (1991), Ferrés (1994), Orozco When we speak of children’s sonic environment, (1996), Pablo de Río (1997), Aguaded (2005), Pin- a review of the international literature shows that most tado (2005) and Reig (2005). Of the studies that were of the studies are conducted as laboratory experiments consulted, the «White Book: education in the audiovi- that cover artificial realities in groups determined by sual setting» (CAC, 2003) and «The Pigmalión their learning characteristics or the fact that they are a Report» (Del Río, Álvarez & Del Río, 2004) contain a risk population in schools (Ward-Steinman, 2006; great deal of information about Spain, as well as some Bur nard, 2008) or by their eating habits and health proposals for action. (Ostbyeit, 1993). Music has also been linked to The first of these two works studies the context of reading skills (Register, 2004) or violence (Peterson, the mass media, together with their industry, contents, 2000), among other things. Some of the most impor- consumption and relation with education. In its con- tant works on television music include those by clusions, the Pigmalión Report recommends using Beckers (1993) in Germany, Bixler (2000) in England global views that allow cultural proposals and the or Magdanz (2001) in Canada. Others include those needs of childhood development to be integrated. To carried out on the programme «Sesame Street», and achieve this, researchers are asked to describe, explain more especially the study entitled «Musical Analysis of and propose reliable alternatives involving new Sesame Street» conducted by McGuire (2001). With designs based on the evaluation of TV programmes respect to the influence of the soundtrack as music (Del Río, Álvarez and Del Río, 2004). In the interna- from the everyday environment and its relationships tional domain, Cohen (2005) recommended a method with identity, Brown (2008) reviewed the need to for gaining a better understanding of the overall con- integrate fields of research taking into account the pro- tent of television and its local diffusion. This proposal duction of consumption, the production of culture and consisted in examining three variables: 1) who selects the cultures resulting from this process of hybridisation. the contents and for whom; 2) the proportion of local The same author also underlined the need to inte- material to be included within the foreign content; and grate this designer popular music within research. 3) how the latter is adapted to local viewing (Cohen, Finally, one important contribution on the subject of 2005). All the reports speak of an excessive exposure the globalisation of music that should be highlighted is to television and poorly defined criteria for selecting the work by Aguilar (2001), which deals with preser- and processing its contents. ving cultural products in changes and migrations that, The object of our study is the music that appears according to the author, offer challenges for musicians in the «television diet», which is affected by the issues and educators alike. She sees the effects of the media outlined above and requires specific forms of analysis production on cultural phenomena as being selective, to be able to study it because music speaks using its incomplete and inaccurate, and recommends the use own particular language (Porta, 2005: 285). A sound- of music that presents a valid image of itself. Likewise, track consists of music, sound and noises, with which she also urges musical and educational communities to it produces effects on the audible thoughts and on the offer a representation of musical culture that includes characteristics of listening (Schaeffer, 1966; Schafer, its roots and transformations. In Spain, although there 1977; Delalande, 2004; Sloboda, 2005). One of the are very few lines of research in this direction, some of

them are followed by our research group, such as the 1.1. Presentation of the problem work by Ocaña and Reyes (2010) on the programmes The music used every day on television provides shown on Canal Sur. Nevertheless, music on televi- children with cognitive, social, emotional and patrimo- sion is more commonly reviewed as an educational nial elements. It is therefore important for both acade- tool to help learning (Eufonia 12, 1998; Comunicar mics and researchers to understand it so as to be able 23, 2004). to: From the psychological approaches, some of the 1) Match curricula to these modes, media and most significant contributions have been those made musical contents. Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 by Cognitive Psychology concerning information 2) Take on the educational commitment to be processing and the Restructuring Theories, both of familiar with the music offered on television. which are clearly based on «anti-associationist» con- 3) Lay down guidelines that allow high-quality cepts defended by authors like Piaget, Vygotsky or the television programmes to be produced. Gestalt School. The key difference between the two 4) Offer alternatives in both the educational lies in the unit of analysis that they use: while the first domain and in terms of musical and audiovisual is elementarist, the cognitive approach is based on production. molar units (Pozo, 1989: 166). One important point to be highlighted in this second approach is Vygotsky’s socio- In the twentieth century, music emerged as a powerful new historic theory, which has been reinterpreted and adap- force that was to reshape the borders of a number of areas ted so that it can be applied to audiovisual comprehension including aesthetics, expression and communication. This (Korac, 1988). In his works on redefinition of course also had significant effects on the field the use of television in education, De Pablos (1986) studied of education. Additionally, this new sonic space, widely used the Russian author and underlined some relevant elements by the avant-garde artistic movements of the twentieth of his work: 1) Mental processes can be explained by the century, has been a key element for the mass media such as instruments and signs that act the radio, cinema and, more especially the one dealt with as mediators; he therefore defends the study of the com- here, namely television. municative nature of signs as holders of meaning. 2) From a semiotic point of view, interna- lisation is a process of gaining command over the 1.2. Purpose and aims of the study different forms of external signs (codes). 3) Today, the This work studies the soundtrack of the children’s semiotic offer has expanded to an unbelievable extent, television programme with the largest audience in so that, in addition to speech, it has also become Spain, i.e. «Los Lunnis», which is produced by important to be able to use other codes. Children Televisión Española (TVE) and is broadcast every day perceive the world through the senses, speech and from 7:30 to 9:30 am, the episodes from each week other codes in a process that goes from social speech being shown again on Saturday mornings. Our inten- (the mother tongue) to inner speech by way of ego- tion is to find out what music is used on the most centric speech. Hence, it could be said that television important public free-to-air television channel in music follows this same trajectory and forms a semiotic Spain. «Los Lunnis» is the only children’s programme instrument that the subject incorporates within his or offered by TVE and it is broadcast on its second her repertoire of inner dialogue for interpreting reality. channel and is financed by public funding. In order to Finally, and to end this brief review of music and analyse it we developed a system for coding and television, it should be noted that there are no empiri- categorising musical material and the findings were to cal indicators that ensure a good knowledge of the be used in a later (still to be initiated) phase involving field of study. the search for alternatives. In our study, the aim is to

determine what music the viewers of TVE listen to te and, lastly, Zamacois’ (1968) analysis of Musical and what it is like. Form was also employed.

1.2.1. What is listened to? 2.1. Sample This first approach will provide us with the traits The programming block that was selected, «Los that allow the soundtrack to be classified according to Lunnis», consists of three sections with different an objective pattern of measurement. Our questions proportions: 25% in-house programme material, 63%

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 are: What musical sounds are used and what types cartoons and 12% advertising. The sample is made up and families do they belong to? What tempo and of the ten hours of the programme that were broadcast metre are used? How do the pieces of music begin? during one week (18 to 22 February 2008) in which What pace and intensity do they have? What genres no special events took place. The potential range of and styles do they display? What keys are most viewers’ ages was relatively wide. The sample com- frequently used? How do the pieces of music end? prised Spanish and US cartoons, advertising (commer- How prominent is the soundtrack in the programme? cials advertising food/sweets and toys) and lastly the in-house programmes, which included the opening and closing sequences, bumpers, dramatisations, reports, songs, Children perceive the world through the senses, speech and news and interviews. other codes in a process that goes from social speech (the 2.2. Design, instruments and mother tongue) to inner speech by way of egocentric data collection To conduct this research a speech. Hence, it could be said that television music follows listening analysis tool was this same trajectory and forms a semiotic instrument that the developed ad hoc and validated before applying it in the subject incorporates within his or her repertoire of inner study (Porta & Ferrández, 2009). Sampling was perfor- dialogue for interpreting reality. med by means of the expert choice procedure to ensure that musical elements from all three sections of the programme 1.2.2. What is the music like? that were relevant to the first analysis were all inclu- The second approach has to do with the internal ded. Furthermore, the sample was complemented elements of the music in the television landscape with 10 excerpts in order to establish the target musical (Atienza, 2008). In order to understand their musical material used in the programme. Three different ins- and discursive meaning, we divided the programme truments were used in the research, the first two being into three sections, namely in-house (locally produced) included within the same template. These were: 1) material, advertising and cartoons. Our research ques- Data from the sample; 2) Musical categories; and 3) tions were: How is the soundtrack constructed in the The musical analysis itself. three sections? What are its musical characteristics? The first instrument gathered data about the rater, What are the songs about? How is the music related data record, country, programme, section, date, dura- with the dramatic action, the scenes and the tion and the musical elements of the programme (ope- synchrony between them? ning sequence, signature tune, closing sequence, bumpers, songs, dramatisations, scenes, reports and 2. Material and methods excerpts). The second instrument consisted of 14 This work is part of a broader research project categories divided into 59 codes, which had «yes/no» aimed at determining what children listen to in a or «undetermined» (ND) as possible answers. This sample of Hispanic TV programmes. Umberto Eco’s tool divided the variables into different categories that (1978) model was used as the semiotic framework of could be measured in a dichotomous way, depending reference. Gómez-Ariza’s (2000) model was specifi- on whether they appeared in the selected unit or not cally utilised in the construction of the listening templa- (Porta & Ferrández, 2009).

In the Latin American study that this work is part of the music was instrumental and the rest was vocal, of, a joint validation session was held so that mainly in groups (38.9%) with a prevalence of male programmes, countries and contents that were voices (10%) over female voices (2.2%). common to the whole research study could be revie- Metre and rhythm. With regard to the type of wed by a panel of experts. A double interrater valida- stress, the results were binary in 88% of cases versus tion was also carried out, the results showing a mean 1.4% of ternary, with occasional cases of blends. percentage of agreement above 80%, which was Type of beginning. The pieces of music had considered to indicate a very high level of reliability of anacrusic beginnings in 57% of cases versus 37.8% the- Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 the instrument in general. tic beginnings and very few cases of acephalous begin- • Approach 1. What do they listen to? The tem- nings. plate was applied to the programme «Los Lunnis» by Dynamics. The use of intensity was mostly flat means of 90 units of analysis and a full examination of (81%), with variations in 18.9% of the melodies that the form of 23 pieces of music. were listened to. • Approach 2. What is the music like? Since not Agogic. As far as variations in pace are concerned, everything can be answered dichotomously, a new the music in this programme was again seen to opt for approach was developed to search for the molar ele- no variations in tempo in 88.9% of cases versus 3.3% ments (Pozo, 1989: 166-167) and their meaning, that of cases in which it speeds up and a slightly higher is to say, the characteristics of the music, in: 1) The percentage that uses ritardando. in-house programmes: study of the opening theme Genre and style. Of all the different genres and music, closing themes, bumpers and songs; 2) styles that were listened to, the most common was Cartoons: the series «Berni», «Clifort» and «Pocoyó»; popular music (77.8%), which included pop, rock and and 3) Advertising: commercials for toys and blues, together with other popular subgenres and food/sweets. Finally, in order to study the intentional styles from the twentieth century. Within traditional musical options from the programme, five diegetic music, 13.3% comes from other cultures while only songs were selected (that is, songs performed by the 1.1% is from the local one. leading characters in the programme). Sound organisation. In the sample, the major key From these two approaches we sought to determi- predominated over the minor key (88.9% vs. 6.7%, ne the options and musical elements used in children’s respectively). television programmes, that is, the place that music Cadences. Resolutions, regardless of the section of speaks from (Porta, 2007: 22). This will be the first the programme in which they appear, were mostly step towards discovering the unexplored educational conclusive (56.7%), while 25.6% were suspensive and space of music and its communicative presence as a 10% truncated melodies. This last type occurred in discourse that conveys meaning (Talens, 1994). segments from advertising or in adjustments made to the continuity of the programme that cuts its melodies 3. Results short in order to move on to the next programme. 3.1. What is listened to? The musical categories Sound texture. The texture in the sample was the The 14 indicators were applied to the five pro- accompanied monody (64.4%), in contrast to singing grammes broadcast during the week by means of 90 voices, which can be either homophonic (4.4%) or templates. The percentages indicate the measure of polyphonic (12.9%). the dichotomous feature «yes/no» and «undetermined» Sound plane. The music often played a leading that reflected factors involving mainly brevity and inau- role in the programme, only appearing as the back- dibility. The most notable results were: ground to scenes and dramatisations in just 25.6% of Musical sound/non-musical sound. The program- the cases in the sample. me often uses musical sound as well as a high percentage of non-musical sound consisting of noises and 3.2. What is the music like? The musical contents sound effects. In order to study what the music in the program- Type of sound. The music studied is 70% electro- mes is like, the template was applied to 23 pieces of nic, 15.5% acoustic and 10,5% combinations. Groups music from the three sections, bearing in mind the of instruments from all the families can be heard, length of the work and its musical form. Thus, in the although there is a predominance of stringed instru- long pieces of music, the first and last phrases, two ments and electronic imitative sound. intermediate excerpts and an assessment of the whole Voice and instruments. It was observed that 42% piece were studied for the five days of the week.

3.2.1. In-house programmes 3.2.2. Advertising The results of the analysis of the in-house material Advertising was studied using a single template for (opening themes, closing music, bumpers and songs), each commercial or two when there was a notable cartoons and advertising were as follows: the opening change in the music. The common features were: theme music of the programme, which was repeated average length 20”; tempo of about 123 beats per on each of the five days of the week, was studied using minute; instrumental, electronic imitative sound; 15 templates, three for each day. It is a short tune binary; no variation in the dynamics or in the rhythm;

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 lasting 34”, with an anacrusic beginning, in G Major, pop and film genre; in a major key; and the music was and a tempo of 144 beats per minute. It is sung by an background music that sometimes became the leading, adult soloist and groups of vocalists accompanied by foreground figure. In the case of «I’m pocket» two instruments (Figure 1). This tune is heard in links, the templates were applied due to the significant change presentation of dramatisations, subsections, bumpers that takes place between Excerpt 1 (from 1” to 18”) and closing themes, and in each case different versions and Excerpt 2 (from 18” to 20”), where there is a change in the music to highlight the theme tune.

3.2.3. Cartoons Lastly, the cartoons were studied by taking Figure 1. Musical structure of the opening theme an excerpt every 45” until the are used (instrumental, vocal, semi-spoken) and could whole episode was covered. The following is a be complete, fractioned or played as a repeating loop. summary of «Berni» and «Pocoyó»: In the closing themes, the programme uses diffe- • «Berni» is a cartoon series from 2006 without rent parts of the tune from the opening theme, while dialogues, produced by BRB Internacional S.A., which maintaining the motif from the signature tune, and they is about sports and features «Berni», a polar bear. It is vary in length: 4”, 36” and 1’33”. This last closing made up of 3’ episodes that are strung together to fill theme, for example, is repeated in a loop while the last the whole broadcast. The study was conducted by dramatic action in the programme is finishing, and means of six templates. The episode included both ends with the signature tune shifting from the back- everyday noises and sounds and electronic imitative ground to the foreground. On two of the five days, it sound. The music was a combination of short sequen- was truncated and replaced by the next programme, ces in the Classical style with others more closely rela- which was already being announced, or by the «unre- ted to the incidental music used in films. It was written lenting commercials» (González Requena, 1988). in a major key and was instrumental, with no variation Eight of the bumpers lasted 7” and, again, took up the in the rhythm or in the dynamics, and both conclusive identifying elements of the opening theme tune and and suspensive cadences were employed. There modified them with different arrangements and were some modulations to other tones, the sound tex- effects. There were many different songs and melo- ture was the accompanied monody and the music dies in the programme. In this section we have selec- appeared as background music, except for just one ted the leading songs performed by the characters in occasion on which it progressed from the background different settings such as little theatres, pubs, television to the leading figure. studios or virtual sets. These songs represent the diffe- • «Pocoyo». This is a Spanish cartoon series from rent options that exist in television as regards form, 2005 produced by Zinkia Entertainment which genre and style, as well as their connection with the features Pocoyo, a little boy whose adventures involve scene, the choice of subject matters and the synchrony discovering and interacting with the world around between text and images. The five diegetic songs from him. Each episode lasts 6’45” and the narrative action the week (Table 1) were studied using 25 templates – in this episode was about discovering one’s own five for each song: one for the first and last musical fingerprints and those of others. The episode made phrases, two intermediate excerpts and one assess- use of both non-musical and musical sound from the ment of the whole piece. pop environment with traces of incidental music from

© ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 177-185 htmc ihes wt a tog rsne f binary of presence strong of a with lack richness, certain rhythmic a is There polyphony. homophonic and polyphonic both using sometimes available, ments ele closing the all with manner conclusive highly a in bars eight phrases with long. They are listened to as whole pieces and resolve songs strophic of up is programme) made the of (25% material in-house the of music diegetic the that reveals analysis musical the of of effects. sound and noises consisting sound non-musical of percentage high a is There figure. the leading the predominantly and is music cadences, conclusive of means by resolves it keys, other to modulations with key major the uses It monody. accompanied the is texture the and pace the binary, is music popular, anacrusic, with flat dynamics, Its no variations in voices. of groups by sung music vocal and instrumental of proportions equal fairly divided into is that electronic) (preferably sound musical utilises that soundtrack a has Lunnis» «Los programme The to? listened is What that: say can we study, this characters. the of tif leading figure, and the musical motifs were the leitmo the as also and background the in present was music there The effects. and sound and ostinatos monody, rhythmic also were accompanied the was texture sound The modulations. and cadences different with used, both were keys minor and Major 114. at «Pato» and 90 at elephant) (the «Elly» at minute, per beats 156 «Pocoyo» scenes: the in appeared they as racters cha- the with linked was tempo The rhythm. the and dynamics the in variations with thetic, and binary tal, instrumen- electronic, was music The world. film the © 4. Discussion 4. ISSN: 1134-3478 • e-ISSN: 1988-3293• Pages 177-185 Pages 1988-3293• e-ISSN: • 1134-3478 ISSN: What is the music like? A preliminary evaluation preliminary A like? music the is What of questions research and aims the to answer In Table 1. The diegetic songs from the week the from songs diegetic The 1. Table - - musical and non-musical sounds. non-musical and musical rance of non-diegetic music and a wide variety of both preponde the is cartoons, in weight specific its to due at the end of episodes. Another point to be highlighted, and commercials in especially heard, also are music of each pieces of Truncated episode. end and dramatisation section, the at and introduction the as appears common one is that of the actual signature tune, which the most the of that shows programme the study in used melodies A characters. define to and effects leitmotifs suspensive small of use the and as key well as in tempo, changes of aid the with action the dramatic reinforce to noises and sounds non-musical music and both use programme, the of 63% for account key in the form of background music. Cartoons, which major the in appears and sounds, and noises musical defined style, sometimes using the film genre and non- no has It rhythm. the in or dynamics the in variations no with thetic and binary is and sounds, imitative nic electro- with instrumental, predominantly is It minute. per beats 123 of pace average an with soundtrack a has time, total the of 12% up takes which Advertising, design. set and wardrobe arrange- appropriate an choreographic and ments by accompanied often are reflected in its harmonic and melodic structures, which elements of the popular music in question. This is also acoustic some with electronic predominantly is sition compo- timbral Its music. popular foreign for opts me to style and how it is linked with identity, the program Dminor, and DMaj GMaj, which sometimes modulate to other keys. With CMaj, regard of keys it and the rhythm uses the in variations no with minute, beats per 168 to 78 from range tempos and Its spaces. soundtrack stage its with coherent are objects sound and instruments the and good is programme the in ges strategies. The synchrony between the music and ima- narrative non-musical en of means by out carried usually figure leading the towards the background shifts from with desk, mixing a using lled contro is and nuances no has intensity The stress. - - - 183 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 184 Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 ol o fls Ti i te ae f h prd of parody the of case the «Lunicienta» or that of «Psycho», or the repeated is refe This films. of the of world child the remind that music of fragments tiny of form the in programme the of sections different the construction. cognitive even- tually give rise to inner speech, and music is part will of the 162) 1981: (Vygotsky, speech this egocentric because age, early an at own one’s is what sing recogni- means diversity Valuing 112). 2004: (Porta, music speaks about oneself, about others and because to others identity educational questions option an this view, From of point elements. longer local no and any material contains exotic with filled been has that space multicultural a is offered is what yet 1991), Moragas, (De contents proximity require programmes else’s and never one’s the own work. Children’s television In song. pop a someone always is music the studied, was that sample and blues two song, country a music, the leading songs of the week being a ranchera, Instead, thestylechosenforprogrammeispopular style. classical the to allusions some are there in which itself, programme the of parodies and cartoons in exceptions few a with scarce, is century twentieth the what is listened to; by means of edition: i.e. how the how i.e. edition: of means by to; listened is what i.e. representation: of means by so does it And others. on television because music speaks about others and to music of functions patrimonial and cultural social, the to given be must value followed: be should that action of lines as following the to point conclusions The ries. theo- restructuring and analysis formal representation, musical semiotics, of perspective the from studied are they when apparent more become which but hood, child- in influence its and television on used music the have that on studies in aspects researchers from attention little the received of some outlines capabilities. article critical This later, and, aesthetic social, expressive, cognitive, their of development the to bution children’s of construction contri important an make they because consciousness the of part as ponsibility res social a also and education in influence an have music. through small, intelligent child a who interacts with mind the television media in has that time and space in dialogue aesthetic and expressive an within place takes this all from leading figure to background, and vice versa. And variations in the dynamics and rhythm, as well as shifts its characters, tonal and non-tonal music, modulations, to associated leitmotivs are there «Pocoyo» «Indiana In Jones». heroes: American last the of one to rences Incidental music. Music is linked to the action in all before from Music styles. and genres of Selection ontak o fls n tlvso programmes television and films of Soundtracks - - - sual. CAC, (2003). CAC, (2); 26 cation, Countries. four from tives Perspec Teachers’ Music of Study Comparative A Education: sic Notes the world. with dialogue and representation expression, of content a and means a vehicle, a is it – medium visual ronment in which music is far more than just an audio- envi the with relationships and diversity of pretations inter is, that otherness, and identity heritage, cultural This to century. refer which them, of some to twentieth responded has study the of tendencies musical the and psychology cognitive by proposed as defined, in Thus, be to have will heritage. analysis of units broader studies future immaterial the of enhancement the and taste of development the as well as under standing, their and the contents favour musical can of reconstruction medium a as Television influence. and meaning its production, television the i.e. speaker: the of position the from also and created; and culated arti produced, is heard and seen is what of continuity B 72. 11; LANUS, UT, UNIRIO, US, UNE). US, UNIRIO, UT, LANUS, (U universities American Latin five and UJI) and UG (UV, Spanish May three 18th from representatives by to attended was conference 14th The 2008. from Aires Buenos LANUS, of University the at held sonoro» patrimonio el en influencia e impacto Variables, no. latinoamerica- ámbito el en juvenil y infantil television la de sonora banda la sobre investigador Encuentro II the at on agreed and sed discus- were results the of review and definitions indicators, The 1 A References (A/018075/08). parado» com- estudio y variables de cuantitativo Análisis iberoamericano. to project entitled «La música y la escucha de la TV infantil Coo en el ámbi- Inter-university America for Latin and Spain between Research Scientific and peration Programme The (P1 TVE 2) y and Valenciana Televisión 1A2007-17); 9. Canal España. en 2008 y R&D (2007/2010) «Las bandas sonoras de la televisión infantil 2007 This work was made possible thanks to funding through projects: 1) Acknowledgements B Nacional. ditorio sonoros. paisajes sobre Iberoamericano Encuentro A B and Agency. Culture Structure, of Integration an Towards Consumption: B Fors 11. 14; chung, Musikpädagogische Frühsozialisation, musikalischer kmale URNARD ROWN IXLER ECKERS GUADED TIENZA Barcelona: Consejo Audiovisual de Cataluña. de Audiovisual Consejo Barcelona: , , B. (2000). Let’s Make Music School. Music Make Let’s (2000). B. , , R. (2007). R. , Sociology Compass,(2); 2 Sociology , , P.; D P.; , A.R. (2008). Popular Music Cultures, Media and Youth and Media Cultures, Music Popular (2008). A.R. . (1993). R. J.I. (2004). Música y comunicación. y Música (2004). J.I. Libro Blanco: La educación en el entorno audiovi entorno el en educación La Blanco: Libro 109-126. 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Received: 22-02-2011 / Revised: 22-04-2011 Accepted: 06-05-2011 / Published: 01-10-2011 l F. García, M. Baños & P. Fernández Madrid (Spain) http://dx.doi.org/10.3916/C37-2011-03-11

Structures and Archetypal Content in Advertising Communication Estructuras y contenidos arquetípicos en la comunicación publicitaria

ABSTRACT The aim of this investigation is the study of publicity from the point of view of the archetypes, following a hermeneutic model of analysis of the content; through this we have studied the presence of the Greek mythological figures in comparison with the characters that appear in the advertising messages of perfumes, which at first allows us to observe the analogy of the gods of the old Greek Mythology with real human archetypes; secondly, it allows us to dig deeper into these advertising contents to know if these stories are purely commercial or if they could be interpreted with other meanings. The results of this analysis show a high participation of the female archetype of the woman as a wife, related to the goddess Hera, and followed by the archetype of the sensuality represented by the Aphrodite goddess and that of the goddess Artemisia or goddess of liberty; in perfume commercials aimed at men, the biggest frequency in the myth of Zeus and of Narcissus is emphasized, as archetypes of power and success, continued by the presence of the myth of Odysseus, the hero’s archetype, known as a model of strategist and intelligence; in commercials aimed at both sexes the myth of Dionysus as archetype of the party and transformation is the most relevant, followed by the myth of the brothers Hera-Zeus that become husbands and fathers of the Greek Panteon of Mithological Gods. RESUMEN Esta investigación tiene como objeto el estudio de la publicidad desde la óptica de los arquetipos, siguiendo un modelo hermenéutico de análisis del contenido; a través de él hemos estudiado la presencia de las figuras mitológicas griegas más conocidas en comparación con los personajes que aparecen en los mensajes publicitarios de perfumes, lo que nos permite observar en primer lugar la analogía de los dioses de la Antigua Mitología Griega con arquetipos humanos reales; en segundo lugar, nos permite profundizar en estos contenidos publicitarios para saber si estos rela- tos son puramente comerciales o admiten otras interpretaciones. Los resultados de este trabajo revelan la mayor presencia del arquetipo femenino de la mujer como pareja, relacionado con la diosa Hera, modelo de esposa, seguido en frecuencia por el arquetipo de la sensualidad representado por la diosa Afrodita y en tercer lugar el de la diosa Artemisa o la libertad; en los anuncios de perfumes dirigidos al sector masculino destaca la mayor frecuencia del mito de Zeus y de Narciso, como arquetipos del poder y el éxito, seguido del mito de Odiseo, arquetipo del héroe, reco- nocido como modelo del estratega y la inteligencia; en los anuncios dirigidos a ambos sexos el mito de Dionisos como arquetipo de la fiesta y la transformación es el más relevante, seguido del mito de los hermanos Hera-Zeus que evo- lucionaron a esposos y padres del Panteón griego. KEYWORDS / PALABRAS CLAVE Advert, advertising, hermeneutical, interpretation, mythology, persuasion, speech, symbolism. Anuncios, discurso, hermenéutica, interpretación, mitos, persuasión, publicidad, simbolismo.

v Dr. Francisco García García is Full Professor of the Publicity II and Audiovisual Communication Department at the School of Informational Sciences of the Universidad Complutense in Madrid (Spain) ([email protected]). v Dr. Miguel Baños González is Full Professor of the Publicity II and Audiovisual Communication Department at the School of Science of Communication of the Universidad Rey Juan Carlos (Spain) ([email protected]). v Dr. Paloma Fernández Fernández is Professor of Commercials Grade at the School of Communication of the University Francisco de Vitoria in Madrid (Spain) ([email protected]).

Comunicar, 37, v. XIX, 2011, Scientific Journal of Media Literacy; ISSN: 1134-3478; pages 187-194 www.revistacomunicar.com 188

1. Introduction taken to be the structured nature in which man lives so The creation of advertising messages for perfu- that the human being can understand his life via similar mes, a process that is integrated in the so-called social images that are repeated throughout time. The recog- sciences, incorporates in its eminently visual language nition of an archetype is not conscious, but contact cultural contributions of all the orders of our environ- with them produces a reaction in the individual that ment which, through the perspective of this investiga- doesn’t allow him to remain indifferent; this reaction tion, has led us to study the references contained in can take the form of a sudden shiver, fascination, self-

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 modern commercials that come from the classical myt- absorption, fear…because according to Jung (1982) hological culture. The reinterpretation of stories and we are standing before an authentic symbol that he symbols corresponding to gods and Greek and Roman liked to define by using the expression coined by myths that are in turn nourished by the Mesopotamian Rudolf Otto (Jung, 1982) referring to the archetypal and Egyptian mythologies is widespread in advertising images as numinous. Those images materialize in (León, 2001) and this investigation concentrates on what we call myths. the specific segment of the advertising of perfumes of Advertising, in its constant generation of messages the last decades. These messages stand out in the for human groups of different social classes and current advertising panorama because of their greater cultures, acts as catalyst and updater of those units of expressive richness through persuasive stories in which archaic knowledge that are myths. The goal of this we can find multiple rhetorical and symbolic contribu- investigation is not to know if creative activity is tions at the service of a product whose essence, the conscious or to analyze the transmission of those aroma, cannot reach the consumer through conventio- archetypes, but to verify their presence in perfume nal communication media. commercials. Through a hermeneutical methodology Myth, from the Greek word Mizos, means etymo- and the analysis of the advertising messages for perfu- logically: word, saying or story (Pabón, 1975). mes from the end of the 20th century and beginnings Herodotus (Elíade, 2001), in the 4th century B.C. of the 21st for women and men, we can interpret the describes it as fiction and even falsehood, in compari- content of the commercials we have selected. son to logos, the word of truth. The myth comes to us anonymously while the word can come from God, as 2. Material and methods understood by this classical historian. Art and literature The general hypothesis that has inspired this inves- have recreated popular myths due to the unavoidable tigation is the following: TV commercials of modern attraction that those stories exert on individuals when perfumes reproduce mythical stories and contain refe- containing a non-scientific interpretation, and due to rences to specific cultural archetypes. The objective of the restlessness that surrounds human life. That conti- this investigation is to check the basic preexistence of nuous focus on the classical myths has also had its the classical myths in publicity for perfumes through corresponding influence on other fields like analytical the advertising story. We must keep in mind that the psychology, in which C.G. Jung, the outstanding pupil means through which the attributes of the products or of S. Freud, elaborated a theory around the arche - brands are transmitted are not always linguistic, but types (Jung,1982) as unconscious elements of the symbolic, iconographic and evocative; but, whatever human being that underlie all cultures in terms of basic the means are, they would not be effective if the reci- outlines that operate in our way of explaining reality, pients did not recognize them or interpret them appro- appearing in the core of all the stories that the human priately. Herein lies the point of this investigation: to being builds, be they of a literary, didactic or religious check that the messages contain references to classical nature. myths and the recipients can decode them with the The archetype works as an innate structure of the same meaning as the originators intended, because individual, and taking that substratum, different socie- both share the same cultural references. Persuasion is ties build their cosmogonies which are accepted, with elaborated to produce a response from the recipient by slight local variations, by other cultures and transfor- the «vis rhetórica» of the speech, as García Jiménez med with the passing of time, but which still maintains (Moreno, 2003) calls it when interpreting Aristotle´s its original essence. theory of persuasion. This forces the recipient to Archetypes are not inherited individually but complete the meaning of the message on a triple collectively, so we can speak of the collective uncons- demand level: the plausible level, the level of the logic ciousness as the virtual space in which certain archety- of the actions and the level of symbolic dimension. pes have settled, all of them constituting what could be A widespread and extended tendency exists to

consider the advertising language from a linguistic that of the perfume companies; the fact that they are approach characteristic of normal languages, when the still being watched on Internet indicates that they have reality tells us that the verbal component of this connected with the recipients because of their aesthe- language is used less and less. Studies have been deve- tic and/or thematic qualities. The 150 commercials loped focused in semiotics, linguistics and the meaning found on YouTube contain a story or narration. Of and structure of advertising communications that lead these 150 messages analyzed, the number of commer- us to understand the consumer’s reaction to the mes- cials aimed at women is greater than the ones at men, sages that he/she receives. We know that the images in short two thirds of the sample. Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 and texts that are included in the messages have an The advertising gathered in this investigation is empathic relationship with the social environment of relevant because of the message and its meaning in an the communities in which they are broadcast, being individual way and as part of a group. The results constantly updated by the inspiration of film, literary obtained will tell us about the meaning for the consu- and artistic novelties in general produced by society, mer, as much as at the literal as the conscious level, but that doesn’t explain everything. The audiovisual narrative is nurtured by recreated situations or fiction, of real sce- The audiovisual narrative is nurtured by recreated situations narios, daily and spontaneous conversations, but also of or fiction, of real scenarios, daily and spontaneous conversa- cultural symbols, sometimes tions, but also of cultural symbols, sometimes intentionally intentionally chosen and on other occasions without kee- chosen and on other occasions without keeping its meaning ping its meaning in mind. From this we can distinguish two in mind. From this we can distinguish two significance significance levels: the intentio- levels: the intentional and the materialized. nal and the materialized. In the recent perfume advertising it has been observed that the stories have become richer in symbolism and suggestions that and at the symbolic or unconscious levels, and the capture the attention; however, the interpretations method applied is that of the literal and allegorical coming from the consumers are usually of a literal mea- interpretation of the images. Analogy, as a hermeneu- ning, like a simplified translation meant to bring the con- tic principle, transmits to us the power of the subjecti- tents closer to the real world known by the audiences. ve, giving a visible symbolism to an invisible sense and In the first place, the deep meaning in a conscious way a singular phenomenon that it is deified. Analogy will is not noticed but it should be sensed and because of be the key factor in the analysis of these advertising this, more attention is given to these stories than expec- commercials. ted. The irrepresentability of the scent of the perfume (Canovas, 2005) has motivated a more rhetorical and 2.2. Analysis model more emotional elaboration of perfume commercials. The analysis model uses association and confron- tation as a methodological axis characteristic of the 2.1. Material hermeneutical application. According to the German The samples chosen for this investigation consist philosopher and student of the Greek Classics, Hans- of 150 commercials of the main international perfume Georg Gadamer (León, 2001), the key is in comparing brands for mature consumers broadcast on television what the text says and its interpretation, trying to main- between January 1990 and July 2009, and which tain a neutral position, even knowing that pure neutra- have been kept alive on the YouTube channel, lity doesn’t exist. The person must be aware that demonstrating interest in these advertising messages of he/she is limited, unable to give a complete interpreta- users who can continue to enjoy them and express tion of a story, and to accept that their interpretations their opinion. This presence implies a degree of should be contrasted and supplemented with other acceptance, regardless of whether they have been interpretations. However, the hermeneutical formula situated in the portal of the users of the brands or in of analysis can be considered subjective on the part of

a) The literal sense of the narration: the story narrated in the text. b) The literal-strategic sense: the inherent sales strategy of the announcement, the benefit offered to the consumer, the promise, the

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 positioning of the product based on tangible and intangible attributes. • 2nd stage: The allegorical sense: the elements of the commercial are considered in a symbolic way: the individuals are valued as representatives of social or Chart 1. Frequency of myths and archetypes. human groups, the products become main characters of actions and the person who uses it; yet artistic creation is also become symbols. subjective and this is decisive in the elaboration of the •3rd stage: reconstruction of the tropological advertising commercials to channel sales potential to sense: unify different commercials that pursue the the consumer in a suggestive and interesting way. In same goal, or which are related by common service to the artistic scenario, where advertising comes closer in the same value, far beyond the immediate sales purpo- its effort to seduce the consumer, the German thinker se. This is the deepest plan that goes beyond the aut- E. Panofsky (1970) elaborated a method for the reali- hor’s strategic intention to deliver to the audience zation of iconographic-iconological analysis that entails messages that are internalized. The aim is to put com- an interpretation at the different layers of meaning of mercial categories at the service of specific values with an artistic work that he called factual and expressive an end result of these interpretations being a complete analysis, where he verified the presence of symbolic vision of man and the current world as a great story. elements and analyzed their meaning. This method is — Second phase: Descriptive statistical treatment currently still being applied. Perfume commercials of the data obtained in the first phase from which we have been chosen because as a group they are quite can find quantitative and qualitative results that allow homogeneous from simple observation, and are open us to group the 150 commercials in homogeneous to in-depth analysis; this characteristic of the investiga- archetypes or mythical groups. tion can be used as a critical argument, however, in — Third phase: In-depth analysis of the content of practice the recipient does not consume all products a specific commercial, selected from each resulting motivated by the same interests but rather establishes group in the previous phases. The selected commer- differences among purely practical products, of mass cial in each group has as main characteristic a great consumption; in those he does not deposit more wealth of stylistic, iconographic and iconological interest than is necessary, as opposed to those resources that assumes greater elaboration, at least products that he wants for their benefits or for the formal. This third and last phase follows the herme- emotions that they arouse; some receive great atten- neutic pattern adapted to the one used by Francisco tion for the potentiality that they contain and mainly for García García (2006) for content analysis; it studies the aspirational content channeled towards the consu- the narrative structure distinguishing enunciated, mer, and this is generally the case of perfumer. enunciation, forms like the characters, space, time and To reach the objective pointed out in the previous actions, and the different expressions of these paragraph, the investigation has been designed with 3 elements. In this phase, special attention is prioritized differentiated work phases. towards the significant aspects of the message and not –– First phase: Hermeneutics; the hermeneutic or to the technical aspects or set-up, unless they contribu- interpretation model is applied from José Luis León te or reinforce the persuasive story. (2001) to analyze advertising messages. We distinguish the following stages: 3. Results • 1st stage: the immediate literal sense, in two The application of the hermeneutic and statistical steps: analysis to the total of the sample has allowed us to

classify successfully each of the commercials with its Earth, god of all that is seen and where Earthly life is corresponding archetype and myth. The quantitative developed. Within this role of control, a characteristic and qualitative conclusions of the analysis (Chart 1) aspect of this mythical character is inserted, narcissism, indicate that commercials dedicated to women num- as a consequence of success, which leads man to see ber around two thirds of the total, in which 26% have himself as complete, autonomous and superior to the women in the role of partner or wife; if we add the rest, destined to reign in any social environment. The archetypes represented in the stories that appear with man as a part of a couple or husband (2.85%), barely less frequency but which are, nevertheless relevant, appears, as opposed to the predominant role he holds Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 we come up with the role of feminine sensuality, like in plots in female perfume commercials, in which man that of the goddess Aphrodite as the second most is seen as an object of seduction and a necessary com- widely used persuasive argument (18%), followed by plement for the woman’s happiness; there is no reci- the appeal to individual freedom as a natural value that procity in this aspect, and Zeus as a husband, a decisi- connects woman to Nature, after the image of the ve role in the development of the mythology, is not an goddess Artemis (15%). Perfume is also presented as a outstanding value. Besides supreme god, the role special, valuable or divine element equivalent to the mainly portrayed in these commercials for men, old idea of possessing a magic elixir (13%) with which although to a lesser extent, is that of a hard-working to achieve love, a perfect accessory to physical appea- hero (25.7%), determined and necessary, a superior rance or to seduce the man of her desires. This idea being to man but inferior to the gods, and as a result complements another reiterative argument in the he can achieve greater empathy with male consumers; group, as it is also explained in relation to men, which this coincides with the Odysseus argument, the hero of consists of assigning to the perfume the capacity to Greek mythology, Ulysses in Roman mythology, who is operate non-imagined but desired changes by the one the prototype of all the most socially and culturally who uses it (11%), causing sensations and experiences valued qualities, possessing intelligence, loyalty, gene- that remind one of the processes of metamorphosis of rosity and beauty. Lastly, the argument that man has the Greek gods who changed their aspect, shape or feelings, corresponding to what you cannot see, identity at will to achieve their goals, generally of where Zeus does not reign but his brother Poseidon seduction. does (14.32%), appears in third place, perhaps as a Younger women who are just leaving adolescence complementary characteristic to the arrogant man des- behind and entering maturity receive messages specific cribed earlier, to show his interiority, allowing his to this collective, describing the main characters of the unconscious and sensibility to be expressed. Finally commercials through the evocation of the myth of we see that, as in the commercials for female Persephone, the Koré in the Greek mythology, in perfumes, the discreet presence of the Metamorphosis which the young woman discovers her sexuality after concept of change in the male perfume commercials accepting a pomegranate from her captor, Hades, the adds to the possibility that men who are not so sure god of the underworld, arousing passions and deep about resembling Zeus or Ulysses can imagine that the sensations which are translated into commercials by perfume boosts their social projection, endowing them young women taking in their hands a bottle of perfume with a powerful dimension with regards to their possi- in the shape of an apple, a magic object or a star from bilities of being and/or seeming. the sky, metaphor of a promise of love. However, Unisex perfumery represents a very scarce and not commercials aimed at females which use motivation to very relevant percentage in the universe analyzed but reach social or professional success are few, an attri- this does not prevent us from proving that the most bute traditionally assigned to the goddess Athena in her important message is concentrated in three fundamen- vision of a victorious Nike. Less used is the plot invol- tal concepts that correspond to the three main charac- ving fun or partying to accompany perfume use, in fact ters of Greek mythology and their corresponding the opposite is true: perfumes are presented as a modern archetypes. Man and woman as a couple product for personal and private use on a deep level. (26.6%), partners or husbands, Zeus and Hera-style, The group of commercials dedicated aimed at frequently related to fun, leisure, partying and happi- men, which is far smaller than those aimed at women, ness that Dionysus represents (26.6%), and united by less than one third of the total, has a clear tendency the desire for transformation of themselves and of the towards stories of social success as an outstanding group (26.6%), by using perfume as elixir identified persuasive value. Man is seen as the god that leads the with the values of sharing and enjoying the existence Greek pantheon, Zeus (40%), leader in heaven and on with others.

The in-depth content analysis of a relevant com- ocean, similar to that of two male lovers, where the mercial from each group has enabled us to make a deep water is a symbol of the unconscious and the detailed check of the iconographic and iconological model who plays this role is of a classical beauty. presence of each myth seen in the commercials, with The analogy is also clear in «Escape» from Calvin a fairly high analogy level, as is the case of the «J’ Klein, a unisex commercial that represents the myth of Adore» commercial by Dior in which a woman takes the Minotaur and Ariadne with the man’s expressions off her clothes and complements herself with the per- true to character as the bull-man seducing Ariadne in

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 fume in a tranquil, elegant environment as if she were the labyrinth. Finally, we must mention the mark of the the goddess Aphrodite, naked and beautiful, with no god Dionysus in the commercial for Hugo Boss brand interaction with a man taking place, emulating the god- XY that transforms the atmosphere where he appears dess that is born mature. The commercial for Chanel partying and in debauchery. nº 5 for young women that recalls the process of This brief summary of the deep analysis of 12 Persephone entering adult life, dressed in the commer- commercials and the precedent phases of the analysis cial like the character of the story that relates the same allows us to verify that the hypothesis posed at the myth – Little Red Riding Hood, who this time is beginning of the investigation has been confirmed in accompanied by wolves that do not threaten her but each of the phases of the analysis of the sample, resul- rather obey her when she picks up her perfume and ting in some general conclusions which we now takes a step toward a new world, that of adult life; the present. goddess Artemis was also accompanied by wolves that The advertising of the perfumery sector that protected and obeyed her; we see in this commercial prevails in the audiovisual media is primarily focused a combination of myths and archetypes that is very on the mature woman who is identified mainly by the appropriate for the modern woman, the young and character of the goddess Hera, wife or partner of a daring woman. Artemis is played by the actress Keyra man that she feels proud of. At the same time she is Knightly in a commercial for «Coco Mademoiselle» sure of her sensuality and uses it as a gift from nature, from Chanel, in which she dares to flirt with men who just like the goddess Aphrodite, which provokes she leaves behind to feel free in Paris. We also find greater attention to the body and arouse the desire of Persephone in Nina Ricci´s commercial for the those who admire it. Young women are persuaded to «Nina» perfume, this time symbolizing the end of enter the world of high perfumery with stories that hint adolescence with the act of catching the symbol of car- at a discovery that will change their lives, which leads nality, a red apple that is also the bottle of perfume. them out of the infantile world of imagination. All of The phenomenon of the metamorphosis, typical of the this brings us closer to the idea of the perfume as elixir, mythological gods is seen in the commercial for able to make the most diverse fantasies reality and also «Madame» by J.P. Gaultier, in which the transforma- to the promise that perfume can transform women and tion has to do with the aesthetics promoted by the men to help them fulfill personal wishes or dreams. designer. The success and intelligence attributed to Men have a much smaller presence in this cate- the goddess Athena hardly appears in any commercials gory of commercials, but these concentrate a lot on the although an outstanding example is that of actress idea of man as holder of power, control over himself Nicole Kidman for Chanel Nº 5. Power as a and others, like Zeus, proud of himself and his possibi- masculine attribute began to be seen at the end of the lities and able to become a hero in his approach to 20th century in a memorable commercial for Chanel’s mortals, as a superman or a semi-god. This also con- «Egoiste», in which a man fights with his shadow in a nects with the idea that an elixir or a metamorphosis is clear narcissistic combat for power. Man as the hero possible by using a certain perfume; however, the of modernity is compared to Odysseus, the hero of the perfume does not appear as a creator of relationships Iliad and the Odyssey, in a purely Mediterranean envi- among couples or with a wife, except in isolated cases. ronment where manliness and serenity stand out in the Perfume commercials whose target is a mixed main character of the commercial for Light Blue by man-woman public are very scarce and are based on «Dolce&Gabbana». The commercial of another Italian the argument of the group as a formula for Dionysian brand, Giorgio Armani, for «Acqua di Gio», shows the amusement, partying, the transformative possibilities most profound and sensual man in Greek mythology, by means of participation in the group and the formula Poseidon, playing sexual ambiguity that includes of the perfume as elixir that offers the happiness and homosexuality as a suggested proposal through the enjoyment of feeling and being with other people. movements of a man who has a relationship with the The targets in the group of perfume commercials,

even if they seem to differ for each sex, coincide in the men, both of which reinforce or maintain the role that use of empathy to get the different consumer groups to both sexes have played out in society for centuries. indentify with the different archetypes shown. These The sentimental man or the autonomous woman are are for both male and female and summarized in a infrequent archetypes. single sentence: woman is a sensual and free wife that transforms and reinvents herself; man experiences suc- 4. Discussion cess, is daring, brave and with feelings; men and The stage that advertising messages currently women who enjoy life together. occupies has been called emotional advertising and its Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 In the period analyzed, almost two decades, the peculiarities continue to be studied; among the charac- evolution in perfume commercials is observed with teristics of these messages is the description of charac- regards to the archetypes represented, with those ters through highly accentuated physical and emotional mentioned in the previous paragraphs remaining constant. The most recent archetypes to be incorporated for The relationship between publicity and mythology has women, men and mixed hardly been explored; when this encounter has taken place group/unisex are archetypes of female success, Athena-Niké, it has been to consider that publicity creates modern myths, and independence, Artemis; in men, the hero’s archetype but this investigation has gone in the opposite direction, con- represented by the figure of Odysseus, a more intelligent sidering it implicit in the starting hypothesis that publicity is and conscientious man than inspired as much by classical ideas as modern ones, and that the one represented by Zeus, and lastly, the archetype of their stories are renewed and activated, and are massively transgression and the breaking of conventional rules, summed diffuse concepts or knowledge that have accompanied man up in the myth of Dionysus, throughout history, as happens with the archetypes. To sum introduced through unisex commercials or focused up, it is about an innate substratum in the individual, and towards an ambiguous public that cannot follow the conven- due to this it should be valued in tackling persuasive commu- tional patterns of the female nication both for content and for an effectiveness factor. and/or male sex. The peculiarities of publicity of the high perfumery sector are so many that without exaggeration we could features that coincide with the dominant features exhi- open a new category of commercials that we could bited by certain social groups in society, those that the name, in light of the results of this investigation, recipient identifies with and this investigation identifies archetypical advertising. as human archetypes. The integration formula of the In short, this investigation shows the viability of the archetypal content in the advertising characters is not hermeneutic model in the analysis of current publicity perceived in a direct way but rather functions through and the use of archetypes as an instrument for content familiarity; they obtain the corresponding automatic analysis, offering us a new focus for knowledge of recognition in the mind of the recipient who adopts advertising messages which in the case of perfume them as models to follow; this explains and reinforces advertising, are rich in analogies from the classical myt- the idea that modern advertising messages are channe- hologies and human prototypes, protagonists of led indirectly and that the consumer is being constantly persuasive speeches that act as references in our trained by publicity to decode message beyond a first society. A greater proportion of advertising targets reading or impression (López and Farrán, 2010), and women, this is confirmed; the predominant role is that aside from this investigation we can understand how of the goddess Hera, wife and partner; the role of and why this emotional and archetypal publicity success and power is most frequently used to target works.

The most recent tendencies in persuasive commu- tes modern myths, but this investigation has gone in the nication have led publicity to show an individual that opposite direction, considering it implicit in the starting looks more and more like himself/herself, which could hypothesis that publicity is inspired as much by classi- lead us to consider that the commercials analyzed cal ideas as modern ones, and that their stories are respond to a fashion, but the advertising of structure renewed and activated, and are massively diffuse and archetypal content is no mere temporary accident concepts or knowledge that have accompanied man but a natural resource and, therefore, of constant use throughout history, as happens with the archetypes.

Comunicar, 37, XIX, 2011 as much in publicity as in any communication environ- To sum up, it is about an innate substratum in the indi- ment; as it is, publicity consolidates the dominant vidual, and due to this it should be valued in tackling arche types in each period because its objective is persuasive communication both for content and for an always to maximize the diffusion of a content to obtain effectiveness factor. quantifiable results; the most original contribution in this investigation indicates that that general objective of References publicity is achieved, in the case of perfume adverti- BERLANGA, I. (2009). Comunicación audiovisual y mujer. Evolución sing, through the use of archetypes in narrations, and y nuevos formatos en las campañas publicitarias de violencia de género. Icono 14, 9, 1; 145-160. this adds to our understanding of the success of some CÁNOVAS, S. (2005). El perfume en la publicidad: Irrepre sen ta bi lidad advertising messages and consolidates the idea that y sinestesia. Revista de Investigación Lingüística, 8, 1; 131-152. publicity, true to its expansive role, makes the majority MORENO, I. (2003). Narrativa audiovisual publicitaria. Barcelona: the minority, as Martinez-Rodrigo comments (2006) Paidós. with regards to this topic. Our focus can be of great GARCÍA GARCÍA, F. & AL. (2006). Narrativa audiovisual. Barcelona. interest to further investigations centered on other pro- Laberinto. ELIADE, M. (2001). Mitos, sueños y misterios. Barcelona: Kairós. ducts or content, and could be a useful guide for insti- ELIADE, M. (2004). Historia de las creencias y de las ideas religio- tutional campaigns that work on eliminating behavior sas, I, II. Barcelona: RBA. such as domestic violence (Berlanga, 2009) since the JUNG, C.G. (1982). Psicología y simbólica del arquetipo. Barce lo- decision can be made on the diffusion of a certain na: Paidós female archetype that strengthens a new woman LEÓN, J.L. (2001). Mitoanálisis de la publicidad. Barcelona: Ariel. LÓPEZ, R. & FARRÁN, E. (2010). La evolución del discurso racional model that doesn’t have as a main vital objective the al discurso emocional en «El Sol», Festival Iberoamericano de la achievement of becoming part of a couple and Comunicación Publicitaria (1988-1998-2008). Comunicación y complementarily, a male archetype that far from loo- Hombre, 6; 43-63. king for power, develops complementary archetypal MARTÍNEZ-RODRIGO, S. (2006). Modas y tendencias actuales de la qualities such as those of Odysseus. comunicación. Comunicar, 27; 10-12. PABÓN, J.M. (1975). Diccionario Manual Griego-Español. Barce- The relationship between publicity and mythology lona: Biblograf. has hardly been explored; when this encounter has PANOFSKY, E. (1970). Estudios sobre iconología. Barcelona: Alian- taken place it has been to consider that publicity crea- za.