Trafficking China: in Japanese" Drug "Imperial
Perspectives Historiographic
Wakabayashi Bob Tadashi
University, Toronto York
Introduction
operations--largely opium "imperial Japanese" places historiographic study This
run
scholarly Japanese regimes--in of through the collaborator Chinese postwar context
and convoluted. approach circuitous
Asia. in This
World debates Two War
may seem
on
necessitate this directly? factors operations Three just opium Why describe the
not
peoples colonial
"imperial Japanese" ethnic Japanese; First, tactical all detour.
not were
capacity Japanese plied drug their trade in the
and Taiwanese also such Koreans
as
as
today owing
form neglect topic Second, Japan in imperial subjects. this suffers to acute
a
opium
wartime
attention the political much that of
postwar warrants correctness
as as
scholarship
ideological Third, historical constraints operations such themselves.
warp
on
China--including played by aggression the role understanding in of Japanese
our
geopolitical "imperial of briefly Below, subjects. outline the colonial I contours
and then tackle
1945, from opium operations continent Japanese" the Asian 1895 to
on
need Japan feel prickly why in historians issue of academic portray the postwar to
a
between and solely War" 1931 1945. of "Fifteen-Year victims and Chinese Koreans
a as
trafficking drug will also unlock study hoped Japanese of words, this other it is that In
other doors.
Dilating Man-M6: Amoeba A
Manchuria-Mongolia Qing- spoke from the expansionists of Man-M6 Japanese
or
they gradually enlarged definition, favoring Meiji Always maximal of War 1894-95.
a
comprise originally "Manchuria"
distinct The first four Man-M6
to proper. was areas.
Yugoslavia by English place Arabia-- suffixed "-ia"---such Like
or many as names
began disputed, ethnicity "land fluid borders. mixed and It Manchuria land of
as was a
Guandong, derived its Army
Shanhaiguan" (Kwantung the Kwantung whence of
east
or
peninsula After the specifically, Liaodung Mukden. name); and southern 1904- the
more
comprising began
expansionists Russia, Manchuria against
Japanese 5 construe
to
as war
Republic 1911, practice of China after Heilongjiang Liaoning, Jilin, in the and Common
which would form the by the Northeast Provinces this call
contrast, to area was
engulfed amoeba second of Manzhoukuo The Man-M6 in collaborator 1932.
state a
Mongolian province affixed it Manzhoukuo in of Rehe--when Japan area--the Inner to
region Qing Puyi, renamed the Manchu the and restored the defunct monarch 1932-3,
Mongolia Suiyuan--also Finally, of Empire Chahar southeast and Inner in 1934. part
together Manchuria-Mongolia Qing--accrued of with the northern under the part to
Empire population.
last This local Chinese British Regimes Mongol worldwide
various of alcohol. sorts--from the
to
had which
Walls,
and Outer
a the
Inner
between
Shanxi
of
with the later the rule under
opium legitimate
But of warlords--embraced Shanxi--came
north
and
Suiyuan, revenue.
southeast
Chahar,
as a source
of
area--made
up
consumption
heroin, morphine in
and Set
Mongol
Autonomy. manufacture narcotics of far such
Regime
for
potent
up
Federal Mengjiang
more
the
as
collaborator
state,
a
regimes
Chahar, and and
individuals South Shanxi, beyond by moderation, perforce 1920s, and and the North 1910s
for regimes
amalgamated
earlier
it rose 1939, September
mounting moral
of gain face drugs the
such addictive did in that relied
to
Self-Rule. so on revenue
Mongol League
Manchuria-Mongolia
of geographic
grew
artificial construct
end the
censure. the
in
Thus,
comprised all five
Above Imperial operations it motives. opium Japanese from three Mengjiang. By 1939
and plus Empire
Rehe was
sprang Manchu
the constitute
to
Hebei, majority
North Mengjiang,
Manchu,
inhabitants, East
such the the need collaborator finance the
million vast
with to 60 states
in
others
and part, whole as provinces
in
two
According
restored however, regimes. the Jingwei
Mongols. Japan, Provisional, Reformed, Wang
and China and to Manchus
sinicized
and
Chinese Han
whom of
were
garnered
empire
million added
example,
could be Puyi, 300 the Manchu territory and for
Manchu
non-Chinese
yuan, Wall or of
the
anything north
emperor, so
that claimed
was
3 opium signing
funded undercover Second, by
opium. agreed the
from of
one-sixth its total Kai-shek) effect about
in
(Chiang
Jieshi Jiang Manchuria-Mongolia. revenues,
to
1935.1
rightwing
profits
opium Third, aggression.
October
operations
Japanese facilitated
that
late went to
issue the refusing tacitly
contest and
as Tangu
as
Truce to
1933
May
opium
wartime laundered
link evidence of
form is
the and Han Japan,
took there societies in continent
to Asian the
conflict even some
Sino-Japanese
Modem
on
propaganda 4 averred that parties.
economic Wartime GMD
conservative
early Japanese with
monies assimilation
postwar
cultural
expansion
and demographic
versus
Chinese
submission, Japanese
and
operations poison formed China into
drugs Opium imperial
used Japan
deemed war
to some when force
by armed
a penetration backed
necesssary.
5 probably
it is
But effect these in the Manchuria-Mongolia. 1950s. After that testified
PRC in the detained criminals
penetration
in to economic this Japanese of
key
part
Japanese
for
sorely needed in opium
Hebei
raised that
such
aggressors-- China east
in
adjacent
spread
to
revenue correct
and proper say intensified as
operations to
more
areas
and GMD,
the elements,
criminal
warlords, force
armed
Chinese
for of do Japanese just continued
heightened, it
the
even
amount resistance to
Chinese
mid-1930s, so Han the as
wherewithal
lacked the spilt Twentieth-century Japan (CCP).
to Party later Communist that the Chinese in 1937
broke
full-scale
mounted,
over and out necessary"
"deemed
war
a
6
fiscal
opium
man's
latched
imperial its leaders
be panacea.
to poor a as
December power, 1941. on Pacific
in so
the an into
had problem
and
drug home virtually Meiji had Japan Tokugawa and at
Yet never
no
empire this
created
Only will the
opium of
form to relied
government
revenue.
a
as on
need.
fiscal
Operations Opium
from Stage lasted overlapping
place
operations
three in Opium took and stages.
1912 between treaties international
one
four
ratified signed
and
Imperial
Japan
May in Tanggu
the
Truce with
which ended Incident through
Manchurian
the non-medicinal
the 1890s
for
narcotics
and drugs
purposes,
of
sale
the
banned export
that
1931
or
(DMZ)
demilitarized in
of creation
with the
began
in 1933
Stage the June in
treaties violating
1933. those zone
two for Nations
a
of
by League the
censured
and Japan
was
of the Kr-
establishment the ended stipulated Accords, with by and those
Hebei individuals
other Western and
east French, Germans,
Americans,
British, as
Yet
1930s.
began December in 1938 Stage three
Board)
December Development
in (Asia 1938. warlords, the Ain
Chinese furthermore, and,
1930s; the in China
in traffick
continued
to
key August
ended in opium 1945. exploit
and
continued regimes
collaborator (GMD),
to and a
Guomindang as
the under drugs Chinese
smuggled imperial in subjects
ports treaty
and
In the 1930s
in
stage
did make
campaigns suppression
one
progress GMD
of
revenue.
source
enjoyed
tairiku carpetbaggers
rdnin
extraterritoriality. rift-raft
These protection ability of and
desire overall,
the
or
But charges
in 1935. drug
Chinese
executed 964
on
some
imperial
armed from and 2 concessions
authorities in consular from highly dubious.
treaty port
anti-drug support laws
enforce GMD, including
the regimes,
was to of Chinese
Consul
instance,
Territories.
Guandong Leased For
the
such colonial imperial
in forces Japanese
that
remains
fact the
however,
as historical areas
broader
context, Within that
Tianjin
in
situation
in
Shigeru described
the
Minister) Yoshida
(and their Prime is
What early postwar
the
1890s. opium smuggle
China in more, began
subjects
as
to
as
follows: December
those 1922
In and 1940s. during the 1930s scale
in decisively and
in changed as activities
nature
make began itself imperial
government to the and
involved
became zaibatsu
decades, the
morphine
other deal in
Tianjin,
percent
in Japanese residents
seventy
and treaties Of the
5000 international or
opium--in of
just
contempt
narcotics--not
hard and sell
and
goods, eateries
these in traffic businesses all illegal Almost substances.
even
law.
Chinese
domestic
in strict
here crackdowns
Police medicinal
just
firms not general
as
are stores, as not
of
toward the
attitudes
normative
change in
point,
last
this
Related use
to
a sea
flagrant We violators.
only arraign
the
policy
is
Consulate's the most Dalian, and
to
twentieth
early by place the century.
opium had
taken
derived from drugs opium and
in
uncovered those authorities
[Chinese]
by
caught only
those
customs
prosecute or
opium
consumption of
moderate nineteenth of the half second was century, in the Even
of
that from different little alike--as
Chinese and quarters--Western in viewed many
Yi,
period Aisin-Gioro
Pu give in Tadayuki
does but figure Furumi from the not
3. He
quotes
a
384. 1987), University
Press, Quagmire
Oxford (London: China ed., The Morley, Citizen
Emperor
China," W. From p. in James "Designs to North Toshihiko,
Shimada
1.
on
July 8, shinbun, 1993.
Asahi 1983), 133. 4.
University Press,
Columbia
(New
York:
p.
the various
April China, 1998;
5,
opium shinbun, trade in Asahi 5. in the
foreign
involvement Chinese
and
see
of the issue
On 2.
Keiichi,
Nit-Ch• ahen
sensd
Eguchi
periodization,
China, Britain, is from Regimes: Opium the information, but Wakabayashi, ed., the Much of 6. not Tadashi Timothy Bob Brook and
chapters
in
1988). shoten, 2000). Iwanami (Tokyo: Press, California of University (Berkeley: Japan, 1839-1952 and
5 4
Empire Regimes Chinese local the worldwide British alcohol. of various sorts--from to
opium legitimate the later warlords--embraced with of But
revenue. as a source
consumption morphine heroin, manufacture far narcotics of such and
potent
more
as
regimes perforce beyond by moderation, and and and the individuals 1920s, 1910s
rose
gain mounting drugs addictive of moral that relied such did in the face
to on revenue so
censure.
Imperial opium operations Japanese motives. all
from Above three
sprang was
Mengjiang, Manchu, Hebei, collaborator the need finance such North the East states
to
as
Jingwei Provisional, Reformed, regimes. According China Wang and restored the
to
Puyi, example, empire garnered the Manchu Manchu million for
300
emperor, yuan, or
3 opium. opium of Second, one-sixth its total from about funded undercover
revenues,
profits rightwing operations opium aggression. Third, Japanese facilitated that to went
opium and is societies Japan, there evidence laundered wartime in link
to
even some
4 early parties. propaganda conservative averred that with Wartime GMD monies postwar
submission, imperial drugs poison China Japanese and Japan used into
to some war
• probably it is testified effect the in criminals detained the PRC in that 1950s. But to
opium sorely Japanese raised needed for that
correct to
aggressors--
say revenue more
elements, GMD,
and warlords, just criminal the continued do for Chinese it
to
even so as
Twentieth-century wherewithal (CCP). Japan lacked the Chinese Communist Party the
to
6
opium imperial fiscal man's be its leaders latched
to poor
panacea. power, as a so on an
problem virtually drug Tokugawa Meiji home had and Japan and had
Yet
at
never no
empire Only
opium created this the will form of relied
government to
revenue. on as a
need. fiscal
overlapping Stage Opium operations place lasted from three in took stages.
one
through Tanggu May in ended with the Manchurian the Incident which Truce the 1890s
(DMZ) demilitarized in Stage began creation of in with the 1933
June 1933.
two
zone a
stipulated by of the Accords, ended with the establishment Kr- Hebei those and east
as
began Board) (Asia Development Stage three December in December in Ain 1938 1938.
August and ended in 1945.
subjects smuggled drugs imperial under the Chinese in In
treaty ports stage
one
enjoyed. extraterritoriality. carpetbaggers protection tairiku These rift-raft rdnin of or
imperial from armed concessions in and from consular authorities treaty port support
instance, Guandong Territories. Consul Leased in colonial such the For forces
areas as
Tianjin Shigeru Minister) situation in in described the (and Yoshida Prime postwar
follows: December 1922 as
morphine other Tianjin, deal in residents Japanese in Of the 5000 seventy percent
or
goods, eateries and these businesses illegal traffic in Almost all substances.
even
just here strict in general Police crackdowns medicinal firms
not
stores,
not are as as
flagrant policy Dalian, arraign only violators. We the Consulate's is and the most
to
those caught by [Chinese] uncovered in only authorities those prosecute customs or
Yi, period give figure Tadayuki Aisin-Gioro in Pu the Furumi but does from 3. He quotes not
a
1987), University (London: 384. Press, Oxford Emperor Citizen From to p.
July shinbun, 8, Asahi 1993. 4.
April shmbun, 5, 1998; Asahi 5.
Eguchi Keiichi, periodization, information, Nit-Ch• ahen sens6 from but the is Much of the 6. not
1988). shoten, (Tokyo: Iwanami 5
did
If
investigate
crimes
criminals
don't
crimes. We other
so we arrest our own. on
or
7 Tianjin.
lef• in would thoroughly, Japanese be no
from connivance continued with carpetbaggers by trafficking In
two, stage
Hebei the Wall in expanded of the south it also However, officials. eastern consular
only
units Chinese of that the by Under the created 1933 truce, DMZ were terms
truce.
This will. DMZ could Japanese forces actually whereas leave the forced enter DMZ at
to
and the Autonomy Hebei "Regime for East Rugeng's Yin control of fell the under
imperial
and 1935, November Tongzhou in of Communism" Containment
at set
up
Mitsubishi such zaibatsu
Furthermore,
impunity opium in this subjects with sold
as
area.
extend the Accords provisions interpreted in the liberally shrji Mitsui bussan to and
Foreign
formal under China opium
north into smuggle
Iranian and DMZ
out to sea
longer 8 trafficking
in imperial Japanes supervision. Ministry stage Thus two
no was
operated
in
zaibatsu the
Guandong the individuals in ports; confined treaty now to or
backing. with China government
proper
December 1938 August of 1945. In from late-1938 Finally, lasted
three
to
stage
foreign, plus his prime minister by the Kr-Ain--headed created the Japan
navy, army,
Ministry. It Asia body East the Greater became that later ministers--a and finance
ran
hand-in-glove with the worked Kalgan office that through branch operations opium
a
Kalgan. Historian headquartered in which also
regime, 1939, Mengjiang created in
was
regime controlling this collaborator officials Eguchi Japanese that shows
Keiichi
They
profits it. from drug consumption and taxed encouraged of the set local
up
an
bought harvests, scale,
the large poppies
monopoly,
farmers opium got up
to on a grow
exported
morphine,
and and heroin opium, .refined that into processed into these
raw
chart). (see Asia Southeast and of China other narcotics these
parts to to
trafficked Japanese
subjects imperial in
individual then, in
To stage one, up,
sum
extraterritoriality. protection In of the stage under concessions and colonies
treaty port
by Wall smuggling of the south extended Foreign Ministry direction zaibatsu under
two,
imperial Japanese three, the provisions exploiting Tanggu of the In Truce. stage
Mengjiang. exported from narcotics and manufactured
government
foreign parried criticism narcotics, Japan concealing with its involvement
Besides
intractable problem drug there arguing by that the opium policy to China in its too of
was
opium
cut-off in total and that prohibitions after by 1935 strict GMD's be cured the
a
practical
and
both
from pains So, addicts. in withdrawal would
severe cause
is, misrule--that seeking from GMD regimes motives, Chinese humanitarian autonomy
colonial worked in prohibition had gradual that
policy regimes---chose of collaborator
a
licensed and drugs non-addicts of regimes sale forbid the would These set Taiwan. to up
they detoxified.
be
could addicts that dispensing drugs halfway for houses current to so
and off
died
addicts
time would drug
Thus
current ones
new
no
as
cease over
use
by adopted the GMD exactly the fact, place. emerged this their strategy in In same was
campaigns. eradication its in
own
halfway
houses reality Chinese-run differed. line; Japan's official That
was
paid Japanese hefty
fees for in enjoyed license literally the to taxes operate
return to
or
stations" "comfort the in narcotics--sometimes Imperial subjects in dealt authorities. too
shob6,
(Tokyo: Misuzu gendaishi shiry6 mondai Ahen al., ed., 12: Zoku Yoshirnasa Okada 7. et
1986), 190-91. pp.
Ibid., 98-101. 8. pp. 6
9 Rising
ward off Chinese Sun they They flew the for that
to troops.
even ran
authorities.l°
works of fiction. depicted dealing in drug In This contemporaneous
was
Incident, portrayed Jinan the shigai which
1928 Denji Kuroshima Bus6 1930
wrote
seru
11
work, Yutang's Moment Lin by opium 1939 Japanese traffickers. off in in
part
set
candy Chinese peddling narcotic-laced school subjects Peking, imperial shows to
appeared of Lin's Japan novel in translations children concessions. in Partial port treaty
expurgated of but those
scenes. were
trafficking the in Japanese 1930s. Western condemned League of Nations The
Institute Pacific of well. The Relations appeared eyewitness that time testimonies at
as
Opium and the Japan in Menace monograph by titled published Frederick Merrill 1942.
a
August September 6, from this issue 30 Tokyo Crimes Tribunal took The War
to
up
Guandong principals Army staff questioning such of and behind-the-scenes 1946,
as
Finally,
13
Allied Ryfikichi yielded information still officer Tanaka prosecutors.
to
more
drug-related charges subjects and imperial C- B- executed Japanese the GMD 149
as
on
drug criminals involved with Japanese criminals, detained and the PRC class war
war
dealing until 1956.
Leftwing Political Correctness
opium operations
imperial then,
quite Why, of this clear. All
not
are seems
obvious. is another knowledge first Japan? The in Here
at
seems answer common
operations, Atrocity, poison Nanjing and Unit issue•along with comfort the
gas women,
biological interests Japanese conservative warfare•that chemical and 731's
want to
topics
suppressed Ministry of such textbooks in mention Education The of
up.
cover
TM their deeds before Mitsubishi Mitsui
mid-1990s. and until the Nor
to expose
eager
are
early scrutiny--especially 2000's, when faced with the and the late-1990s in world
possibility of lawsuits.
inadequate. explanation all, After thought, however, is this second On
even
powerful lettwing historical though influence
in it has lost
recent
years,
a some
opium operations, day having with field and, it should be Japan; exists in establishment
a
prominent mentioned above. Many just other crimes issues it does with the
war as
belong Communist and the Japan and China historians of both Japanese support to
or
they another issue with Parties, Democratic) would welcome (now and Social Socialist
history. Therefore, whitewashing Japan's the of government's berate the which recent to
(May1998), Shinnosuke by in Sekai 648 133- Lieutenant-General Sassa confession 9. Postwar pp.
34.
shuppan, 1953), (Tokyo: Rikugun 43-44. Sumihisa, sdgi iinchd Nihon Ikeda 10.
pp.
shobr, 1970), (Tokyo: vol zenshf• Chikuma Denfi 3. Kuroshima 11.
(Shanghai: Life Kelley Pelang: of Contemporary Chinese Yu-tang, Novel A Lin Moment 12. in
1939). Walsh, and
Ry•tgchi (Tokyo: shiry6: Trky6 chdsho Tanaka al., ed., Kentar6 13.Awaya saiban
finmon et
I•tsuki
shoten, 1994), 41-61.
pp.
of middle school block the textbooks of sued However, that
350 14.
parents to
note
group use a
April shinbun, foreign 4, This the 1997. Asahi mention comfort See that the
was women.
comprising
Society History conservative Textbooks impetus Create for the formation of New
to
a
pilot history.
(in terms) of As view "non-masochistic" their revisionists who seek
present
to
a a
(Tokyo: published Kanji, Kokumin rekishi project, of Nishio has the the direction under
group no
shinbunsha, 1999). Sankei 7
remain
Japan
in left radical contemporary the Why does question is: arresting truly
reticent?
primary
reliable scarcity
of explanation
in lies sources.
academic purely
One
a
nineteenth--
the
in opposed those twentieth to
operations century--as the
in
Opium
leave did involved not
opprobrium.
Persons
moral criminality and
of acquired
aura
an
enjoy
who
to those
went and, about; on incriminating
evidence
moreover, strewn
Shigeru, for
Yoshida tight-lipped. from Aside
remained
have illustrious postwar
careers
Aichi
Minister Ohira Foreign Masayoshi former and Minister
Prime example, former
unburdening
around
15 they
Somehow got to operations.
opium in
took Kiichi
never part
it 1946;
in issue this took Tribunal Tokyo the above, noted up As
consciences. their
evidence.
Chinese
and exhibited
Western and stand eyewitnesses as the sources called
to
second-
anecdotal,
impressionistic,
be tended
or and documents testimonies
to those Yet
crimes
sustain
Japanese from to data hard little war
There
in sources hand
nature.
was
"guilty" conclusively.16 verdict
the dismissed Japanese
as Thus postwar allegations
many
grounds.
ideological
inclined justice•especially
those victors'
on so
imperial
Japanese topic of the of semi-scholarly
scholarly treatments
Few
or
from
Yoshimi dates Takeuchi
by
One the before operations exist 1980s. opium
essay
shi best-selling Sh6wa
Shigeki the in T6yama Seiichi,
and Imai Akira, Fujiwara
1949.
line 1986) devote
and (1968 Taiheiy6 to sens6 in Sabur6 1959)
and a Ienaga (1955 and
ahen
hitotsu
"M6
Kiyotaka drafted 17
Kuroha passing. no opium 1977 In essay, in
an
TM
publication in 1984. until
withheld
weak and evidence
his that sens6," felt he but
was
19
Eguchi
appeared.
materials primary
Japanese of volumes 1985-86,
Then, in
source two
Eguchi
also
it. 1988 introduction In scholarly
to
and
of these Keiichi edited
wrote
a
one
the in semi-scholarly though
of nature,
subject,
monograph this published best the
a
on
Kurahashi Masanao such
2° historians Recently, other
few series. shinsho Iwanami as
a
numbers topic, their but
understudied
this work
begun Kobayashi Motohiro have and
on
like, might but I
than
abundant less 21
reliable
that is small. It remain we true
are sources
Japanese
impediment leftwingpolitical
of is
to contend that correctness an more
scholarship
issue. this
on
neglected and
explain the ideological constraints leftwing
submit that would
I
bias takes The topic Japan.
in study of this two
the
accorded biased to treatment even
85,208. 73,
sens6, Eguchi,
ahen
Nit-Chfi
15.
pp.
reliability, Yamamoto
degrees of
varying
operations, with opium
memoirs Individual are:
16.
on
rikugun "Ahen
Fujise Kazuya, Sh6wa
1985); and shuppan, (Tokyo: PMC taih6 Ahen
Tstmeo,
to
history--again
example oral of 1992). An shinsha, shob6
(Tokyo: b6ryaku" Yamate
taizai
no
Kak6,
Senda circles--is historical reputation in lef6st author's despite reliability the
dubious with
1980). Sekibunkan, b6ryaku (Tokyo:
"'Ahen" K6gun
Takeuchi ishiki," in d&oku
Nihonjin
"Chfigokujin ishiki
k6sen
Yoshimi,
to Takeuchi
17. no
no
T6yama
35-60; 1966), shob6,
Chikuma (Tokyo: Ch•goku
hy6ronsh• Gendai pp.
3: Yoshimi
ron
respectively;
Ienaga
218, 183-84,
1959),
and shoten, 1955 (Tokyo: Iwanami
shi al., Sh6wa
pp.
et
respectively.
193,206-07, 1986), and shoten, 1968 (Tokyo: Iwanami
Taiheiy6 Sabur6,
sens6
pp.
203-51,265.
1984), Sanseid6, (Tokyo:
shijosetsu:j6 Jftgonen sens6 Kiyotaka, pp. Kuroha 18.
shoten, (Tokyo:
Iwanami seisaku ahen ki sens6 Shiry6: Nit-Chft ahen Keiichi, ed., Eguchi 19.
mondai. ed., Ahen al., 1985); Okada Yoshimasa et
Eguchi,
sens6. Nit-Chft ahen
20.
shob6, Ky6ei 1996); (Tokyo: hanzai
kokka senryaku: Kakusareta
ahen Kurahashi,
Nihon
21.
no
Tianjian," and Brook in in Jpaanese by Operations Resident "Drug Motohiro, Kobayashi
152-66. Opium Regimes, Wakabayashi, eds., pp. 8
drug ignore leftwing play
the and wartime First, down main forms. scholars
prewar
or
plied by criminal 1949, warlords and elements. GMD, CCP, trade the and Chinese In
turpitude this for issue of which Japanese Takeuchi Yoshimi moral trade broached the
castigated Peking. novel, had Takeuchi Yutang excoriated his his Lin in Moment 1939 in
they
insensitivity suffering through drug for inflicted China the the countrymen
to
on
trade, nothing Kuroshima, he mentioned but unlike of Chinese Lin other
or or
:2 Fujiwara China. for leftist historians nationalities who trafficked in The holds the
same
Akira, T6yama Shigeki, Seiichi, through Sabur6 from Ienaga Imai and the 1950s 1970s.
Kiyotaka Eguehi imperial arguing Kuroha Japan Keichi condemned and 1980s, in the
opium Japan that where the reintroduced eradicated addiction. GMD had But
to areas
fitty-five Eguchi Mengjiang opium also shows that about of percent exports
went to
Shanghai--precisely Gang where the Green GMD strongest.
was
opium operations by Japanese Thus relied networks Chinese collaborator
on run
regimes drug Sino-Japanese joint elements. criminal The trade
venture, or was a
especially in central and south China. Yamada G6ichi has translated Chinese studies
on
opium, Japanese topic, few and historians of China work the but their focus still
a on
:3
paint tends be China Japanese victim. is difficult for leffists "balanced the It
to
to a on
topic by picture" depicting this the other side. is because such This
wrongs on an on
arch-enemy, Ministry argued; always Education, what their of has the attempt
supports
:4
portrayed namely, Japan evil should that alone did be such. and I perpetrate not not as
article, this first form bias later this when take will examine in
of I to return
up on
scholarly Japanese views of "Fit•een-Year the War."
explain opium ignore form of the
bias is second involvement in A
to
away or
Ming-hsiu, operations by by is, colonials--that Taiwanese. Liu and Koreans In 1983
a
Kiyoshi, published Japanese Taiwanese became under of who naturalized the It6
name a
study opium episode Japanese of and colonial Taiwan. from the rule in Liu-It6 quotes
an
judged imperial subject Tianjin memoirs of Ishii that Itar6 recalls how he trial in
on an
jail smuggling opium for Ishii in the the consular
six-month but 1918.
term,
gave man a
police pulled budget said, "Look, chief Ishii aside blow had feed and we'd if
to we our
[Shigeru] that months. Consul Yoshida would have said for six the months two
at guy
all, experience still Ishii recalled: rank first most." As "After I
amateur;
my was a so was
knee-slapper. tries, farce real After three four better." Liu-It6 derides this I
got
as a or
approvingly typical imperialists Eguchi appraisal China, Japanese of cites and in that in
"Chfigokujin Takeuehi, k6sen
ishiki." 22.
no
Orudo G6iehi, shob6, (Tokyo: [Old] ahenjij6 Hayao, 1995); Yamada Shanhai Aki 23. Imai tr.,
k6satsu" Shisensh6 "Kindai okeru ahen saibai shiteki tenkai
ni iehi Jinbun ronshfi
meguru
no o
senry6 Tornoyuki, Nihongun 65-91;Uchida "Sanshish6 (January 1991); chiku okem ni
41
pp. no
"Chfigoku kenkyfi k6-Niehi TOy6 (September 1994), ahen kanri seisaku" and in 12 29-54
pp.
konkyoehi (August kenky• 1995), Ajia 25-65; Kasahara okeru ahen kanri seisaku" ni in 41
pp.
kyodokukai Yfiko, "Chfika k6satsu" (May 1995), (29 iehi kokurnin Chikaki ni in tsuite ni arite
no
Chfigoku shinryaku 2-16; Sadatoki teik6 Kazuo,
ahen ahen tsuite" in '•Nihon ni
to pp. no no
kenkyfi (1933), Rekishi 87-123. 30
pp.
anniversary example, Yutaka's reaction Resolution fiftieth 24. For Yoshida the the of Diet to
on
by shinbun, Murayama Tomiiehi, 11, the war's end delivered in Asahi June 1995.
Jennings, Plague: Opium John in Forgotten "The and Narcotics Japanese M. under Korea 25.
Rule, 1910-1945," (1995), Brooks, 795-815; Modem Studies Barbara "'The Asian 29.4
pp.
China," Sino-Japanese (October 1997), Japanese Consul in Studies 10.1 27-32. pp. 9
identify this
clearly paperback,
readily in available 26 memoirs,
Ishii's work. But his
own
•7 defendent Korean.
as a
legal capitalized their
Taiwanese and incident. Koreans isolated This
on
was no
•8
extraterritoriality. Chinese
under drugs
China in subjects" sell
"imperial
to status
as
Peking
Yu-tang's transcripts, Moment in Lin and Tribunal Tokyo
and Western accounts,
Chinese off fend Rising flying Sun the traffickers
to and Japanese
Korean both cite
in opium dens Japanese
and found 116
Korean 47 British observer authorities. 1935 In
a
other in
conditions Hebei and Luandong, district, in Changli East
worse even were
Japanese C-class and eight •9 149 B- executed Koreans
The GMD war districts.
among
Kalgan show 21 that figures
in Consulate 3° Japanese Eguchi cites Keiichi criminals.
31
cites
also
charges
He drug in 1939-40. arrested and Koreans source Japanese 40 a
on
opium
imperial covered Kiichi Aichi foreign minister
future proving the that
up
it
"because occupied China north regime
in through collaborator conducted operations
a
''3•
Eguchi does
Yet find nations not thing other for
unwelcome out. to would be
an
document. this in traffickers
that mention Korean
very
same appear
only
when
understandable dealing drug is
gloss
Korean
need we Such
to
over
a
little had have academics Leftist Japan. sociopolitical of milieu postwar the examine
crimes
of whom
conservatives,
ivory because their impact outside war are
tower some
mid- judiciary until the and
bureaucracy, Diet, the controlled
have convicts
suspects,
or
textbooks
school it into make did "scholarly concensus" leftists' the not Thus
1990s.
the
in issues other
and textbook
criticizing the Japan began countries Asian until
on
society changed
their
have Germans
how Leftwing
Japanese postwar 1980s.
envy
stark
foreign victims. compensation In of
trials, and denazification,
crimes through
war
these
elected
they have
criminals, only
people
refuse
Japanese try the to
not contrast, war
did judges. Japan
prime
ministers
high
and made them
court office supreme
or to
men
and
paying
times
92
but Germans
foreign billion $2.5 governments, are more
to
are
pay
refuse 33 Construction compensate Kashima such Firms to victims. paying individual
as
opium admit refuses Pharmaceuticals Takeda enslaved, they and to Asians whom
for atoned neither
crimes sekinin--war of
during This issue the nor exports, sengo war.
shuppansha,
Yamakawa (Tokyo: mondai Kiyoshi), (It6 trchi ahen Ming-hsiu Taiwan Liu
26. to
seisaku, 27, 31. Eguchi, Shiryr: Ahen ed., 134-36; 1983), note
p.
pp.
krronsha, 1986), 38-40.
Chfi6 (Tokyo: Ishii, issh6 Gaikrkan
27.
pp.
no
taigai jidai Taiwan
ni okeru
trchi
Shu-ming. "Nihon Chung traffickers, On Taiwanese 28.
no
see
Chung for thank 1996). University, Dr. Tokyo I Dissertation, (Unpublished Ph.D. shi" hatten
reference. this
1939), Walsh, Kelley (Shanghai: and Conduct of War Japanese Digest Shu-hsi, ed., A p. 29. Hsu
97.
shobr, 248; 1982),
(Tokyo: Keisei C-kyfi kiroku
Chrsenfin Aiko, B- Utsumi p. 30. senpan no
shinbun, 3, 1995. January Asahi
outnumber fact that The seisaku, Koreans 78. Shiryr: Ahen ed., Eguchi Keiichi Cited in
31.
p.
recording. reporting and discriminatory result from Japanese here
may
mondai, 264-65. ed.,
Ahen al., Okada
32.
et
pp.
reparations;
billion, in Japanese 2.5 billion, paid and the 160 Germans dollars, the US 1995 33. In
voluntarily The Germans treaties. intemational laws and required by indemnities is, that
peace
they
and victimized in the
foreign individuals by compensation 1992 paid billion in
war, to 70 are
refuse
Japanese the
By by
reach billion 2030. will 90 total contrast,
that the continuing
to
pay,
so
billion; Japanese 2.5 billion, the paid
Germans total, 230 then, the compensation.
In
to
pay any
1992), (May 31-43. 5,
total. See Aera 19 paid in
times
92 the Germans that pp. more means 10
acknowledged--is conscientious
clarion for
k leftists. But, has also postwar
cry even a
spawned
taboos history, Japanese distort their of that which of treatment recent
one
opium. relates to
point following Leftist historians facts the victimization. about Until Korean out
foreign influx the of Asia workers from Latin America the and in 1980s, Korean guest
aliens, always resident eighty 690,000, who number made the
of
percent
up now over
foreign population number, imperial Japan; and that of in about former 590,000
are
3't
subjects descendants. the and their 1940s, million of
In
1.6
persons--an average one
35 forcibly brought
households six in Japan slave labor. Korea--were Well
to
per
as over
guards 120,000 paramilitary personnel served
Koreans in POW in the
camps
as
or
imperial armed forces. for, Some volunteered 20,000 drafted and 110,000 Koreans
were
service; into, missing action, armed 16,511 of them died and in
others
went
many or were
36 ended, ships
repatriation maimed. wounded Japanese When the
these sent
or
war
foreign Korea, for Japan--a Or, but Koreans them. land in the
not to
to
extreme
cases,
ships they
anywhere refused Thus, take them because Japanese. ethnic to not
were
displaced 36,000 Soviet-occupied regions civilians stranded former in Korean such
were
37
Sakhalin, today.
remain there and remain former battle
Others in such
most as as zones
Vietnam.
policies, of its Occupation demilitarization As democratization the Allied and part
tried principle equality social welfare establish based the for all
of
system to
a war on
pensions, benefits, special privileges Thus banned victims. it the and other that
generous
military personnel enjoyed. sovereignty regaining alone April had in the But 1952,
on
immediately special pensions Japanese reinstituted these benefits for and government
military personnel families, stripped former subjects and their and it of former colonial
citizenship mandatory Japanese obtaining it later which for made social welfare most
benefits.
Thus slave ineligible laborers their families became and Korean for veterans
or
pensions,
benefits, survivor veterans' medical for disabilities incurred in
treatment
or
logic they battle. April is that The here 1952--though be citizens Japanese ceased in
to
involuntarily--so
they rights privileges longer entitled the Japanese that and
to
no were
enjoy. hand, citizens victorious the other the Allies had convicted Yet of Koreans 148
on
abusing
POWs--though and C-class crimes Allied such B-
often orders
from
war as on
Of criminals, twenty-three those and above. C-class suffered Korean 148 B-
war
38 execution, eight fifteen Japanese than the which is executed A-class criminals.
more as
prison other and C-class The Japan criminals served in Korean 125 B-
terms
war or
abroad, the last those held remained incarcerated Japan and of in 1957, when Class- until
39 prime logic minister. here is crimes Kishi Nobusuke A those that The
suspect war was
shinbun, February (Tokyo: gaikokufin Asahi 18, 1994; Hiroshi, 34. Tanaka Zai-Nichi Iwanami
shoten,
1991), 31-33.
pp.
(•numa
Yasuaki, (Tokyo: krronsha, Chfi6 Saharin 35. 1992), kimin 9-10.
pp.
Chrsenjin shoten, Aiko,
"krgun" (Tokyo: Iwanami 1991), 36. Utsumi heishitachi
sens6
pp. no
42-45.
(•)numa,
lamin, Saharin 37. 10-11.
pp.
Japanese However, Sengo shinbun, ed., executed the and C-classes. Asahi 984 in 38. B-
were
(Tokyo: 1994) shinbun, shinbunshsha, 117; January Asahi hosh6 Asahi ka
3, 1995. nani
to
p. wa
C-kyfi kiroku,
Chrsenjin Utsumi, B- 247. 39.
senpan p. no 11
continue they
citizens,
they Japanese
must
while
crimes committed so Koreans
were
war
revoked
in 1952. citizenship
their Japanese after punished
Japanese
be was
to even
as
imprisoned
A-class
officials military civil and war Japanese all By as
contrast,
The of the last Koreans. the before
1952--five by release their criminals
years
won
receive, continue families
their received, to and
military
officers
Japanese former
4°
1998, of
period
service. As of
prison pensionsmand
their
count terms
as a government
4•
benefits. in billion $400
trillion accepted
almost ¥-40
families their and these
or
men
the government
but
postwar
Japanese,
the
residents
alien taxes Korean
as pay same
welfare social
deprived 200 of citizenship them and
measures, stripped of them
over
and
Japan defend fighting while suffered disabilities
to for including medical
treatment
benefits, whereas nothing
in
receives 4: Today disabled
Korean a
veteran
the
emperor. a
43
Liberal
The roughly $600,000. received
has Japanese similarly disabled
veteran
majorities
for large with
elected passed
laws these
that
Party to Democratic power
was
those tacitly endorsed
whole people decades--showing
Japanese the that nearly four a as
example, in Koreans
1962
harsher. For become have which laws, in
respects
some
they became if
assistance eligible social for
made aliens resident programs
were
44 (Only has in 2000 disappeared 1993. May in possibility citizens, but that naturalized
of lump
disabled agreed Korean and veterans relented
sum the a to government pay
pensions.)
regular
but
condolence
money, no
against justified discrimination legalized and then,
The government, postwar
leftwing academics why citizenship. is
This grounds Japanese of lost the Koreans
on
Japanese
their flaunted truth that divulge Koreans historical painful
the
found it have to
it--such
accruing
from
privileges enjoy colonial order citizenship in
1945 as
to
to
up
lingering
and ethnocentrism injustices in rooted right strive extraterritoriality. Leftists to
of form fostered has zeal
reformist their militarism.
But
of forms
emperor-state
a
thoroughgoing expos6 of Japanese systematic
and precludes
political
that
correctness
a
Scholars
brush. the
tarring with
of Koreans opium fear
for related crimes
same
to
war
they trafficking, insist that but
totally ignore
Korean Eguchi Kurahashi do and
such
not
as
45
short, Japanese crimes. In commit those forced rule Koreans colonial Japanese
brutal to
Yamabe
solely victims.
As
and 1945
between 1911 Koreans leftists
portray
as must
befell unhappiness Koreans that and it, misfortune sweepingly the "All Kentar6 puts
depict ''46
and Koreans taboo
this violate colonization. [our] To
resulted from as
scathing
imperialism invite would profiting Japanese
from committing atrocities or
militarist. closet brand and abroad
from criticism one as a
ed., Izoku al., Nobumasa
Tanaka
hosh6 in d6 shita ka" ni Hiroshi, et "Kokka izoku Tanaka 40.
wa
1995), 95. shoten, (Tokyo: Iwnami
p.
to
senso
exchange early-1998 atthe 139-43; this is Ibid., rate. 41.
pp.
September 17, shinbun, 1994. Asahi 42.
exchange
Calculated
ka," 138-139. hosh6
shita rate d6 ni at izoku "Kokka Tanaka, 43. an pp. wa
$1 of ¥125.
August 20, shinbun, 1993. Asahi 44.
senryaku, A
186-88. ahen Kumhashi, Nihon
181-182;
sense,
Eguchi, ahen
Nit-Chft pp. 45. no pp.
(Tokyo: shmryaku Ch•goku ahen
produced Nihon has Kang, historian, to Park South Korean
no
nothing involvement. of Korean mentions translation shob6, Japanese 1994), but the Daiichi
1971), ii. shoten, Iwanami
(Tokyo:
Ch6sen t6chika Yamabe, Nihon 46. p. no 12
Historiography of War the
leflwing political naming front, dating different the and On biases make
war a a
47 major
of four views: litmus Chinese deference the sensibilities. There test
to
are
thesis, thesis, thesis, Asia Pacific Greater and Fifteen-Year East War War War Two Wars
waged thesis. China held, in The Asia is liberate Asians War, Greater it from East
to
was
imperialism. August white The affirmed 1945, Shrwa this view and
to
emperor up
48 figures rightwing today. of refinements it
espouse
"Fifteen-Year
Leftwing academics favor of the "'Asia-Pacific War"
terms
or
''49 aggression mainly single September against War, and consider it of China from
a war
espoused December Tsurumi Shunsuke first 1931, this thesis it is in and 1941. 1956 not
s°
leftists, Japanese this thesis crimes orthodox aims for
In
to atone among sum, now war
ignored Tokyo largely through scholarship against because the Trials crimes Asians
war
51
Japan refute has refused indict criminals. leftists also wish and The postwar
to
to
war
popular [with fought eight fifty-five China], battles notion that "in the
years won we
fifty-one, three"; i.e., lost material Japan tied that lost and scientific and US
to
one,
5• might,
"prove" only Japan and Hence, Chinese. leftists strive that the
to
not to not
53 fought mainly against mainly China, but also lost China.
to
aggression Japanese leftists admit China the Fifteen-Year in but Some
oppose
China, Thus, castigated thesis. Takeuchi his for barbarism Yoshimi in War countrymen
single reproach but did war," moral the "Pacific which he Japan for in
not out
saw as a
54 imperialist reluctantly Or, birds-of-a-feather. Yamada Akira concedes that between
war
only pummel surrender; United China--could unconditional into Japan the Ststes--not
5•
emphasis placed post-Pearl hence, be the Harbor of this But
opponents must
on era.
conception Japanese view insist that Pacific-centered of the fosters unwarranted
a war
"Ajia-Taiheiy6 Jun'ichirr, megutte," Awaya rekishiteki Kisaka sens6 See in seikaku 47.
o no
gendaishi Kentar6 Nenpr: (1997), al., ed., 1-43. Nihon 3 et
pp.
Kakr, chokugo ed., Sekibunsha, (Tokyo: 1983), 392; Senda for shJ 48. Shrwa Tenn6
to to
p.
example, April shinbun, Yasuhiro Nakasone 22, 1997. in Asahi
Fujiwara representative studies, Seiichi, ed., J•gonen (Tokyo: Akira and 49. For Imai sens6
see
1988-89), shoten, Aoki vols. 4
Senjiki Shunsuke, 1982), shoten, (Tokyo: Tsurumi seishinshi Iwanami Nihon 50. 240-41.
pp. no
"Chishikijin original (January sekinin," 1956). sens6 The Chft6 krron in
source was no
SaburS, prominent (Tokyo: Ienaga shoten, Three sekinin 51. Iwanami Sens6 proponents
are
(•)tsuki
•('•Fokyo: KentarS, Awaya Tokyo 1989) 1985); shoten, and saiban Miketsu sens6
ton no
shobr, (Tokyo: Tokyo kara 1994); Yasuaki, sekinin sekmin Kashiwa Onuma and
saiban
sengo no
Trshindr, (Tokyo: 1987). shJs6
e
shoten, Nihonjin (Tokyo: Quoted 1995), Yutaka, Iwanami Yoshida in sensrkan 101.
52.
p. no
Setsurr, shinbunsha, Kuwajima by (Tokyo: 1997), Also Asahi Kahoku senki
362 comments
p. see
Fujita Shigeru, (Tokyo: Setsuo, Naganuma Katsuichi Asahi and in Honda and Tenn6 guntai
no
shinbunsha, 1991), 414-17.
pp.
Fujiwara Ienaga, Taiheiy6 (Tokyo: 1995), shoten, 126-28; Iwanami han See Dai 53. sensr: ni
pp.
Taiheiy6 (Tokyo: 1982), Akira, Tetsuo, Furuya shome, 108-29; Aoki shi Nit-Chft
sens6
pp.
ron
(Tokyo:
Naganuma, 1985), shoten, and 206-07; Honda sens6 Iwanami Tenn6 guntai,
pp.
pp. no
431-34.
Bunzr, Yoshimi, ed., Takeuchi "Sens6 sekinin Hashikawa GendaJ tsuite" in hakken ni 54. 3:
no
Shinjfisha,
(Tokyo: 1960), selanin Sens6 10-14.
pp.
"Taiheiy6 F•ujiwara 'gfizen ed., Yamada, al., sens6 Akira ka" in maketa ni' Nihon 55. et
wa
fihen-haisen (Tokyo: kyoz6 jitsuz6 shoten, 1989), Otsuki kindaishi Mansh•
3: 247. to p. no 13
military and civilian majority Japanese overwhelming of self-pity, feelings since the of
bombings. atomic
owning least the
hands--not American suffered to casualties
at
were
Nagasaki--with
ended and Harbor began Pearl
that at of "'Pacific War" view The at
a
conveniently
Japan--also defeat and price blood paying in the Americans
to treasure
of the and the USSR shutting China include strategic These needs. out suits US
postwar
reputed, played in role is allies, it former of those Occupation neither Japan of since a
defeating that former
enemy.
largely
Pacific and
China the view also War" The "Pacific portrays
wars as
from the either chosen implies apart could have that Japan unconnected, and to
pursue
imperial
the standpoint, 1931, absurd. logistical that is purely In
other. army From
a
the 1941, December imperial By 78,000. and the 200,000 numbered army
navy,
men,
56
had
words,
the
other 311,000. In the million and had 2.1 army to to navy men, grown
Japan for
within times four the almost times and to ten years
even
ten to navy grow
punishing
mobilization--with its of drastic contemplate This ''Pacific war."
rate
a
unjustified normal
under economy---could be largely agrarian hardships still not
on a
for "incident" called
if it Thus, peacetime China
"real" conditions.
an was war---even
a
reach outlays would military that
legitimize demands for needed other to
reasons--was
budget,
would
and national of the This 50 billion in
percent 1937. ¥1.4 grow
over
was
57 thereafter.
Katsumi Usui China." in
there "two
insist that leftists Other Japanese wars
were
accepted imperial
and the Western both the that GMD maintains government powers an
repudiated--
GMD Truce--which the independent Tanggu Manzhoukuo. The never
refused Nations of the League and 1933, May Manchurian Incident in to ended the
occurred casualties major and few battles Manchuria. actions in No for its sanction Japan
died from Japanese 150,000 and Chinese million before but 1937, 5-6 China in
proper
1937, and 58 four-year lull between Pointing 1933 the July December 1941. 1937 to
to
July in
1937. whole launched Bridge
Incident the Polo that Usui Marco
new war a argues
(3sugi
could have been
China hold, second this
and both Usui Furthermore, Kazuo
war
as
59 Ikuhiko leftist, Although
Hata of
end 1937. occasions the
several averted not to a
up
on
in least
that China part view.
China" Hata in ascribes this ''two at
asserts
to too
wars
Guandong Army leaders key whereas
began in provoked 1937 second that this
war
Soviet with the
preparing all-out
for they
conflict because
this abhorred
war an were
new
6° Union.
well.
thesis 1935 China" In
in
this "Two Wars Figures be found support
to as
can
1,771 Army Garrison Japan's China
and 164,100, Guandong Army stood at the
men-- at
61 170,000 than Japan Thus, had less
5,771 in 1936. June though force
this latter
to
rose
the invasion--and enough all-out nearly for
Manchuria--not and
China in
an
men
abroad and imperial
home July The entire 1937. rise until after did at number army not
(•e
Shrgakkan, 1988), 367. (Tokyo:
guntai 3:Term6 Shinobu, Shrwa rekishi
56. p.
to
no
Shrgakkan, 1988), (Tokyo: 38.
Nit-Chft sens6 Fujiwara rekishi Akira,
Shrwa 5:
57.
p.
zenmen
no
shobr,1983), 5-22;
gaik6 (Tokyo: Chikuma
Ch•goku kindai
Nihon Usui,
58. pp.
meguru no
o
404-05.
casu•alty Naganuma, guntai, Tenn6 figures cited Honda and in
pp.
no
1996), krronsha, iv-v. (Tokyo: Chfi6 Nit-Chfij•gonen shi sens6 Osugi Kazuo,
59.
pp.
ed., Morley, China The Incident, 1937," W. Bridge in James Ikuhiko, "The Polo Marco 60. Hata
Quagmire, 243-62.
pp.
hyrron, 235; 206, 1987), (Tokyo: Nihon hen gunjishijr: Senzen Akira, Fujiwara Nihon 61. pp.
1991), shoten, (Tokyo: 108. Aoki Shinpan Eguchi sens6 shrshi: J•gonen p. 14
6: stood 459,000 mobilization key December late in the
So
1937. steps at two even as as
place took in 1938--when the reached million whom four-fifths of
1.24
army
men, were
63 China, in and in 1941--when is Japanese ranks swelled million. that 2.1 It
to true army
light casualties China in only September before 1937;
died from 3,928 1931
to
were
men
64 July period, hand, the other 1936. 41,688 But Chinese died and in
the
on
same on a
yearly
this is
than the lost in US Vietnam.
average
more
admits Jiang if However, "first that China May with
ended war" in 1933
one a
recognizing independent
Manzhoukuo, Jieshi
might that
to an go one
on reason
"everything would have had been fine if logic stood in abhor that Leftists 1933." pat
we
only
Japanese admits because tactical it turpitude. the in 1930s, Japanese moral
not
errors
importantly, wing right logic
the in legitimize Japan still that But
past
to
more
uses
65 expansion territory. Manzhoukuo
rightists non-Chinese all, in Aider continue
to as
claim, China, recognized Tanggu Manchuria of effect and the in
Truce part
was never
independence. all, for Japanese Manzhoukuo's Above
such that Hata full-
to argue a as a
partly provocation leftwing cardinal scale broke due Chinese violates element of
to war a
political victims. correctness--that the Chinese 100 percent were
Opium in the War
provides leftwing
Opium the Fifteen-Year view. favor War
cogent
to
one reason
conclusively "smoking gun" began Japan is that True, document
there
to
prove no or
expressly opium. opium Nevertheless, escalated the because of be thread
to
war seems a
period. throughout fifteen-year opium And, that is links six the whole
what
more, runs
Suiyuan, Hebei, Shanxi, Rehe, Chahar, Pearl north and Harbor--that areas---east
were
key points hostilities decisions extend Japanese in five May crucial time: in 1933, at to
July November 1935, 1935, December and 1937, 1941. June
imperial provinces noted, contented itself with the three Japan of As
never
province Mongolia. Rehe, "Manchuria" it fourth The
affixed in Inner 1931
proper; a
expansionist jingle, through Manchuria-Mongolia," lifeline doubt cloaked "Our
no runs a
gain opium Yulin, Tang that first the Rehe warlord desire accrued and later
to to
revenues
66
Zhang Xueliang. Zuolin his The forced May Tanggu and the GMD Truce 1933 to son
Japanese-controlled cede Hebei that later Rehe and in
DMZ to to create
east
a came
regime by sh6ji Rugeng. under headed Mitsui bussan Mitsubishi collaborator Yin and
a
smuggled opium exploiting Ministry by Foreign Iranian into China direction under
provisions Tongzhou regime, in November in Truce; 1935, and that Yin's set at up
granted of Wall. and traffickers license Japanese deal south the Korean to
6e,
figure 950,000 Akira of in Gunbi However, Yamada cites 62. 366.
Tenn6
guntai,
p. no a
k6bunkan, (Tokyo: 1997), Yoshikawa kakuch6
kindaishi 9.
p. no
Ibid., discrepancy between authors. there is the 63. here
two
no
Shinpan, Eguchi, J•gonen sh6shi: 95-96. 64. sens6
pp.
they quotation By place that leftists marks and insist '•.he "Manchuria" 65. in contrast,
use
by merely Yamamuro, preference, See Manchurian Incident" historical Kimera but
not term.
as a
kfronsha, sensitivity--perhaps comparable Chfi6 (Tokyo: the 1993), This 17-18. to
way pp.
"nigger" explain quoting Huckleberry Mark Twain's American historians their of when from
use
publicly disparaging Japanese for the that flaunt leaders Finn--is compensate statements to some
about Chinese Koreans.
or
(1927)," Sakury6 Masanao, "Ch6 Kurahashi ahen kaikin seisaku Aichi kenritsu See seiken 66.
no
bungakubu daigaku (1995), ronshfi 1-25. 44 pp. 15
logical
signed 1935, Accords, in Doihara-Qin June both and The
Umezu-He were
and north drug expansion trade the of facilitated that
Tanggu extensions of the Truce
Hebei and in expelled from GMD Accords Umezu-He south of the Wall. The
organs
extended Doihara-Qin Accords The province into the brought DMZ. whole effect that
removed also Changbei Chahar, and in Kalgan, almost the northwest
pro-
DMZ
to past
suborned Guandong Army province. Mongolian The this leaders from Inner GMD
and December 1935 in Chahar invade Wang Shouxin and Li Mongol De collaborators
to
Thus, Japan Suiyuan November 1936. in invade persuaded Shouxin Li likewise
to
Polo gunfire echoed long Marco Suiyuan aggression before and instigated in Chahar
at
having seized perhaps that,
infer Thus,
Bridge•whoever fired the first shot.
may
we
and Chahar in craved those imperial Japan also opium-producing Rehe, in
areas
poppy-growing
rich Suiyuan---especially Suiyuan which
area.
was a
Bridge
in depicts Polo Sino-Japanese Marco War scholarly the
The
consensus on
imperial light
of reconsidered in should be view
that July watershed.
But
1937 great
as a
settled all, Bridge, after
operations.
the opium Hostilities Japanese
soon
were
near
Tongzhou
deserve Shanghai, Kalgan, and developments locally. Instead,
more
at
Mongolia
Kalgan in cities. catalyst Inner figures the in last opium attention;
and
two
as a
Autonomy" Mongol Regime for Mengjiang capital "Federal
of the the would become
officials Eguchi K6-Ain
shows, Kalgan, Shanxi. north into From which stretched
as
Asia. Southeast Inner and of China exported the narcotics manufactured and to rest
to
place the
in took escalations Japanese decisive where Mongolia of three
areas
one
was
Shanghai China
and north being China central 1937--the others of at
near
summer
heightened
in
offensives, Tongzhou. Hata launched these Japan to
response
argues,
as
and intensified why explain resistance then, key problem, is resistance. A Chinese to
quash from home. it with why Japan tried
troops
to
building since feeling had been anti-Japanese and Certainly nationalism
Chinese
Tongzhou,
insights. important provides Tongzhou Incident July but the 1931, 1937
on
Rugeng's collaborator
Yin Beiping), of the Beijing (then
the
border seat DMZ
was
near
Chinese operations flourished. But opium imperial Japanese regime which under
the and, much in 1928 July
1937; Tongzhou 29, revoked
collaborator forces
as
on
near
Tongzhou, of living subjects in imperial killed Incident,
Chinese rioters 223 Jinan many
reported Kiyoshi Kazuki Commander Garrison opium China dealers. whom had been
half,
bit 108,
Tongzhou noted that
and subjects imperial killed
212 were at over or a
hated Hebei
Tongzhou and 67 in Chinese
the surmise that
east Hence,
Koreans.
we can
subjects imperial by trafficking those alike, and that drug dealers and
Japanese Korean
but this resist--though,
of
hardening will China's played in role one to course, was
some factor.
helpless stories about sensational churned
Japan media Meanwhile, in the out
jingoism
Tongzhou. The mutilated in being butchered and
and children
Japanese
women
K0noe cabinet abetted, certainly journalism but did yellow by this fomented not
cause,
This
full-scale kicked off
that China--the dispatch
divisions plans
act war. to a
to
more
stepping justify
the permitted Army and the "Tongzhou govenment Massacre" to up war
such critics and Even government lives Japanese China property. in in order as protect to
Hitoshi waxed
Yamakawa member Communist Party the former Masaki Hiroshi
or
today still cite rightwing
Japanese
What is Tongzhou
time. indignant that at more, over
(1991), shigaku 9. jiken," Seizabur6, Seifi 297 keizai "Tsfishfi Shinobu 67. p. 16
China, against
of the Japan's escalation legitimize
Tongzhou
this "massacre"
to at
war
68
Atrocity. Nanjing
downplay deny the
and also
to
or
operations help bridge opium the imperial provided by Japanese insights Such
in full-scale of and the of May 1933 four-year Tanggu between the start Truce
war
gap
seemingly the continuities between
key divulges Opium, thus, mid-1937. two
some
Pacific link the China and opium,
Mengjiang however,
disparate China
may wars
wars.
reply
demands for issued final US T6j6
the 1941, well. November
government to
In
a
as
pull-out gradual limited,
tacitly consented
Japan China. withdraw from total
to
troop
a
a
already planned such high command had Imperial fact, Army the China from
In
proper.
69
attack Pearl nevertheless resolved Japan pull-out initiative.
its But
to
was
own on
a
stipulation proposal, which compromise of rejected its last Cordell Hull if Harbor
one
twenty-five if
so"
Mengjiang another
for
"occupy would Japan held years a or even
7°
China. be reached with ceasefire to were
Conclusions Tentative
clearly understood the evils
early Japanese First, the government 1868
as as
did extend prohibited the it strictly home.
this But by drug and caused not at
same
use
the been before had
Republican 1870s Whatever Qing China. consideration
true
to
or
morally legally and nothing narcotics--became dealing opium--to of in and 1880s,
say
Kiichi,
Aichi firms such such individuals Thus, onward. from the indefensible 1910s
as
need itself felt the imperial Mitsui, Japanese
and the government Mitsubishi and to
as
Charles from need them This
activities. those in their involvement
apart
sets
up
cover
officials the representatives, in British Gutzlaff, Jardine-Matheson government
or
deeds--although they
their hide need did feel These nineteenth
to century. not
a
men
directly
deal in these--and
did increasingly hard-pressed defend yet not to
were
narcotics.
drug imperial and wartime turpitude Japanese Second, for moral
prewar
Taiwanese, and Koreans, overwhelmingly ethnic Japanese. trafficking with But lies
altar deny historical truth the
distorts degree. that
fact share it in Chinese
To
must to on
a
impulses. inspired by humanitarian if leftwing political of
correctness--even
operations opium lend of the imperial Paradoxically, Japanse however,
support to
one
fifteen-year single, of
continuous scholarly of
beliefs--that cherished leftists'
most
war
a
emerged Pacific against which the waged War mainly from aggression China
tangentially.
place largely Meiji took against times aggression China from Third, Japanese
"Manchuria-Mongolia," and that ever-expanding of artificial within the
construct
enough by just backed encroachment economic aggression mainly of took the form
imperial army's Thus, protection. all of the adequate almost provide force armed to
Soviet,
aimed of it after build-up 1937--and 1937--was Manchuria before in not at most
71 encroachment. That economic integral Japanese of Opium Chinese, forces.
part was an
shis6sha, 1991), boppatsu (Tokyo: Shakai Nit-Ch• Hiroshi, Chikaki sens6 Masaki L yori 68. p.
422-23.
Naganuma, guntai, jiken," and Shinobu, 1-5; Term6 "Tsfishfi Honda 125. pp.
no pp.
sens6, 361. Fujiwara, relashi Nit-Chft
Sh6wa 5:
69.
p. zenmen
no
shob6, (Tokyo: shuy6 1840-1945 Hara gaik6 Gaimush6, ed., nenpy6 narab Nihon monjo 70. ni
2, vol. 557. 1965), p.
Ibid., 157-77. 71. pp. 17
began zaibatsu, private by and individuals, encroachment followed with the
was
Ministry, Foreign imperial through culminated Army, with the the itself the
government
Manchurian-Mongolian K6-Ain, Ministry. the and the amoeba Greater Asia the East As
however, dilated, provoked nationalism Japanese economic encroachment Han greater
adequate and fiercer resistance. needed afford So, and armed force
to
more more was
protection--until
point by Japan reached the of the of 1937.
return no summer
Thereat•er, Sino-Japanese geographic conflict could be limited scale
in
not
scope. or
opium-producing Mengjiang--the Fourth, desire final add-on retain in
to
a areas
Manchuria-Mongolia--was military factor Japanese led leaders
that to to open
one a
Pacific front in That decision marked the unintended of Japanese December 1941.
start
blessing though decolonization---even "liberation" would for be
mixed to
prove
a
peninsular both and their divided Japan Koreans in in homeland.
finally, twentieth-century expansionist and Fifth harbored Japan unachievable
aspirations. entering groaned imperial Besides late, for colonies Japan the under
race
Size, imperial compared debilities rivals: with its small Western poverty, acute
scarce
military capacity, despite
industrial and low levels of mobilization
resources, meager
a
relatively population. large example, casting artillery in 110,000 Russia For 1917
was
day hoped-for shells Japan's And, whereas shells month. the 100,000
output
a
was a
7: industrial larger. other Japan between
and the Great Such Powers
gap powers
was even
precluded emulating debilities by conventional and colonial So, control conquest
means.
them, pinned hopes opium. leaders British Japanese before leaders their Unlike
on
regimes, depended opium Japanese the Chinese of had
government
source never on as a
primarily drug
because Japan there market for the home. had If state
at revenue,
was no
holdings lacked occupied colonial territories Japan finance---that is had and if
to to say,
aspired imperial power--it
be would felt constrained have conduct
great not
to to a never
drug operations. state-run
kindaishi, Yamada, Gunbi kakuch6 72. 52.
p. no 18
Operations Opium Japanese Figure 1
Figures Aggregate Estimated
(tons) Amount Origin Dates of Point
(3410) 10,800 1933-45 Manchuria
785.1 Mengjiang 1939-42
352 (Mitsui Co.) 1938-40 Persia &
352? Trading) (Mitsubishi 1938-40 Persia
293 1935-44 Korea
(5192.1) 12,582.1 in Total
tons
(4,672,890) 11,323,890 kilograms in
Total
kg
consumption
1.25 capita
year average per
(3,738,312) 9,059,112 supplied/year addicts number of average
Opium Exports Mengjiang Figure 2
kg) (=36 tams in 1000 Volume
1939-42 1942 1941 Destination 1940 1939
704.1 166.3 144.1 Internal 252.3 141.4
10,980 Shanghai 5027 3848 2005 100 4005•
Beijing 1300 1200 1205 300
620 Tianjin 520 100
4825 100 Jinan 100
100 Tangshan 100
2000 2000 Manchuria
300 Guandong 300
175.4 58.4 Elsewhere 90 27
841.6 841.6 Japan
19,826.1 9393.3 5492.1 4072.3 Totals 868.4
Opium Exports Mengjiang Figure 3
Percentages
1939-42 1942 Destination 1941 1940 1939
3.6 1.8 2.6 6.2 Internal 16.3
55.4 53.5 Shanghai 70.1 49.2 11.5
20.2 13.8 Beijing 21.9 29.6 34.6
Tianjin 12.8 11.5
Jinan 11.5
Tangshan 11.5
21.3 Manchuria
5.5 Guandong
0.5 0.6 2.2 Elsewhere 3.1
4.2 9.0 Japan
100 100 100.1 100 Totals 100 19