Binghamton University The Open Repository @ Binghamton (The ORB)
The Society for Ancient Greek Philosophy Newsletter
12-1973
Zeno and Stoic Consistency
John M. Rist University of Toronto, [email protected]
Follow this and additional works at: https://orb.binghamton.edu/sagp
Part of the Ancient History, Greek and Roman through Late Antiquity Commons, Ancient Philosophy Commons, and the History of Philosophy Commons
Recommended Citation Rist, John M., "Zeno and Stoic Consistency" (1973). The Society for Ancient Greek Philosophy Newsletter. 446. https://orb.binghamton.edu/sagp/446
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smooth flow. Presumably the man who is happy is never taken aback, never has to recast his priorities. He is above all consistentf his
intentions and motives can be viewed as forming a coherent whole . According to Stobaeus , 9 Zeno also defined the end ( telos ) as living consistently, by which he meant living according to a single harmonious pattern. The reason he gave was that people who live otherwise, not consistently , but in conflict ( f-Jxor(vi,.J'-> ) , are unhappy ( to1.l:'.o- �q.1ovo�v1'\.)\I ) • This looks like an empirical appeal. If you are incon- sistent, you are unhappy - as anyone who looks can see. It is an lo empirical test of the kind of life which will bring happiness. Perhaps such empirical methods help the Stoics avoid giving the impres sion of founding their ethics on an unjustifiable shift from statements of fact to statements of value. A conflicting character brings unhap
piness, as you can see! If you want to avoid unhappiness , the argument runs, make your behaviour consistent. There is no suggestion that you must do so, or that you ought to do so. If you want to be unhappy, then the Stoic will not attempt to change your belief. What he contents himself with doing is showing that, if you are inconsistent, you really
will be unhappy . There is no absolute decree, you ought to behave consistently, virtuously, etc. Rather there is the proposition that whoever is happy will, as a matter of fact, be consistent, virtuous, etc. But to say with the Stoic that virtue entails happiness is not to say that the only reason - or indeed a necessary reason - for being virtuous is because it entails happiness. It seems that both happiness and virtue may in some sense be sought for their own sake. In fact it seems that the Stoics were prepared to say two things : 1) It will in fact pay to be virtuous provided that you want to be happy; and 2) the good man will seek virtue for its own sake. Some of the apparent difficulties ::'. \). reconciling these propositions may be resolved by examining the notion of seeking virtue for its own sake. What then do the Stoics say that virtue is? We are not short of definitions, although no definition is associated with Zeno alone. Normally virtue appears either as a "con sistent disposition"ll or more generally as some kind of condition of 1 the ruling part of the soul ( �y�pov1Kbv ) 2. No one would dispute that the consistency in question, whether or not it was always consis tency with " nature " in the sense of external nature, is consistency within oneself. Plutarch attributes to the Stoics generally an account of virtue both as a disposition and power produced by reason, and as 13 a consistent and steadfast reason itself6 and Cleanthes, in a poemp gives 01-l:>..\cy.o�\-HVt>v as one of a list Of predicates Of "the good" - l4 which would certainly include the notion of the good for mano At
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Wŧ ŧ %/# ŧ ìOÜŧ Łŧ 7? ŧ ŕeŧ ŧ X Jŧ 9C4¿ŧ Zł4 Y )ŧ Śŧ +ŧ ( $\ŧ ŧ Zŧ ]ŧ -( ŧ !^ @.wŧ % "% % % Ú×ŧ 2 ŧ v ŧ *ģ Àŧ : ŧ ő5ŧ `ŧ V Ö {ŧ ŧ (2šŧ 6GBŧ p %ú&ŧ - 6 - 31 outo the term 11first11 probably refers to temporal rather than logical priority. Now we find different things "acceptable" as we grow� our 11first"impulses, however, are directed towards the preservation of the state we are in when we first acquire any kind of awareness of the 32 external world, that is, at birth. Presumably at this moment we are in some sort of "right" condition. Obviously in the strict Stoic sense we are neither virtuous nor happy. We are for the first time, however, 33 presented with a hostile environment and we react accordingly, satis fying so far as we may our instinct for self-preservation. Although as we grow our range of oikeiosis expands0 and indeed, if we become wise, a desire for self-preservation will cease to be of overwhelming imp ortance - the wise man may choose to sacrifice his own life - yet presumably the Stoics would have held that no "developed" impulses (i.e. impulses not present at birth, but developed as we grow towards maturity, physical and moral) should be given priority over earlier ones without good reason. Clearly in such a view of man the notion of consistent behaviour is maintained. A man will not abandon his life (supported by the instinct for self-preservation) unless a good reason is available. New sound impulses and reactions are built on old, and we have to learn to harmonize the old with the new. Presumably in an ideal world such harmonization would be simple and we should all dev elop into sages. Yet in fact from the very beginning there is the new factor of the external world. <()0,n.., in the sense of external - êť Hč@++!ť  )ť ť _J(,ğŞť $ť H @{+!ť ť ť +6M ť *ť \ ť ť à $5 ť cť ť &ť E.ť /1ť _G` )ť "ť (! ť (Lť }ť ēť $ť $= ť Bť ť Zť 'ť % ť ť û +ť <(ť Őať 'dť C $Wť 9&ť Ņ#ť ť ť & ť 7ť Į¤ķť ť < ť IćÄ_ 0OÊť ãť "ť ť ť Ďbť N Wť T oµť b!&¶ť ť dG iť K ť BŖ ť Ŀť K"ť cBť + ·ť fť &ť üť ŀť 8Īť ' ť 4ť F ť gť őPť `¸ť [ť ť /ť 9ť / ť #*ť !Q ť MJ8 Zť ,5ť «F ¬ť gď 25ť ť ť 2 )ť ť ŗť ť nE ť *ť Gî ť ť ť U oËť k" /Œť cť 9hť ĸť <#-ť H ĴĵF$¹ť #œ ť u%ĥť 'ť , Nş 8Mť ť ť n4 ):ť f."ť R=ť ť #'ť Ķ ť # ť &$Bť 4'ť 6 ¥a ť Å *ť ť & t\ť [-ť Xť §"yť Vť ¡ť y Æ ,Jįť ť ( ť 2ť ï ŔPť .9ť R ť 20%`ť { 3 $ť ť ť 9 ) ť Uvť ť śÇ Cť T 4 ť #Ĉť >K ť ť ť ;Wť >&ť ť O ť ť (Ìť ť ¨"ť ý0 İTºť sť Uť Ĺť Sť , ť 0-~ !ť LZť EĔª 8ņ»ť !ť 9 ť =F$ť * fť =#"D5ť *=ť ı ť %+ 0|ť * ť ,MEŠ 8Mť È ť ( 8$ť Kwť #%-ť ĕť U ť ($ 0ť Gť ť , ť eš z ť ť ť īð ĺť 7øť ċ0ť $ť $ť ' dť , ?Íť Xť rť ñť ť @ť H Ňť &ť Þ5 +T ť B &ť ť ť ť É <IJ(! ť !IZť öť }ť ť Q%ť 0 ť ]@ť ¨7ť !J ¼ť ~ť (-I@ť ť SFť 0 ť v! &ť Yť 8 Ġhť / Îť ëť 6,%ť l iť äť ť ' ù ť ť % ť 1 5ť *ť "rť B ť X #:ť 'Q! ť O$ť 4ť wŘť E@ť _" "Ė 6 ť 01^%;iť åť ť S#ĝť Kť ť 0& Öť U ť *< p ť ť 9ť (+ ť R J9ª & Ïť ėNť 6ʦ/ť ť # ť ; $ť Fť ť lť ¡*Aa þť ť ® 0\ť ň ť V xť % ¯ť Y%ť G ť % ť "ť % ť S'ť ť Ùť 'Ħ ½ť ť YĞť qť jzť k"ť ʼn¥ť 4ĉť æ H ¾ť <ť g ť O ť ť Ŝ`ť B- ť Vť .7 ÐØÚť j?ť uť -ť &ť X4,6 !ť \Gť Đť (ť 4ť 2ť ť ' ^5ť : : Q/ ġť 2 ť &*Ċ-?~ť G ÑÛť Ü Ţ ztť ť 7(ť l ť &ť #-tm]D5ť # @ť ¢+SCť 4*ť ?|1^ť 5ť ,!ť ť C ם 2D3řť 1.ť ° ±ť V ť ť QI ť e ħť 6)ť òť ť "! qť ÷ť ^qť ©ę.ť §x1ť gť Łŕ]ÿť :$ ¿ť 1))Āť ť ť %])ť 2ť n Ĭ.ť ©.7ť ĭ¤ Òť ßI1" ť Ěbť + < ó ť LĨ)ť ť Ŋ;ť '-/.ť #ť 1ŚĄť ŋmą>ť 7 ť +Óť ;ť đ1 ť 2ť .Ć>p3hť ť ā¢=/ť "ť -'3 8 ;ť ť y6 !ť 8ť ì Àť ť K7ť N 4 Ă ť xô.ť áR3>3 ť $ť = ; ť -1 s Čť 6ť Ģť ĩE+ ť ť Ōť s ?o3ĻÔť ݦōť .ť ļ*-;:ť ť ť YCť èEť ť Jť 'ť çť (Crť ť : Ľť 7m.ť âN3łWť 4|ť ubť #% 3Áť Ēõpť ť + *O ť £ŝ}ť ť (>) ť jť ť #Ŏ;ľť 7ăť "ť P ť [ť é29%ť £ť HģALţ v ť !)ť ť Pť ²:#?/> ³ť >ť ŃP3ť V5ť ? ={Dť 6ť Iť ť ,Ať eCť / %D5Õť kť R?Dhť ĤF ť :ť )Ať Ĝ%e ť ť , wť ij!a ť ť ť íAť /Tť 2ť [ť ú$ A @ť ě ť !ť L8)ť ť Ť ń ť ŏ"ť A <´ť fD3ť à ť c!ť ť ť ť <ť d ť - 8 - formulations was unnecessary, or imprecise, or misleadingo Diogenes gives us the further information that Cleanthes thought that the nature in accordance with which we should live must be understood only as 11 universal nature" ( Kot v; <(;0cr.s ) , 39 and this can be understood as implying that our first impulses to self-preservation, those starting points on the road to virtue and happiness, are a gift of a power i.e. Nature, which subsumes and indeed engenders the specifically human sphere. Let us try to develop this theory of the roles of Zeno and Clean thes. Why may Zeno have spoken now of living consistently with Nature, now simply of living consistently? Such accounts of the end, though not mutually exclusive0 could well be given as answers to different kinds of philosophical questions. Talk about an internally consistent life could arise as a result of an ethical question1 "consistency with Nature" should involve us with the grounds of ethics, or metaethics. Looking at this in another way, we might say that any questions about the end to which the answer "self-consistency" could be meaningfully given entail a further question about the kind of consistency required - to which the answer "consistency with Nature" might be given. We start off with the assumption that happiness is in some sense the goal. We are faced with trying to determine how such a goal may become a realityo 'What would be the natural way of looking at such a problem? In the first instance everyone would tend to look at it as a strictly ethical problem. And anyone thinking philosophically at the time when Zeno was first active would presumably look first to the kind of ethical answers availableo According to Diogenes Laertius, whose testimony there is no reason to reject on such a point, Zeno was in some sense a pupil of the Cynic Crates.40 And there is abundant evidence, particular ly in his Republic0 that the Cynic influence on his early thought was deep and persistent.41 Zeno, of course, later broke with the Cynics on a number of issues, and one of the most important of these was his insistence that it is necessary for the wise man to know something of physics and logic as well as of ethics.42 In his early days, Zeno was certainly writing with a more strongly Cynic flavour than he later thought desirable1 his Republic is said by Diogenes to have been written when he was still a pupil of Crateso43 So at a time when he had no use for physics we can well imagine Zeno defining the end as "living consist ently" (that is, with no reference to nature - where a reference to nature would imply some kind of knowledge by the wise man of the laws of physics or of "natural philosophy"). Of course the Cynics themselves frequently talk of natureu but the context is the old Sophistic anti thesis between nature and convention044 and has no significant connect ion with the use of the term by the Stoics to refer to natural philosophy. - 9 - Thus for Zeno, when still largely in a Cynic context and thinking of ethics as the only necessary realm of thought for the wise man, to define the end as living in accordance with nature would be to point not to the factor of consistency with a more than moral Power in the universeo but to "living naturally" rather than "living conventionally." (Of course, it might well be the case that the consistent (Stoic) life would be unconventional, but in talking of consistency that is not the principal point a Stoic would want to make.) Zeno's point in defining the end as a consistent life and in saying that a consistent life is a virtuous life and leads to happiness would be made within a purely ethical frame. It is the assumption of those working inside such a frame that happiness is the goal and that the content of virtue can be understood by right reason. Right reason, of courseo must be consistent, for inconsistent reasoning can hardly be "right". It is the assumption of such a search for consistency that the original impulses of each man are sound and intelligible in them selves, and therefore that consistency with them in later thought and action will be sufficient for virtue. There is probably an echo of this attitude - together with its built-in ambiguities - in the remark of Cleanthes that all men have the starting points for virtue given by nature,45 though he is using "nature" here in a way which (Stoically) does not make an obvious reference to the antithesis with convention. It was, of course, the very issue of whether the ethical end could be determined by "ethical" reflection alone that seems to have been one of the causes of the antagonism to Zeno developed by his 46 former pupil Aristo. But Zeno had clearly seen further than the Cynics. Let us assume that he did define virtue, at some stage, as Diogenes says0 as a consistent or harmonious life. The obvious quest ion is, Consistent with what? In other words, is the predicate really defective, as Cleanthes seems to have thought. There seems no reason to doubt that Zeno's answer to this must have been "consistent with the natural behaviour to which our first impulses guide us." And this would put him right into a contemporary debate about what natural impulses are. In fact the best interpretation of why Zeno took up the study of "nature", of "natural philosophy" jll the traditional pre Socratic sensea would seem to be that he wished to find content for the formula that virtue is a consistent life. For one might admit that formula to be acceptable while disagreeing with Zeno about the nature of the consistency, if one took (for example) an Epicurean view of one's first natural impulses. In other words I should like to argue that Zeno was probably drawn to find a metaethical j ustification for his brand of ethics by those who could have accepted the importance of Źy ŘŹ Ī¸Ź w Ź ;GľŹ %EęřŹ &Ź rŹ #$ Ź × $$'¹Ź _" q$Ź IŹ R 9 Ź E Ź ) Ź Ź As Ź Ź 9 !(H"(Ź 5Ź 2Ź > 9ªŹ )ī8Ź Ź ń G'(Ź Ź V-! Ź $! Ź VŹ $Ź / & ºŹ Ò ð ĞIJĔŹ ĿŹ XŹ 'Ź 9 Ź }Ź j Ź(;,Ź 3Ź 6C ŀE űÿŹ Ŧ*ĀŹ .Ź ŋŹ ŧ Ź Ź ğ Ź Ź 7ĕ"Ź ÷Ź ! Ź Ź Ź ÌÏŹ NŅŹ ĠĒ» Ú.Ź ġ Ź 'Ź Ė ! Ĭ@Ź (,ÅŹ RøŹ .#,Ź 0Ź 3ä Ź Ź ņ\Ź ZĚāŹ ŷĢŨŠŹ ě ŚŹ Ź 2 Ĩ @Ź Ź Ź &S Ź Ź h=Ź Ź 4 ~+Źñijē cŹ/)Ź Ý d Ź !SŹ _GB- Ź z'Ź %Ź Ź k{Ź Ź *Ź Ź 25Ź Ź aŹ IŹ _Ň $- ÆŹ 7Ź ;(*Ź DŹ .ŹįŹ PŹ >DŹ ixE,Ź Ź ù+Ź hĭ+ «Ź @Ź + sŹ :Ź &Ź êĴŹ 4 (Ź . Ź 5Ź pĂŹ 'Ź u ,Ź o(Ź OŹ ũ Ź B;ĵ 9 "ėŹ )8¼Ź Ù Ź nŹ Ź *Ź '\Ź ÇŹ á Ź Ź Ź ! HŌJŹ Ź Ź śŹ $- WŹ m#ѬŹ Ź 036Ź Ź ' Ź Ź H Ź Ū$ {Ź ër @Ź GI "Ź Ź F ,Ź Ź 0Ź KŹ Ź O" 5=Ź ) IŹ + Ź YŹ T?dŹ Ź $#Ź 2!Ź ì i½Ź ÓeŹ 3Ź ?Ź ,Ź /-?,Ź Ź Ź 8ĶŹ Ź *Ź HŹ Ź 0[$ Ź i Ź jŹ 1 Ź 7tŹ 1X 1 !Ź íŹ Ź A ]Ź ߏ .Ź -:Ź Ź !2/6Ź Ź ŒMBŹ Ź ã!Ź.åŹ Ź F ķ4Ź Ź O\N1 Ź Ź Ź Ô 2 Ź Q oŹ îHŹ A D<Ź ? fŹŹ3 Ź ŜŹ 9>R / Ź fCòŹ *ZŹ b5MŹ cóTŹ Q 2¨Ź HŹ Y Ź Ź ģuG Ĥň#Ź ÍÐŹ Ź ŝ-CÊËŶ ` Ź Ź Ź %Ź Ź Ź3ŹQ#2Ź.Ź (Ź Ź CŹ Ź Ź Ź Ź µ& ®Ź Ź tŹ 3 Ź > úûŹ Źï"'Ź Ź ㏠w ôŹ M$ĸŹ Ź ¯Ź UŹ ) ĜŹ E&Ź bD<Ź Ź ʼn=\0" Ź Ź /=Ź ) Ź ~Ź AŬ9 Ź &)Ź <Ź ¾Ź ÜJ- Ź Q#oŹ.ŹPŹ Ź 0#ŭŹ NŹ )Ź 4Ź Ź DYŹ ¶ * NŹ &ĄŹ Ö -©Ź cš[Ź Ź% FKŹ · /[Ź ) Ź Ź m ŹŹŞŹ : ū*CōąŹ ŎŹ Ź bŹ d%Ź Ź Ź õ Ź Ź $6ĆŹ ) Ź /# Ź 1:Ź Ź |>#NŹ Ź MŹ "ö æŏŹ ţL<Ź Ź Ź "'! Ź #1¿Ź Ø°Ź Ź xŹ W6SŹ S ÈŹ Ź#lŹ VŹ Ŕ8 ŮŹ Ź ŹŹ Ő Ź * +Ź Ź KŹ 3tŹ Ź Ź h% ŸŹ Ź Ź " Ź =Ź"Ź Ź Ų p ]Ź ÕŢŹ .Ź W;F(Ź Ź ! Ź Ź q±Ź a<Ź 4ć 8Ź KüC4Ź Ź Ĺş5ÀŹ `Ź vs! ଠ#UŹ 1%Ź X Ź %# Ź ÁŹ â ų &LŹ Ź :Ź > Ź !zĈý²Ź )Ź rŹ m ĉŹ & + Ź ŹŹ 5Ź ^k Ź P*Ź 6:Ź 0 $¡Ź 1ŖŹ (gŹ ,ĊŤ,Ź Ź GŗťċŹ VBÂŹ Û Ź 7}ç&Ŵ Ł6Ź %Ź n! ČP Ź Ź 7Ź ( 4 Ź R Ź 7 &<ŹJ Ź %Ź >ŵ #Ź č ÃŹ `Ź Ź ;Ź +Ź Ź ı%| Ź EM Ź Ź Ź ^ů yŹ ő U%³Ź P LŹ v@+Ź ĎŹ B 4(Ź Ź ! $ÉŹ Ä" Ź Ź AĺĦ Ź * +Ź TŹ K&=Ź 2ĘJIŹ Ź / Ź +'j'g @´Ź ŹB$W Ź Ź ?Ź / Ź Ź ZLŹ ďT%Ź %Ź ĐŹ ł -Ź Ź ' "g]Ź ÞŹ ŹŹ 8?ħf Ź ĝZŹ 8Ź ^Ű Ź þULeŹ Ź kŹ& qŹđJ İ Ź 6Ź Ź %0[Ź YŹ ĻŹ F ļeŹ Ź %Ź ;ŃŹ à5Ź ?Ź X Ź & Ź Ź aĽŹ7FŹ )Ź Ź A@!" Ź ,Ź Ź ¢:# Ź #0D£Ź " Ź lŹ Ź ¤ = Ź ¥Ź ĩ<1pŹ 3 Ź Ź 0 Ź èO Ź Ź ¦ $- Ź "éŊĮ '§Ź Ź O Ź Ź .*Ź - 11 - Aristo abhorred� the wise man's study of physicso Physics not merely enabled Zeno to argue formally that consistency is necessary for virtue, and will bring happiness, but to show the nature of that consistencyo In our terminology Zeno invoked extra-ethical factors to justify an approach to ethics, though, to avoid anachronism, we have to add that he was not conscious that this was what he was doing. In other words Zeno did not ask, How can I give point to the pursuit of consistency as an ethical end by the use of criteria not drawn from my own ethical system? Rather he seems to have asked. What is the nature of the first impulse with which my later life must be in harmony? This question is a non-ethical one in that it is value-free. It is simply a matter of finding the means to describe what nature has managed to give us. The conclusion of a.11 this must be that if Zeno did not speak precisely both of 11living consistently" and "living consistently with nature", he must have described his ethical end in two different ways to which these different phrases could be properly applied - and there fore that since Diogenes Laertius attributes the second phrase to him there is no good reason to reject it. The only other question which should be treated briefly here is what it might mean for us to develop, to pass from infancy to man hood, while still living consistently with our first natural impulses. It is clear that from the time of Chrysippus the Stoics were in the habit of talking about different oikeioseis1 from the oikeiosis to oneself at birth, there develop oikeioseis with different conditions in later life. As Kerferd puts it, "an organism seeks to preserve the 51 constitution in which it is at the moment11• But our oikeiosis not only reconciles us with ourselves1 it helps to associate each man with his fellows. According to Hierocles, there is an oikeiosis with one's 52 relations ; and there is no doubt that later Stoics extended oikeiosis 53 to the human race in genera1. Furthermore, as Porphyry puts it, "the followers of Zeno make oikeiosis the beginning of justice11154 and this statement is confirmed by Plutarch who remarks more_precisely that the parental instinct is "incomplete and not adequate" as a basis SS for justice. Apparently Chrysippus expressly treated of the matter 56 in his book On Justice. We may take it as certain that justice was derived from oikeiosis in the Stoa at least from the time of Chrysippus. To translate the first impulse to self-preservation into a deliberate intention to promote justice, of course, requires the use of the will and reason. 57 The Stoics spoke of the intervention of logos as a craftsman. The 58 first oikeiosis is transformed by reason into an oikeiosis hairetike. Porphyry says that the "followers of Zeno" regard oikeiosis as the beginning of justiceo Certainly Chrysippus seems to have done so, -12 - but the "followers of Zeno" could be a general term for Stoics and need not imply any real knowledge of whether Zeno himself thought along these lineso If the doctrine of oikeiosis grew up in the way we have suggested, in association with Zeno's liberation from the Cynics and indebtedness to Polemo, it would not originally have needed such wide ramificationso A feeling of endearment to oneself at different stages of one's life, and for one's family and friends might be adequate - and even more than adequate - for Zeno's purpose of providing the individual with a wider frame of reference and of associating human nature with Natureo Of course, as a man grows, his needs will change. Hence his consistent life must be determined in the light of the fact that men are not static beings, and that reason should more and more come to characterize them. However it is not the same to say that oikeiosis will be extended beyond the self and its immediate surroundings , and that oikeiosis, as it widens rationally, will entail any kind of affect ion, let alone sense of justice, towards the whole human race. The Cynics think constantly of freeing oneself from conventional ties and the bond of society, the doctrine of oikeiosis is an attempt to understand the empirically observable instincts for self-preservation and the love for one's parents0 and to use them to support a theory of natural bonds as distinct from bonds of convention. The question is how far did Zeno himself extend the ramifications of oikeiosiso And this entails the further question, With whom does the wise man feel akin? In his Cynic days, in the daSs of his Republic, Zeno would probably have said "Only with the wise"o 9 But he was breaking with the Cynics and might have extended thiso There is no answer in the sourceso We simply do not know Zeno's attitude about the origin of a sense of justice towards those who are not to be counted among the wiseo However, although Zeno's doctrine of oikeiosis may have been narrower than Chrysippus' (and pos s �bly expansion took place even after Chrysippus), oikeiosis is necessary for Zeno, and it can t therefore be only a octrine in embryo in the g8 9 founder of Stoicismo The really fundamental principles of Stoicism cannot be stated without recourse to it. The summary of this latter part of the paper is clear� any Cynic could advocate a consistent life, for the description is purely formalo But one consistent life might be set against another, and Zeno's appeal to natural consistency prevents this, as well as showing exactly.why virtue payso The question could0 of course, have been tackled in another way. Is there in fact more than one kind of consist ent life? Zeno would certainly have agreed that there is not, but though he thought that in all but the wise inconsistency leads to conflict and misery, he did not ask such a necessary question as� Is an injury to someone else also an injury to myself? Why did he not? In part because by separating the goal (happiness) from the end (virtue) he underestimat- ed the importance of eudaemonism in preaching a moral system to the un converted. 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