News and Briefs Gajah 46 (2017) 48-72

Recent Publications on Asian Elephants

Compiled by Jennifer Pastorini

Anthropologisches Institut, Universität Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland Centre for Conservation and Research, Tissamaharama, Sri Lanka E-mail: [email protected]

If you need additional information on any of the common leopards were strongly positively articles, please feel free to contact me. You can related with landscape heterogeneity, and also let me know about new (2017) publications negatively related to the proportion of bush and on Asian elephants. grassland. Attacks by one-horned rhinoceros were positively signifcantly related to the distance K.P. Acharya, P.K. Paudel, S.R. Jnawali, P.R. to water sources, and proportion of bush and Neupane & M. Köhl grassland in the landscape. Attacks by elephants Can forest fragmentation and confguration were strongly and positively associated with the work as indicators of human–wildlife confict? forest fragmentation (landscape shape index, Evidences from human death and injury by which increases as patches in the landscapes wildlife attacks in Nepal becomes disaggregated). These results suggest Ecological Indicators 80 (2017) 74-83 that forest fragmentation is inevitably a critical Abstract. Fragmented forests and heterogeneous driver of human–wildlife conficts, although the landscapes are likely to have less natural vegetation extent of effects varies depending on species and smaller core areas, a low degree of landscape specifc habitat requirements. © 2017 Reprinted connectivity, high prevalence of anthropogenic with permission from Elsevier. edges, and high landscape heterogeneity, which may alter—at varying degrees—behavior of M. Ackermann, J.M. Hatt, N. Schetle & H. wildlife species such as attacks on humans. We Steinmetz evaluated whether or not forest fragmentation Identifcation of shedders of elephant (e.g. shape, size and distribution of forest patches endotheliotropic herpesviruses among Asian measured as landscape shape index, effective elephants (Elephas maximus) in Switzerland mesh size, and landscape heterogeneity), habitats PLoS One 12 (2017) e0176891 (proportion of bush and grassland, distance Abstract. Elephants, particularly Asian (Elephas to water sources), and human disturbances maximus), are threatened by lethal elephant (human population density) have a signifcant hemorrhagic disease (EHD) due to elephant relationship with frequencies of human deaths endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHV). At and injuries by Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris least fve of seven known EEHV types have tigris), common leopard (Panthera pardus), been associated to EHD, with types 1, 4, and one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) 5 predominantly affecting Asian elephants. In and Asiatic elephant (Elephas maximus). Data Switzerland, at least three Asian elephants have on human injury and death were obtained from been lost due to EHD but nothing is known a national survey over fve years (2010–2014). about the present EEHV1 circulation. Moreover, The relationship between wildlife attacks and the prevalence of other EEHV types has never landscape attributes were investigated using a been assessed. Intermittent shedding of EEHV zero-infated Poisson regression model. Attacks can be monitored through collecting trunk by tigers were signifcantly and positively secretions and analyzing them by PCR methods associated with forest fragmentation (effective that discriminate the different EEHV types. To mesh size which is high in a landscape consisting identify EEHV shedders, seven of eight Asian of disconnected small patches). Attacks by elephants in a Swiss zoo were trained to provide

48 trunk wash samples. These were collected at signifcantly higher compared to areas with no intervals over a period of four months and clinical signs. It was also found that pre-clinical tested by PCR for presence of EEHV1 through areas showed a signifcantly higher temperature 6. Moreover, the quality of each sample was compared with that of the clinical and non- assessed by testing for the elephant TNF- clinical areas. Receiver operating characteristic alpha gene. Overall, 57% of the samples were (ROC) test results showed an area under curve valid with fve of seven participating elephants (AUC) of 0.91 with sensitivity values of 89.2% identifed as EEHV shedders. Two of those shed and a specifcity of 83.4%. In addition, positive virus only once, whereas the other three, all predictive value and negative predictive value closely related among each other, shed virus on received were: NPPV = 99.4%, PPV = 19.3%. multiple occasions. One of the frequent shedders It was concluded that thermography can be an had been in very close contact to all of the three effective diagnostic tool for early diagnosis of EHD victims. Therefore, we speculate that this infammatory processes and useful for regular particular animal may represent the virus source and continuous monitoring of zoo elephants in all three cases. However, when subtyping was in general. Early detection of infammatory conducted, the presently circulating virus was processes using this technique makes it identifed as EEHV1B, while the virus subtype possible to prevent unnecessary stress that often causing EHD had been 1A in all three cases. In accompanies veterinary examinations and to addition to four animals excreting EEHV1, a accelerate recovery. recently introduced animal was observed to shed EEHV3/4. We suggest that the policy of trunk N.N. Barman, B. Choudhury, V. Kumar, M. washing to identify and characterize EEHV- Koul, S.M. Gogoi, E. Khatoon, A. Chakroborty, shedders is to be endorsed in zoos with ongoing P. Basumatary, B. Barua, T. Rahman, S.K. Das & or planned elephant breeding programs. © 2017 S. Kumar The Authors. Incidence of elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus in Asian elephants in India N. Avni-Magen, S. Zaken, E. Kaufman & G. Veterinary Microbiology 208 (2017) 159-163 Kelmer Abstract. Elephant endotheliotropic herpes- Use of infrared thermography in early viruses (EEHVs) are the cause of acute diagnosis of pathologies in Asian elephants hemorrhagic disease in endangered Asian and (Elephas maximus) African elephants. In the present study, we report Israel J. of Veterinary Medicine 72 (2017) 22-27 the incidence of EEHV infection and associated Abstract. Thermography is an imaging technique mortality in the captive elephant of Assam, India. using a specialized heat sensitive infrared Our result showed the gross morphology and camera, mapping body surface temperature histopathological changes of EEHV infection in changes, which may indicate infammatory, the elephant. Moreover, the phylogenetic analysis vascular or neurological disorders. Thermal of the polymerase, helicase, and GPCR genes images were collected over three months from the infected tissue samples suggested the from four Asian elephants at the Tisch Family presence of EEHV1A virus. © 2017 Reprinted Zoological Gardens in Jerusalem in which 935 with permission from Elsevier. body regions were identifed with possible infammatory pathologies. Suspected thermal T. Bhagwat, A. Hess, N. Horning, T. Khaing, areas were divided into three groups according Z.M. Thein, K.M. Aung, K.H. Aung, P. Phyo, to the appearance of infammatory processes Y.L. Tun, A.H. Oo, A. Neil, W.M. Thu, M. in a clinical examination: negative, positive Songer, K.L. Connette, A. Bernd, Q. Huang, G. and a pre-infammatory group, which showed Connette & P. Leimgruber a thermal change while imaging, with clinical Losing a jewel—Rapid declines in Myanmar’s signs appearing only later on. An analysis of the intact forests from 2002-2014 documented regions it was found that in areas PLoS ONE 12 (2017) e0176364 with a clinical signs delta temperatures were Abstract. New and rapid political and economic

49 changes in Myanmar are increasing the pressures study, EEHVs were examined in whole-blood on the country’s forests. Yet, little is known about samples derived from 56 captive Asian elephants the past and current condition of these forests from eight provinces in Thailand by nested and how fast they are declining. We mapped PCR using primers specifc to the viral DNA forest cover in Myanmar through a consortium polymerase gene in an attempt to monitor EEHV of international organizations and environmental elephant cases. After EEHV testing, one sample non-governmental groups, using freely available (1.78%) was positive and found to be closely public domain data and open source software related to EEHV4 with 99% amino acid identity. tools. We used Landsat satellite imagery to This sample was from a three-year-old female assess the condition and spatial distribution of Asian elephant with no clinical signs. These data Myanmar’s intact and degraded forests with suggest that asymptomatic EEHV4 infection can special focus on changes in intact forest between occur in Asian elephants. 2002 and 2014. We found that forests cover 42,365,729 ha or 63% of Myanmar, making it C. Boehlke, S. Pötschke, V. Behringer, C. Hannig one of the most forested countries in the region. & O. Zierau However, severe logging, expanding plantations, Does diet infuence salivary enzyme activities and degradation pose increasing threats. Only in elephant species? 38% of the country’s forests can be considered Journal of Comparative Physiology B 187 (2017) intact with canopy cover >80%. Between 2002 213-226 and 2014, intact forests declined at a rate of 0.94% Abstract. Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) annually, totaling more than 2 million ha forest and African elephants (Loxodonta africana) are loss. Losses can be extremely high locally and herbivore generalists; however, Asian elephants we identifed 9 townships as forest conversion might ingest a higher proportion of grasses hotspots. We also delineated 13 large (>100,000 than Africans. Although some studies have ha) and contiguous intact forest landscapes, investigated nutrition-specifc morphological which are dispersed across Myanmar. The adaptations of the two species, broader studies Northern Forest Complex supports four of these on salivary enzymes in both elephant species are landscapes, totaling over 6.1 mil- lion ha of intact lacking. This study focuses on the comparison forest, followed by the Southern Forest Complex of salivary enzymes activity profles in the two with three landscapes, comprising 1.5 million elephant species; these enzymes are relevant for ha. These remaining contiguous forest landscape protective and digestive functions in humans. We should have high priority for protection. Our aimed to determine whether salivary amylase project demonstrates how open source data and (sAA), lysozyme (sLYS), and peroxidase software can be used to develop and share critical (sPOD) activities have changed in a species- information on forests when such data are not specifc pattern during evolutionary separation readily available elsewhere. We provide all data, of the elephant genera. Saliva samples of 14 code, and outputs freely via the internet. Asian and 8 African elephants were collected in three German zoos. Results show that sAA and B. Bhusri, P. Suksai, C. Mongkolphan, E. sLYS are salivary components of both elephant Tiyanun, P. Ratanakorn, K. Chaichoun & L. species in an active conformation. In contrast, Sariya little to no sPOD activity was determined in Detection of elephant endotheliotropic any elephant sample. Furthermore, sAA activity herpesvirus 4 in captive asian elephants was signifcantly higher in Asian compared with (Elephas maximus) in Thailand African elephants. sLYS and sPOD showed no Thai J. of Veterinary Medicine 47 (2017) 97-102 species-specifc differences. The time of food Abstract. Elephant endotheliotropic herpes- provision until sample collection affected only viruses (EEHVs) can cause fatal hemorrhagic sAA activity. In summary, the results suggest disease in elephants, especially young captive several possible factors modulating the activity Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Currently, of the mammal-typical enzymes, such as sAA, seven EEHV types have been reported. In this sLYS, and sPOD, e.g., nutrition and sampling

50 procedure, which have to be considered when Abstract. Elephant-mediated transmission analyzing differences in saliva composition of tuberculosis is assumed to be similar to of animal species. © 2016 With permission of human models, which state close and prolonged Springer. contact with an infected individual is required for transmission. Although considered a risk K. Buddhachat, J.L. Brown, C. Thitaram, S. factor for infection, several case studies have Klinhom & K. Nganvongpanit reported that close contact with an elephant is Distinguishing real from fake ivory products not always necessary for transmission, and the by elemental analyses: A Bayesian hybrid role of aerosolized bacteria remains unclear. To classifcation method investigate aerosol-mediated transmission of Forensic Science Internat. 272 (2017) 142-149 pathogenic bacteria from elephants, a method Abstract. As laws tighten to limit commercial for the detection of aerosols using an adapted ivory trading and protect threatened species sampling system was developed. A commensal like whales and elephants, increased sales of bacterium was isolated from the upper respiratory fake ivory products have become widespread. tract of elephants (Elephas maximus) and was This study describes a method, handheld X-ray used as a proxy organism to detect aerosolized fuorescence (XRF) as a noninvasive technique droplets in the sampling system. It was found that for elemental analysis, to differentiate quickly elephants are capable of producing aerosolized between ivory (Asian and African elephant, bacterial particles of a size small enough to remain mammoth) from non-ivory (bones, teeth, antler, airborne for prolonged periods and penetrate the horn, wood, synthetic resin, rock) materials. lower regions of the human respiratory tract. © An equation consisting of 20 elements and 2017 American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. light elements from a stepwise discriminant analysis was used to classify samples, followed C. Çakırlar & S. Ikram by Bayesian binary regression to determine ‘When elephants battle, the grass suffers.’ Power, the probability of a sample being ‘ivory’, with ivory and the Syrian elephant complementary log log analysis to identify the Levant 48 (2016) 167-183 best ft model for this purpose. This Bayesian Abstract. The craftsmanship of the ivory hybrid classifcation model was 93% accurate objects in Late Bronze Age and Iron Age with 92% precision in discriminating ivory Eastern Mediterranean leave no doubt as to from non-ivory materials. The method was then their intention to impress. Elephant teeth are an validated by scanning an additional ivory and important raw material for the manufacture of non-ivory samples, correctly identifying bone as these objects. Zooarchaeological research shows not ivory with >95% accuracy, except elephant that cranial, dental, and postcranial remains of bone, which was 72%. It was less accurate for Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) are nearly wood and rock (25-85%); however, a preliminary as ubiquitous as worked ivory across Southwest screening to determine if samples are not Ca- Asia. This paper attempts to reconstruct the dominant could eliminate inorganic materials. origins, habitat, range, life style and the end of In conclusion, elemental analyses by XRF can the Syrian elephant. It discusses recent bone and be used to identify several forms of fake ivory tooth fnds of this animal from Kinet Höyük and samples, which could have forensic application. Tell Atchana in the Hatay in Turkey against the © 2017 Reprinted with permission from Elsevier. background of previous research on the ‘Syrian elephant’ and ivory production in the Levant. It S.M. Burke, L. Vogelnest, P. Thompson, E.R. confrms the proposal that Asian elephants were Tovey & P. Williamson not endemic to the region and that their arrival Detection of aerosolized bacteria in expired was anthropogenic. The Syrian elephant was the air samples from Asian elephants (Elephas product of the power-hungry Bronze Age elite maximus) in the region. Having become an ‘evolutionarily Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 48 (2017) signifcant unit’ for centuries, these elephants died 431-439 out in the 8th or 7th century BC. Present evidence,

51 including off-site evidence, suggests that while trade being clear. With only 15 convictions since their local extinction was also anthropogenic, 1992 for offences relating to the trade in ivory in elephants themselves were not merely passive the English courts, this article examines the two victims in the process; they have made an most recent cases, which came to court in 2014. already diffcult and degraded environment © 2016 International Cultural Property Society. even more unsustainable for themselves and the human communities in the region. The R. Dale &d J.M. Plotnik immense demand for ivory and competition Elephants know when their bodies are among frst commercial, then territorial powers obstacles to success in a novel transfer task of the Bronze Age Levant, who symbolically Scientifc Reports 7 (2017) e46309 associated themselves with elephants, caused the Abstract. The capacity to recognise oneself as birth of the ‘Syrian elephant’. In their demise, separate from other individuals and objects is not only the elites, but also non-elite herders and diffcult to investigate in non-human animals. The agriculturalists were probably responsible. © hallmark empirical assessment, the mirror self- 2016 Council for British Research in the Levant. recognition test, focuses on an animal’s ability to recognise itself in a mirror and success has thus B.M. Chandranaik, B.P. Shivashankar, K.S. far been demonstrated in only a small number of Umashankar, P. Nandini, P. Giridhar, S.M. species with a keen interest in their own visual Byregowda & B.M. Shrinivasa refection. Adapting a recent study done with Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in free- children, we designed a new body-awareness roaming wild Asian elephant paradigm for testing an animal’s understanding Emerging Infectious Diseases 23 (2017) 555-557 of its place in its environment. In this task, Asian Abstract. Postmortem examination of a wild elephants (Elephas maximus) were required to Asian elephant at Rajiv Gandhi National Park, step onto a mat and pick up a stick attached to India, revealed nodular lesions, granulomas with it by rope, and then pass the stick forward to central caseation, and acid-fast bacilli in the an experimenter. In order to do the latter, the lungs. PCR and nucleotide sequencing confrmed elephants had to see their body as an obstacle to the presence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. This success and frst remove their weight from the study indicates that wild elephants can harbor M. mat before attempting to transfer the stick. The tuberculosis that can become fatal. elephants got off the mat in the test signifcantly more often than in controls, where getting off C. Cox the mat was unnecessary. This task helps level The elephant in the sales room: Ivory and the the playing feld for non-visual species tested on British antiques trade cognition tasks and may help better defne the International Journal of Cultural Property 23 continuum on which body- and self-awareness (2016) 321-334 lie. © 2017 The Authors. Abstract. In March 2015, it was reported that His Royal Highness, the Duke of Cambridge would T. Eisenberg, J. Rau, U. Westerhüs, T. Knauf- “like to see all the ivory owned by Buckingham Witzens, A. Fawzy, K. Schlez, M. Zschöck, E. Palace destroyed.” In May 2015, the Conservative Prenger-Berninghoff, C. Heydel, R. Sting, S.P. Party’s manifesto stated that if elected the party Glaeser, D. Pulami, M. van der Linden & C. would “press for a total ban on ivory sales,” Ewers and policy decisions made as part of President Streptococcus agalactiae in elephants – A Obama’s National Strategy for Combating comparative study with isolates from human Wildlife Traffcking saw “all commercial imports and zoo animal and livestock origin of African elephant ivory, including antiques” Veterinary Microbiology 204 (2017) 141-150 being prohibited.1 In a changing international Abstract. Streptococcus agalactiae represents environment, the United Kingdom’s antique trade a signifcant pathogen for humans and animals. faces a threat to the legitimate sale of pre- 1947 However, there are only a few elderly reports on worked ivory without the extent of any illegal S. agalactiae infections in wild and zoo elephants

52 even though this pathogen has been isolated Shencottah Gap, a multiple-use region separating comparatively frequently in these endangered two tiger reserves in the Western Ghats, India. animal species. Consequently, between 2004 and Using 840 km of surveys for animal signs within 2015, we collected S. agalactiae isolates from a region of 621 km2, we modeled landscape African and Asian elephants (n = 23) living in four linkages via resource selection functions different zoos in Germany. These isolates were integrated across two spatial resolutions, and characterised and compared with isolates from then potential dispersal corridors within these other animal species (n = 20 isolates) and humans linkages using circuit theoretical models. Within (n = 3). We found that the isolates from elephants these corridors, we further identifed potential can be readily identifed by classical biochemistry small-scale movement paths across a busy and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. Further transportation route via least-cost paths and characterisations for epidemiological issues evaluated their viability. Both elephants and gaur were achieved using Fourier transform-infrared avoided human-dominated habitat, resulting in spectroscopy, capsule typing and molecular broken connectivity across the Shencottah Gap. fngerprinting (PFGE, RAPD PCR). We could Predicted corridor locations were sensitive to demonstrate that our elephant isolate collection analysis resolution, and corridors derived from contained at least six different lineages that were scale-integrated habitat models correlated best representative for their source of origin. Despite with habitat quality. Less than 1% of elephant generally broad antimicrobial susceptibility of S. and gaur detections occurred in habitat that agalactiae, many showed tetracycline resistance was poorer in quality than the lowest-quality in vitro. S. agalactiae plays an important role in component of the movement path across the bacterial infections not only in cattle and humans, transportation route, suggesting that connectivity but also in elephants. Comparative studies were will require habitat improvement. Only 28% of able to differentiate S. agalactiae isolates from dispersal corridor area and 5% of movement path elephants into different infectious clusters based length overlapped with the upper 50% quantile on their epidemiological background. © 2017 of the landscape linkage; thus, jointly modeling Reprinted with permission from Elsevier. these three components enabled a more nuanced evaluation of connectivity than any of them in A. Gangadharan, S. Vaidyanathan & C.C. St. isolation. © 2017 Reprinted with permission Clair from Elsevier. Planning connectivity at multiple scales for large mammals in a human-dominated V.R. Goswami & D. Vasudev biodiversity hotspot Triage of conservation needs: The juxta- J. for Nature Conservation 36 (2017) 38-47 position of confict mitigation and connectivity Abstract. Connectivity for large mammals considerations in heterogeneous, human- across human-altered landscapes results from dominated landscapes movement by individuals that can be described Frontiers in Ecology and Evol. 4 (2017) e144 via nested spatial scales as linkages (or zones Abstract. Conservation of wide-ranging or areas) with compatible land use types, endangered species is increasingly focused on constrictions that repeatedly funnel movement large heterogeneous landscapes. At such scales, (as corridors) or impede it (as barriers), and particularly when conservation landscapes the specifc paths (or routes) across completely are human dominated, it is imperative that anthropogenic features (such as highways). prioritization techniques be used to allocate Mitigation to facilitate animal movement through limited resources wisely. Moreover, spatial such landscapes requires similar attention to aspects of conservation planning warrant key spatial scale, particularly when they involve consideration within these landscapes, such that complex topography, diverse types of human certain sites that are key to either mitigating threats land use, and transportation infrastructure. to species or to maintaining ecological processes, We modeled connectivity for Asian elephant are prioritized. However, there are often multiple (Elephas maximus) and gaur (Bos gaurus) in the conservation needs, and multiple associated

53 constraints, for species conservation in such spiracle, the abdominal segments had a row of landscapes. While there are tools to prioritize sites belt like triangular shaped spines and the anterior based on single or few conservation requirements end had two powerful oral hooks with cephalo- and constraints, there is less knowledge on how pharyngeal skeleton. Based on the above these conservation needs, or corresponding said morphological characters, the bots were management interventions, relate to each other in identifed as Cobboldia elephantis. This seems to a scenario where conservation focus on one issue be the frst report of C. elephantis in free range potentially detracts from another. We take the wild elephant from Karnataka state. © 2017 With specifc example of two conservation needs that permission of Springer. are central to landscape-scale conservation of the endangered Asian elephant Elephas maximus, T.N.E. Gray, A. Billingsley, B. Crudge, J.L. namely the maintenance of connectivity, and the Frechette, R. Grosu, V. Herranz-Muñoz, J. mitigation of human–elephant confict. We show Holden, O. Keo, K. Kong, D. MacDonald, T. that conservation decision making, in addition Neang, R. Ou, C. Phan & S. Sim to considering which species and sites to focus Status and conservation signifcance of on, should also prioritize conservation needs. ground-dwelling mammals in the Cardamom We review documentation of confict mitigation Rainforest Landscape, southwestern Cam- and examine if the maintenance of connectivity bodia was simultaneously addressed, and if so, whether Cambodian Journal of Natural History 2017 optimal conservation solutions differed when (2017) 38-48 connectivity considerations were included. Abstract. The Cardamom Rainforest Landscape We conclude with a discussion on the triage of (CRL) is a 17,000 km2 protected landscape in conservation needs, and future prospects and southwestern Cambodia spanning an elevation challenges in ensuring that landscape-scale range from sea-level to above 1,700 m. Despite the conservation strategies account for multiple conservation value of the landscape there is little interacting conservation needs for endangered recent published information on the status and species in heterogeneous human-dominated conservation signifcance of the ground-dwelling landscapes. © 2017 The Authors. mammal populations. We report on seven camera trap studies conducted in fve protected areas A.K.J. Gowda, N.K. Dharanesha, P. Giridhar & across the landscape between 2012 and 2016 S.M.B. Gowda with 255 trap-stations and >30,000 trap-nights. Cobboldia elephantis (Cobbold, 1866) larval At least 30 species of medium to large ground- infestation in an Indian elephant (Elephas dwelling mammals were detected including maximus) one species included on the IUCN Red List as Journal of Parasitic Diseases 41 (2017) 364-366 Critically Endangered, two as Endangered, eight Abstract. In the present study, post-mortem as Vulnerable, and three as Near Threatened. Sun was conducted on a female elephant aged about bears Helarctos malayanus, mainland clouded 37 years died at Rajeev Gandhi National Park, leopards Neofelis nebulosa, and dholes Cuon Hunsur, Mathigoodu Elephant Camp, Karnataka alpinus were detected from six or more of the state. The animal suffered with diarrhoea, seven studies. Populations of these three species anorexia, dehydration and was unable to walk in the landscape, though below ecological for about one week before death and was treated carrying capacity, are regionally signifcant. with antibiotics and fuid therapy for three days. However we did not detect any Panthera cats, The post-mortem examination revealed that, confrming that tigers P. tigris and leopards the gastric mucosa was severely congested, P. pardus are likely to have been extirpated. hyperaemic and numerous stomach bots attached With the exception of these two species, and to the mucosa. The bots were recovered from deciduous dipterocarp forest specialist ungulates, the gastric mucosa and processed for species all globally threatened ground-dwelling and identifcation. The posterior spiracles of the bots freshwater mammals likely to occur in the CRL showed three longitudinal parallel slits in each have been detected in recent camera trapping

54 surveys. The Cardamoms are thus of global of LP increased by 26% for every 10% increase conservation signifcance. However, poaching, in time housed separately (odds ratio = 1.026, p particularly snaring, combined with the presence = 0.04), 96.2% for every additional social group of domestic dogs across the landscape is likely with which an elephant had contact (odds ratio = to be impacting current and future conservation 1.962, p = 0.01), and 46% for every 10% increase value strongly. The persistence of signifcant in time housed indoors (odds ratio = 1.046, p = mammalian biodiversity requires a paradigm 0.01). Age was non-signifcantly confounded shift in both governmental and civil society with all three variables. We hypothesize that the responses to the drivers of poaching. © 2017 social variables in our models increase LP risk Centre for Biodiversity Conservation. because they are associated with uncontrollable social group changes, anticipation of potentially B.J. Greco, C.L. Meehan, J,L. Heinsius & J.A. rewarding social experiences, or the frustration Mench of social behaviors. The housing variable Why pace? The infuence of social, housing, included in our model likely increases LP management, life history, and demographic risk because indoor spaces are less complex, characteristics on locomotor stereotypy in zoo resulting in the channeling of walking or social elephants avoidance behaviors into more simplistic Applied Animal Behaviour Science 194 (2017) movements. Overall, our results suggest that 104-111 elephant managers may best be able to prevent Abstract. Stereotypic behaviors (SB) are common locomotor SB by enhancing their elephants’ in zoo-housed elephants, and these behaviors can social environment and the spatial complexity of be performed at high rates. Elephants perform their enclosures. Future research should focus on different SB forms (e.g., weaving, pacing), but determining whether addressing the risk factors no published studies have evaluated the factors for LP results in less frequent performance and contributing to the development or performance identifying other temporally proximate eliciting of these different forms. Instead, as with most factors. © 2017 Reprinted with permission from SB studies across species, elephant studies have Elsevier. relied on analyses that aggregate all SB forms, which limits the development and testing of E.M. Gross, N. Drouet-Hoguet, N. Subedi & J. form-specifc hypotheses or abatement practices. Gross Our objectives were to characterize the SB The potential of medicinal and aromatic forms of North American zoo elephants and use plants (MAPs) to reduce crop damages by multivariable epidemiological models to test Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) form-specifc hypotheses. We videotaped 77 Crop Protection 100 (2017) 29-37 elephants (African: N = 5 males, 31 females; Abstract. In all 13 Asian range countries of Asian N = 8 males, 33 females) at 39 zoos who the wild Asian elephant (Elephas maximus L.), performed SBs and used a novel classifcation farmers suffer from crop damages caused by scheme and 5-min instantaneous samples to this endangered and highly protected species. characterize their SB forms. Locomotor and As elephants are lured by highly nutritional whole-body SBs were the most common, but crop types into agricultural lands, measures most elephants who performed locomotor SBs to deter or repel them from the high attraction also performed whole-body SBs. Thus, we will always be costly and labour intensive. The characterized each elephant according to whether cultivation of crops, which are less attractive it included locomotion in its SB repertoire to elephants, yet economically viable for local [Locomotor Presence (LP)] or only whole-body farmers could lead to a new direction of land- movements. We used binomial regression models use and income generation in human-elephant ftted with generalized estimating equations to confict areas. In this study, seven medicinal test hypotheses about which of 26 social, housing, and aromatic plants (MAPs) containing higher management, life history, and demographic amounts of specifc plant secondary compounds variables were most associated with LP. The odds were explored for their attractiveness to wild

55 Asian elephants against a control of rice (Oryza Once the method had been shown to be effective sativa L.) and maize (Zea mays L.). The results at demonstration sites, farmers in 16 villages show that chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla around WKNP voluntarily adopted it during the L.), coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.), mint July 2008 to March 2009 period and were able (Mentha arvensis L.), basil (Ocimum basilicum to repel elephants in 73.9% (150 out of 203) of L.), turmeric (Curcuma longa L.), lemon grass attempted raids, with seven villages repelling (Cymbopogon fexuosus (Nees ex Steud.) 100% of attempted raids. These 16 villages W. Watson) and citronella (Cymbopogon had all experienced high levels of HEC in the winterianus Jowitt.) were less attractive and were preceding years; e.g. they accounted for >97% not consumed by elephants compared to rice. of the 742 HEC incidents recorded for the entire Damages to the MAPs occurred only through park in 2006. Our work shows, therefore, that a trampling, with mint being most prone to being simple evidence-based approach can facilitate trampled. Other wildlife species, however, were signifcant reductions in HEC at the protected observed to feed on lemon-grass. Long-term area scale. learning effects and the eventual palatability of crops with less effcient antifeedants need to be M. Gupta, A. Joshi & T.N.C. Vidya further explored. This study, however, gives frst Effects of social organization, trap evidence that MAPs bear a high potential for a arrangement and density, sampling scale, secure income generation in and close to Asian and population density on bias in population elephant habitats. Furthermore, the strategic size estimation using some common mark- plantation of crops unattractive and attractive to recapture estimators elephants could lead to new land-use strategies PLoS One 12 (2017) e0173609 and improve functionality of elephant corridors. Abstract. Mark-recapture estimators are © 2017 Reprinted with permission from Elsevier. commonly used for population size estimation, and typically yield unbiased estimates for most D. Gunaryadi, Sugiyo & S. Hedges solitary species with low to moderate home Community-based human-elephant confict range sizes. However, these methods assume mitigation: The value of an evidence-based independence of captures among individuals, approach in promoting the uptake of effective an assumption that is clearly violated in social methods species that show fssion-fusion dynamics, PLoS ONE 12 (2017) e0173742 such as the Asian elephant. In the specifc case Abstract. Human-elephant confict (HEC) is a of Asian elephants, doubts have been raised serious threat to elephants and can cause major about the accuracy of population size estimates. economic losses. It is widely accepted that More importantly, the potential problem for reduction of HEC will often require community- the use of mark-recapture methods posed by based methods for repelling elephants but social organization in general has not been there are few tests of such methods. We tested systematically addressed. We developed an community-based crop-guarding methods with individual-based simulation framework to and without novel chili-based elephant deterrents systematically examine the potential effects and describe changes in farmers’ willingness to of type of social organization, as well as other adopt these methods following our demonstration factors such as trap density and arrangement, of their relative effectiveness. In three separate spatial scale of sampling, and population feld-trials that took place over almost two years density, on bias in population sizes estimated by (October 2005 – May 2007) in two villages POPAN, Robust Design, and Robust Design with adjacent to Way Kambas National Park (WKNP) detection heterogeneity. In the present study, we in Indonesia, we found that community-based ran simulations with biological, demographic and crop-guarding was effective at keeping Asian ecological parameters relevant to Asian elephant elephants (Elephas maximus) out of crop felds populations, but the simulation framework is in 91.2% (52 out of 57), 87.6% (156 out of 178), easily extended to address questions relevant to and 80.0% (16 out of 20) of attempted raids. other social species. We collected capture history

56 data from the simulations, and used those data of rubber and oil palm production. Our review to test for bias in population size estimation. showed that most wild mammal species found in Social organization signifcantly affected bias in these plantations were likely to be visitors that use most analyses, but the effect sizes were variable, cultivated landscapes as fringe habitat but some depending on other factors. Social organization adapted well to plantations and few even became tended to introduce large bias when trap resident. We conclude that although plantations arrangement was uniform and sampling effort in the tropics and subtropics cannot substitute for was low. POPAN clearly outperformed the two forests and the preservation of natural habitats Robust Design models we tested, yielding close is indispensable, the reality of ongoing forest to zero bias if traps were arranged at random in degradation and transformation into plantations the study area, and when population density and will make wildlife-friendly farming a key strategy trap density were not too low. Social organization in maintaining mammalian diversity, particularly did not have a major effect on bias for these in land-use matrices surrounding natural habitats. parameter combinations at which POPAN gave © 2016 CAB International, Wallingford, UK. more or less unbiased population size estimates. Therefore, the effect of social organization on T. Ishige, M. Miya, M. Ushio, T. Sado, M. bias in population estimation could be removed Ushioda, K. Maebashi, R. Yonechi, P. Lagan & by using POPAN with specifc parameter H. Matsubayashi combinations, to obtain population size estimates Tropical-forest mammals as detected by in a social species. environmental DNA at natural saltlicks in Borneo F.K. Harich & A.C. Treydte Biological Conservation 210A (2017) 281-285 Mammalian wildlife diversity in rubber and Abstract. Although tropical forests are among oil palm plantations the most species-rich ecosystems on earth, CAB Reviews 11 (2016) e20 42% of mammal species in tropical forests Abstract. In the face of globally diminishing are endangered because of overhunting and/ natural habitats in biodiversity-rich regions, or unsustainable exploitation. Camera-trap agricultural landscapes around protected areas surveys have shown that natural saltlicks can be have increasingly gained importance as extended used to determine mammalian fauna, especially habitat for wildlife species. Rubber (Hevea medium to large endangered species in tropical brasiliensis) and oil palm (Elais guineensis) forests; establishment of camera traps, however, plantations are two of the dominant land-use is time and effort intensive. Furthermore, the systems in Southeast Asia that have seen a photographic range and detectable size of tremendous expansion over the last decades. species are often restricted. Environmental Despite far-reaching ecological consequences DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding is a powerful of these intensively cropped monocultures on approach that might provide a better way to natural ecosystems, relatively little is known study terrestrial animals in tropical forests. In about their utilization by wildlife populations. this study, we examined whether eDNA from With this review we want to give an overview natural saltlicks comprehensively represented of mammalian diversity in rubber and oil palm species composition in a Bornean tropical forest. plantations with reference to human–wildlife We collected 100–150-ml water samples from conficts occurring as a result of overlapping natural saltlicks in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo. resource use. We searched the literature for studies We constructed amplicon libraries for MiSeq on wild mammalian diversity in rubber and oil sequencing using eDNA extracted from the palm plantations and found 17 publications. water samples. Six endangered species were We considered 29 additional publications that detected using this method, including Bornean provided information on single species in such orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus), Bornean banteng plantations. We discuss the potential of ‘wildlife- (Bos javanicus lowi), Asian elephant (Elephas friendly’ farming for mammalian assemblages maximus), Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica), in plantations and its importance in the case sambar deer (Rusa unicolor) and bearded pig

57 (Sus barbatus). However, most small and minor to manage and cure various ailments of Asian species were not detected, with low sequence elephant in captivity. Much of this knowledge identity (80–96%). Therefore, we propose that has been lost in the light of modern practices. more species of tropical forest mammals should This study is aimed at documenting the existing have their sequences deposited in DNA databases. knowledge on ethno-veterinary medicines This study is the frst to report the endangered practiced by elephant keepers (mahouts) in Tamil mammals of a tropical forest detected using Nadu and Puducherry. The study was carried out eDNA from natural saltlicks. between June 2015 and February 2016 employing a questionnaire survey among 50 selected T. Janyamethakul, S. Sripiboon, C. Somgird, informants (mahouts) with traditional knowledge P. Pongsopawijit, V. Panyapornwithaya, S. on plants in veterinary medicine. Information Klinhom, J. Loythong & C. Thitaram was elicited from the informants on various Hematologic and biochemical reference diseases prevailing among captive elephants intervals for captive Asian elephants (Elephas and the traditional treatment employed by them. maximus) in Thailand In total, the study documented 53 plant species Kafkas Univ Vet Fak Derg 23 (2017) 665-668 belonging to 29 families being used as medicine Abstract. Species specifc blood value reference for 23 types of ailments prevailing among captive intervals are needed for the proper diagnosis, and elephants. Ferula assafoetida, Zingiber offcinale, treatment of disease, appropriate for specifc Piper longum, P. nigrum, Cuminum cyminum, populations, because age, sex, management, Trachyspermum roxburghianum and Carum exercise and geographical location can all bulbocastanum were the most commonly used affect hematological values. The aim of this plants either independently or in combination. study was to establish a set of hematology and Among them, F. assa-foetida (12.4%) and Z. blood chemistry reference intervals for captive offcinale (10.4%) had the highest usage. Of the Asian elephants. Blood samples were collected 23 diseases reported, constipation was the most from 149 healthy Asian elephants in 15 tourist common ailment (14.6%) followed by bloating camps in Northern Thailand. Hematological (8.7%) and fatulence (8.7%). Documentation and biochemical parameters were determined. of this indigenous knowledge is valuable for the The results showed similarity of haematological communities concerned, both at present and in and blood chemistry range to others previously future and for scientifc consideration for wider published. There were no sex differences for use of traditional knowledge in treating captive most hematological parameters except some elephants. The study has identifed 53 medicinal parameters were different i.e. MCV, MCHC, plants to treat various ailments among captive BUN, AST, and ALP. The hematology and blood elephants in southern India. The most frequently chemistry reference intervals of our study can be used plants in the captive elephant health care used as the reference for hematological analysis practice are F. assafoetida, Z. offcinale, P. longum in Thailand, and several Asian elephant range and P. nigrum. Among the 29 families, Apiaceae countries and zoos. and Piperaceae are widely used. The leaves are the most useful part of the plants, while paste is S. Jayakumar, S. Sathiskumar, N. Baskaran, R. the widely used form of preparation. The present Arumugam & V. Vanitha fndings show that mahouts have wide knowledge Ethno-veterinary practices in southern India about elephant diseases and their treatment using for captive Asian elephant ailments herbal medicine. A more detailed investigation J. of Ethnopharmacology 200 (2017) 182-204 should be designed on priority to document the Abstract. India has a long tradition of practicing dying art of ethno-veterinary practices for the Ayurvedic medicine not only for human ailments, long-term conservation of the Asian elephant. © but also for the management of livestock in 2017 Reprinted with permission from Elsevier. the form of ethno-veterinary practices. Asian elephant is a signifcant part of Indian culture, D.K. Jha, N.T. Kshetry, B.R. Pokharel, S.K. Lal and ethno-veterinary practices have extended & R. Panday

58 Identifcation and differentiation of the Asian path. The temporospatial parameters evaluated elephant ivory by using Schreger lines for each limb consisted of stride length (cm), Journal of Institute of Science and Technology 22 stride time (sec), swing time (sec), stance time (2017) 99-103 (sec) and stance time percentage, using 2D motion Abstract. Elephant ivory is one of the highly analysis software. The result revealed that the priced, illegally traded wildlife trophies and its average stride length was varied between 192- identifcation has always been a challenging 199 cm with no signifcant difference between task. A total of 21 Asian elephant tusks stored at fore and hindlimbs on either side but the stride the offce of the Chitwan National Park, Kasara, length on the right side was signifcantly longer Nepal were morphometrically studied with an aim than that on the left in both forelimbs (right 197.5 to typify elephant ivory by using Schreger lines. cm; left 192.6 cm, P<0.05) and hindlimbs (right The ivory samples were cleaned, their Schreger 198.9 cm; left 193.2 cm, P<0.01). The mean gait lines were photographed and their angles were cycle time (stride time) was varied between 2.26 measured by using a protractor. A total of 120 and 2.34 seconds for each limb and mean stance Schreger angles data from both outer and inner time was varied between 1.67-1.80 seconds, with areas were obtained resulting both concave and both parameters were longer on the forelimbs convex appearance. The observed maximum and than hindlimbs signifcantly (P<0.01). Hence, minimum Schreger angles values were 125° and swing time for the forelimb was shorter than that 50° respectively. The mean Schreger angle was for the hindlimb (P<0.001). The calculated stance found to be 95.60° (±14.23). The Schreger lines time percentage for each limb was 72.64-76.09%. were present in all studied samples. Thus, it is Data from this study confrmed that elephants concluded that the presence of Schreger line is walk with a lateral sequence and footfall pattern, the identifying feature of an elephant tusk. © and distribute the center of mass proportionally 2017 Institute of Science and Technology. between all four limbs. Gait analysis is a valuable tool for identifying and understanding Ritesh Joshi the pathogenesis of gait abnormality. Wanderers of Rajaji: Are elephants learning new lessons in the changing environment? Chalita Kongrit Current Science 112 (2017) 1808-1811 Genetic tools for the conservation of wild Abstract. none. Asian elephants International Journal of Biology 9 (2017) e2 S. Kongsawasdi, S. Mahasawangkul, P. Abstract. The distribution of the Asian elephant Pongsopawijit, K. Boonprasert, B. Chuatrakoon, (Elephas maximus) has been limited to the N. Thonglorm, R. Kanta-in, T. Tajarernmuang & remaining discontinuous forests, mainly in the K. Nganvongpanit South and Southeast Asia. A global number Biomechanical parameters of Asian elephant of wild Asian elephants have been declining (Elephas maximus) walking gait due to habitat loss, forest fragmentation, Kafkas Univ Vet Fak Derg 23 (357-362) and anthropogenic disturbance. Acquiring Abstract. Quadruped animals have a unique information of wild populations is important mechanism of movement that minimizes energy for effective conservation and management use and allows muscles to work effectively. plan. This article reviews the applications Elephants are the biggest quadruped animals of noninvasive genetic method as a tool for on earth and how they stabilize their body and studying wild Asian elephants. Noninvasive use energy are of interest. This study aimed to genetic method has been introduced to the feld of analyze the characteristics of kinematic gait in wildlife conservation for more than two decades. Asian elephants trained to work with a mahout The method provides reliable information of a for tourism activities in Thailand. Twenty-one population and facilitates investigation of genetic healthy adult Asian elephants were recorded by effects on small and fragmented populations. 2 digital cameras while walking at normal speed Various DNA markers for the Asian elephant, (average 1.1 m s-1.) along a 15-meter, solid-soil those include mitochondrial DNA, microsatellite

59 DNA, and sex determination markers, have belonging to mature elephants. The same criterion been developed and used to study wild elephant was applied to females as well. A population age populations across the distribution range. Most structure of Salakphra elephants was created of the studies revealed the issues of low genetic based on the bolus circumferences regardless diversity in the small populations and interruption of individual identifcation. The construction of of gene fow among the fragmented populations. population age structure based on dung sampling Tracking of ivory poaching has not yet been could be useful for a rapid population survey. done in the Asian elephant. It could be carried out if a reference genetic database of the natural H. Kuhrt, A. Bringmann, W. Härtig, G. Wibbelt, populations is available. Noninvasive genetic L. Peichl & A. Reichenbach method has been proved to be a promising tool The retina of Asian and African elephants: for conservation of the wild Asian elephants. Comparison of newborn and adult Transboundary collaboration would give hope Brain, Behavior and Evolution 89 (2017) 84-103 for a successful long-term conservation of this Abstract. Elephants are precocial mammals charismatic species in their natural habitats. © that are relatively mature as newborns and 2017 The Author. mobile shortly after birth. To determine whether the retina of newborn elephants is capable of C. Kongrit & C. Siripunkaw supporting the mobility of elephant calves, we Determination of age and construction compared the retinal structures of 2 newborn of population age structure of wild Asian elephants (1 African and 1 Asian) and 2 adult elephants based on dung bolus circumference animals of both species by immunohistochemical Thai Journal of Veterinary Medicine 47 (2017) and morphometric methods. For the frst time, 145-153 we present here a comprehensive qualitative Abstract. Estimating the age of wildlife is an and quantitative characterization of the cellular important technique for the construction of a composition of the newborn and the adult retinas population age structure that could be useful for of 2 elephant species. We found that the retina the prediction of population change. The age of of elephants is relatively mature at birth. All wild elephants can be reliably estimated from retinal layers were well discernible, and various the size of dung bolus circumference, which retinal cell types were detected in the newborns, correlates with elephant growth. This research including Müller glial cells (expressing glutamine aimed to determine a cut-off bolus circumference synthetase and cellular retinal binding protein; for the mature age class of wild Asian elephants CRALBP), cone photoreceptors (expressing at Salakphra Wildlife Sanctuary as inferred from S-opsin or M/L-opsin), protein kinase Cα- the social behavior of male elephants. Males expressing bipolar cells, tyrosine hydroxylase-, living within their natal groups were considered choline acetyltransferase (ChAT)-, calbindin-, immature males, whereas solitary males were and calretinin-expressing amacrine cells, and considered mature males. The largest bolus calbindin-expressing horizontal cells. The retina circumference of the immature males was used of newborn elephants contains discrete horizontal as a cut-off criterion for age class determination. cells, which coexpress ChAT, calbindin, and Noninvasive molecular sexing was applied calretinin. While the overall structure of the to determine the sex of elephant samples. retina is very similar between newborn and adult From a total of 225 dung samples, 96% were elephants, various parameters change after birth. successfully sex determined; 90 and 126 samples The postnatal thickening of the retinal ganglion were identifed as male and female, respectively. cell axons and the increase in ganglion cell soma Among the male samples, 49 samples were from size are explained by the increase in body size males living within their natal groups and 41 after birth, and the decreases in the densities samples were from solitary males. The cut-off of neuronal and glial cells are explained by the bolus circumference was determined to be 42.5 postnatal expansion of the retinal surface area. cm. The dung samples with bolus circumferences The expression of glutamine synthetase and larger than the cut-off size were classifed as CRALBP in the Müller cells of newborn elephants

60 suggests that the cells are already capable of S. Liu, Y. Dong, F. Cheng, Y. Zhang, X. Hou, S. supporting the activities of photoreceptors and Dong & A. Coxixo neurons. As a peculiarity, the elephant retina Effects of road network on Asian elephant contains both normally located and displaced habitat and connectivity between the nature giant ganglion cells, with single cells reaching reserves in Xishuangbanna, Southwest China a diameter of more than 50 µm in adults and J. for Nature Conservation 38 (2017) 11-20 therefore being almost in the range of giant retinal Abstract. Evaluating road effects on the ganglion cells found in aquatic mammals. Some ecological status and landscape connectivity is of these ganglion cells are displaced into the critical for animal corridor design. Taking the inner nuclear layer, a unique feature of terrestrial fragmented nature reserves in Xishuangbanna mammals. For the frst time, we describe here the as a case, road impacts on Asian elephant occurrence of many bistratifed rod bipolar cells habitats were determined based on a suitability in the elephant retina. These bistratifed bipolar analysis. Potential corridors between different cells may improve nocturnal contrast perception sub-reserves were located using “least-cost” in elephants given their arrhythmic lifestyle. © method as a systematic way incorporating 2017 S. Karger AG, Basel. remote sensing (RS) and geographic information system (GIS). Our results revealed that A. Kumar, H.S. Bargali, A. David & A. Edgaonkar road networks, especially high-level roads Patterns of crop raiding by wild ungulates (expressway, national road and city-county city and elephants in Ramnagar Forest Division, road), had the largest effects on the suitability Uttarakhand according to the sensitivity analysis. Suitability Human-Wildlife Interactions 11 (2017) 41-49 (> 40) area will increase about 40% if there were Abstract. Crop raiding is a major form of no high-level roads. In total, seven potential human–wildlife confict that not only affects linkages were located and found to be capable of livelihoods of farmers living close to forest areas connecting the habitats of the four sub-reserves. but also jeopardizes the objective of wildlife We suggested the Menglun reserve could serve conservation. In this study, we report patterns as a stepping-stone for elephant migration. associated with crop raiding based on periodic Four further conservation priorities were also feld inspections of 95 crop felds spread across identifed between the Menglun reserve and the 16 villages in India. Average raided area of the Mengla reserve where the road impacts were feld was highest in seedling stage (21%). Fields intensive. Our study provided information for the closer to the forest edge incurred higher damage development of an effcient reserve network for in the seedling (22%) and mature stages (7%) elephant conservation between existing nature than felds farther from the forest edge, although reserves in China and neighboring provinces in this was not statistically signifcant. Guarding Lao PDR. © 2017 Reprinted with permission was found to be ineffective in decreasing crop from Elsevier. raiding, with no statistical difference in the mean area of damage between guarded and unguarded M. Lynch, K. McGrath, K. Raj, P. McLaren, K. felds. Cheetal (Axis axis), sambar (Rusa uni- Payne, R. McCoy & U. Giger color), nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus), and Hereditary factor VII defciency in the Asian wild pig (Sus scrofa) were the main raiders in elephant (Elephas maximus) caused by a F7 felds close to the forest edge whereas nilgai and missense mutation wild pig were chief raiders in felds farther from Journal of Wildlife Diseases 53 (2017) 248-257 the forest edge. Results of this study suggest that Abstract. Hereditary disorders and genetic in the study area, wild pig and nilgai are more predispositions to disease are rarely reported in problematic species than elephants (Elephas captive and free-ranging wildlife, and none have maximus), which are reported to cause the most been defnitively identifed and characterized in damage in other landscapes. elephants. A wild-caught, 41-yr-old male Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) without an apparent increased bleeding tendency was consistently

61 found to have prolonged prothrombin times education programs in elephant conservation as (PTs, mean=55±35 s) compared to 17 other well as the need to evaluate these programs to elephants (PT=10±2 s). This elephant’s partial assess their impact on conservation attitudes. thromboplastin times (PTT) fell within the In particular, we emphasize the need for such normal range of the other elephants (12–30 s). programs in the native ranges of elephants, which A prolonged PT in the presence of a normal PTT are more prone to human-elephant confict, suggests disruption of the extrinsic pathway via and argue that exposure to such programs may defciency of coagulation Factor VII (FVII). This potentially increase the collaboration of the local elephant’s plasma FVII activity was very low (2%) community towards conservation efforts. © 2017 compared to that of 15 other elephants (57–80%), The Authors. but other coagulation factors’ activities did not differ from the control elephants. Sequencing of S. Mendis, N.K. Jayasekera, R.C. Rajapakse & genomic DNA from ethylenediaminetetraacetic J.L. Brown acid blood revealed a single homozygous point Endocrine correlates of puberty in female mutation (c.202A>G) in the F7 gene of the Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) at the FVII defcient elephant that was not present in Pinnawala Elephant Orphanage, Sri Lanka unrelated elephants. This mutation causes an BMC Zoology 2 (2017) 1 amino acid substitution (p.Arg68Gly) that is Abstract. Previous studies have established predicted to be deleterious. Two living offspring ovarian cycle characteristics of adult Asian of the affected elephant were heterozygous elephants using progestagen analyses, but little for the mutation and had normal plasma FVII work has been done on young elephants to activities and coagulation profles. Tissue from a determine age at puberty. Demographic studies third offspring, a deceased calf, was utilized to of wild Asian elephants suggest females give show that it was also a heterozygote. A DNA test birth at about 12–18 years of age (conceiving at has been developed to enable the screening of 10–16 years of age based on a 2-year gestation). additional elephants for this mutation. Consistent However, there are a few examples of zoo with FVII defciency investigations in other elephants giving birth at only 5–6 years of age, species, the condition did not cause a serious so they would have started cycling much earlier. bleeding tendency in this individual elephant. © This study was carried out at the Pinnawela 2017 Wildlife Disease Association. Elephant Orphanage (PEO) in Sri Lanka, where a herd of >80 captive elephants breeds successfully, R.N. Makecha & R. Ghosal resulting in a unique opportunity to monitor Elephant conservation: Reviewing the need hormones and document initiation of ovarian and potential impact of cognition-based cyclicity in young females, thus contributing education to the normative reproductive database for this International Journal of Comparative Psychology species. We measured serum progestagens 30 (2017) 1-6 in samples collected every 10 days for 18–24 Abstract. Conservation education programs months from 11 females (3.5–15 years of age), centered on animal cognition seem to be effective and found six (5.5–12 years of age) already in bringing humans closer to non-human species were cycling at study onset. Four females started and thereby, infuencing their conservation cycling during the study at 4.5, 5.5, 7.5 and attitudes. Systematic evaluation of the impact 15 years of age. There were no quantitative or of cognition-based education programs on the qualitative differences between the frst pubertal attitudes of participants has revealed positive luteal phase and those of subsequent cycles. feedback and an appreciation towards the species Of the 46 ovarian cycles observed, 78% were of interest. However, such evaluations are rare associated with clear behavioral signs of estrus for species like elephants, which suffer severe (heightened bull attentiveness, and willingness conservation challenges such as high degrees of females to be mounted) during the late non- of confict with the local community. In this luteal period when progestagens were low. The paper, we review the need for cognition-based average body weight at puberty was ~48% of that

62 of adult female elephants at PEO. Asian elephants J. for Nature Conservation 36 (2017) 65-76 under human care, including under semi-captive Abstract. Human-elephant confict (HEC) is a conditions, may reach puberty earlier than those signifcant problem in Nepal, with approximately in the wild, perhaps due to better nutrition and two-thirds of households being impacted by reaching a body weight capable of supporting elephants (Elephas maximus), particularly during reproductive activity at a younger age. Thus, the winter. In addition to elephant casualties, facilities with bulls need to carefully manage more than 10% of the households surveyed have elephants to avoid accidental pregnancies in had human casualties (injury or death) during the young females that may be too small to safely past 5 years. This study evaluates the economic carry a pregnancy to term. © 2017 The Authors. viability of elephant conservation in Nepal within the context of current and proposed HEC M. Meyer, E. Palkopoulou, S. Baleka, M. Stiller, mitigation scenarios. Face-to-face interviews K.E.H. Penkman, K.W. Alt, Y. Ishida, D. Mania, were carried out using a structured questionnaire S. Mallick, T. Meijer, H. Meller, S. Nagel, B. to elicit the residents’ willingness to pay (WTP) Nickel, S. Ostritz, N. Rohland, K.Schauer, T. for elephant conservation and HEC mitigation Schüler, A.L. Roca, D. Reich, B. Shapiro & M. programs using seemingly unrelated regression Hofreiter (SUR). Residents’ WTP was found to be Palaeogenomes of Eurasian straight-tusked positively related to income and education, and elephants challenge the current view of negatively related to damage-related programs. elephant evolution Local stakeholders were willing to pay about eLife 6 (2017) e25413 42% more to programs that were economically Abstract. The straight-tusked elephants transparent and improved upon existing Palaeoloxodon spp. were widespread across management. Residents’ WTP were also greater Eurasia during the Pleistocene. Phylogenetic if they have had previous HEC-related injuries reconstructions using morphological traits have or deaths. © 2017 The Authors. Reprinted with grouped them with Asian elephants (Elephas permission from Elsevier. maximus), and many paleontologists place Palaeoloxodon within Elephas. Here, we report G. Pant, M. Dhakal, N.M.B. Pradhan, F. the recovery of full mitochondrial genomes Leverington & M. Hockings from four and partial nuclear genomes from Nature and extent of human–elephant Elephas two P. antiquus fossils. These fossils were maximus confict in central Nepal collected at two sites in Germany, Neumark- Oryx 50 (2016) 724-731 Nord and Weimar-Ehringsdorf, and likely date Abstract. Human–elephant confict is one of to interglacial periods ~120 and ~244 thousand the main threats to the long-term survival of the years ago, respectively. Unexpectedly, nuclear Asian elephant Elephas maximus. We studied the and mitochondrial DNA analyses suggest that P. nature and extent of human–elephant interactions antiquus was a close relative of extant African in the buffer zones of Chitwan National Park forest elephants (Loxodonta cyclotis). Species and Parsa Wildlife Reserve in Nepal, through previously referred to Palaeoloxodon are thus household questionnaire surveys, key informant most parsimoniously explained as having diverged interviews, site observations, and analysis of the from the lineage of Loxodonta, indicating that reported cases of damage during January 2008– Loxodonta has not been constrained to Africa. December 2012. During this 5-year period 290 Our results demonstrate that the current picture incidents of damage by elephants were reported, of elephant evolution is in need of substantial with a high concentration of incidents in a few revision. © 2017 The Authors. locations. Property damage (53%) was the most common type of damage reported. Crop D. Neupane, S. Kunwar, A.K. Bohara, T.S. Risch damage was reported less often but household & R.L. Johnson surveys revealed it to be the most frequent form Willingness to pay for mitigating human- of confict. There were also human casualties, elephant confict by residents of Nepal including 21 deaths and four serious injuries.

63 More than 90% of the human casualties occurred Abstract. The present work provides a detailed during 2010–2012. More than two thirds of morphological and molecular description of the respondents (70%) perceived that human– Anoplocephala manubriata in elephants. Adult elephant confict had increased substantially worms were recovered during an autopsy of a wild during the previous 5 years. Despite the increase elephant in Elephant Transit Home, Udawalawe, in incidents of human–elephant confict in the Sri Lanka. Necropsy fndings revealed a severe area, 37% of respondents had positive attitudes cestode infection in the small intestine. These towards elephant conservation. Our fndings tapeworms were tightly attached to the intestinal suggest that public awareness and compensation mucosae, resulted in hyperemic thickened for losses could reduce confict and contribute to intestinal mucosae, variable size irregular ensuring coexistence of people and elephants in well-demarcated multifocal ulcerative regions this human-dominated landscape. © 2015 Fauna sometimes covered with necrotic membranes & Flora International. and variable size, diffuse, well-demarcated raised nodular masses were evident in the small S. Paudel, J.L. Brown, S. Thapaliya, I.P. Dhakal, intestine. The article provides an account of the S.K. Mikota, K.P. Gairhe, M. Shimozuru & T. biology of A. manubriata and a comparative Tsubota analysis of the morphology and morphometrics Comparison of cortisol and thyroid hormones of Anoplocephala species that occur in different between tuberculosis-suspect and healthy hosts. Phylogenetic analysis of the second internal elephants of Nepal transcribed spacer region (ITS-2), a portion of Journal of Veterinary Medical Science 78 (2016) the 28S region and cytochrome oxidase subunit 1713-1716 1 (COX1) genes revealed that A. manubriata is Abstract. We compared cortisol and thyroid closely associated with Anoplocephala species in hormone (T3 and T4) concentrations between horse in comparison to other Anoplocephalines. tuberculosis (TB)-suspected (n=10) and healthy This study will enhance the current knowledge in (n=10) elephants of Nepal. Whole blood was taxonomy of elephant tapeworms and contribute collected from captive elephants throughout to future phylogenetic studies. © 2017 Reprinted Nepal, and TB testing was performed using the with permission from Elsevier. ElephantTB STAT-PAK® and DPP VetTB® serological assays that detect antibodies against S.S. Pokharel, P.B. Seshagiri & R. Sukumar Mycobacterium tuberculosis and M. bovis Assessment of season-dependent body con- in elephant serum. Cortisol, T3 and T4 were dition scores in relation to faecal glucocorticoid quantifed by competitive enzyme immunoassays, metabolites in free-ranging Asian elephants and the results showed no signifcant differences Conservation Physiology 5 (2017) cox039 in hormone concentrations between TB-suspect Abstract. We studied seasonal and annual changes and healthy elephants. These preliminary data in visual body condition scores (BCSs), and suggest neither adrenal nor thyroid function is assessed how these scores were related to levels altered by TB disease status. However, more of faecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCMs) in elephants, including those positively diagnosed free-ranging Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) for TB by trunk wash cultures, need to be in the seasonally dry tropical forests of the Mysore evaluated over time to confrm results. © 2016 and Nilgiri Elephant Reserves in southern India. Japanese Society of Veterinary Science. We assessed the animals’ BCS visually on a scale of 1 to 5; where 1 represents a very thin and 5 K.U.E. Perera, S. Wickramasinghe, B.V.P. Perera, represents a very fat elephant. To understand the K.B.A.T. Bandara & R.P.V.J. Rajapakse infuence of seasonality on BCS, we sampled the Redescription and molecular characterization population during dry (n = 398) and wet seasons of Anoplocephala manubriata, Railliet et al., (n = 255) of 2013 and 2015 while, for annual 1914 (Cestoda: Anoplocephalidae) from a Sri changes in BCS, we sampled nine free-ranging Lankan wild elephant (Elephas maximus) adult females from different family groups that Parasitology International 66 (2017) 279-286 had been repeatedly sighted over seven years.

64 To evaluate the infuence of body condition on resistance models were based on the combined fGCM, 307 faecal samples were collected from contributions of land cover, topographical 261 different elephants and were analysed. slope, elevation, roads and buildings. A spatially As a parameter of adrenocortical activity, and explicit connectivity modeling tool predicted thus stress, fGCM was measured (μg/g) in the optimal movement corridors as a function of ethanol-extracted samples using a group-specifc factorial least-cost routes across the resistance 11-oxoaetiocholanolone EIA (antibody raised maps. A resistant kernel approach produced maps against 11-oxoaetiocholanolone-17-CMO:BSA of the expected frequency of elephant movement and biotinylated-11-oxoaetiocholanolone as through each cell to defne core areas. We a label). Effect of age and season on BCS in conducted a sensitivity analysis to determine the relation to fGCM was also studied. A seasonal infuence of resistance and dispersal. We selected shift in BCS was observed as expected, i.e. the resistance surface and dispersal ability that individuals with low BCS were more frequent produced the highest correlation with observed during the dry season when compared with elephant densities. We evaluated the optimality the wet season. Concentrations of fGCM were of expert corridors by using a path randomization highest in individuals with lowest BCS (BCS 1) method. Eleven out of 24 expert corridors had and then signifcantly declined till BCS 3. fGCM connectivity values signifcantly higher than levels were almost comparable for BCS 3, 4 and expected by chance, while only two corridors were 5. This pattern was more conspicuous in female spatially congruent between expert teams. Areas than in male elephants. Season-dependent BCS, with the highest connectivity corresponded well hence, refect the stress status as measured by with priority areas identifed by conservationists fGCM, especially in female Asian elephants. and elephant density predicted by the resistant This could be used as an important non-invasive kernel connectivity model correlated signifcantly approach to monitor the physiological health of with surveys (Spearman’s ρ = 0.85, n = 500, P free-ranging elephant populations. © 2017 The ≪ 0.001). The results provide the frst rigorous, Authors. spatially synoptic and empirically validated evaluation of the connectivity of the elephant J.-P. Puyravaud, S.A. Cushman, P. Davidar & D. population across the reserve. © 2016 Zoological Madappa Society of London. Predicting landscape connectivity for the Asian elephant in its largest remaining M. Rebein, C. N. Davis, H. Abad, T. Stone, J. del subpopulation Sol, N. Skinner & M.D. Moran Animal Conservation 20 (2017) 225-234 Seed dispersal of Diospyros virginiana in the Abstract. Landscape connectivity between past and the present: Evidence for a generalist protected areas is crucial for the conservation evolutionary strategy of megafauna. But often, corridor identifcation Ecology and Evolution 7 (2017) 4035-4043 relies on expert knowledge that is subjective Abstract. Several North American trees are and not spatially synoptic. Landscape analysis hypothesized to have lost their co-evolved seed allows generalization of expert knowledge when disperser during the late-Pleistocene extinction satellite tracking or genetic data are not available. and are therefore considered anachronistic. The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve in southern India We tested this hypothesis for the American supports the largest wild populations of the persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) by studying endangered Asian elephant Elephas maximus. the effects of gut passage of proposed seed Current understanding of connectivity in this dispersers on seedling survival and growth, region is based on corridors identifed by natural fruiting characteristics, and modern experts, which are not empirically validated and animal consumption patterns. We tested gut incongruent with each other. To more rigorously passage effects on persimmon seeds using three assess population connectivity for the Asian native living species, the raccoon (Procyon elephant, we evaluated a combination of three lotor), Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana), resistance layers and three dispersal abilities. The and coyote (Canis latrans), and two Pleistocene

65 analogs; the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) less frequently. Most feet had multiple categories and alpaca (Vicugna pacos). Persimmon seeds of pathological change (81% with two or more excreted by raccoons, coyotes, and elephants diagnoses, versus 10% with a single diagnosis, survived gut transit. Gut passage did not affect and 9% without signifcant pathology). Much sprouting success, but did tend to decrease time of the pathological change was focused over the to sprout and increase seedling quality. Under middle/lateral digits, which bear most weight and feld conditions, persimmon fruits were palatable experience high peak pressures during walking. on the parent tree and on the ground for an equal We found remodelling and osteoarthritis to be duration, but most fruits were consumed on correlated with increasing age, more enthesopathy the ground. Seven vertebrate species fed upon in Asian elephants, and more cyst-like lesions persimmon fruits, with the white-tailed deer in females. We also observed multipartite, (Odocoileus virginianus)—a species not capable missing and misshapen phalanges as common of dispersing persimmon seeds—comprising and apparently incidental fndings. The proximal over 90% of detections. Conversely, potential (paired) sesamoids can appear fused or absent, living seed dispersers were rarely detected. Our and the predigits (radial/tibial sesamoids) can be results suggest the American persimmon evolved variably ossifed, though are signifcantly more to attract a variety of seed dispersers and thus ossifed in Asian elephants. Our study reinforces is not anachronistic. However, human-induced the need for regular examination and radiography changes in mammal communities could be of elephant feet to monitor for pathology and as a affecting successful seed dispersal. We argue that tool for improving welfare. © 2017 The Authors. changes in the relative abundance of mammals during the Anthropocene may be modifying seed C.K. Rohini, T.l Aravindan, K.S.A. Das & P.A. dispersal patterns, leading to potential changes Vinayan in forest community composition. © 2017 The Patterns of human-wildlife confict and Authors. people’s perception towards compensation program in Nilambur, Southern Western S. Regnault, J.J.I. Dixon, C. Warren-Smith, J.R. Ghats, India Hutchinson & R. Weller Conservation Science 4 (2016) 1-6 Skeletal pathology and variable anatomy Abstract. The aim of this research was to examine in elephant feet assessed using computed patterns of human-wildlife confict and assess tomography community perception towards compensation PeerJ 5 (2017) e2877 program implemented to ameliorate human- Abstract. Foot problems are a major cause of wildlife co-existence. Data were collected from morbidity and mortality in elephants, but are the offcial archives of applications made by underreported due to diffculties in diagnosis, victims or their families at Divisional Forest particularly of conditions affecting the bones and Offce, Nilambur North and South Forest internal structures. Here we evaluate post-mortem Division, for the period 2010–2013. The data computer tomographic (CT) scans of 52 feet from included (a) types of confict, (b) wildlife species 21 elephants (seven African Loxodonta africana involved in the confict, (c) dates of application and 14 Asian Elephas maximus), describing both made by applicants, (d) dates of fnal decision pathology and variant anatomy (including the made by concerned authority and (d) relief appearance of phalangeal and sesamoid bones) amount sanctioned. People’s perceptions towards that could be mistaken for disease. We found compensation program were gathered using a all the elephants in our study to have pathology questionnaire survey (n=179). Crop damage was of some type in at least one foot. The most the most common type of confict, followed by common pathological changes observed were property damage, injury and death by wildlife bone remodelling, enthesopathy, osseous cyst- attack. Crop damage was contributed mainly like lesions, and osteoarthritis, with soft tissue by elephant (Elephas maximus) (59%) and wild mineralisation, osteitis, infectious osteoarthriti, boar (Sus scrofa) (32%). On average, people took subluxation, fracture and enostoses observed 13 days to claim compensation, which received

66 decisions in 90 days. The majority of respondents by wildlife. More than 80% of respondents (67%) were not satisfed with the compensation reported that the co-management approach was schemes. The main causes of such dissatisfaction not effective in mitigating confict between were (a) allocation of insuffcient money for people and protected areas. More than 45% of the the compensation (46.6%), (b) prolonged and participants in co-management program reported diffcult administrative procedures to make greater effectiveness of the co- management claims (20%), (c) people’s convictions that com- approach than non-participants. Moreover, the pensation scheme does not eradicate the confict respondents who received more benefts from the (20%) and (d) disbelief on the offcials involved Protected Areas (PA) reported more effectiveness in compensation program (6.6%). Our results of the co-management approach than those who suggest that compensation program has not received less or no benefts from the protected gained acceptance among local community as area. Integration of local knowledge and an effective strategy to mitigate human-wildlife preferences into the co-management process will confict. Although it may reduce hostile attitude ensure the sustainability of the co-management towards wildlife, alternative approaches are programme by minimizing the confict between needed that avoid conficts. © 2016 The Authors. people and protected areas. © 2017 The Authors.

A.H. M.R. Sarker, A. Hossen, M. Suza & E. C. Schiffmann, M. Clauss, S. Hoby & J.-M. Hatt Røskaft Visual body condition scoring in zoo animals – Protected area versus people confict and a composite, algorithm and overview approaches co-management programme: A case study in captive Asian and African elephants from the Dhudpukuria-Dhopachari Wildlife J. of Zoo and Aquarium Research 5 (2017) 1-10 Sanctuary, Bangladesh Abstract. Various body condition scoring Environment and Natural Resources Research 7 (BCS) methods have been developed as (2017) 1927-0488 management tools in zoo animal husbandry. In Abstract. Conficts over the conservation of contrast to BCS for farm animals, where visual natural resources at the community level occur in and palpable features are used, these protocols different forms and at various levels of severity. are mainly restricted to visual cues. Considering These conficts can be defned as situations in their inherent subjectivity, such methods face which the allocation, management or use of scepticism as their reliability is questioned. In natural resources results in attacks on human terms of their respective methodology, composite rights or denial of access to natural resources to BCS (where individual body regions are scored an extent that considerably diminishes human and a sum or mean is calculated), algorithm welfare. However, the confict between the BCS (where a score is achieved by following a authorities of the Dhudpukuria-Dhopachari fow chart) and overview BCS protocols (where Wildlife Sanctuary (DDWS) and local people a score is given based on overall appearance) over wildlife conservation is one of the most can be distinguished. In order to compare their serious conservation issues in Chittagong region practicability and consistency, we conducted a of Bangladesh. The DDWS is managed under a test with veterinary students (n=18) scoring an co-management programme, but there are many equal number (n=15) of African (Loxodonta questions that have already been asked about the africana) and Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) success of co-management in the study area. A photographs using three different protocols. The total of 195 standardized, structured and semi- composite approach showed least inter-observer structured questionnaires were administered consistency, while the overview protocol led randomly to villagers. The majority of respondents to the highest differentiation of individual reported that they did not receive any potential elephant condition. When regularly assessed, beneft from the DDWS, and almost one-third of visual body condition scoring may serve as an respondents reported that they had problems with important tool for the health surveillance and the DDWS. Almost all respondents reported that complete the medical history of individual zoo they were unable to control the damage caused animals. Nonetheless, a validation process for

67 each protocol developed should be carried out G. Simpson, R. Zimmerman, E. Shashkina, L. before its application. Further research might Chen, M. Richard, C.M. Bradford, G.A. Dragoo, concentrate on long-term, individual-based R.L. Saiers, C.A. Peloquin, C.L. Daley, P. Planet, body condition monitoring, using archives of A. Narachenia, B. Mathema & B.N. Kreiswirth standardised photographs. © 2017 The Authors. Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection among Asian elephants in captivity M. Seguel & N. Gottdenker Emerging Infectious Diseases 23 (2017) 513-516 The diversity and impact of hookworm Abstract. Although awareness of tuberculosis infections in wildlife among captive elephants is increasing, International Journal for Parasitology: Parasites antituberculosis therapy for these animals is and Wildlife 6 (2017) 177-194 not standardized. We describe Mycobacterium Abstract. Hookworms are blood-feeding tuberculosis transmission between captive nematodes that parasitize the alimentary system elephants based on whole genome analysis of mammals. Despite their high pathogenic and report a successful combination treatment. potential, little is known about their diversity and Infection control protocols and careful impact in wildlife populations. We conducted a monitoring of treatment of captive elephants systematic review of the literature on hookworm with tuberculosis are warranted. infections of wildlife and analyzed 218 studies qualitative and quantitatively. At least 68 C. Somgird, J.L. Brown & C. Thitaram hookworm species have been described in 9 Reproductive control in elephant: A tool for orders, 24 families, and 111 species of wild population and aggression management mammals. Black bears, red foxes, and bobcats Thai J. of Veterinary Medicine 47 (2017) 1-6 harbored the highest diversity of hookworm Abstract. Although Asian elephant is listed species and Ancylostoma pluridentatum, A. among the endangered species, the number of tubaeforme, Uncinaria stenocephala and populations is over the carrying capacity in Necator americanus were the hookworm species some areas, resulting in human-elephant confict, with the highest host diversity index. Hookworm as well as African elephants. High aggression infections cause anemia, retarded growth, tissue associated with musth and female reproductive damage, infammation and signifcant mortality pathology are observed in captive elephants. in several wildlife species. Anemia has been Thus, population and aggression management documented more commonly in canids, felids through reproductive control is an alternative and otariids, and retarded growth only in otariids. method for mitigating these problems. This article Population- level mortality has been documented reviews methods of reproductive control in both through controlled studies only in canines and Asian and African elephants with an overview eared seals although sporadic mortality has of male and female reproductive physiology. been noticed in felines, bears and elephants. The Hormonal control and immunocontraception, main driver of hookworm pathogenic effects i.e. porcine zona pellucida and gonadotropin was the hookworm biomass in a population, releasing hormone (GnRH), are described for the measured as prevalence, mean burden and control of reproduction, musth and reproductive hookworm size (length). Many studies recorded pathology. signifcant differences in prevalence and mean intensity among regions related to contrasts R.B. Suba, J. van der Ploeg, M. van’t Zelfde, in local humidity, temperature, and host Y.W. Lau, T.F. Wissingh, W. Kustiawan, G.R. de population density. These fndings, plus the Snoo & H.H. de Iongh ability of hookworms to perpetuate in different Rapid expansion of oil palm is leading to host species, create a dynamic scenario where human-elephant conficts in North Kalimantan changes in climate and the domestic animal- Province of Indonesia human-wildlife interface will potentially affect Tropical Conservation Science 10 (2017) 1-12 the dynamics and consequences of hookworm Abstract. Crop raiding by Bornean elephants infections in wildlife. © 2017 The Authors. (Elephas maximus borneensis) is increasing

68 rapidly in North Kalimantan, mainly due to a K. Takahashi & K. Yasui rapid conversion of swiddens and secondary Taxonomic invalidity of Busk’s elephant forest into oil palm plantations. In the Tulin (Elephas maximus buski Matsumoto, 1927) Onsoi subdistrict, the area used by oil palm demonstrated by AMS C dating plantations has grown from 3302.71 ha in 2001 Paleontological Research 21 (2017) 195-202 to 21,124.93 ha in 2014. Particularly from 2006 Abstract. The ages of the holotype and a referred to 2010, the area covered by oil palm plantations molar of Elephas maximus buski described by increased rapidly (418%). Preventing further Matsumoto in 1927, and a molar supposedly of encroachment of oil palm plantations in elephant the same subspecies described by Makiyama in habitat and regulating land use change are keys 1938 from Higashi Betsuin temple in Nagoya, to stop further population declines and make were investigated by AMS (Accelerator Mass way for the reestablishment of a viable elephant Spectrometry) dating. The holotype (IGPS 7266) population in Kalimantan. Crop raiding is a strong may date from any of four periods between determinant of the local people’s perceptions 1676 and 1941 cal AD, with 1732–1777 cal AD of elephants and risks eroding cultural values being the most probable (40.7% likelihood). The that enabled people to coexist with elephants. referred specimen (IGPS 5845) most likely dates People’s perception and attitude toward elephants from 1784–1796 cal AD (39.4% probability), and are generally negative. Nevertheless, negative the specimen from Higashi Betsuin from 1454– attitudes have not led to cases of retaliation in 1494 cal AD (52.9% probability). The present the Tulin Onsoi subdistrict. Public education at specimens, including the holotype are, therefore, the community level could strengthen cultural not fossils. Historical records show that Asian values and foster coexistence between humans elephants did not inhabit Japan at these times. and elephants. © 2017 The Authors. These molars must have been imported into Japan in some fashion during historical times and do not A. Suzuki, S. Thong, S. Tan & A. Iwata represent a subspecies distinct from extant Asian Camera trapping of large mammals in Chhep elephants, E. maximus. Although the nominal Wildlife Sanctuary, northern Cambodia subspecies E. maximus buski is clearly invalid, it Cambodian Journal of Natural History 2017 is not clear which of the three extant subspecies (2017) 63-75 of Asian elephant is its senior synonym in this Abstract. Chhep Wildlife Sanctuary in research. © 2017 Palaeontological Society of northern Cambodia comprises a large tract of Japan. deciduous dipterocarp forest (DDF). A camera trap survey was conducted in the wildlife Z. Takatsu, M. Tsuda, A. Yamada, H. Matsumoto, sanctuary during two successive dry seasons, A. Takai, Y. Takeda & M. Takase 2012–2013 and 2013–2014. A total of 7,483 Elephant’s breast milk contains large amounts camera-trap-nights yielded 3,787 records of 30 of glucosamine large mammal species. Our results confrm the Journal of Veterinary Medical Science 79 (2017) continued occurrence of DDF-associated large 524-533 mammals such as Eld’s deer Rucervus eldii, Abstract. Hand-reared elephant calves that banteng Bos javanicus, and jungle cat Felis are nursed with milk substitutes sometimes chaus. Importantly, large-spotted civet Viverra suffer bone fractures, probably due to problems megaspila, a globally Endangered species, was associated with nutrition, exercise, sunshine the fourthmost commonly photographed species levels and/or genetic factors. As we were in the wildlife sanctuary. This highlights the expecting the birth of an Asian elephant (Elephas global signifcance of Chhep Wildlife Sanctuary maximus), we analyzed elephant’s breast milk to for conservation of mammal assemblages in a improve the milk substitutes for elephant calves. lowland DDF-dominated landscape, given that Although there were few nutritional differences DDF and lowland forests are under-represented between conventional substitutes and elephant’s by protected areas in mainland Southeast Asia. © breast milk, we found a large unknown peak in 2017 Centre for Biodiversity Conservation. the breast milk during high-performance liquid

69 chromatography-based amino acid analysis the various threats, which is the basic challenge and determined that it was glucosamine (GlcN) for the conservation. Multi-action approaches using liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry. for the beneft of villagers as well as wildlife are We detected the following GlcN concentrations suggested. Elevating the status of the RF may be [mean ± SD] (mg/100 g) in milk hydrolysates a vital solution to protect the RF in a better way. produced by treating samples with 6 M HCl © 2017 The Authors. for 24 hr at 110°C: four elephant’s breast milk samples: 516 ± 42, three cow’s milk mixtures: P. Tankaew, T. Singh-La, C. Titaram, V. 4.0 ± 2.2, three mare’s milk samples: 12 ± 1.2 Punyapornwittaya, P. Vongchan, T. Sawada & N. and two human milk samples: 38. The GlcN Sthitmate content of the elephant’s milk was 128, 43 Evaluation of an in-house indirect ELISA for and 14 times greater than those of the cow’s, detection of antibody against haemorrhagic mare’s and human milk, respectively. Then, we septicemia in Asian elephants examined the degradation of GlcN during 0–24 J. of Microbiological Methods 134 (2017) 30-34 hr hydrolyzation with HCl. We estimated that Abstract. Pasteurella multocida causes elephant’s milk contains >880 mg/100 g GlcN, haemorrhagic septicemia in livestock and wild which is similar to the levels of major amino animals, including elephants. The disease has acids in elephant’s milk. We concluded that a been reported in Asian elephants in India and Sri novel GlcN-containing milk substitute should be Lanka, but to date there have been no reported cases developed for elephant calves. The effcacy of in Thailand. ELISA or indirect hemagglutination GlcN supplements is disputed, and free GlcN is assays (IHA) have been demonstrated to be able rare in bodily fuids; thus, the optimal molecular to detect the antibody against the disease in form of GlcN requires a further study. © 2017 cattle, but no data are available for elephants. The Japanese Society of Veterinary Science. present study reports a novel in-house indirect ELISA for antibody detection of haemorrhagic N.R. Talukdar & P. Choudhury septicemia in Asian elephants, and evaluates Conserving wildlife wealth of Patharia Hills the sensitivity and specifcity of the method Reserve Forest, Assam, India: A critical using a Bayesian approach. The characteristics analysis of ELISA and IHA were analyzed using a one Global Ecology and Conservation 10 (2017) population Bayesian model assuming conditional 126-138 dependence between these two diagnostic tests. Abstract. Wildlife plays an important role The IHA was performed as recommended by the in maintaining the balance of various natural World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) processes of the earth. It contributes to food manual for haemorrhagic septicemia. An in- security, economical growth, pollination, seed house indirect ELISA was developed with a heat dispersal for forest regeneration. The present extract antigen of P. multocida strain M-1404 study was carried out at Patharia Hills Reserve (serovar B:2) as a coating antigen and rabbit anti- Forest (RF) of southern Assam (India) with the immunoglobulin G conjugated with horseradish aim to study the wildlife distribution, species peroxidase (eIgG-HRP). The checkerboard trend over time and various threats to them. Semi- titration method was done using elephant sera structure interview and secondary literature were immunized with P. multocida bacterin and used during the study; 83 species of mammals negative sera from colostrum-deprived elephant were found to inhabit RF. Unfortunately, the calves. The concentrations of heat extract wildlife of the RF are facing numerous threats, antigen (160 μg/ml), sample serum (1:100), and largely due to clearing of forest, encroachment, eIgG-HRP (1:1000) were optimal for the assay. collection of timber and non-timber forest The calculated cut-off value was 0.103. Of the products, habitat loss and fragmentation. People elephant sera, 50.59% (43/85) were considered are of the opinion that the RF is their common seropositive by ELISA. The sensitivity of the property, which they can exploit as their wish. ELISA test was higher than that of the IHA test The study revealed the wildlife distribution and [median = 86.5%, 95% posterior probability

70 + + interval (PPI) = 52.5–98.9%] while the specifcity iCa2 , the iCa2 values obtained by the i-STAT was lower (median = 54.1%, PPI = 43.6–64.7%). PCA and Radiometer ABL 800 Flex were close The median sensitivity and specifcity of IHA in value, however in light of the constant and were 80.5% (PPI = 43.8–98.0%) and 78.4% proportionate biases detected, overestimation (PPI = 69.0–87.0%), respectively. These fndings at higher values and underestimation at lower + suggest that our in-house indirect ELISA can values of iCa2 by the i-STAT PCA would be of be used as a tool to detect the antibody against potential concern. This study supports the use haemorrhagic septicemia in Asian elephants. © of the i-STAT PCA for the evaluation of these 2017 Reprinted with permission from Elsevier. analytes, with the exception of K+, in the Asian elephant. © 2017 American Association of Zoo D.K. Tarbert, E. Behling-Kelly, H. Priest & S. Veterinarians. Childs-Sanford Evaluation of the i-STAT portable clinical G.V. Venkataramana, Sreenivasa & H.G. analyzer for measurement of ionized calcium Lingaraju and selected blood chemistry values in Asian An assessment of crop damage and economic elephants (Elephas maximus) loss caused by elephants in Harohalli and Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 48 (2017) Kodihalli ranges of Bannerghatta National 319-327 Park, Karnataka, India Abstract. The i-STAT® portable clinical Current Science 113 (2017) 161-167 analyzer (PCA) provides patient-side results Abstract. The human–elephant confict, which for hematologic, biochemical, and blood gas results in extensive crop damage as well as values when immediate results are desired. This casualties (both humans and elephants) has analyzer is commonly used in nondomestic signifcantly increased over the past decade. We animals; however, validation of this method in studied the patterns of crop raiding and associated comparison with traditional benchtop methods economic loss by elephants across two forest should be performed for each species. In this ranges of Bannerghatta National Park (BNP), study, the i-STAT PCA was compared with the Karnataka, India, namely Kodihalli and Harohalli Radiometer ABL 800 Flex benchtop analyzer ranges, from January 2014 to December 2014. using 24 heparinized whole blood samples We found that 127 villages reported crop raids by obtained from healthy E. maximus. In addition, elephants during the study period. The incidence the effect of sample storage was evaluated on the of crop raiding in villages ranged from 1 to 59 i-STAT PCA. Analytes evaluated were hydrogen (mean = 7.17) and was highest in Kodihalli ion concentration (pH), glucose, potassium (K+), division. Maximum crop raiding incidences + − sodium (Na ), bicarbonate (HCO3 ), total carbon were recorded during the rainy season in both dioxide (TCO2), partial pressure of carbon dioxide the ranges. Elephants with varying proportions + (PCO2), and ionized calcium (iCa2 ). Statistical raided all cultivated crop species in the study analysis using correlation coeffcients, Passing- area. Finger millet (Eleusine coracana) (65 Bablok regression analysis, and Bland-Altman acres), banana (Musa paradisia) (1535 plants) plots found good agreement between results from and coconut (Cocus nucifera) (140 trees) were the samples run immediately after phlebotomy and most raided crop species. Crop maturity and crop 4 hr postsampling on the i-STAT PCA with the raiding incidence showed positive correlation for exception of K+, which is known to change with fnger millet in the Kodihalli range. In contrast, sample storage. Comparison of the results from bananas were damaged throughout the year in the the two analyzers at 4 hr postsampling found Harohalli range. Other crops such as red gram, very strong or strong correlation in all values paddy, sugarcane and beans were raided less except K+, with statistically signifcant bias in all in the sampling areas. In conclusion, this study values except glucose and PCO2. Despite bias, reveals rising incidence of human– elephant mean differences assessed via Bland-Altman conficts and signifcant economic loss as a result plots were clinically acceptable for all analytes of crop damage in the adjoining regions of BNP. excluding K+. Within the reference range for

71 S. Yasui & G. Idani confrmed infection with Mycobacterium tuber- Social signifcance of trunk use in captive culosis, an obligate human pathogen, by PCR Asian elephants and genetic sequencing. Our results indicate Ethology Ecology & Evolution 29 (2017) 330- that tuberculosis may be spilling over from 335 humans (reverse zoonosis) and emerging in wild Abstract. Tactile behaviour plays an important elephants. role in maintaining social relationships in several mammalian species. Touching with the tip of the G.H. Zhao, X.F. Hu, T.L. Liu, R.S. Hu, Z.Q. Yu, trunk is a common social behaviour among Asian W.B. Yang, Y.L. Wu, S.K. Yu & J.K. Song elephants (Elephas maximus). This is considered Molecular characterization of Blastocystis sp. an affliative behaviour; however, few studies in captive wild animals in Qinling Mountains have investigated it in detail. Therefore, this study Parasitology Research 116 (2017) 2327-2333 aimed to determine whether this is an affliative Abstract. Blastocystis is one common protist behaviour and whether it has other functions. inhabiting in gastrointestinal tracts of animals We directly observed a group of captive female and humans. Examining the subtypes has Asian elephants in Thailand. We found that the important implications for assessing the zoonotic elephants usually touched each other with their potential of Blastocystis and intestinal health of trunks shaped in a U (U-type) or S (S-type) shape. hosts. In the present study, a total of 497 fecal The S-type shape was observed mainly when the samples collected from 37 wild animal species elephants touched the lips of other elephants; in Qinling Mountains were investigated for the however, this behaviour was occasionally presence and subtypes of Blastocystis. Of them, observed in agonistic or play contexts, where it 200 (40.2%) were positive for Blastocystis and appeared to be a threat or dominant behaviour, 13 subtypes were found, including eight known particularly amongst adults. In contrast, the subtypes (STs1–3, 5, 10, 12–14) and fve possible U-type shape was more frequently observed when novel subtypes (temporarily named as STs18– the elephants were disturbed, where it appeared 22), with ST10 as the predominate subtype and as a gesture for reassurance. We found that the the subtype ST5 was detected in an ostrich for U-type touch on the genitals may be used for the frst time. These fndings indicated the wide interacting with neonates. Therefore, we suggest distribution and specifc subtype characteristics that despite the S-type touch having a tactile of Blastocystis in wild animals of Qinling component, it may be a rare behaviour in Asian Mountains. © 2017 Springer. elephants that is similar to visual threat displays in other mammals. However, the U-type touch is similar to social grooming behaviour in primates or fipper rubbing in dolphins, and can be used as an indicator of affliative relationships. Asian elephants change the shape of their trunk while touching others depending on their motivation and the situation, thereby demonstrating that the nuances of trunk use can assist in understanding the social relationships between individuals.

A. Zachariah, J. Pandiyan, G.K. Madhavilatha, S. Mundayoor, B. Chandramohan, P.K. Sajesh, S. Santhosh & S.K. Mikota Mycobacterium tuberculosis in wild Asian elephants, Southern India Emerging Infectious Diseases 23 (2017) 504-506 Abstract. We tested 3 wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in southern India and Tusker in Yala National Park (Sri Lanka).

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