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BIOLOGY, MEDICINE, AND SURGERY OF ELEPHANTS BIOLOGY, MEDICINE, AND SURGERY OF ELEPHANTS Murray E. Fowler Susan K. Mikota Murray E. Fowler is the editor and author of the bestseller Zoo Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use, or and Wild Animal Medicine, Fifth Edition (Saunders). He has written the internal or personal use of specific clients, is granted by Medicine and Surgery of South American Camelids; Restraint and Blackwell Publishing, provided that the base fee is paid directly to Handling of Wild and Domestic Animals and Biology; and Medicine the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, and Surgery of South American Wild Animals for Blackwell. He is cur- MA 01923. For those organizations that have been granted a pho- rently Professor Emeritus of Zoological Medicine, University of tocopy license by CCC, a separate system of payments has been California-Davis. For the past four years he has been a part-time arranged. The fee codes for users of the Transactional Reporting employee of Ringling Brothers, Barnum and Bailey’s Circus. Service are ISBN-13: 978-0-8138-0676-1; ISBN-10: 0-8138-0676- 3/2006 $.10. Susan K. Mikota is a co-founder of Elephant Care International and the Director of Veterinary Programs and Research. She is an First edition, 2006 author of Medical Management of the Elephants and numerous arti- cles and book chapters on elephant healthcare and conservation. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data © 2006 Blackwell Publishing Elephant biology, medicine, and surgery / edited by Murray E. All rights reserved Fowler, Susan K. Mikota.—1st ed. p. cm. Blackwell Publishing Professional Includes bibliographical references and index. 2121 State Avenue, Ames, Iowa 50014, USA ISBN-13: 978-0-8138-0676-1 (alk. paper) ISBN-10: 0-8138-0676-3 (alk. paper) Orders: 1-800-862-6657 1. Asiatic elephant—Diseases. 2. African elephant—Diseases. Office: 1-515-292-0140 3. Captive wild animals—Diseases—Southeast Asia 4. Captive Fax: 1-515-292-3348 wild animals—Diseases—Africa. 5. Veterinary medicine—Southeast Web site: www.blackwellprofessional.com Asia 6. Veterinary medicine—Africa. 7. Veterinary surgery— Southeast Asia 8. Veterinary surgery—Africa. I. Fowler, Murray E. II. Blackwell Publishing Ltd Mikota, Susan K. 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK Tel.: +44 (0)1865 776868 SF997.5.E4B56 2006 636.9Ј676—dc22 Blackwell Publishing Asia 2006002167 550 Swanston Street, Carlton, Victoria 3053, Australia Tel.: +61 (0)3 8359 1011 The last digit is the print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Cover design by Hank Hammatt Contents Contributors vii 12. Parasitology 159 Murray E. Fowler Acknowledgments xi 13. Antemortem Diagnostics 183 Introduction xiii Section I: General Techniques 183 01. Taxonomy, Classification, History, and 3 Susan K. Mikota Evolution of Elephants Section II: Radiology 192 Jeheskel Shoshani Laurie Gage 02. Elephants in Captivity 15 14. Postmortem Diagnostics 199 Blair Csuti Richard J. Montali 15. Therapeutics 211 03. Laws and Legislation 23 Susan K. Mikota Denise M. Sofranko Color Section 04. Behavior and Social Life 35 16. Neonatal Care and Hand Rearing 233 Bruce A. Schulte Karen Emanuelson 05. Husbandry 45 17. Multisystem Disorders 243 John Lehnhardt Murray E. Fowler 18. Integument System 253 06. Nutrition 57 Susan K. Mikota Ellen S. Dierenfeld 19. Musculoskeletal System 263 07. Preventive Health Care and Physical 67 Gary West Examination 20. Foot Disorders 271 Susan K. Mikota Murray E. Fowler 08. Physical Restraint and Handling 75 21. Respiratory System 291 Murray E. Fowler Ramiro Isaza 22. Digestive System 299 09. Chemical Restraint and General 91 Genevieve A. Dumonceaux Anesthesia Section I: Chemical Restraint 91 23. Endocrine and Immune Systems 309 Murray E. Fowler and Susan K. Mikota Linda J. Lowenstine Section II: General Anesthesia 110 24. Cardiovascular System 317 Eugene P. Steffey Susan Bartlett 10. Surgery and Surgical Conditions 119 25. Hemolymphatic System 325 Murray E. Fowler Susan K. Mikota 11. Infectious Diseases 131 26. Reproductive System 347 Murray E. Fowler Dennis Schmitt v vi CONTENTS 27. Reproductive and Diagnostic 357 Appendices Ultrasonography Appendix 1. Abbreviations Used in This 491 Thomas B. Hildebrandt Book Appendix 2. Measurement Conversion 493 28. Reproductive Endocrinology 377 Tables Janine L. Brown Appendix 3. Sources for Agents Used in 495 29. Urinary System 389 Sedating, Tranquilizing, Immobilizing, R. Eric Miller and Anesthetizing Elephants Appendix 4. Toxicology Terms, 497 30. Nervous System 393 Abbreviations, and Equivalents Michele Miller Appendix 5. Elephant Vital Signs and 499 31. Special Senses 399 Physiological Parameters Wm. Kirk Suedmeyer Appendix 6. Glossary of Terms Associated 501 with Elephant Feet 32. Chemical, Tactile, and Taste Sensory 409 Appendix 7. Weight Conversion Chart for 505 Systems Asian Elephants L. E. L. Rasmussen Appendix 8. Conversion Between 507 33. Toxicology 415 Conventional and SI Units, Hematology Murray E. Fowler Appendix 9. Conversion Between 509 Conventional and SI Units, Blood 34. Zoonoses and Human Injury 431 and Fluid Chemistry Joel Maslow Appendix 10. AZA Standards for Elephant 511 35. Veterinary Problems of Geographical 439 Management and Care Concern Appendix 11. Guidelines for Elephant 519 Introduction 439 Management and Care (EMA) Susan K. Mikota and Murray E. Fowler Appendix 12. Guidelines for Comprehensive 525 Section I Africa 439 Elephant Health Monitoring Program Jacobus G. du Toit (AZA/SSP) Section II India 444 Appendix 13. Quarantine Guidelines for 535 Jacob V. Cheeran and K. Chandrasekharan Elephants (AZA/SSP) Section III Indochina and Bangladesh 447 Appendix 14. Recommended Elephant 537 Paolo Martelli Preshipment Guidelines (AZA/SSP) Section IV Indonesia 454 Appendix 15. Transport Guidelines for 543 Yudha Fahrimal and Retno Sudarwati Elephants (AZA/SSP) Section V Malaysia 457 Index 545 Vellayan Subramanian Section VI Myanmar 460 Khyne U Mar Section VII Nepal 465 Sunder Shrestha and Kamal P. Gairhe Section VIII Sri Lanka 468 Indira Silva and Ashoka Dangolla 36. Conservation 475 Simon Hedges Contributors Susan Bartlett Genevieve A. Dumonceaux 9 Evergreen Lane Busch Gardens Tampa Bay Ithaca, NY 14850 P.O. Box 9158 [email protected] Tampa, FL 33612 [email protected] Janine L. Brown 1500 Remount Road Jacobus G. du Toit Front Royal, VA 22630 P.O. Box 12780 [email protected] Onderstepoort 0110 South Africa K. Chandrasekharan [email protected] “Sarada Vihar” Opposite Mathrubhumi office Karen Emanuelson Veliyannur 370 Mt. Sequoia Place Thrissur-680 021 Clayton, CA 94517 Kerala, India [email protected] Jacob V. Cheeran Yudha Fahrimal Director of Technical Services Faculty of Veterinary Science Cheerans Lab (P) Ltd. University of Syiah Kuala Animal Health Division Darussalam, Banda Aceh 23111 New Church Street Indonesia Trichur 680 001 [email protected] Kerala, India [email protected] Murray E. Fowler 427 Cabrillo Avenue Blair Csuti Davis, CA 95616 Department of Biology [email protected] Portland State University P.O. Box 751 Laurie Gage Portland, OR 97207-0751 USDA, APHIS, Animal Care 2150 Centre Ave., Building B Ashoka Dangolla Fort Collins, CO 80526 Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences [email protected] University of Peradeniya Peradeniya, 20400 Sri Lanka Kamal P. Gairhe [email protected] Veterinary Officer Royal Chitwan National Park Ellen S. Dierenfeld Chitwan, Nepal St. Louis Zoological Park [email protected] Forest Park, One Government Drive St. Louis, MO 63110 [email protected] vii viii CONTRIBUTORS Simon Hedges Susan K. Mikota Asian Elephant Coordinator Director of Veterinary Programs and Research Wildlife Conservation Society Elephant Care International International Programs 438 N. Central Ave. c/o 1 Kearstwick Cottages Waveland, MS 39576 Kearstwick, Kirkby Lonsdale [email protected] Cumbria, LA6 2EB, U.K. www.elephantcare.org [email protected] Michele Miller Thomas B. Hildebrandt Disney’s Animal Kingdom Head, Department of Reproduction Management Department of Veterinary Services Institute for Zoo Biology and Wildlife Research P.O. Box 10,000 Alfred-Kowalke-Str. 17 Lake Buena Vista, FL 32830-1000 D-10315 Berlin, Germany [email protected] [email protected] R. Eric Miller Ramiro Isaza St. Louis Zoos Wildcare Institute Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences One Government Drive College of Veterinary Medicine St. Louis, MO 63110 University of Florida [email protected] P.O. Box 100126 Gainesville, FL 32610 Richard J. Montali [email protected] 6624 East Wakefield Drive Apt B-2 John Lehnhardt Alexandria, VA 22307 Animal Operations Director [email protected] Disney Animal Kingdom P.O. Box 10,000 L. E. L. Rasmussen Lake Buena Vista, FL 32830-1000 Professor, Department of Environmental & Biomolecular [email protected] Systems Oregon Graduate Institute, School of Science & Engineering Linda J. Lowenstine OHSU-West Campus Department of Pathology, Microbiology & Immunology 20,000 N.W. Walker Road School of Veterinary Medicine Beaverton, OR 97006 University of California [email protected] Davis, CA 95616 www.bmb.ogi.edu/BMB rasmussen.html [email protected] Dennis Schmitt Khyne U Mar Professor, Dept. of Agriculture Institute of Zoology Missouri State University Zoological Society of London 901 South National Ave. Regents Park Springfield, MO 65897 London NW1 4RY [email protected] [email protected] or [email protected] Bruce A. Schulte Paolo Martelli Department of
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  • Review of Human-Elephant FINAL Reduced 01.Cdr

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    Prithiviraj Fernando, M. Ananda Kumar, A. Christy Williams, Eric Wikramanayake, Tariq Aziz, Sameer M. Singh WORLD BANK-WWF ALLIANCE FOR FOREST CONSERVATION & SUSTAINABLE USE Review of Human-Elephant Conflict Mitigation Measures Practiced in South Asia (AREAS Technical Support Document Submitted to World Bank) Prithiviraj Fernando, M. Ananda Kumar, A. Christy Williams, Eric Wikramanayake, Tariq Aziz, Sameer M. Singh Published in 2008 by WWF - World Wide Fund for Nature. Any reproduction in full or in part of this publication must mention the title and credit the above mentioned publisher as the copyright owner. © text and graphics: 2008 WWF. All rights reserved. Photographs by authors as credited. CONTENTS Preamble 1-2 LIST OF TECHNIQUES Problem Animal Removal 28-33 Traditional Crop Protection 3-7 Capture and domestication Capture and semi-wild management Crop guarding Elimination Noise and Throwing Things Fire Compensation & Insurance 34-35 Supplements to traditional crop protection Land-Use Planning 36-38 Alarms Providing benefits from conservation to Repellants Local communities Organized Crop Protection 8-11 Recommendations 39 Guard teams, 40-43 Vehicle patrols, References Cited Koonkies Literature Cited 44-45 Elephant Barriers 12-18 Physical FORMAT FOR Wire fences EACH TECHNIQUE Log and stone fences Technique Ditches Applicable scale Biological fences Objective Psychological Description of technique Electric fences Positive effects Cleared boundaries and simple demarcation of fields People Elephants Buffer Crops & Unpalatable Crops 19-20 Negative effects People Supplementary Feeding 21-22 Elephants Translocation 23-27 Future needs Chemical immobilization and transport In-country applications Elephant drives Sri Lanka PREAMBLE ew wild species evoke as much attention and varied emotions from humans as elephants.