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The German Military Mission in China, 1927-1938 Dissertation

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The German Military Mission in China, 1927-1938 Dissertation Journey to the East: The German Military Mission in China, 1927-1938 Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Robyn L. Rodriguez Graduate Program in History The Ohio State University 2011 Dissertation Committee: John F. Guilmartin Jr., Advisor Alan Beyerchen, Advisor Peter R. Mansoor Copyright By Robyn L. Rodriguez 2011 Abstract This dissertation examines the experience of German military advisors in China during the interwar period. It explores the political, cultural, and social dimensions of military advising and the concept of military advisors as vehicles of transnational exchange. Between 1927 and 1938 over one hundred high-ranking German military officers traveled to China to advise Chiang Kai-shek and the Guomindang on military modernization and industrialization. The German advisors quickly learned that they could not impose German institutions and technology on China but rather, they needed to adapt to the foreign environment and situate their reforms within the Chinese context. The project required extensive archival research in Germany and the United States. Close readings of primary sources, including reports from the German military mission and the German Foreign Office as well as the personal papers, correspondence, and recollections of the advisors, have shed light on their experience and efforts to transform the Chinese army from a conglomeration of poorly trained and armed feudal warlord armies into a modern national military capable of defending the country against Japanese encroachment. Many of the advisors adapted to living and working in China and reconciled their foreign service with their sense of duty to the Fatherland. In China, German officers found a place to further hone their military skills while the Treaty of Versailles prevented ii them from practicing their craft in Germany. The advisors believed they were cultivating a future German ally and a bulwark against the rising tide of communism in Asia. The German military mission also promoted Sino-German trade, which took on added importance after the Nazis came to power in 1933 and launched their policy of rearmament. The increase in armaments production required greater access to raw materials. China possessed vast supplies of raw materials, which it traded with Germany in exchange for armaments. The Sino-German relationship during the interwar period pivoted around the German military mission. Nazi foreign policy complicated the work of the German military mission in China. While official German foreign policy in East Asia remained one of neutrality from the Weimar era to the Third Reich, the Nazis began leaning noticeably closer to Japan as the 1930s progressed. The German army, however, supported a closer Sino-German relationship. The advisors recognized that a Sino-Japanese war would almost certainly bring an end to the burgeoning Sino-German relationship and thus sought to prevent war between the two Asian powers. They hoped that a strong Chinese military would deter Japanese aggression. Ironically, while the advisors worked to modernize the Chinese military in order to deter a Sino-Japanese war, the improvements made by the Chinese military under German supervision played a significant role in transforming what could have been a limited incident in 1937 into the beginning of World War II in Asia. This dissertation contributes to our understanding of the origins of World War II and the iii connections between the Asian and European theaters. Ultimately, Germany’s officers contributed to weakening their ally Japan in World War II through their assistance to the Chinese. iv Dedication To My Family and Friends v Acknowledgments This dissertation would not have been possible without the support of my advisors John Guilmartin and Alan Beyerchen. Casual conversations with them sparked my interest in German military advisors in China and the desire to pursue it as a dissertation project. They have provided invaluable guidance, support, and encouragement throughout my years as a graduate student at The Ohio State University. Peter Mansoor has also pushed me to take my dissertation in new directions and I am grateful for his editorial skills and support throughout the process. I am indebted to Jürgen Förster, who was my sponsor in Germany. He helped me acclimate to life in Germany and directed me to consult archival collections, which I would not have found otherwise. Thanks are also due to Dave Frye, Mark Grimsley, Ann Higginbotham, Geoff Megargee, Geoffrey Parker, John Plating, Christopher Reed, and Jennifer Siegel for their advice, feedback, support, and encouragement. The research for this project would not have been possible without the gracious financial support from a number of institutions. The Connecticut-Baden-Württemburg Exchange program and the Deutsche Akademischer Austausch Dienst supported language study in Germany. A Fulbright Grant from the Institute for International Education supported a year of archival research and writing in Germany. The Harry and Lynde Bradley Foundation, ABC-Clio, the Mershon Center for International Security vi Studies, the Department of History, and the College of Humanities at the Ohio State University also provided grants that supported the research and writing of this dissertation. Many friends and colleagues have supported my work throughout the years and unfortunately, I cannot name all of them. The military history reading group and seminar classes at the Ohio State University were receptive audiences and told me when I was going in the wrong direction as well as encouraged me to pursue new ones. Ryan McMahon, Craig Nelson, Anne Sealey, Stephen Shapiro, and Matt Yates often read and critiqued dissertation chapters or offered advice and they were always available to go out for ice cream in times of need. I would also like to thank the many friends who encouraged me and lent me their couches during research trips over the years. Finally, I would like to thank my family for supporting me throughout graduate school even though they did not understand why it took so long to finish. vii Vita 2001 .........................................................Lyman Memorial High School 2005………………………………… .....B.A. History and Political Science, Eastern Connecticut State University 2008 .........................................................M.A. History, The Ohio State University 2005-2006…............................................Graduate Enrichment Fellow, Department of History, The Ohio State University 2006 to 2010 ............................................Graduate Teaching Associate, Department of History, The Ohio State University 2010 to 2011.............................................Fulbright Fellow, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Germany Fields of Study Major Field: History Primary Field: Military History Secondary Fields: Modern European History and Soviet History viii Table of Contents Abstract............................................................................................................................... ii! Dedication........................................................................................................................... v! Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................ vi! Vita................................................................................................................................... viii! List of Maps........................................................................................................................ x! A Note on Abbreviations, Chinese Transliterations, and German Terms ......................... xi! Introduction......................................................................................................................... 1! Chapter 1 Max Bauer: International Man of Mystery ...................................................... 27! Chapter 2 Hermann Kriebel: The Beginning of the Mission’s Turbulent Years.............. 74! Chapter 3 Sturm und Drang: Georg Wetzell .................................................................. 106! Chapter 4 A Pivotal Moment: Von Seeckt’s Time in China .......................................... 152! Chapter 5 Alexander von Falkenhausen: Der Alte Chinese Prepares for War ............... 205! Conclusion: World War II and the End of the German Military Mission in China ....... 250! References....................................................................................................................... 285! ix List of Maps Map 1: Chinese Territory seized by Japan in 1937 (courtesy of the West Point Atlas series), pg. 252. x A Note on Abbreviations, Chinese Transliterations, and German Terms The Pinyin transliterations for Chinese people and place names will generally be used in the text of this dissertation with the Wade-Giles transliteration in parentheses upon first use, except in the case of the more popularly known Wade-Giles transliterations as they tend to resonate with a larger audience. For example, Nanking will be used instead Nanjing and Chiang Kai-shek instead Jiang Jieshi. The authors of the contemporary primary sources used Wade-Giles and so that system will be used in the references for the sake of consistency with the archival sources. Two common abbreviations that appear throughout the dissertation are GMD for the Guomindang and CCP for the Chinese Communist
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