NUMBER 49 2018
GAJAHJournal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group GAJAH
Journal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group Number 49 (2018)
The journal is intended as a medium of communication on issues that concern the management and conservation of Asian elephants both in the wild and in captivity. It is a means by which everyone concerned with the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), whether members of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group or not, can communicate their research results, experiences, ideas and perceptions freely, so that the conservation of Asian elephants can benefit. All articles published in Gajah reflect the individual views of the authors and not necessarily that of the editorial board or the Asian Elephant Specialist Group.
Editor
Dr. Jennifer Pastorini Centre for Conservation and Research 26/7 C2 Road, Kodigahawewa Julpallama, Tissamaharama Sri Lanka e-mail: [email protected]
Editorial Board Dr. Prithiviraj Fernando Dr. Benoit Goossens Centre for Conservation and Research Danau Girang Field Centre 26/7 C2 Road, Kodigahawewa c/o Sabah Wildlife Department Julpallama Wisma MUIS, Block B 5th Floor Tissamaharama 88100 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah Sri Lanka Malaysia e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected]
Dr. Varun R. Goswami Heidi Riddle Wildlife Conservation Society Riddles Elephant & Wildlife Sanctuary 551, 7th Main Road P.O. Box 715 Rajiv Gandhi Nagar, 2nd Phase, Kodigehall Greenbrier, Arkansas 72058 Bengaluru - 560 097, India USA e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: [email protected]
Dr. T. N. C. Vidya Evolutionary and Organismal Biology Unit Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research Bengaluru - 560 064 India e-mail: [email protected] GAJAH
Journal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group Number 49 (2018)
This publication was proudly funded by Wildlife Reserves Singapore Editorial Note
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Cover
Elephant Putra Mas at Perth Zoo (Australia) Photo by Jody Polson (See article on page 20)
Layout and formatting by Dr. Jennifer Pastorini
Printed at P & G Printers, Colombo 10, Sri Lanka Gajah 49 (2018) 1
Editorial
Jennifer Pastorini (Editor)
E-mail: [email protected]
In this issue of Gajah 49 you can find three In News and Briefs E. Latimer et al. brief us research articles and two short communications. on a workshop held in Thailand organized by The studies involved wild elephants in Nepal the EEHV Asia Working Group. The goal was and India and captive elephants in Australia, Sri to build capacity on EEHV testing in Asian Lanka and USA. countries. H.M. Irfanullah gives us an update on the current situation at Cox’s Bazar, where The first Research Article by D.M.N.J. within a short period of time more than 700,000 Dissanayake et al. studied the reproductive status refugees have set up camp in the middle of the of females in two captive populations utilizing forest, coming into conflict with the resident progesterone antibodies. More females were elephant population. found to be reproductively active if kept in a herd vs. alone. The country (Sri Lanka or USA) Abstracts from 49 publications can be read in made no difference. Y. Liefting et al. present “Recent Publications on Asian Elephants” and a new design for electric fencing. They first in “News Briefs” glimpses of 36 newspaper tested it with a captive elephant and have now articles on Asian elephants across the range are a fence in the field in Nepal, which is working provided. well so far. Clair Holland has trained a male at Perth Zoo to react to various commands given The chair of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group, through the radio, providing the elephant with Vivek Menon, gives a summary of what is new challenges, and it is rewarded with food if happening in the group. He has attended various solved successfully. meetings on the group’s behalf and also updates us on the progress of all the working groups. In Short Communications we learn of two medical reports. V.P. Govindan et al. describe how they I thank the editorial board for their efforts in found Cobboldia parasites in a carcass of a wild putting this Gajah together. Ahimsa Campos- elephant. The larvae lived in the stomach and Arceiz has resigned from the editorial board. I could be identified under the microscope. T.P.J. am most grateful for the efforts he put into Gajah Athapattu and co-authors successfully treated in the last 4 years. I would like to welcome our a captive elephant infected by Anoplocephala new editorial board member Benoit Goossens, tapeworms. who has kindly agreed to help us with Gajah.
A big thanks is going out to all the authors for sharing their work with the readership of Gajah. I would like to encourage others working on Asian elephant conservation or doing research on Asian elephants to share their knowledge through an article for Gajah.
The Wildlife Reserves Singapore Group has generously provided the funds to print hard copies of Gajah and mail them out for free to readers across the globe.
1 Gajah 49 (2018) 2-3
Notes from the Chair IUCN SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group
Vivek Menon
Chair’s e-mail: [email protected]
Dear members The three new Working Groups formed in mid 2018 have also started their work. The Working I would like to wish all of you a very happy 2019. Group for “Preparing the Elephant Conservation Let me begin with good news. The IUCN SSC Action Plan for Bhutan” had online discussions Asian Elephant Specialist Group (AsESG) had in and will be meeting in February 2019 at Paro, the past members from all the Asian range states Bhutan to discuss the initial draft plan recently except Vietnam. I am pleased to inform you that prepared by the Department of Forests and Park three experts from Vietnam have recently joined Services, Bhutan based on national consultation the group and now we have members from ALL held in early 2019. The second Working Group 13 range states. working towards “Developing the Plan to Manage the Elephant Habitats Affected by Settlement of Also, after the initial discussion with our members Rohingya Refugees in Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh and officials from Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, China and Minimize the Human-Elephant Conflict” and Malaysia (Sabah) for hosting the next AsESG had its field visit in end October 2018 (Fig. 1). meeting, I am very happy to inform you that we Currently about 921,000 Rohingya refugees have settled on Sabah in Borneo, Malaysia. The reside in 27 camps in Cox’s Bazar occupying meeting will be held sometime in the first two about 6000 acres of forest area cleared for weeks of December 2019 and the dates are being settlement. About 35–40 elephants are trapped worked on which we will soon communicate on the western side of the camp in degraded to you. I would request all of you to keep your secondary forests and 13 cases of human death calendars free for this important meeting and we due to elephants have been reported between will narrow it down as soon as possible. September 2017 and October 2018 by elephants in and around the camp area. The team is working We have received the final documents from two on the draft report. The third Working Group on Working Groups. The first is on the “Management “Emerging Diseases Affecting Elephant in Wild and Welfare of Captive Asian Elephants Used in and in Captivity in Asia” has also started its Tourism” and the second on the “Management discussion recently. and Care of Captive Elephant Bulls in Musth”. I have also received updates from the Working Groups working for preparing the “Sabah Elephant Conservation Action Plan” and the other working on “Developing Guidelines for Rehabilitation of Captive Elephants in the Wild as a Possible Restocking Option”. Based on the comment received during the last AsESG meeting in Bangkok, the Working Griyo for “Mapping the Distribution of Asian Elephants in Range States” had its meeting in Yangon, Myanmar early 2019 facilitated by the convenor Dr. A. Christy Williams. I hope the others will Figure 1. Stakeholders consultation on mitigating soon follow. impact of Rohingya refugees on elephants.
2 Taking forward the responsibility of helping the range states develop their national action plans for the conservation of elephants, the AsESG Program Manager on my behalf visited Lao PDR and had meeting with the Director General, Deputy Director General and other senior officials of the Department of Forestry, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Wildlife and Aquatic Management Division, Lao PDR along with officials of WWF Lao offering the assistance of AsESG experts for the preparation of the Lao elephant conservation action plan (Fig. 2). Appreciating the initiatives of the AsESG, he Figure 2. Meeting with officials for the Lao PDR has agreed to get the plan prepared for Lao PDR national action plan for elephant conservation. within this year. Our members from Lao – Mr Khamkhoun Khounboline and Dr. K. Yoganand Lanka, from 23rd May to 3rd June 2019 as well facilitated the meeting. A Working Group will be as the SCB’s 29th International Congress for soon constituted to facilitate the work. Conservation Biology (ICCB 2019) to be held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia from 21st to 25th July As part of AsESG mandate to help in capacity 2019 – we are planning to organise side events/ building of range country members for the discussions for the group and would be happy to conservation of the species, we facilitated a have your suggestions to showcase our work. training program on radio collaring of elephants and for mitigating human-elephant conflict to six I would like to thank each one of you for delegates from Cambodia (including two vets) actively contributing towards the conservation and three delegates from Vietnam (including of the species in Asia and I am sure the group two vets). This was held in collaboration will continue in this new year all the good work with the Wildlife Trust of India at its Centre that we initiated in the last few years. I also take for Wildlife Rehabilitation and Conservation this opportunity to thank Elephant Family and (CWRC), Kaziranga National Park, Assam from International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW) 26 November to 2nd December 2018 (Fig. 3). for their continued support to the Asian Elephant WWF Cambodia and WWF Vietnam supported Specialist Group. the exposure visit-cum-training program. We will continue to offer our assistance to range state Vivek Menon officials in the future too. Chair AsESG, IUCN SSC
I also had the opportunity to attended the American Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) 2018 annual conference at Seattle, USA from 22nd to 27th September 2018 as part of IUCN delegation, the SSC Steering Committee in Bangkok in August as well as the 14th MIKE and ETIS Technical Advisory Group meeting at Nairobi, Kenya from 6th to 8th November 2018.
For the two upcoming meetings – Conference of Figure 3. Training of vets and other forest the Parties (CoP18) to be held in Colombo, Sri officials from Cambodia and Vietnam.
3 Research Article Gajah 49 (2018) 4-10
Faecal Progesterone Assay and Its Use in Comparing Reproductive Status in Four Groups of Captive Asian Elephants
D. M. Naveen J. Dissanayake1,2,3,*, Charles Santiapillai3, Dennis L. Schmitt4,5, Ashoka Dangolla6 and H. P. Sonali D. Palliyage3,7
1Centre for Mountain Ecosystem Studies, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Heilongtan, Kunming, Yunnan, China 2University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China 3 Postgraduate Institute of Science, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka 4 Darr College of Agriculture, Missouri State University, Springfield, Missouri, USA 5 Ringling Bros. Center for Elephant Conservation, Polk City, Florida, USA 6 Faculty of Veterinary Medicine & Animal Science, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka 7Department of Animal Production and Health, North-Western Province, Kurunegala, Sri Lanka *Corresponding author’s e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract. We tested and validated a non-invasive reproductive monitoring technique using blood and faecal samples from captive elephants in Sri Lanka (n = 24) and USA (n = 18). Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was performed to determine the reproductive status utilizing progesterone antibodies. Correlation between faecal and serum progesterone values were significant. Management of elephants as herds significantly favoured higher oestrous cyclicity than management as individuals. The reproductively active proportions of elephants among the tested groups in Sri Lanka and in USA were 85% and 81% respectively. Therefore, the country elephants were living in, did not make a significant difference in reproductive status.
Introduction be traded internationally since they are listed in Appendix I of the Convention on International In Sri Lanka, there were 532 captive Asian Trade of Endangered Species (CITES). elephants (Elephas maximus) in 1970 and 214 in 1997, which dropped to around 112 in 2011 Few studies (Wijesinghe et al. 2002; de Silva et (Fernando et al. 2011). At present, there are around al. 2009) have assessed the breeding potential of 100 privately owned captive elephants, while privately owned captive female elephants in Sri the captive population in Pinnawala Elephant Lanka. Reproductive monitoring is important for Orphanage is around 90. The captive elephant maintaining the numbers of captive elephants in in Sri Lanka is an iconic feature in religious- Sri Lanka. cultural parades such as the annual ‘peraheras’. However, the privately owned captive elephant Captive Asian elephants have been successfully population in Sri Lanka is in decline. As wild bred naturally and through artificial insemination elephant capture is barred via the Fauna & Flora (Brown et al. 2004a). Monitoring levels Ordinance of Sri Lanka, if cultural activities are of reproductive hormones, primarily using to continue to use elephants, the privately owned progesterone, in captive female elephants plays captive population needs to be maintained by a significant role in attempts towards captive captive breeding. breeding (Schmitt et al. 2001). Hormone levels in faeces have been found to be closely parallel Globally, despite efforts to conserve wild Asian to that of serum (de Silva et al. 2009; Freeman et elephants, captive numbers have been declining al. 2010; Ghosal et al. 2010). over time (Sukumar 2003). Asian elephants cannot
© 2018 The Authors - Open Access Manuscript Editor: Prithiviraj Fernando 4 We examined the reproductive status of privately from the interior, and not from the periphery of owned captive female Asian elephants, which the bolus. were managed at the Millennium Elephant Foundation (MEF; keeping a total of 9 females) Faecal extractions and dilutions were prepared and the Pinnawala Elephant Orphanage (PEO; 50 as described by Brown et al. (2004b) and females) in Sri Lanka, and those in the Ringling Freeman et al. (2010). Standards and controls Bros. Center for Elephant Conservation (CEC; for the ELISA were prepared using progesterone 18 females) and the Blue Unit of Ringling Bros. standard (Fisher PGC8 0051, Seimens Medical Circus (BU; 4 females) in Florida, USA. Females Solutions Diagnostics®, Los Angeles, CA, below 8 years of age were not included in the study. USA) and assay buffer solution (Brown et al. The MEF and CEC elephants were managed as 2004b). We prepared serial dilutions of standard non-herds (no sexually mature animals together) progesterone for 100, 50, 12.5, 6.25, 3.125 and 0 and those in PEO and BU were managed as herds pg/0.05 ml using assay buffer as the diluent and (always more than one sexually mature female the concentrations 70 pg/0.05 ml and 30 pg/0.05 together). ml as upper and the lower controls of the assay respectively. Progesterone-3CMO-horseradish Our objectives were to validate the existing faecal peroxidase (HRP) (Coralie Munro, University progesterone extraction method for female Asian of California, Davis CA, USA) was used as the elephants and to compare reproductive activity conjugate enzyme. among herd and non-herd captive groups. The 96-well microtiter plates (Nunc Maxi Sorp Materials and methods ®, flat wells; Thermo Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA), previously coated with progesterone Fresh faeces and venous blood from 14 female antibodies, were used to perform the assays elephants in CEC and 4 females from BU who (Brown et al. 2004b). The wells were read using were 8–62 years old, were collected weekly a BIO-RAD® Model 550 Microplate Reader at during December 2008 – May 2009. Faecal 490 nm (measuring filter) with 570 nm (reference samples were collected 48 hours after blood was filter). Faecal progestagen values were plotted drawn. Weekly fresh faecal samples from 21 against the sampling dates for each female females from PEO and 3 from MEF who were separately with serum progesterone, while 9–65 years old, were collected from November correcting for autocorrelation due to repeated 2009 to December 2010. sampling.
The faecal samples from USA were frozen The luteal phase of the oestrous cycle was (-20ºC) within 1–2 hours of collection and stored determined by a significant increase in until processed at Darr College of Agriculture progesterone concentration, which persisted at Missouri State University. Faecal samples for at least 8 weeks. The follicular phase was from Sri Lankan elephants were processed determined by progesterone concentrations at the Department of Zoology, University of remaining low compared to the luteal phase. Peradeniya. Blood samples were processed at the Pregnancy was identified by observing a Darr College of Agriculture, Missouri, USA. persistent elevation in progesterone levels for at least 16 consecutive weeks. If, the progesterone The reliability of the faecal assays could be concentrations remained low for more than a few affected if any step is performed inaccurately or months, the animal was identified as either non- due to contamination with urine (Hunt & Wasser cycling or lactating. Lactating females were later 2003). We took precautions not to sample urine confirmed on their reproductive history. contaminated faeces by collecting samples from the top-most bolus of a dung pile, observing the The length of the oestrous cycle was determined periphery for any urine contamination, breaking by counting the number of weeks between the open the top-most bolus and collecting the sample beginnings of two adjacent luteal phases in each
5 Table 1. Summary of the Linear Mixed Effects (LME) model showing the relationship between faecal and serum progesterone concentrations in 9 sampled captive female elephants in the USA. Value Standard error DF t-value p-value (Intercept) 3.438 0.369 105 9.319 < 0.0001 Faecal 0.039 0.006 105 6.955 < 0.0001 progesterone profile. The mean and the standard measures. Therefore, an autoregressive corre- deviation values of the two phases i.e. luteal and lation structure was added to account for auto- follicular, separately and of the whole cycle, correlation. The likelihood ratio test, between the were then calculated. model with a correlation structure and without a correlation structure, was significant (p < Correlation between serum and faecal 0.001). Correlations between serum and faecal progesterone was examined in 9 elephants with progesterone in different reproductive stages are a Linear Mixed Effects model (LME) using the shown in Figure 1. function ‘lme’ of package “nlme” (Pinheiro et al. 2017) in the statistical software R version Reproductive status in Sri Lanka 3.3.3 (R Core Team, 2017). We used faecal progesterone as fixed effects and individual Out of the 24 elephants, 14 were cycling (13/21 elephants as random effects for the variation of from PEO and 1/3 from MEF) and 3 were non- serum progesterone. To examine the importance cycling (1 from PEO and 2 from MEF). None of managing female elephants as a herd versus from MEF were pregnant or lactating while 2 non-herd, the Fisher’s exact test was done using were lactating and 5 were pregnant in PEO (Table the function ‘fisher.test’. 2). Therefore, 21 females were reproductively active (Fig. 3). The three non-cycling females The number of reproductively active female were 42, 32, and 20 years old. The length of the elephants was determined by summing the num- oestrous cycle in cycling females was 14.2 ± 1.4 ber of normally cycling, pregnant, and lactating weeks (n = 255). The length of follicular and females in each facility. Non-cycling females luteal phases were 4.5 ± 1.3 weeks (n = 109) and were identified as reproductively inactive in 10.0 ± 1.4 weeks (n = 146) respectively. each facility. We used the criteria in Brown et al. (2016) to evaluate the reproductive status of our Reproductive status in the USA sampled females. The country factor (Sri Lanka vs USA) was analysed using Fisher’s exact test. Out of 18 elephants, 10 were cycling (6/14 from CEC and 4/4 from BU). Four from CEC Results were non-cycling. In CEC, 3 were lactating and one was pregnant while none were lactating We observed a significant correlation between or pregnant in BU (Table 2). The non-cycling faecal and serum progesterone (p < 0.001) as elephants in CEC were 58, 57, 63 and 47 years per our LME analysis (Table 1). There was old. Ten from CEC and all 4 from BU were significant autocorrelation between repeated reproductively active (Fig. 3). The length of the
Table 2. Location and reproductive status of captive Asian elephants. CY = cycling, PG = pregnant, LA = lactating, NC = non-cycling. Facility Country Managed as CY PG LA NC Total MEF Sri Lanka non-herd 1 0 0 2 3 PEO Sri Lanka herd 13 5 2 1 21 CEC USA non-herd 6 1 3 4 14 BU USA herd 4 0 0 0 4
6 oestrous cycle was 15.2 ± 1.5 weeks (n = 148). Reproductively active and inactive females The length of follicular and luteal phases were 5.9 ± 0.9 weeks (n = 54) and 9.3 ± 1.5 weeks (n The proportion of individuals that were = 94) respectively. reproductively active was significantly higher
Figure 1. Correlation plots of faecal vs serum progesterone levels detected in the assays. The black line is the regression line and the grey area is the 95% confidence interval.
7 whether a given female is regularly cycling and to recognise when she approaches oestrus. The length of the reproductive cycle and follicular and luteal phases reported herein are similar to published values (Hess et al. 1983; Plotka et al. 1988; Hodges 1998).
In PEO, the females were kept as a herd during daytime, and that could be a reason for the high birth rate and high number of reproductively active females. It is clear that herd living favours Figure 2. Reproductively active and inactive being reproductively active also when the BU females in herd and non-herd facilities. elephants are considered, because all four were active, and they too were managed as a herd. The (p = 0.008) among elephants managed as a privately owned females in Sri Lanka are managed herd (24/25) compared to those managed as a as non-herd animals, and they have never been non-herd (11/17) (Fig. 2). The proportion of pregnant. Privately owned female elephants reproductively active animals (Fig. 3) was not in Sri Lanka are mostly owned by individuals. significantly different between Sri Lanka and The owners do not invest in breeding, possibly USA (p = 0.403). because it reduces their earning capacity until calves are weaned. Captive elephant populations Discussion in general have not been self-sustaining due to problems related to captive breeding (Sukumar We observed a significant correlation between 2003). Most captive elephants are managed as serum and faecal progesterone levels, confirming non-herds and therefore social interactions are that previously reported (de Silva et al. 2009; minimal. In such situations, even if there is a Ghosal et al. 2010). We assessed more females successful birth, a cow might reject or kill the and used simpler methods of hormone extraction, calf due to inexperience because, this highly compared to previous reports. We found that social animal learns most of the postnatal the correlation was high in the luteal phase of behaviour from other elephants (Sukumar 2003). cycling females and non-cycling females but was Therefore, our results indicate the importance of not significant in the follicular phase of cycling, managing captive elephants in herds for keeping pregnant, and lactating females. Therefore, it them reproductively active. In North America, is the luteal phase where progesterone levels monitoring of reproductive hormones is done elevate that could be detected by our simple regularly, resulting in many successful attempts hormone extraction method. Despite the fact that of captive breeding (Brown et al. 2016). If pregnant cows have high serum progesterone captive breeding is to be promoted in Sri Lanka levels (Brown 2006), our sample size of lactating females may not have been adequate to draw conclusions. In non-cycling and lactating cows, the serum progesterone is known to be low (Brown 2006), and may have been undetectable with our methodology. Therefore, our method is unable to detect all the reproductive phases in female Asian elephants, but captures the most important, luteal phase. The value of this method, to monitor reproductive status in wild elephants has also been reported from South Africa (Freeman et al. 2007) and India (Ghosal et Figure 3. Reproductively active and inactive al. 2010). Our method is satisfactory to identify females in Sri Lanka and USA.
8 using privately owned elephants, hormone level effect on reproductive health in elephants. Faecal monitoring in faeces can be used. sampling is convenient, non-invasive and does not require assistance of professional elephant According to Brown et al. (2004c), the continuous handlers. Therefore, it may be applied to wild cycling of females, which are not bred, may have females also, if they could be tracked to collect a negative cumulative effect on reproductive serial samples. health. Further, the reproductive potential may be affected due to heavy workload (Sukumar Acknowledgements 2003) and lack of breeding (Hermes et al. 2004). Additionally, Hermes et al. (2004), state that We thank Feld Entertainment Inc. for funding this reproductive disorders may be prevented either research and the staff of Ringling Bros. Center for by natural breeding or by assisted reproduction Elephant Conservation and their travelling Blue (viz. AI). Most Sri Lankan privately owned Unit circus for the assistance provided. We also captive females have not been bred early in their thank University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka and lives and therefore, they could be acyclic or their Dr. Chandana Rajapakse of Pinnawala Elephant breeding capacity may have been negatively Orphanage, Sri Lanka for kind cooperation affected. Thus, before the privately owned captive during the study period. Inputs from Dr. Elizabeth numbers decline to non-recoverable levels, Freeman and Crystal Eng are highly appreciated breeding efforts should be initiated. If adequate in developing the methods in this study. numbers of births among captive elephants are to be maintained in Sri Lanka among privately References owned females, it is essential to monitor their reproductive status while implementing a sound Brown JL (2006) Reproductive endocrinology. breeding policy. In: Biology, Medicine and Surgery of Elephants. Fowler ME & Mikota SK (eds) Blackwell In our study, there was a 65 years old female Publishing, Ames, IA. pp 377-388. (Anusha from PEO) who exhibited normal reproductive cycles, which suggests that there is Brown JL, Göritz F, Pratt-Hawkes et al. (2004a) no reproductive senescence in some female Asian Successful artificial insemination of an Asian elephants. There were 4 females aged above 50 elephant at the National Zoological Park. Zoo in CEC (Jewel, 57; Susan, 57; Lutzi, 59; Mysore, Biology 23: 45-63. 63), who have never been managed in a herd and were not cycling. Anusha is managed in the herd Brown JL, Olson D, Keele MN & Freeman EW in PEO in which favourable social exposure for (2004c) Survey of the reproductive cyclicity breeding is present, which could be the reason status of Asian and African elephants in North for her to be cycling. Lack of reproductive America. Zoo Biology 23: 309-321. senescence in elderly female elephants has been previously reported by Brown et al. (2016). Brown JL, Paris S, Prado-Oviedo NA, Meehan Therefore, non-herd management could possibly CL, Hogan JN, Morfeld KA, & Carlstead be a reason for captive females to be acyclic or K. (2016) Reproductive health assessment show irregular cycling patterns. of female elephants in North American zoos and association of husbandry practices with Our results suggest that the role of environmental reproductive dysfunction in African elephants conditions in maintaining cyclicity in female (Loxodonta africana). PloS ONE 11: e0145673. elephants is minimal, since a substantial number of females in the USA (not an elephant range Brown JL Walker S & Steinman K (2004b) country), were reproductively active. This is in Endocrine Manual for Reproductive Assessment agreement with Freeman et al. (2009) who show of Domestic and Non-domestic Species. that travelling among facilities with different Conservation & Research Center, Smithsonian’s environmental conditions had no significant National Zoological Park, Front Royal, Virginia.
9 Fernando P, Jayewardene J, Prasad T, Henda- Pinheiro J, Bates D, DebRoy S, Sarkar D & R vitharana W & Pastorini J (2011) Current status Core Team (2017) _nlme: Linear and Nonlinear of Asian elephants in Sri Lanka. Gajah 35: 93- Mixed Effects Models. R Package Version 3.1- 103. 131.
Freeman E, Abbondanza F, Meyer J, Schulte Plotka ED, Seal US, Zarembka FR, Simmons B & Brown J (2007) Use of a fecal field kit LG, Teare A, Phillips LG, Hinshaw KC & Wood to monitor hormone activity in free-ranging DG. (1988) Ovarian function in the elephant: elephants. In: Proceedings of International Luteinizing hormone and progesterone cycles Elephant Conservation & Research Symposium. in African and Asian elephants. Biology of International Elephant Foundation, Orlando, FL. Reproduction 38: 309-314.
Freeman EW, Guagnano G, Olson D, Keele M R Core Team (2017) R: A Language and & Brown JL (2009) Social factors influence Environment for Statistical Computing. R ovarian acyclicity in captive African elephants Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, (Loxodonta africana). Zoo Biology 28: 1-15. Austria.
Freeman EW, Abbondanza FN, Meyer JM, Schmitt DL, Hildebrandt TB, Hermes R & Goritz Schulte BA & Brown JL (2010) A simplified F (2001) Assisted reproductive technology in method for monitoring progestagens in African elephants. In: Proceedings of 1st International elephants under field conditions. Methods in Symposium on Assisted Reproductive Technology Ecology and Evolution 1: 86-91. for the Conservation and Genetic Management of Wildlife. Henry Doorly Zoo, Omaha, Nebraska. Ghosal R, Sukumar R & Seshagiri PB (2010) pp 2. Prediction of estrus cyclicity in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) through estimation of de Silva SGNT, Fernando PRNK, Perera fecal progesterone metabolite: Development KA, Ariyaratne HBS, Pushpakumara PGA & of an enzyme-linked immuno-sorbent assay. Wijayagunawardane MPB (2009) Relationship Theriogenology 73: 1051-1060. between blood and faecal progesterone profiles in Sri Lankan elephant (Elephas maximus Hermes R, Hildebrandt TB & Goritz F (2004) maximus): A non-invasive method for moni- Reproductive problems directly attributable toring the oestrous cycle. In: Proceedings of 61st tolong-term captivity–asymmetric reproductive Annual Convention of the Sri Lanka Veterinary aging. Animal Reprod. Science 82-83: 49-60. Association, Sri Lanka Veterinary Association. pp 34. Hess D, Schmidt A& Schmidt M (1983) Reproductive cycle of the Asian elephant Sukumar R (2003) The Living Elephants: (Elephas maximus) in captivity. Biology of Evolutionary Ecology, Behavior and Conser- Reproduction 28: 767-773. vation. Oxford University Press, New York.
Hodges JK (1998) Endocrinology of the ovarian Wijesinghe SK, Wijayagunawardene MPB, cycle and pregnancy in the Asian (Elephas Perera KA & Dangolla A (2002) Cyclic changes maximus) and African (Loxodonta africana) in serum progesterone levels in the domesticated elephant. Animal Reproduction Science 53: 3-18. she elephant. In: Proceedings of 54thAnnual Convention and Scientific Sessions of the Sri Hunt KE & Wasser SK (2003) Effect of Lanka Veterinary Association. Plant Genetic long-term preservation methods on fecal Resource Centre, Gannoruwa, Peradeniya, Sri glucocorticoid concentrations of grizzly bear and Lanka. pp 19. African elephant. Physiological and Biochemical Zoology 76: 918-928.
10 Research Article Gajah 49 (2018) 11-19
A New Type of Elephant Fence: Permeable for People and Game but Not for Elephant
Yorick Liefting*, Joost F. de Jong and Herbert H. T. Prins
Resource Ecology Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands *Corresponding author’s e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract. Asian elephants around Bardiya National Park (lowland Nepal) regularly raid crops in the park’s buffer zone and occasionally kill people. Retaliatory killing has been absent till now but emotions run high, and people requested a fence or a concrete wall. We designed an electric fence that allows people and livestock to pass freely but stops elephant. The fence has a single electrified wire, 9000 V, with electrified braces and ‘whiskers’ placing the poles out of reach of trunks. The design was tested experimentally, and after breach of the prototype, the final design has not been breached to date.
Introduction religious reasons or because conservation became a new dominant discourse. In Nepal and India, The problem of the conflict between wildlife and nobility and despots (whether local or foreign) people is serious especially when people are killed maintained tiger and elephant for the pleasure of by wild animals and retaliatory killing results in the hunt on lands that by all means could have the death of wildlife (Acharya et al. 2016; Ling been viewed as commons but became privatized et al. 2016). Many initiatives have been carried and off-limits for the general population (Bhatt out at many different places to address human- 2003). Reduced tiger numbers led to increased wildlife conflict (Davies et al. 2011). Perhaps numbers of prey such as wild boar, to the detriment the earliest have been the digging of trenches of farmers but to pleasure of the leisured class. (Brown 1968), or the planting of thorny hedges Also the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) (Lendelvo et al. 2015; Staley et al. 2015). More was not fully eradicated because domesticated recent examples are preventive and reactive elephants were needed as beasts of burden (and shooting, netting or poisoning of game, often on a still are used commonly in places were the large scale (Treves & Naughton-Treves 2005). At monsoon is vigorous) (Pradhan et al. 2011). At many places, in Asia, Europe, America and Africa many places in Asia, both the domesticated and this resulted in ‘wildlife deserts’ where conflicts the wild elephant are held in high esteem because between wildlife and people were solved by they were seen as a manifestation of the God entirely removing species from the landscape. In Ganesh (Sukumar 2003). the Netherlands, for example, the last wolf hunts in the 18th and 19th century comprised placing This resulted in ‘pockets’ of wild elephant game-capturing nets over a length of some 80 populations, one of which maintains itself in the km in which wolves were driven and then killed lowland forests of the western Terai of Nepal through the concerted action of men from many (Pradhan et al. 2011). In the last 60 years, people villages. have quickly and extensively colonized this area since malaria was eradicated from the area. After In Africa and Asia too these enormous concerted the Nepali Civil War between 1996 and 2006, game eradication actions by local people have tens of thousands of people find themselves been documented (Kissui 2008), and also resulted living in an area where elephant are protected in wildlife-free land where farming became once again by the Government of Nepal, and a possible (see, e.g., Badenhorst 2015). Yet, not hundred-odd elephant find themselves confronted everywhere humans succeeded in this, either for with agriculture in areas where formerly they
© 2018 The Authors - Open Access Manuscript Editor: Prithiviraj Fernando 11 held sway. River embankment, improved Women vocally supported the idea that it was irrigation, road building, the use of GMO-crops them who carried firewood and fodder, so that and mechanisation of agriculture all lead to the a barrier would lead to an increased burden on development of a strong ‘pull factor’ attracting them. At the end, nine points were agreed to: wild elephant. Harvests now take place three times a year, and high quality food is much on 1. Villagers should not become ‘prisoners’ offer. Indeed, a major human-elephant conflict behind fences, because villages are situated developed in recent years, with much damage to in a ‘buffer zone’ of a National Park. agriculture and loss of human life. Retaliatory 2. Poor people and women depend more on killing has not yet been called for by local sources for firewood and grass than rich communities, but suffering attacks has become a people do, and their burden is already high; daily phenomenon (Prins et al. in prep.). the electric fence should not force them to walk even more than they already have to Members of the Himalayan Tiger Foundation do, so access to surrounding lands should be and Wageningen University were called to unhampered. investigate the conflict and to advice local 3. Since elephant is responsible for about 80% authorities (the Nepal National Parks Service, the of all damage resulting from human-wildlife Nepal National Trust for Nature Conservation, conflict only elephant should be excluded, the Nepal Army), the local village councils and and no other wildlife (such as deer, wild boar the local people on finding mitigating measures. or rhino that do relatively little damage in the After many consultations, the advice was to area). erect an electrical fence. Of course, elephant 4. Materials used in the fence should have no can be prevented from marauding crops by other use for poaching, and should not be sought means than fences: very deep ditches can be dug, after by thieves. concrete walls built, or fences strong enough 5. Because of government policy on minimizing to withstand the most persistent elephant. Yet, the spending of foreign currency, materials these solutions are costly, or take too much should be preferably available on local land away from farming, hamper people in their markets, and readily obtainable. movements, or are quickly eroded in the riverine 6. Because of the remoteness of the area environment where monsoon impact is strong. and unreliable utilities, self-sufficiency is However, electric fencing has proven to be mostly important. ineffective during past efforts in the area, and 7. The fence should pose no harm for humans tens of kilometres of electric fence that had been or animals, including roosting birds. constructed in the last years had been breached 8. It should be possible for local people to by elephant or broken by people. Hence, a new perform regular maintenance on the fence, approach was needed to find a solution that is and local technicians should be able to effective and proportional to the problem at the perform basic troubleshooting and repair. same time. Partly funded by WWF Netherlands 9. Since self-reliance is important, and de- and WWF Nepal, we then developed a new type pendency on donors should be minimized, the of fence. costs of building, inspecting and maintaining the fence should be low and affordable. Requirements Consequences of the requirements Together with the named groups, we formulated the following requirements; we focussed both on At first sight, the points 1, 2 and 3 may beat needs of wild animals and of people. We had four loggerheads. Yet observations on the average meetings with village heads, and three with large height of local people provides an answer: what groups of local people, both men and women. is needed is a fence that ensures elephant to be Men in general promoted the view that a fence stopped but that allows especially women to pass should be more-or-less like an impenetrable wall. underneath, even with a load of firewood or fodder.
12 Indeed, measurements led to the conclusion that a representatives of the local communities is the fence at about 160 cm above ground level would absence of comprehending the principles of allow women (on average 151 cm in Nepal: electricity, and how electric fences work. This is http://www.averageheight.co/average-female- a widespread issue, not only in the communities height-by-country), cattle, ox carts (tested by involved but also amongst technical officers ourselves), and deer pass unhindered, but could of conservation organisations. For example, stop Asian elephant (average adult shoulder previously installed electric fences were height 2.4 m for cows and 2.7 m for bulls) and “repaired” at numerous places with metal wire One-horned rhino (adult shoulder height 1.7–2 that led to a short-circuit between the wire carrying m). Given the fact that most damage is caused by current and the ground wire, and insulators were adult bull elephant, none out of 271 interviewees often wrongly placed or even absent, effectively reported damage caused by rhino, and juvenile turning the posts into electric grounding rods. elephants do not venture far from their mothers We organized three meetings with villagers and on their own, stopping adult elephant would be community leaders to elucidate these issues, and sufficient (Prins et al. in prep.). It was not our assisted WWF in preparing training sessions for intention (nor that of the villagers) to fence out local communities and conservation officers. rhino; they rarely visit farmlands in the area of study. This lack of comprehension of how electricity ‘works’ led to incorrect and dangerous ideas such An electric fence does not rely on its strength as that a fence should have many strands, heavy to deter animals, but on the energy it carries. concrete or iron posts, that the strands should be A strong electric shock is a force unknown to ‘augmented’ with barbed wire (which is not only animals and creates a psychological response of against international weapon conventions but fear, as the source of the shock is not apparent. very much frowned upon since people or wildlife Because aluminium conducts electricity nearly can get entangled and exposed to repeated as well as copper, is lightweight (thus reducing electrical shocks possibly leading to death) and/ the structural needs of the construction) and is or that fences should be powered by mains current not affected by corrosion as much as steel or iron, (230 V AC in Nepal) (both are forbidden in, e.g., we selected an aluminium wire. Furthermore, the Netherlands or the United Kingdom: Anon. theft of copper is notorious all over the world, 2017). It is not realised that already holding a because of high prices, which ruled copper wire wire with some 20 mA may lead to cramp (which out. Steel and iron wires, although cheap, have makes it difficult to disengage from a wire) and another disadvantage: it can be easily used at any at 100 mA may lead to cardiac arrest; a normal farm and is very suited for making snares due to system in a household has a capacity of 40 to 60 its tensile strength and its pliability. Aluminium A. In other words, the powering of electric fences is a softer material and strong when applying a from the mains, which we frequently observed, is linear force, but it will break quickly from metal asking for serious trouble. fatigue when bent, making it useless for making snares. Since a conservation programme should After meetings with the community leaders, not facilitate theft and poaching, we selected it was agreed that a single aluminium wire aluminium cable as our preferred medium for at a height of 160 cm would carry up to 9000 carrying the electricity. The disadvantage of V and 10 Joule of energy per electric pulse deploying aluminium is that wire (and braces) of was acceptable. These values are in line with this metal is currently not available on the local international safety regulations for electric market in Nepal; this makes meeting requirement fences (Horizont 2018). We then also agreed that point 5, above, currently impossible so we the Himalayan Tiger Foundation, together with decided to drop it for this experiment. WWF Netherlands would pay for a number of items that had to be imported, but that the local One of the main issues we encountered people should deliver the labour needed for the during discussions with local authorities and installation, maintenance, monitoring, repairs,
13 etc. However, because the local community now All adult elephants were female since males are clearly claimed co-ownership, they demanded rarely kept. We first discussed the question with that proper experiments were conducted on the mahouts and guides, and then placed a morsel efficiency and efficacy of the newly designed and of preferred elephant food on a pole, and asked mutually agreed fence before they would commit a mahout to come forward with an elephant. to a large-scale rollout. Meanwhile, guides were instructed to keep a line of signalling tape horizontally in between While the testing of the new fence design was the elephant and the food at different heights. carried out, and before the outcome was known, We tested whether the elephants could reach the the local village committees started erecting morsel without touching the line (Fig. 1). After a fence along the trajectory that was designed the experiment, we concluded that the optimal by WU/HTF and agreed upon. Yet, the local height of the wire was between 155–185 cm, but committees decided to build a traditional multi- at 160 cm any adult elephant would touch the stranded fence, not made of aluminium but of line. From this we took that if this line would traditional galvanized steel wire, with heavy steel have been electrified, the elephant would always poles, and in which the energizer is powered by get a shock if it tried to pass underneath. both solar panels and mains power. According to the local community heads, the two main reasons We first considered that an elephant trying to for this decision were that (1) they raised money pass an electric fence would not try to break the from the local communities in the form of a tax line with the trunk, but would try to demolish which had to be spend in the current fiscal year, the pole. That we had observed at many places and (2) that the damage caused by elephant was in Nepal, and was clearly mentioned by local so high that something had to be done quickly people. Therefore, the issue was to get the pole to prevent unrest in the local communities. As out-of-reach of the elephant by ensuring that it electric fences with a similar design that were would touch the electrified wire before it could built in the region in the past have shown, these reach the pole. Again, after testing with the same poles can be easily reached by elephant trunks, domestic elephants, we found that this distance and pushed or pulled over. was 120 cm: the wire had to be offset at least this far before the poles were out of reach. Since Since the testing of the aluminium fence in an wild male elephant can be bigger than domestic area with wild elephant now has been done females, we opted for an offset of 140 cm for our for a full year, we present here our design and design. We opted for an aluminium brace to offset results. During this period, the local community the wire from the poles. To prevent elephant from repeatedly expressed their wish to learn from our simply grabbing the braces we electrified these design, and requested the Department of National too. Parks and Wildlife Conservation to maintain the experiment.
The design
One of the key requirements was that the fence should not pose a barrier for anything other than elephant. To reach this goal we had to determine the correct height of the wire so that an adult elephant would be unable to pass the fence without touching the wire carrying the electricity. To that end, we executed experiments with domestic elephants in Chitwan NP (Nepal) Figure 1. Trials with domestic elephant to owned by the Edwards family (Tiger Tops Hotel). establish correct fence height.
14 Another consideration was whether a separate ground wire running parallel to the live wire would need to be present. This would improve ‘giving a shock’ upon contacting the fence, which is potentially important in areas with rocky soils that have a high resistance. However, during prototype testing it turned out that fitting a parallel ground wire was impractical, with a high chance of the wires touching each other upon even minor interaction, leading to a short circuit rendering the entire fence inoperational. Furthermore, from our field inspections in the area we found that grounding is not a major issue. Since the area is mostly a riverine floodplain, the soil is waterlogged for most of the year, meaning good conductivity to the soil. In areas with check dams, the metal wire used to hold rocks in place acts as a grounds wire.
After taking all the requirements and observations into account, we set out to design our fence. Figure 2. Cross-section drawing of design. All measurements are in cm. Design drawings and explanation Altogether the design is kept as simple as Our design is based on a stable concrete pole possible, consists of few unique components and that serves as a mounting point for the other can be put together by everyone after a few hours components. The post is 280 cm long and placed of training. The design is shown in Figure. 2. 80 cm into the ground. Depending on the type of soil, gravel may be added to stabilize the pole. The total cost of the fence is about € 2000 per km (Table 1). However, the total costs are On the pole two aluminium clamps are fitted, that influenced greatly by the total length of the are insulated with 5 mm thick rubber sheets. Two fence, because components like the energizer are bolts pass through the ends of the clamp to secure only needed every 10–15 km. The costs for this it to the pole. experiment were higher due to the small scale, and the inclusion of a video monitoring system. One bolt on the lower clamp also serves as the The video system is specific to this experiment mounting point for an aluminium T-profile, and therefore left out of the breakdown. which serves as a brace to offset the wire. Live experiment and conclusion A piece of aluminium wire, the same as used for the live fence, is attached to the top clamp and From 17th to 24th July 2017 a field experiment halfway along the brace, securing it in position at was set up to test the design in a real-life situation. the correct height. A short circular section of fence, consisting of 10 poles, was erected around an observation A hole at the tip of the brace allows for easily tower near a waterhole at the Lamkauli grassland mounting the fence wire with a special type of (‘phanta’) in Bardiya NP (28.52º N, 81.29º E), bolt. This bolt is split down the middle, so the wire which according to park officials was frequently can easily be inserted and secured to the brace, used by elephant, both mixed herds as well as thereby also ensuring adequate conductivity solitary adult bulls. The observation tower lies from the wire to the brace. some 500 m away from agricultural lands and
15 Table 1. Breakdown of components and costs (in €) per kilometre of fence. Item Amount Unit price Total Energizer 4.5 joule 9 kV 1 400.00 400.00 Battery 12 V 60 Ah 4 104.00 416.00 Solar panel 100 Wp 4 70.00 280.00 Charge controller 30 A 1 90.00 90.00 Charge controller 6 A 1 30.00 30.00 Aluminum wire 10 AWG / 2 mm 1100 m 0.11 118.25 Insulated wire 5 mm 100 m 1.00 100.00 Grounding stakes 1.5 m 2 15.00 30.00 Housing for energizer + charger + solar 3 50.00 150.00 Fence voltage meter 1 80.00 80.00 Concrete post rebar 10 x 10 x 300 cm 10 100.00 100.00 Aluminum T profile 5 x 5 x 200 cm 1 11.30 11.30 Nuts, bolts, insulation, tensioners etc. 1 75.00 100.00 Transportation & import tax 50.00 Total cost per km 1965.55 villages. Local rangers and villagers recognized is not limited in the monsoon period this was not elephant that visited both Lamkauli and the unexpected. surrounding agricultural lands. The circle had a circumference of 110 m, or diameter of about 35 The first report of interaction with the fence m. The layout is shown in Figure 3. This was a took place on 21st October at about 01:15 hr. The compromise between the available open space fence was breached and subsequently most poles around the tower, and the angle the wire between were pushed over. After closely inspecting the the poles had to make at each pole. If the angle video footage, a team of WU/HTF/NTNC/BNP was too acute, the minimum offset distance of reconstructed the following chain of events: The 140 cm was not reached. After some tuning of first attack was by a medium sized bull elephant the construction, the current through the fence with tusks estimated at 70 cm length with a rather stabilized at 8700 V, close to the target of 9000 V. steep declination. The bull spent about 10 minutes close to the fence and finally made contact with To entice elephant to try and breach the fence the live wire, leading to the animal getting an we placed one 40 kg bag of rice, 8 banana plants electrical discharge, the spark of which is clearly and 20 kg of ‘elephant sweets’ (a by-product visible in the footage. The bull then backed off of sugarcane) inside the fenced-off area at the but remained close by the fence, some meters beginning of the experiment. A video system with away. At that moment a second much larger bull four cameras was set up from the tower with full with tusks of about 90 cm, pointed forwards 360º coverage of the site. A schedule for routine (thus with a much more shallow declination as monitoring by NTNC technicians was set up, so compared to the other bull), appeared. Figure as to detect the presence of elephant nearby, and 4 shows both bulls standing just in front of the to download video footage after interaction of fence. elephant with the fence. This bull then sized up the fence, first carefully The fence was fully operational from 27th July inspecting the construction with his trunk for 11 2017 until 20th October 2017 with no elephant minutes. After apparently concluding that there activity detected in the immediate area. Since was no safe place to make contact using his trunk, elephant moves over large distances, seasonal the bull attempted to crawl underneath, which migration may be involved and water availability also failed. Finally, the bull tried to pull the fence
16 Figure 3. Schematic top-down view of the test fence. All posts but one were made of concrete (round icon), one was made of wood (square icon). using his tusks, in which it eventually succeeded From this analysis we concluded the following: after hooking the tip of his right tusk in between • Elephants seem not to be able to reach the the connection of the live wire and a brace. One of posts with their trunks or crawl underneath the concrete poles, which was locally made and the live wire. of which the quality was sub-par, then collapsed and the fence wire fell to the ground. Sparks were visible on the ground, indicating that the fence was still operational at this point. During this episode, that lasted about 45 min, the other bull stayed close by. With the live wire now bested, both elephants could now have entered the site to eat the food, but neither of them did. The banana plants were alive, and the rice still available below the tower and perfectly edible. However, the elephant sweets had mostly disappeared. The largest bull came back the night after the initial attack and pulled over the remaining 9 poles that were still standing. Noteworthy is that during the entire period that the second bull interacted with the fence it did not get an electric shock once, indicating that it was very careful and systematic in its approach. We speculate that this bull might Figure 4. Two bulls challenge the electric fence have had encounters with electric fences before. at the test site.
17 • The fence seems to be effective against non- After 10 months without interaction we tuskers and tuskers with short tusks or tusks considered discontinuing the experiment, but that “point downwards”. were held off by local people who asked us to • The fence is vulnerable to large ‘tuskers’ continue the experiment. Elephant are known to (90+ cm) with tusks that stick out rather level dislike sudden changes in their environment but and of which more than 90 cm of ivory keeps seem to accept them at some point (pers. obs., the skin from contacting a live wire. and discussions with many rangers in Africa • Because Asian elephant are skilled at and Asia). Habituation in elephant has rarely problem solving and have shown evidence of been studied formally but elephant readily did it using insight learning (Foerder et al. 2011), when exposed to sounds in a study with African it was necessary to upgrade our design. elephant in captivity (Goodyear 2015). Also in • The focal area for improving the design was the wild it appears that after repeated exposure, the tip of the brace, where live wire and elephant habituate and find solutions for skirting top line are fixed. This required additional barriers (Davies et al. 2011; Hoare 2011). It is protection to place it out of reach of tusks. thus very well possible that elephant living in the Bardiya National Park area have reached In November 2017, a team consisting of WU/ acceptance of our test fence and will no longer HTF and students from Technical University of easily be enticed to attempt to breach it. Another Delft visited the site and worked on adjustments. possibility is that the attractants placed at the Short pieces of wire were fitted to the tip of the site are not enticing enough for the elephants to brace, forming “whiskers”, as shown in Figure 5. attempt to breach the fence. We tried to minimize These whiskers were pointed outwards, creating this by continuously offering them bananas, rice a 100 cm wide electrified buffer around the and ‘elephant sweets’ within our fence. We thus brace. These are expected to prevent elephants consider to continue the test in a new location, from using their tusks to reach the brace, as the closer to local communities where crop raiding is whiskers will make contact with the face of the very common. This follow-up experiment should elephant, delivering a shock. focus more on large-scale testing so that elephant needs to pass the fence in order to reach the crops. After these adjustments, the test continued for eight months (till presently, August 2018). Acknowledgements Although elephant had been detected by the video system four times in that period, no further This work was financed by the Himalayan Tiger interaction with the fence has been recorded, and Foundation (HTF) and WWF Netherlands. We the fence remains fully operational and stable. are grateful to the support of Femke Hilderink (WWF Netherlands), Sheren Shrestha (WWF Nepal) and of Drs Cas de Stoppelaar, Dr. Lex Raat, Eelco Dijk and Dr. Laura Bertola (all HTF). We especially want to thank Egbert van der Pol (HTF), Kumar Khadka, Umesh Paudel (both NTNC) for their continued support and enjoyable hours in the field, the local army and especially their commanding officer Lt Col. Rajendra Pant and Lt Col. Tek Bahadur Chand, the Chief Conservation Officer Mr. Manoj Shah, Assistant Conservation Officer Mr. Ashok Bhandari and former Chief Conservation Officer Mr. Ramesh Thapa, Mr. Netra Acharya, Buffer Figure 5. Electrified ‘whiskers’ that extend from Zone Management Committee chairperson, local the tip of the brace protect the brace from being NTNC representative Mr. Shyam K. Thapa, Dr. targeted by elephant. Naresh Subedi, field NTNC Programme Manager,
18 and the community leader Mr. Mahendara Hoare R (2011) Lessons from 15 years of human- Chaudhary, Guruwa Rural Municipality, Head elephant conflict mitigation: Management con- Mr. Jaman Singh KC and community people siderations involving biological, physical and of the area. We acknowledge with gratitude the governance issues in Africa. Pachyderm 51: 60- warm hospitality from Mr. Kristjan Edwards of 73. Tiger Tops plc. both at Karnali River Lodge in Bardiya National Park and at Tiger Tops Hotel in Horizont (2018) Electric Fence Standards & Chitwan National Park. Regulations.
19 Research Article Gajah 49 (2018) 20-24
Auditory and Cognitive Enrichment Training for a Male Asian Elephant
Clair Holland
Perth Zoo, South Perth, Australia Author’s e-mail: [email protected]
Abstract. This paper describes a behavioural enrichment project for a male Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) at Perth Zoo, that utilizes the elephant’s auditory abilities. The project provided cognitive challenges for the elephant, as well as extending his use of listening discrimination and investigation of his environment.
Introduction stages of our understanding of the neural basis of elephant’s auditory and vocalization systems. Research reviews of elephants’ auditory capacity have focussed not only on the range of This paper describes a behavioural enrichment frequencies used in elephant vocalizations and project with a male Asian elephant (Elephas communication (Payne et al. 1986; Poole et al. maximus) at Perth Zoo, Australia, which was 1988), but also on their auditory discrimination aimed at increasing opportunities within enrich- capacity and links with their vocalization, ment training projects for the utilization of the social communication and behaviour (Soltis et elephant’s natural sensory and cognitive abilities. al. 2009; Soltis 2010, 2011; Soltis et al. 2014). It utilizes the elephant’s auditory discrimination These studies have described the way in which capacity to provide cognitive stimulation the hearing by elephants of different human and and problem solving situations as well as animal sounds result in different vocalizations increased opportunities for physical exercise and behaviour by them (Soltis et al. 2014). and investigation of his environment. The paper Studies have also reported the vocal imitation by provides detailed descriptions of the project in captive elephants of human speech sounds and order to share this information and to provide machine sounds (Stoeger et al. 2012; Stoeger & assistance for others in trialling this behavioural Manger 2014). Other research has investigated enrichment project. auditory stimulation in the form of classical music for zoo-housed elephants, and suggests a Methods decrease in stereotypical behaviour as a result (Wells & Irwin 2008). Details of the elephant
Bates et al. (2008) note that research conducted The male Asian elephant Putra Mas is 28 years in ‘more ecologically valid ways’ suggests that of age. He was born in the wild in approximately elephants have excellent auditory discrimination, 1989 and came to Perth Zoo from Malaysia along with aspects such as extensive memory, with two female elephants of similar age in ability to distinguish between different human 1992. He was originally housed with the female ethnic groups, and ability to monitor and elephants and handled in free contact until 1999. remember the locations of elephant kin. The He was then moved to an adjacent enclosure in review by Plotnik et al. (2009) argues that open protected contact when he reached sexual ‘collaborative cognitive research efforts’ by maturity. The auditory discrimination training scientists and zoo staff can result in research that project was commenced with Putra Mas in 2015. benefits the health of the elephants and leads to scientific advances in knowledge. However, Details of the keeper researchers note that we are only in the early
© 2018 The Authors - Open Access Manuscript Editor: Heidi Riddle 20 The Technical Officer Zoology (who is referred physical presence (Fig. 1). This training concept to in this paper as the ‘keeper’) is female and has presented a new test of his listening and cognitive worked at Perth Zoo in the elephant section for capacities. The project was also particularly eight years. Previously, her work has been with focussed around behaviours associated with marine mammals for 19 years, and she has been long distance recalls for extending the physical involved in behavioural enrichment training exercise of the elephant. ‘Recall’ in this context projects and observation research projects. is defined as the process of sending or retrieving an animal from one point of station to another Description of training stages through the use of a conditioned stimulus (IMATA 2004). When the author began working with Putra Mas, she was very impressed with his capacity to learn The pairing of keeper with radio, and appro- and his ability to discriminate between different ximation of keeper out of elephant’s visual sight behaviours. For a keeper, there is a responsibility to think of new and interesting challenges that The project began in July 2015, with the keeper let the elephant test his own natural abilities and pairing herself with a radio which was on the also provide the physical and mental exercise ground in front of Putra Mas. Initially, the important for his wellbeing. These behaviours keeper was visible to the elephant as she gave would be ones that would be physically and an auditory cue through a hand-held radio for mentally challenging but also follow a natural a vocal behaviour by the elephant. At the next behaviour line. As well as using the sense of training session, the keeper approximated herself smell for enrichment training (Holland 2018), out of the elephant’s sight in two stages and gave the keeper decided to see if Putra Mas could the same auditory cue over the radio. Again, distinguish and respond to voice verbal cues the elephant responded with the appropriate given over the two-way radio. A description of vocal behaviour, despite the keeper not being the development of the project is provided here. physically present or visible to him. In the third The keeper can be contacted for more detailed training session with Putra Mas holding a steady information on the training stages. position in his barn, the keeper approximated herself out of his sight and to his off-display area. The initiation of the project in 2015 The keeper then asked Putra Mas (via the radio in the barn) to move forward. She also added The initiation of the project was aimed at a recall sound (a previously learnt skill) after extending the elephant’s auditory and cognitive the verbal cue. This introduced the radio recall stimulation through the challenge presented in concept into the training. In this session, Putra associating and responding to the keeper’s voice Mas was successful in the radio recall from the delivered via the two-way radio, without her barn to bath area and back (65 m each way) and from the barn to the pool area and back (75 m each way).
With the recall sound being paired with the ‘Move Up’ or (forward) verbal cue, the recall became an associated behaviour. Once the recall behaviour became an established behaviour using the application of reinforcement – food, intermediate bridge (whistle), verbal praise and encouragement, and verbal bridge, the visual indicator of the radio could be removed. This concept is known as ‘radio recall’. Putra Mas Figure 1. Putra Mas responding to a challenge quickly learnt the concept of moving forward given through the radio placed near the enclosure. via the radio recall. Since then, new concepts
21 and challenges have been introduced by using The project was also extended by the addition of additional radios in the exhibit in order to direct a second keeper who added extra behaviours to him for additional travelling behaviours. the project. In late May 2016, she introduced a new location idea into the training, whereby an The beauty of the recall is that it can be additional radio was positioned at the hydraulic introduced as a directional cue for a particular control system (40 m from the barn), and placed training session and thus provides flexibility for on the ground without a keeper needing to be the keeper changing position when desired, so present with it. For the first training session to that the keeper locations can be easily changed introduce this remote radio location, the radio to provide variation in direction patterns and was paired with the keeper’s voice at the location. cognitive stimulation for Putra Mas. Usually, This was then followed by the visual removal of Putra Mas will need only one introductory recall the keeper. This provided an extension of the sound to establish the direction desired for the original radio recall. training session. This means that Putra Mas acknowledges the desired destination. Remote radio directional travel
Extending the project By November 2016, Putra Mas was using all of his exhibit area in the remote radio directional In the first training session, the initial verbal travelling behaviours. This process continues cue requested one vocal behaviour from the with the elephant showing enthusiasm for elephant. In following sessions, the keeper behaviours requested, and getting good physical introduced and requested other behaviours (ones exercise and mental stimulation in the process of which were already well established behaviours the enrichment training. for the elephant) via the medium of the radio. In addition, the project was extended by adding The original radio recall training concept of more location points for the elephant to travel moving from one location to another, when to, and by extending the distance travelled. The combined with an intermediate bridge (a whistle) elephant was responding well to the cue and at the same time, supplied directional information recall sound, moving from the barn to a number to the elephant and provided a platform to of possible locations where the recall sound was introduce the new training concept, i.e. of remote being produced. In the daily notes, the keeper radio directional travel. The intermediate bridge recorded good motivation and fast walking pace confirms to the elephant that he is moving in on the part of the elephant. By March 2016, the the required direction and to continue in that project involved radio recalls from the barn to the direction. Removal of the recall sound combined furthermost part of the exhibit area. with the intermediate bridge (the whistle) presented the elephant with the new concept of Additional extensions to the enrichment project remote radio directional travel.
Later on, CCTV was utilized to observe Putra Mas’s responses from the staff office. After only a few training sessions, the keeper was able to remain inside the staff office (Fig. 2) directing Putra Mas via the radio and observing his responses, since he had learnt to be able to extend the length of waiting time between the verbal cue and the delivery of food reinforcement by the keeper. What impressed the keeper most was Putra Mas’s ability to accept and follow instructions via the radio through to the successful completion of the requested behaviours. Figure 2. Directing Putra Mas from the office.
22 By May 2017, the original behaviour of ‘moving session, as a completely ‘remote’ auditory up’ on request from the barn to the top of the challenge. This one concept therefore delivered exhibit, had been learnt as a completely ‘remote’ an extensive variety of behaviours and challenges. directional travel response, (i.e. without visual sight of keeper) to provide him with continued The project has provided good physical exercise walking/running exercise behaviour. Food and mental and auditory stimulation in the process reinforcement at the desired destination was of the enrichment training, with the elephant provided in advance of his arrival at that point, responding well to the behavioural enrichment and in the absence of the keeper. training. The capacity for animals to be able to make choices within their environments has been By pairing a third radio with the keeper and a popular theme in recent discussions on the care location and then removing the keeper, training and health of intelligent species. Challenges such progressed within a couple of training sessions as these deliver the ability for choice to Putra and became an established behaviour. As an Mas, and therefore complement understandings established behaviour, a variable ratio schedule of the ‘five domains of animal welfare’ (Mellor of reinforcement can be applied, alternating food & Beausoleil 2015) in a fun, physical, and reinforcement at different points, establishing challenging program. the option for consecutive travel between reinforcements, and the ability to vary the number The project supplied sensory and cognitive of movements. A variable ratio schedule is defined stimulation for this male elephant, presented in this context as a reinforcement schedule in him with problem solving challenges and which reinforcement is presented after a random encouraged his investigation of the full extent number of correct responses (IMATA 2004). If of his enclosure. The level of success of this desired, Putra Mas can participate in the radio Asian elephant in performing tasks of auditory directional travel training session remotely for discrimination, memory and problem solving consecutive travel with minimal opportunity to demonstrates the value of utilizing species- sight the keeper, reinforced with a food delivery. appropriate sensory, cognitive and physical opportunities for elephants in human care as Details of radio communication system suggested by the World Association for Zoos and Aquariums (Mellor et al. 2015). The radio used was a Hyteta Digital Migration radio with a frequency range of UHF: 400–527 A number of researchers have suggested that MHz and a frequency stability of +0.5 ppm. although experiments on elephant cognition have Some difficulties have occurred if the volume on not supported widespread positive understandings the different radios is equal and if the sound from of elephant intelligence (Nissani 2008; Plotnik different radios travels equally to the elephant. et al. 2009), new ways of investigating elephant This can be confusing in terms of providing cognition need to be found (Bates et al. 2008) directionality to the elephant if the radios are in which are more appropriate to animals with close proximity to one another. Solutions have different kinds of ‘higher order brain functions’ included an increased distance between radios (Hart et al. 2008). Some argue that researchers and volume adjustment of radios as required. have only made a small start in investigating elephant cognition in ways appropriate to their Discussion particular cognitive capacities (Bates et al. 2008). This project has sought to follow that This project began in July 2015. The original direction by acknowledging and utilizing the remote radio communication behaviour evolved species-appropriate abilities of the elephant. As into a library of multiple radio communication an animal’s exposure to increased complexity behaviours. These different variations in training of task and to challenges to the ability to retain sessions from the original radio communication complex memory concepts evolves, so does its can be done separately or combined in a training ability to explore and reach its cognitive potential.
23 Conclusion Payne K, Langbauer Jr. WR & Thomas E (1986) Infrasonic calls if the Asian elephant (Elephas This enrichment training project has been maximus). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology successful in providing sense and mental 18: 297-301. stimulation as well as physical exercise for the elephant and in addressing needs as set out within Poole JH, Payne K, Langbauer Jr. WR & Moss the Five Domains of Animal Welfare (Mellor & CJ (1988) The social contexts of some very low Beausoleil 2015). It follows pathways of natural frequency calls of African elephants. Behavioral sensory and cognitive abilities of elephants in Ecology and Sociobiology 22: 385-392. order to provide enhanced opportunities for Putra Mas to use and demonstrate these abilities, and to Plotnik JM, De Waal FBM, Moore D & Reiss explore his cognitive potential. D (2009) Self-recognition in the Asian elephant and future directions for cognitive research with Acknowledgements elephants in zoological settings. Zoo Biology 28: 1-13. I thank my colleague Jody Polson for her contri- bution of training ideas to this project, especially Soltis J, Blowers TE & Savage A (2011) with regard to the idea of the CCTV exercise and Measuring positive and negative affect in the as the second keeper involved in the project. I voiced sounds of African elephants (Loxodonta also thank my colleague and friend Shae Holden africana). Journal of Acoustical Society of for her input into earlier drafts of this paper. America 129: 1059-1066.
References Soltis J, King LE, Douglas-Hamilton I, Vollrath F & Savage A (2014) African elephant alarm Bates LA, Poole JH & Byrne RW (2008) Elephant calls distinguish between threats from humans cognition. Current Biology 18: R544-546. and bees. PLoS ONE 9: e89403.
Hart BL, Hart LA & Pinter-Wollman N (2008) Soltis J (2010) Vocal communication in African Large brains and cognition: Where do elephants elephants (Loxodonta africana). Zoo Biology 29: fit in?Neuroscience & Behav. Reviews 32: 86-98. 192-209.
Holland, C (2018) Olfactory cognitive Soltis J, Leighty KA, Wesolek CM & Savage enrichment training for a male Asian elephant A (2009) The expression of affect in African (Elephas maximus). Gajah 48: 34-37. elephant (Loxodonta africana) rumble vocali- zations. Journal of Comparative Psychology IMATA (2004) Training and Behavioural Terms 123: 222-225. Glossary. International Marine Animal Trainers Association. (Ed.) S. Klappenback. Stoeger AS & Manger P (2014) Vocal learning in elephants: neural bases and adaptive context. Mellor DJ & Beausoleil NJ (2015) Extending Current Opinion in Neurobiology 28: 101-107. the ‘Five Domains’ model for animal welfare assessment to incorporate positive welfare states. Stoeger AS, Mietchen D, Of S, de Silva S, Animal Welfare 24: 241-253. Herbst CT, Kwon S & Fitch WT (2012) An Asian elephant imitates human speech. Current Biology Mellor, DJ, Hunt S & Gusset M (eds) (2015) 22: 2144-2148. Caring for Wildlife: The World Zoo and Aquarium Animal Welfare Strategy. WAZA Office, Gland. Wells DL & Irwin RM (2008) Auditory stimulation as enrichment for zoo-housed Asian Nissani M (2008) Elephant cognition: A review elephants (Elephas maximus). Animal Welfare of recent experiments. Gajah 28: 44-52. 17: 335-340.
24 Short Communication Gajah 49 (2018) 25-26
Cobboldia elephantis (Cobbold, 1866) in a Free-Ranging Asian Elephant in Ram Nagar Forest Division, Uttarakhand, India
Vimalraj Padayatchiar Govindan*, Parag Madhukar Dhakate and Ayush Uniyal
Uttarakhand Forest Department, Western Circle, Nainital, Uttarakhand, India *Corresponding author’s e-mail: [email protected]
Introduction time of examination. On sectioning the stomach, larvae were observed, attached to the mucosa (Fig. Cobboldia is a genus of parasitic flies in the 2). Larvae recovered from the gastric mucosa family Oestridae named after Thomas Spencer were placed in 70% alcohol and processed for Cobbold (1828-1886) who described the first species identification by routine parasitological species. Adult flies lay their eggs near the mouth methods (borax carmine permanent staining or base of the tusk and parasitize elephants. method; Soulsby 1982). Larvae hatch and develop in the mouth cavity and move to the stomach. Third stage larvae exit Results and discussion from the mouth and drop to the ground to pupate (Fowler & Mikota 2006). Examination of the larvae under the microscope at 10 x and 40 x magnification (Fig. 3) showed The present paper communicates the occurrence the characteristic morphological features of of Cobboldia elephantis in an elephant in Ram C. elephantis such as posterior spiracles with Nagar Forest Division of Uttarakhand in northern three longitudinal parallel slits in each spiracle, India. abdominal segments with a row of belt like triangular shaped spines and the anterior end Methodology with two oral hooks with cephalo-pharyngeal skeleton (Matsuo et al. 1998; Venu et al. 2015; Post mortem examination of a young male Ananda et al. 2017). elephant carcass (Fig. 1) was conducted in Ram Nagar Forest division in the Haldwani region. While post mortem examination was routinely The carcass was 3–5 days old and putrefied at the done for all elephant carcasses, including stomach mucosal examination, vital organs and all other body parts, this was the first record ofC. elephantis in Uttarakhand. In this case, the cause of death of the elephant was not established. Ananda et al. (2017) found that elephants infected by Cobboldia displayed diarrhoea, anorexia and dehydration and that at post mortem examination the gastric mucosa was severely congested and hyperaemic with numerous larvae attached.
Manoharan et al. (2016) reported a high pre- valence of C. elephantis (45%) in free ranging elephants in Tamil Nadu, Southern India and suggested routine deworming through the target bait method or communal deworming. However, whether intervention is warranted should be Figure 1. Decomposed elephant carcass. decided based on the study of prevalence and
© 2018 The Authors - Open Access Manuscript Editor: Prithiviraj Fernando 25 Fowler ME & Mikota SK (2006) Biology, Medicine and Surgery of Elephants. Blackwell Publishing.
Manoharan NS, Senthilkumar K, Goma- thinayagam S & Jayathangaraj MG (2016) Prevalence of Cobboldia elephantis (Cobbold, 1866) in free-ranging asiatic elephants (Elephas maximus) of Tamilnadu, India. AAZV/EAZWV/ IZW Conference Proceedings.
Matsuo K, Hayani S & Kamiya M (1998) Parasitic infections of Sumatran elephant in the Way Kambas National Park, Indonesia. Japanese Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 3: 95-100.
Panda SK, Panda DN & Parhi NK (2005) Occurrence of Cobboldia elephantis (Cobbold, 1866) larvae in a wild elephant. Journal of Veterinary Parasitology 19: 163-164.
Soulsby EJ (1982) Helminths, Arthropods and Protozoa of Domestic Animals. 7th ed. Bareilley Tindall, London.
Figure 2. C. elephantis larvae in stomach. Venu R, Thoiba S, Veeraharin R, Rajesh D & Srilatha CH (2015) First report of Cobboldia impact. Any such attempts should be done with elephantis (Cobbold, 1866) larvae in a free close monitoring and may not be practical with ranging wild elephant from Andhra Pradesh, free-ranging elephants (Panda et al. 2005). India. Journal of Parasitic Diseases 39: 168-170.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the Conservator of Forest, Divisional Forest Officer, Veterinary officers and all other staff for giving me the opportunity for this study.
References
Ananda K, Gowda J, Dharanesha NK, Giridhar P & Gowda SMB (2017) Cobboldia elephantis (Cobbold, 1866) larval infestation in an Indian elephant (Elephas maximus). Journal of Parasitic Diseases 41: 364-366. Figure 3. Anterior end of C. elephantis maggot showing the oral hooks.
26 Short Communication Gajah 49 (2018) 27-30
Anoplocephala sp. Infection in a Captive Asian Elephant in Sri Lanka
T. P. J. Athapattu1*, A. D. Muthugala1, D. Rajapaksha1, K. L. D. T. D. Liyanage1, W. K. S. M. Weththewa3, T. A. N. Mahakapuge3, A. Dangolla1, P. C. Prematilake2 and R. P. V. J. Rajapakse3
1Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka 2Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka 3Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka *Corresponding author’s e mail: [email protected]
Introduction Sri Lanka, started losing body condition rapidly with reduced appetite and diarrhoea, immediately Adult Anoplocephala tapeworms live in the after musth. The keeper noticed whitish elongated ileum and cecum of the definitive host. The rectangular pieces (approximately 2 cm x 0.2 infective cysticercoids of this cestode occur in cm) with a creamy substance inside, in the faeces Oribatid sp. of mites, which are the intermediate of the tusker (Fig. 1), which were identified hosts. Oribatid mites are commonly found in as segments of Anoplocephala sp. based on grass. When an elephant feeding on grass ingests morphological features of proglottids and eggs, infected Oribatid mites, the cysticercoids find at the laboratory (Fig. 2). their way to the cecum of the elephant in which the adults develop. They eventually produce large Immediate rest of the tusker was recommended numbers of proglottids full of eggs, which are and faecal and blood samples were collected and excreted in the faeces of the elephant. Proglottids submitted to the laboratory for examination (see are segments of the tapeworm containing a Table 1). complete sexually mature reproductive system. The eggs hatch and infect Oribatid mites on the Investigation of the presence of mites ground, starting another life cycle. Five hundred g of fresh grass was collected Adult Anoplocephala live for up to 6 months from the area where the tusker was managed. and cause anaemia and hypo-proteinaemia in The sample was mixed with 1.5 l of tap water elephants (McAloon 2004). Typical clinical and 3 ml of detergent (Teepol) and mixed signs of elephants affected with this cestode vigorously 3 times within 2 hours. The sample include anorexia, mud and soil eating and general deterioration of body condition (Chandrasekaran 1979).
Anoplocephala manubriata has been previously reported from a post-mortem of a wild Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) in Sri Lanka (Perera et al. 2017). In India Anoplocephala sp. has been reported both in wild and captive elephants (Vimalraj & Jayathangaraj 2015).
Case study
In May 2017, a captive tusker in a temple in Kandy, Figure 1. Anoplocephala segments in faeces.
© 2018 The Authors - Open Access Manuscript Editor: Prithiviraj Fernando 27 Table 1. Changes in haematological parameters of the tusker after observing Anoplocephala proglottids in faeces. Other haematological parameters were within their normal range. Parameter Reference value Day 1 Day 8 Day 15 Day 22 PCV (%) 30–40 13.6 23.1 24.7 23.0 White blood cells; absolute range (103/μl): Lymphocytes 5–8 0.96 0.88 Monocytes 2–4 4.55 7.11 White blood cells; differential count (%): Lymphocytes 30–40 13 8 Monocytes 25–30 61 64 Eosinophils <5 25 4 was then filtered using a stainless steel sieve initiating the treatment, PCV of the tusker (45 µm; D-5657 HAAN/ Germany). The fluid improved from 13.6 to 23, RBC count from collected at the bottom was kept still overnight 1.27 x 106 to 2.2 x 106 and MCV from 106 fl for sedimentation. The supernatant was removed to 116 fl. However, during this period, the total and the sediment and sieve were washed with serum protein changed from 7.09 to 8.8 g/dl and 70% ethanol and stored in 15 ml centrifuge albumin from 2.6 to 2.0 g/dl (Table 1). The tusker tubes. Centrifugation was performed at 2000 rpm was found to be energetic thereafter. for 5 minutes, for washing. The supernatant was discarded and the sediment was examined under Oxyclosanide, a non-specific anthelmintic, the light microscope and mites were isolated for was orally given twice at a dose of 5 mg/kg, morphological identification. Oribatid sp. mites three weeks apart (day 0 and day 21), to all 12 were identified. They were approximately 1 µm elephants managed in the same premises as length (Fig. 3). the tusker (No. 12 in Table 2) and faeces were examined for eggs (Table 2). Males No. 3 and 11 Treatment were nearing the end of their musth periods while No. 12 was immediately after musth. According Supportive treatment consisting of Amino to the results, Oxyclosanide did not have a clear acids, Vitamins A, B, D, E and iron was given effect on the eggs per gram of faeces. parenterally and a balanced mineral mixture orally, to address needs for protein synthesis Subsequently, Praziquantel (600 mg tablets), and produce new blood cells. One month after which is considered the best drug against Anoplocephala infection, was imported and administered to the 12 elephants. Seven attempts to administer Praziquantel to the tusker in question failed while other elephants in the temple were given the drug. However, their faecal egg counts could not be monitored since they were away from the facility.
In addition, 9 other captive adult elephants managed in a separate location were monitored and Praziquantel was administered at a dose of 15 tablets per adult elephant as a trial. These elephants are regularly de-wormed once in 3 months with Febentel. However, two males and Figure 2. Anoplocephala segments. one female out of these 9 elephants were positive
28 Table 2. Eggs per gram of faeces of 12 elephants given Oxyclosanide on day 0 and day 21. # Gender Anoplocephala / strongyle eggs per gram of faeces Day 0 Day 4 Day 8 Day 12 Day 16 Day 20 Day 24 1 Male 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 2 Male 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 3 Male 0/50 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 4 Male 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 5 Male 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 6 Male 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 7 Male 50/0 0/0 0/0 0/50 0/0 0/0 0/0 8 Male 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 9 Male 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 10 Female 0/0 0/0 0/100 0/150 0/0 0/0 0/0 11 Male 3150/1750 600/650 3700/600 600/0 150/250 3700/600 3000/250 12 Male 150/0 200/500 100/0 50/0 50/0 150/0 0/0 for Anoplocephala proglotids in faeces (Table Discussion 3). Both the Anoplocephala positive males were immediately after musth. Worm eggs of either Oxyclosanide was ineffective against Anoplo- strongyles or Anoplocephala were not detected cephala sp. at the dose we used, while Praziquantel on the 12th day after treatment with Praziquantel. was effective. The fact that strongyle egg counts
Figure 3. Ventral view of an Oribatid sp. mite found in the grass sample (100 x magnification).
29 Table 3. Eggs per gram of faeces of 9 elephants Elephant Foundation in Kegalle for all assistance administered Praziquantel (600 mg x 15 tablets extended and Ms. MRCK Mallawa for excellent per elephant) on day 4. technical work on blood samples. # Gender Anoplocephala / strongyle eggs per gram of faeces References Day 0 4 6 12 16 1 Male 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 Abeysinghe KS, Perera ANF, Pastorini J, Isler K, Mammides C & Fernando P (2017) Gastro- 2 Male 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 intestinal strongyle infections in captive and wild 3 Male 0/50 0/0 0/0 0/0 0.0 elephants in Sri Lanka. Gajah 46: 21-27. 4 Male 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 5 Male 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 Chandrasekeran G (1979) Cyanide resistant 6 Male 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 NADH Oxidase in Bacillus-polymixasporulation 7 Male 350/100 3250/150 0/0 0/0 0/0 specific phenomenon. Indian Journal of Bio- 8 Male 100/0 250/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 chemistry & Biophysics 16: 82-83. 9 Female 300/0 4800/0 0/0 0/0 0/0 Fijak M, Schnider E, Klug J, Bushan S, Hackstein were also reduced after Praziquantel treatment H, Schular G, Wygrecka M & Gromoll J Meinhardt needs further investigation since it is generally A (2011) Testosterone replacement effectively considered to be ineffective against strongyles. inhibits the development of experimental auto- The observed relationship of Anoplocephala immune orchitis in rats: Evidence for a direct role infection with the post-musth period suggests the of testosterone on regulatory T cell expansion. possibility of immunosuppression in musth due Journal of Imunology 186: 5162-5172. to elevated serum cortisol levels (Vendramini et al. 1991; Fijak et al. 2011). McAloon FM (2004) Oribatid mites as intermediate hosts of Anoplocephala manubriata, Studies on gastrointestinal helminths in elephants cestode of the Asian elephant in India. Experi- at the Pinnawela Orphanage, Sri Lanka have mental & Applied Acarology 32: 181-185. concentrated on nematodes and a reduction in prevalence has been attributed to frequent Perera KUE, Wickramasinghe S, Perera BVP, anthelmintic treatment (Abeysinghe et al. 2017). Bandara KBA & Rajapakse RPVJ (2017) Regular anthelmintic treatment of elephants Redescription and molecular characterization of in Sri Lanka does not include drugs against Anoplocephala manubriata, Railliet et al., 1914 cestodes such as Anoplocephala sp. Though we (Cestoda: Anoplocephalidae) from a Sri Lankan identified Oribatid sp. of mites in grass samples, wild elephant (Elephas maximus). Parasitology it is unknown whether they were infected with International 66: 279-286. cysticercoids of Anoplocephala. Therefore, we recommend that captive elephants should be Vendramini ACLM, Soo C & Sullivan DA tested for the presence of Anoplocephala and (1991) Testosterone-induced suppression of Praziquantel should be included in the deworming autoimmune disease in lacrimal tissue of a mouse schedules of the infected elephants and elephants model (NZB/NZW F1) of Sjögren’s syndrome. sharing the same premises and food, in addition Investigative Opthalmology & Visual Science 32: to regular anthelmintics. 3002-3006.
Acknowledgments Vimalraj P & Jayathangaraj M (2015) Endo- parasitic infections in free-ranging Asiatic We are thankful to the custodian Hon. Nilanga elephants of Mudumalai and Anamalai Wildlife Dela, office staff and all elephant keepers at Sanctuary. Journal of Parasitic Diseases 39: Sri Dalada Maligawa, Kandy and Millenium 474-476.
30 News and Briefs Gajah 49 (2018) 31-32
EEHV Testing Capacity-Building in Asia, Facilitated by the EEHV Asia Working Group
Erin Latimer1*, Supaphen Sripiboon2 and Sonja Luz3
1Smithsonian’s National Zoo, Washington DC, USA 2Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Saen, Thailand 3Wildlife Reserves Singapore, Singapore *Corresponding author’s e-mail: [email protected]
Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus (EEHV) meeting. Twelve of these deaths were wild is a major cause of death for young Asian elephants. elephants (Elephas maximus), with a fatality rate • The identification of EEHV-associated of up to 80% in elephants between the ages of deaths in wild elephants in Asia is significant 1–8 years in human care. More is known about and it is the opinion of the Working Group the prevalence of EEHV in elephants in human that EEHV is a conservation concern care, but morbidity and mortality due to EEHV requiring close monitoring and further study. has also been seen in wild elephants in Asia. • Early diagnosis of EEHV-associated The hemorrhagic form of the disease (EEHV disease in young elephant calves allows HD) occurs when the primary infection is not early treatment and a better chance of a controlled by the immune system; this can occur successful outcome. Therefore, an important in up to 20% of calves and it is not currently consideration is that the examination, known why this occurs. Most of the deaths in sample collection, and treatment of young Asian elephants due to EEHV HD are from calves depend on the ability to handle and EEHV1A, with deaths and serious disease also manage the calf from a very young age (less caused by EEHV1B, EEHV3A, EEHV4, and than 1 year old). EEHV5. African elephants can carry the related • Laboratories are critical to the routine EEHV2, EEHV3B, EEHV6, and EEHV7 viruses monitoring, detection, and post mortem latently; there have been isolated deaths and evaluation of elephants affected by EEHV. disease due to EEHV2, EEHV3B, and EEHV6 Currently, of 13 Asian elephant range in African elephants. Little is known about the countries, only 3 (Thailand, Indonesia, prevalence and impact of EEHV on captive and and India), have laboratories capable of wild elephant populations in Asian elephant confirming EEHV. range countries. At the second meeting in 2016, again held in The EEHV Asia Working Group consists of Singapore, three focus areas were decided on: veterinarians, researchers, animal husbandry 1) Evaluation of EEHV Epidemiology and Risk experts, conservationists, and range country Factors; 2) Establishment of cPCR and qPCR government experts, united to decrease elephant EEHV Laboratories; and 3) Surveillance of wild deaths from EEHV in Asia. At the group’s elephants for EEHV. At the time, still only three inaugural meeting in Singapore in 2015 concerns Asian range countries (Thailand, Indonesia, and were identified, as follows: India) had lab capacity capable of diagnosing • The epidemiology of EEHV in elephants EEHV. As local lab capacity is necessary for calf in Asia and its impact on populations is monitoring, diagnostics, and research support, currently unknown. Within the last 10 years, a sub-group of the Working Group was tasked 59 fatal cases of EEHV disease in Asian with increasing EEHV testing capacity in Asia. elephants have been identified within the A regional workshop with a train-the-trainers eight range countries represented at our format was decided on, to provide several
© 2018 The Authors - Open Access 31 colleagues with the knowledge and skills to Asia, molecular diagnostics, sample handling, perform the EEHV molecular diagnostics in their field necropsies, and calf monitoring. They own laboratories; these colleagues would also received reagents to bring back to their home provide follow-up up training to colleagues in laboratories. A Facebook page was started to other range countries in the same protocols that facilitate further education and collaborations they were taught. amongst the participants and lecturers. The workshop received an average rating of 4.7 (out of SurveyMonkey surveys were used to determine 5), for factors such as knowledge gained, value of interest, level of training desired, and current lab the workshop, helpfulness of the organizers, etc. capacity. In 2017, we were able to conduct the first Requests for future training included information International Workshop on Molecular Diagnosis on DNA sequencing, developing monitoring and for EEHV infection in Thailand. Funding was treatment protocols, sample collection/shipment, procured from Asian Elephant Support, Kasetsart and collaboration between the EEHV diagnostic University, Smithsonian’s National Zoo, labs. Wildlife Reserves Singapore, and Zoological Park Organization of Thailand. Kasetsart One of our newly trained scientists, Dr. Chia- University hosted the workshop and provided Da Hsu of the Singapore Zoo, provided training laboratory space, housing for participants and in March 2018 to four colleagues in Sumatra, local travel during the workshop. Supaphen Indonesia, using a similar format as our Sripiboon (Kasetsart University), Erin Latimer November workshop. In June 2018, Dr. Supaphen (Smithsonian’s National Zoo), and Vijitha Perera Sripiboon, our host for the November workshop, (Elephant Transit Home) provided lecture and/ held another training session in Thailand for 24 or laboratory training. Ten participants were Thai participants that are involved with the care chosen from the colleagues expressing interest; of elephants in the wild and in human care. all had existing laboratory space and equipment and just needed EEHV-specific training and By increasing the laboratory capacity for EEHV reagents. Nepal, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, molecular diagnostics, range countries will and Singapore were represented at the workshop. be able to provide early diagnosis of EEHV in Follow-up work was planned to increase the calves, in order to provide timely treatment and number of colleagues trained and to procure improve outcomes. Routine calf monitoring funding to start, equip, and train new laboratories. will be possible, as well as research studies to determine prevalence, improved treatment The workshop in November 2017 consisted of modalities, and the virus’ pathology. two days of lab and lecture. Trainees received hands-on instruction in DNA preparation and We have grant proposals in progress to secure analysis, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and funding for new testing laboratories and training real-time PCR, as well as lectures on EEHV in in additional range countries.
32 News and Briefs Gajah 49 (2018) 33-35
Elephant Conservation in Bangladesh – Bringing Conservation Effort and Humanitarian Response Together
Haseeb Md. Irfanullah
Member of Commission on Ecosystem Management (CEM) and Commission on Education and Communication (CEC) of IUCN, Dhaka, Bangladesh Author’s e-mail: [email protected]
Introduction Plan (BECAP) (MoEF 2018). The BECAP is a comprehensive document that aims to guide 2018 marks a new era of conservation in elephant conservation in Bangladesh until 2027. Bangladesh. The ongoing Rohingya refugee crisis has brought humanitarian and conservation Over the last year or so, the Bangladesh Forest actors to work together in biodiversity-rich Cox’s Department has been preparing to implement Bazar. This article emphasises the importance of The World Bank-funded US$ 175 million regular investments in knowledge generation in Sustainable Forests & Livelihoods (SUFAL) the conservation sector so that evidence can be project (BFD 2018a; World Bank 2018a), which used for on-the-ground action and to influence would include conservation of elephants. This practice and policy. new initiative would take forward the momentum created by its predecessor, the Strengthening In 2016, IUCN Bangladesh published two books Regional Cooperation for Wildlife Protection after conducting thorough, nation-wide surveys (SRCWP) project (2011−2016) (BFD 2018b), on Asian elephants for two years. One book also supported by the World Bank with US$ 36 was on the overall status of elephants (IUCN million (World Bank 2018b). The 2016 elephant Bangladesh 2016) and the other was an atlas surveys, publications, and BECAP are among the of the elephant ranges (Motaleb et al. 2016) in outputs of the SRCWP project. Bangladesh. These resources filled the knowledge gaps we had since 2004, when IUCN published This rather slow period of elephant conservation the first-ever survey on Bangladesh’s elephants in Bangladesh, however, changed rapidly after (IUCN Bangladesh 2004). August 2017.
Because of those two recent publications, we now Rohingya refugee crisis and elephant con- know how many elephants Bangladesh had in servation 2016, where they lived, where they and humans were in conflict, where the elephant corridors News items on elephants, their forests and connected two or more forest habitats, and where corridors, and human-elephant conflict started they crossed Bangladesh’s borders with India appearing in the mainstream media in September and Myanmar. 2017. This is because, starting from the 25th August 2017, elephants in Bangladesh were Translating knowledge into action coming into conflict with Rohingya refugees in Cox’s Bazar. More than 723,000 people (UNHCR These two publications, however, did not lead to 2018) in hundreds of thousands of make-shift any immediate, concrete action on the ground over houses were creating the world’s largest refugee the next 12 months. Action was, in fact, waiting camp, occupying 6000 acres of forest land (UNB for another guiding document to come through 2018) − one of the last remaining elephant with the Bangladesh government’s endorsement habitats in Bangladesh − and sometimes dying in − the Bangladesh Elephant Conservation Action elephant encounters.
33 UNHCR and IUCN started working together in organized as Elephant Response Teams (ERTs) November 2017 and began a project in January (Wahed et al. 2016), be trained, be supported with 2018 (IUCN 2018a) to tackle human-elephant equipment and watch-towers, and be monitored, conflict in and around the Rohingya refugee so that they could stop elephants from entering camps in Cox’s Bazar-Teknaf Peninsula, which the camps. claimed nine lives between September 2017 and January 2018 (UNHCR & IUCN 2018a). From February to November 2018, elephants made about 30 attempts to enter the refugee IUCN and UNHCR used IUCN’s elephant atlas camps in Cox’s Bazar and Teknaf. But there were and elephant population status books of 2016 no casualties, since almost 550 members of 50 as the starting point to plan their programme. odd ERTs remained vigilant at night and dawn Knowledge on elephants and their habitats, once from about 100 strategically located watchtowers created to conserve already-stressed megafauna protecting more than three hundred thousand and their home, turned into planning and advocacy refugees. tools for one of the world’s worst refugee crises. This project is a good example of why we should Building on the existing knowledge regularly invest in creating new knowledge for conservation. It also shows the importance of Kutupalong Extension Camp and other smaller gathering and utilizing evidence as we proceed camps of Teknaf significantly changed the to influence practices and strategies. landscape of Cox’s Bazar-Teknaf Peninsula since the late 2017. Therefore, there was an urgent need Beyond 2018, into 2019 for updated knowledge on elephants and human- elephant conflict of this region. Elephant surveys As the UNHCR-IUCN project ends its first year, of February (UNHCR & IUCN 2018a) and the need for creating new knowledge remains May 2018 (UNHCR & IUCN 2018b) under the crucial. Bangladesh, for example, has never UNHCR-IUCN partnership informed us about attempted GPS-collaring to track its elephants the latest status of elephants, their encounters (Daly 2018). Elephant conservation in the with the refugees, and possible intervention current refugee crisis gives us an extraordinary points to manage such conflicts. opportunity to attempt that to better understand elephant behaviour in a distress situation, to The first survey of 2018 showed that 31−45 follow their movement real-time, and to use (mean 38) elephants were occupying Cox’s Bazar data to issue early warnings of potential human- South Forest Division’s five forest ranges. It elephant conflict. suggests that the elephants, which were recorded from the same forest ranges back in 2016 (range Opening a new elephant passage through the 28−42, mean 35), got trapped due to the mega Kutupalong mega camp has also been discussed Kutupalong Camp. in recent months. A model run by IUCN experts suggested a 3.5 km long and 0.5 km wide passage These animals could not go to Myanmar on the might work (Daly 2018). That, however, would east via the Ukhia-Ghundhum Corridor (Motaleb require resettlement of one hundred thousand et al. 2016), their traditional movement route refugees currently occupying that space and that essentially connects them with related ensuring the quality of habitat in Myanmar. populations. These pieces of information were very crucial and created the basis of the Such pioneering, but challenging, efforts need conservation-humanitarian discourse in Ban- an open and confident communication among gladesh throughout 2018. humanitarian and conservation actors, which include UNHCR and the Refugee Relief and The 2018’s surveys also showed where on the Repatriation Commissioner’s Office (the refugee camp boundary the refugees should be Bangladesh Government’s agency managing
34 the refugees) on the one hand and IUCN, MoEF (2018) Bangladesh Elephant Conservation Bangladesh Forest Department (the custodian of Action Plan (2018-2027). Bangladesh Forest Bangladesh’s wildlife) and elephant experts, like Department, Ministry of Environment and Asian Elephant Specialist Group (IUCN 2018b) Forests (MoEF), Govt. of Bangladesh, Dhaka. on the other hand. And such interactions need to be guided by knowledge and evidence. Motaleb MA, Ahmed MS, Islam H & Haque MA (2016) Atlas: Elephant Routes and Corridors in As we approach 2019, the UNHCR-IUCN Bangladesh. IUCN, Dhaka.
35 News and Briefs Gajah 49 (2018) 36-54
Recent Publications on Asian Elephants
Compiled by Jennifer Pastorini
Anthropologisches Institut, Universität Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland Centre for Conservation and Research, Tissamaharama, Sri Lanka E-mail: [email protected]
If you need additional information on any of the times higher occurrence for parasitic infection articles, please feel free to contact me. You can than males. Both length and width of parasite egg also let me know about new (2019) publications size classes were used to classify into different on Asian elephants. taxonomic groups using discriminate function analysis. Three distinct size clusters were T.V. Abhijith, M. Ashokkumar, R.T. Dencin & C. identified. Nematode and Cestode eggs were George classified correctly with 95.7% accuracy. Since, Gastrointestinal parasites of Asian elephants the egg size was similar in nematode group (Elephas maximus L. 1798) in south Wayanad separation into genus was difficult. Further, forest division, Kerala, India inclusion of stages of development of egg and Journal of Parasitic Diseases 42(2018) 382-390 larvae enable better separation. © 2018 Reprinted Abstract. Microscopic-coprological exami- by permission from Springer Nature. nation of Asian elephant (Elephas maximus L., 1798) dung piles (n = 55) in South Wayanad P. Bansiddhi, J.L. Brown, C. Thitaram, V. Forest Division from March to August, 2017 Punyapornwithaya, C. Somgird, K.L. Edwards revealed 74.5% prevalence of parasites in & K. Nganvongpanit elephants. Ancylostoma sp. Anoplocephala sp., Changing trends in elephant camp manage- Strongyle type egg and Strongyloides sp. were ment in northern Thailand and implications the major parasites recorded. Strongyloides for welfare sp. and Strongyle type egg were observed PeerJ 6 (2018) e5996 more frequently (58.1%). Ancylostoma sp. Abstract. Elephant camps are among the and Anoplocephala sp. were constituted 1.8% most attractive destinations in Thailand for each; mixed parasitic species infections were tourists from many countries. A wide range of recorded. The frequency distribution of parasitic management strategies are used by these camps, load in elephants showed skewed distribution which can have varied impacts on health and of propagules. Centrifugal sedimentation and welfare of elephants. This study surveyed 33 floatation methods of fecal examination of outer camps with 627 elephants in northern Thailand and inner regions of dung did not show significant to quantify the types of management practices difference in number of propagules. The highest and work activities experienced by captive number of parasitic propagules was recorded in elephants. The survey consisted of an interview floatation method. The number of propagules with camp owners, and direct observations of varied among dung samples of different herds camp operations. Data revealed considerable collected from different localities. There were variation in elephant demographics, work no relation between the parasitic load and age of activities, elephant care (i.e., housing, restraint, elephants. The mean density of parasite eggs was nutrition, health care, and breeding), and mahout higher in solitary animals (214.3 ± 155.4 epg) management among the camps. In general, older than herd elephants (147.78 ± 111.1 epg). Though camps (those in existence for >16 years) were parasitic load was higher in solitary males, based involved in more intensive activities, like riding on the occurrence of parasites using logistic with saddles and shows. By contrast, newer camps regression it was found that females had 1.83 provided more one-on-one activities for tourists
36 and elephants, and emphasized more intimate, V. Behringer, C. Deimel, G. Hohmann, J. Negrey, relaxing experiences (e.g., feeding, bathing, F.S. Schaebs, T. Deschner walking) than entertainment. A demographic Applications for non-invasive thyroid hormone shift also was observed, with elephants 20 years measurements in mammalian ecology, growth, of age and younger having a sex ratio closer to and maintenance 1:1 compared to elephants in older age categories Hormones and Behavior 105 (2018) 66-85 (1:4.1–1:9.8). Shifts in elephant management to Abstract. Thyroid hormones (THs) play a less intensive activities were observed, which pivotal role in the regulation of metabolic activity could have positive implications for elephant throughout all life stages. Cross-talk with other welfare. The shifting sex ratio suggests successful hormone systems permits THs to coordinate captive breeding is resulting in the birth of metabolic changes as well as modifications in more males, which could present new welfare growth and maintenance in response to changing challenges in the future, because bulls can be environmental conditions. The scope of this more difficult to manage and socialize, and are review is to explain the relevant basics of TH more likely to be kept isolated during musth. endocrinology, highlight pertinent topics that Ultimately, the goal is to understand how camp have been investigated so far, and offer guidance activities affect welfare, and to develop science- on measuring THs in non-invasively collected based guidelines and standards to aid in the matrices. The first part of the review provides an management of both male and female elephants overview of TH biochemistry, which is necessary used in tourism. © 2018 The Authors. to understand and interpret the findings of existing studies and to apply non-invasive TH K.L. Bauer, E. Latimer & M. Finnegan monitoring. The second part focuses on the Long-term, intermittent, low-level elephant role of THs in mammalian ecology, and the endotheliotropic herpesvirus 1A viremia in a third part highlights the role of THs in growth captive Asian elephant calf and maintenance. The fourth part deals with the Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation advantages and difficulties of measuring THs in 30 (2018) 917-919 non-invasively collected samples. This review Abstract. A 2-y-old male Asian elephant concludes with a summary that considers future (Elephas maximus), with an elevated platelet directions in the study of THs. © 2018 Reprinted count (1,100 × 109/L [1,100 × 103/mm3]), tested with permission from Elsevier. positive for elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus 1A (EEHV-1A) on conventional PCR (cPCR) of John Carey EDTA whole blood. No clinical signs were ever Science and culture: Animal cognition reported and no treatment was administered, but research offers outreach opportunity low-level viremia persisted for 2.5 y based on PNAS 115 (2018) 4522-4524 results of cPCR and/or real-time PCR (rtPCR). Abstract. none. Sequencing confirmed that the EEHV-1A detected was identical at the beginning through Daniel C. Fisher the end of the time period. No other elephants in Paleobiology of Pleistocene proboscideans the herd tested positive for EEHV-1 during this Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences time period. Platelet counts remained elevated 46 (2018) 229-260 throughout the viremia and throughout the Abstract. The paleobiology of Pleistocene animal’s life, and direct correlation between the proboscideans plays a pivotal role in un- elevated platelet counts and EEHV-1A viremia derstanding their history and in answering could not be confirmed. We document long-term, fundamental questions involving their inter- intermittent, low-level viremia of EEHV-1A and actions with other taxa, including humans. Much provide additional information to consider when of our view of proboscidean paleobiology is determining if treatment is warranted in a case of influenced by analogies with extant elephants. EEHV infection. © 2018 The Authors. However, a wealth of information is available for reconstructing the paleobiology of ancient
37 proboscideans using data from fossil specimens A. Fuery, A.M. Leen, R. Peng, M.C. Wong, H. and preservational settings. Remarkable oppor- Liu & P.D. Ling tunities include permafrost- derived specimens Asian elephant T cell responses to elephant with preserved soft tissue, intestinal contents endotheliotropic herpesvirus (EEHV) with direct evidence of diet, and compositional Journal of Virology 92 (2018) e01951-17 and structural profiles with subannual temporal Abstract. Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus resolution archived in appositional systems such (EEHV) can cause lethal hemorrhagic disease in as proboscidean tusks. New information on juvenile Asian elephants, an endangered species. diets and local climates puts our understanding One hypothesis to explain this vulnerability of of proboscidean paleoecology on a firmer some juvenile elephants is that they fail to mount foundation, but the greatest prospects for new an effective T cell response to the virus. To our insight spring from life history data now being knowledge, there have been no studies of Asian retrieved from accelerator mass spectrometry– elephant T cell responses to EEHV. To address dated fossil material. Interaction between humans this deficiency, we validated the IFN-γ ELISpot and proboscideans has been a critical factor in assay for tracking antigen-directed T cell activity the history of both groups. © 2018 Reproduced by monitoring rabies-specific responses in with permission from Annual Reviews. vaccinated elephants. Additionally, we generated monoclonal antibodies to Asian elephant Dennys Frenez CD4 and CD8 to facilitate phenotypic T cell Manufacturing and trade of Asian elephant profiling. Using these tools, we screened healthy ivory in Bronze Age Middle Asia. Evidence elephants with a prior history of EEHV infection from Gonur Depe (Margiana, Turkmenistan) for reactivity against 9 EEHV proteins whose Archaeological Res. in Asia 15 (2018) 13-33 counterparts in other herpesviruses are known to Abstract. This paper presents the detailed induce T cell responses in their natural hosts. We stylistic and functional analysis of a large identified glycoprotein B (gB) and the putative collection of artifacts made from Asian elephant regulatory protein E40 as the most immunogenic ivory discovered at the Oxus Civilization site of T cell targets (IFN-γ responses in 5 of 7 elephants) Gonur Depe in southern Turkmenistan. Artifacts followed by the major capsid protein (MCP) in ivory of Asian elephant from Bronze Age sites (IFN-γ responses in 3 of 7 elephants). We also in Middle Asia have usually been considered as observed that IFN-γ responses were largely from evidence for the import of finished items from CD4+ T cells. We detected no activity against the the greater Indus Valley. The detailed study of predicted major immediate early (E44) and large the Gonur Depe ivories has instead proven that tegument (E34) proteins- both immunodominant there are significant morphological and stylistic T cell targets in humans latently infected with differences between these artifacts and those cytomegalovirus. These studies have identified found at contemporaneous sites in the Indus EEHV-specific T cells in Asian elephants for the Valley. This evidence raises important questions first time, lending insight into the T cell priming about the provenance of the raw material and that might be required to protect against EEHV about the origin and training of the craftsmen disease and will guide the design of effective who manufactured the objects. Detailed research vaccine strategies. © 2018 The Authors. in textual sources about traditional arts and crafts in South Asia and in classical and medieval Mayuri Gogoi commentaries about ivory carving, integrated Emotional coping among communities af- with ethnographic data about skilled crafting fected by wildlife-caused damage in north-east in traditional societies, has led to propose new India: Opportunities for building tolerance hypotheses about the complex socioeconomic and improving conservation outcomes and cultural organization of manufacturing and Oryx 52 (2018) 214-219 trade of Asian elephant ivory during the Bronze Abstract. Human–wildlife conflict has been the Age. © 2017 Reprinted with permission from focus of much research, and incidents of damage Elsevier. caused by wildlife to communities, as well as
38 damage inflicted on wildlife by people, have maximus) that differ in relatedness been studied extensively to determine causes, Animals 8 (2018) e132 conditions, impacts and mitigation strategies. Abstract. Opportunities for positive social However, few studies have explored the coping interaction are important in captive animals, strategies employed by communities to deal with and social interactions can be used as a welfare these stressful events. Understanding coping is indicator. Wild elephants live in related multi- important, as effective coping builds tolerance generational herds; however, in captivity they towards wildlife, whereas poor coping erodes are often managed in less related groups, tolerance and thus jeopardizes conservation. which could impact the quality of their social Interviews conducted with people who had interactions, and thus their welfare. Here, we used experienced damage caused by wild elephants a limited social network analysis to investigate Elephas maximus in eight villages of Assam, in the social interactions in two groups of four north-east India, found that the stress experienced female captive Asian elephants, one of which by the communities as a result of the damage was contained individuals that were all related to one eased by their religious beliefs associated with another, whilst the other was a mix of related and elephants, and their feelings of empathy towards unrelated individuals. Data on pairwise social these animals. Belief in the elephant as God and interactions was collected from eight days of as avenger of wrong-doing further strengthened video footage using an all-occurrence sampling people’s coping capacity. These findings have technique. More affiliative, and fewer agonistic positive implications for elephant conservation, interactions were observed in the related elephant showing that people’s tolerance towards group. Additionally, non-contact displacement marauding elephants can be based on religious was observed at a higher frequency in the related beliefs rather than compensation for losses. © elephant group, which we theorise represents 2018 Fauna & Flora International. an established functioning hierarchy, avoiding the need for overt aggression over resources. B.L. Hart & L.A. Hart Although kinship is not likely to be the only factor How mammals stay healthy in nature: The affecting captive elephant social behaviour, these evolution of behaviours to avoid parasites and findings support the recommendation that for pathogens optimal welfare, elephants should be managed Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in multigenerational family herds. Evaluations B 373 (2018) e20170205 of social interactions such as those conducted Abstract. Mammals live and thrive in here would have wider applicability for aiding environments presenting ongoing threats from the management of any captive social species to parasites in the form of biting flies, ticks and identify when groups might be incompatible. © intestinal worms and from pathogens as wound 2018 The Authors. contaminants and agents of infectious disease. Several strategies have evolved that enable R. Hufenus, C. Schiffmann, J.‐M. Hatt, D.W.H. animals to deal with parasites and pathogens, Müller, L.B. Lackey, M. Clauss & P. Zerbe including eliminating away from the sleeping– Seasonality of reproduction in Asian elephants resting areas, use of an array of grooming Elephas maximus and African elephants techniques, use of saliva in licking, and Loxodonta africana: Underlying photoperiodic consuming medicinal plant-based compounds. cueing? These strategies all are species-specific and Mammal Review 48 (2018) 261-276 reflect the particular environment that the animal Abstract. Animals in seasonal environments inhabits. © 2018 The Authors. often rely on photoperiodicity to time their reproduction. Elephants have a gestation length N.D. Harvey, C. Daly, N. Clark, E. Ransford, S. of approximately two years and a historical Wallace & L. Yon geographic distribution including higher latitudes Social interactions in two groups of zoo- than at present, so the evolution of a seasonal housed adult female Asian elephants (Elephas breeding pattern cued by photoperiodicity and
39 timed to the long‐day period is a theoretical looms as a major threat to global biodiversity option in both species. We reviewed literature and ecosystem function. A critical aspect in on reproductive patterns in free‐ranging, semi‐ planning trophic rewilding projects is the captive and captive Asian and African elephants, selection of suitable sites that match the needs photoperiodic cueing, seasonal variation in body of the focal species under both current and future condition, and other factors influencing their climates. Species distribution models (SDMs) reproduction, as well as data from zoological are currently the main tools to derive spatially collections on the timing of births. Most of explicit predictions of environmental suitability the free‐ranging and all the semi‐captive and for species, but the extent of their adoption for captive elephant populations showed a moderate trophic rewilding projects has been limited. yet distinct seasonal breeding pattern. Peak Here, we provide an overview of applications breeding activity of free‐ranging Asian elephants of SDMs to trophic rewilding projects, outline took place in either the dry or the wet season, methodological choices and issues, and provide with no preference for short‐day or long‐day a synthesis and outlook. We then predict the breeding at low latitudes (close to the equator) potential distribution of 17 large-bodied taxa but a preference for long‐day breeding at higher proposed as trophic rewilding candidates and latitudes. Semi‐captive Asian elephants mainly which represent different continents and habitats. bred in the dry season when body condition was We identified widespread climatic suitability for lowest and day‐lengths were increasing. Peak these species in the discussed (re)introduction conception often occurred in the wet season regions under current climates. Climatic in free‐ranging African elephants when body conditions generally remain suitable in the future, condition was highest, with no evident preference although some species will experience reduced for short‐day or long‐day breeding at low suitability in parts of these regions. We conclude latitudes but preference for long‐day breeding that climate change is not a major barrier to at higher latitudes. Asian and African elephants trophic rewilding as currently discussed in the in zoos at latitudes from 43 to 53°N tended to literature. © 2018 The Authors. conceive more often during spring and summer, i.e. when day‐lengths were increasing. Body D. Jebb & M. Hiller condition was not reported to vary significantly Recurrent loss of HMGCS2 shows that keto- throughout the year and was rather high compared genesis is not essential for the evolution of to in the wild. We hypothesise that elephants are large mammalian brains ‘long‐day breeders’ in which the photoperiodic eLife 7 (2018) e38906 timing of conception can be influenced by many Abstract. Apart from glucose, fatty acid-derived additional factors. Strategies to encourage natural ketone bodies provide metabolic energy for the conception in captive populations should include brain during fasting and neonatal development. measures aimed at increasing breeding incentives We investigated the evolution of HMGCS2, in the northern hemisphere spring. © 2018 The the key enzyme required for ketone body Mammal Society and John Wiley & Sons Ltd. biosynthesis (ketogenesis). Unexpectedly, we found that three mammalian lineages, comprising S. Jarvie & J.-C. Svenning cetaceans (dolphins and whales), elephants and Using species distribution modelling to mastodons, and Old World fruit bats have lost determine opportunities for trophic rewilding this gene. Remarkably, many of these species under future scenarios of climate change have exceptionally large brains and signs of Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society intelligent behavior. While fruit bats are sensitive B 373 (2018) e20170446 to starvation, cetaceans and elephants can still Abstract. Trophic rewilding, the (re)introduction withstand periods of fasting. This suggests that of species to promote self-regulating biodiverse alternative strategies to fuel large brains during ecosystems, is a future-oriented approach to fasting evolved repeatedly and reveals flexibility ecological restoration. In the twenty-first century in mammalian energy metabolism. Furthermore, and beyond, human-mediated climate change we show that HMGCS2 loss preceded brain size
40 expansion in toothed whales and elephants. Thus, A.M. Jukar, S.K. Lyons & M.D. Uhen while ketogenesis was likely important for brain A cranial correlate of body mass in size expansion in modern humans, ketogenesis is proboscideans not a universal precondition for the evolution of Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 184 large mammalian brains. (2018) 919-931 Abstract. Allometric scaling relationships are Yuan Jin & Hui Fan often used to estimate the body mass (BM) of Land use/land cover change and its impacts extinct mammalian taxa. For proboscideans, on protected areas in Mengla County, shoulder height or limb bone dimensions have Xishuangbanna, Southwest China typically been used to estimate BM. However, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 190 these skeletal correlates are only useful when (2018) e509 a complete forelimb is available, or when limb Abstract. Land use/land cover change (LUCC) elements can be identified to the species level. in tropical areas threatens biodiversity and Several taxa are known or can be identified from protected area integrity and then affects global cranial remains alone, which poses a problem ecosystem functions and services. In this study, for BM estimation. Here, we develop allometric the spatiotemporal patterns and processes of equations to predict the total length and the LUCC in Mengla County, Xishuangbanna, minimum circumference of the humerus or which is located on the northern edge of tropical femur of derived proboscideans from the breadth Asia, were examined using a modified post- of the occipital condyles. These predicted classification change detection technique based measurements are then used to estimate body on random forest classifiers and Landsat images size from existing equations derived from acquired at a 5-year time interval (e.g., 1994, regressions on limb bones. We developed 1999, 2004, 2009, and 2014) from 1994 to 2014, equations using a combined sample of both with a special focus on protected areas and their extinct and extant proboscidean taxa. Equations surroundings. The overall accuracies of land use/ for specific families were derived when possible. land cover classification reached 90.13–97.90%, We find that occipital condyle breadth is a robust with kappa coefficients of 0.84–0.96. Massive but predictor of limb bone dimensions. Estimated decelerating conversion from forests to artificial BM values from predicted limb measurements plantations has occurred in recent decades. From were a good match to actual BM, and estimates 1994 to 2014, the area of plantations increased by from actual limb measurements. Our method 1833.85 km2, whereas that of forests decreased will allow researchers to study BM evolution in by 1942.67 km2. The expanded areas of artificial proboscideans using a greater range of specimens. plantations decreased from 158.41 km2 per year in © 2018 The Linnean Society of London. 1994–1999 to 59.70 km2 per year in 2009–2014. More considerable transformation from forests T. Kalam, H.K. Baishya & D. Smith to artificial plantations occurred in lowland areas Lethal fence electrocution: A major threat to with elevations below 1000 m and at the edges Asian elephants in Assam, India of National Nature Reserves, which observed Tropical Conservation Science 11 (2018) 1-8 a forest loss rate of greater than 40% between Abstract. India has the largest population of 1994 and 2014. This poses serious challenges for Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) worldwide. sustaining both protected areas and surrounding Habitat fragmentation and loss of habitat have human communities and to solve the increasingly diminished food resources, and wild elephants escalating human-elephant conflicts. The have resorted to raiding crops grown within complex food, biodiversity, and land use nexus or adjacent to their home range. Elephants are in this region remain to be untangled in future often deliberately electrocuted for foraying into study. © 2018 Reprinted by permission from human-used areas, and this is a key reason for Springer Nature. elephant mortalities in India. We collated data on elephant mortalities for a 13-year period (2003– 2016) from the Forest Department records. We
41 conducted surveys across Sonitpur District mothers and infants. Recent findings suggest (East and West Forest Division), Assam, where the contribution of lateralized mother–infant electric fences are installed and documented interactions to biological fitness. Mother and their location, properties, and elephant presence. infant both can gain advantage from keeping the Overall, 138 elephants died between 2003 and other on the left side. © 2018 Elsevier. 2016 due to retaliation, electrocution, accidental or natural death, and unknown reasons. We N. Kido, S. Tanaka, T. Omiya, Y. Shoji, M. Sen- recorded 47 electric fences (27 lethal and 20 zaki, S. Hanzawa, M. Ando, T. Osaki, H. Hatai, nonlethal) of which 49% were situated within N. Miyoshi, T. Hifumi, N. Suzuki & S. Kawakami notified forest boundaries. Most lethal fences Novel treatment for chronic pododermatitis in (63%) protected agriculture fields and were an Indian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus) seasonal installations, whereas nonlethal fences with Mohs’ paste protected settlements and forest edges (25% Journal of Veterinary Medical Science 80 (2018) each) and were permanent. Individuals controlled 1834-1838 52% of all lethal fences, while nonlethal fences Abstract. Asian and African elephants are were primarily controlled by the communities frequently afflicted by foot disorders that can be (50%). Most lethal fences (83%) were less than very challenging to manage even with aggressive 1 km, whereas 80% of nonlethal fences were therapy. Such conditions may have indirect life- over 1 km. Elephant presence was seasonal in threatening effects. Mohs’ paste (zinc chloride 56% of lethal fence locations and year-round in based escharotic agent) was used to treat a female 85% of nonlethal fence locations. We postulate Indian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus) habitat loss and encroachment as two key aged 39 years with foot disorder at Kanazawa drivers of fence installations. We recommend Zoological Gardens. Degenerated hyperplastic rehabilitation of encroachers, monitoring of areas tissue was observed inside the hoofs of digits 2 where electricity is tapped illegally, sensitization and 5. Mohs’ paste was applied on the lesions, of local communities, and involving multiple which coagulated the hyperplastic tissue and stakeholders to help reduce elephant mortalities restrained its proliferation. Subsequently, the because of electrocution. © 2018 The Authors. hyperplastic tissue could be trimmed with little pain, and the disorder became manageable. Mohs’ K. Karenina & A. Giljov paste treatment was effective and is expected to Mother and offspring lateralized social be an alternative treatment for hoof disorder. © behavior across mammalian species 2018 Japanese Society of Veterinary Science. Progress in Brain Research 238 (2018) 115-141 Abstract. Findings on nonprimate mammals J.C. Kishbaugh, M.T. Valitutto, J.E. Ober, D.M. place the issue of mother–infant lateralized Zimmerman, L.L. Howard, D.L. Schmitt, C.R. relations in a broader context, demonstrating that Sanchez & S. Murray humans are one of many species showing this Do lyophilized platelets hold promise for feature. The remarkable interspecies consistency treatment of hemorrhagic diseases in wild in the direction of lateralization points to a animals? continuity between lateralized mother–infant Journal of the American Veterinary Medical interactions in primates and nonprimate mammals Association 252 (2018) 168-170 and suggests ancient evolutionary roots of human Abstract. none. cradling bias. The results from species which, in contrast to primates, have no direct involvement V. Kochakul, K. Boonsri, S. Tiwananthagorn, C. of forelimbs in mother–infant spatial interactions Somgird, C. Thitaram & K. Pringproa clearly support the perceptual origin of this type Development of in situ hybridization for of lateralization. A right hemisphere advantage detection of elephant endotheliotropic herpes- for social functions relevant to mother–infant virus in Asian elephants interactions is the most probable background Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation for the left-sided biases in the behavior of 30 (2018) 628-632
42 Abstract. Elephant endotheliotropic herpesvirus between populations. A cluster analysis was (EEHV) is one of the most important viral performed using Unweight Pair-Group Method infectious diseases affecting the elephant with Arithmetic Mean and dendrograms, which population worldwide, especially juveniles and illustrated genetic relationships among captive young adults. We developed a chromogenic Asian elephants that included 2 main clusters in situ hybridization (ISH) test for detection of across the seven camps and 27 clusters for the 97 EEHV in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). individual elephants. This high variability may be Digoxigenin (DIG) DNA probes from the due to the different origins of these individuals, polymerase and terminase genes of EEHV including originating from other Asian countries. were synthesized using a PCR DIG-labeling Thus, this study showed that intersimple method, and detection of hybridized probe to sequence repeat marker analysis was effective target EEHV DNA was carried out by anti-DIG in demonstrating high genetic diversity among immunolabeling. Distribution of EEHV-1A and captive Asian elephants in Chiang Mai province EEHV-4 genomes was found to be prominent and found cluster differences that could be used in mononuclear phagocytic cells of spleen to guide breeding management to decrease the and endothelial cells of visceral organs. ISH risk of inbreeding among Asian elephant groups. enables the detection of EEHV infection and has © 2018 The Authors. applications in understanding pathogenesis of EEHV in Asian elephants. © 2018 The Authors. M.A. Kumar, S. Vijayakrishnan & M. Singh Whose habitat is it anyway? Role of natural W. Kriangwanich, K. Nganvongpanit, K. and anthropogenic habitats in conservation of Buddhachat, J.L. Brown, P. Siengdee, S. charismatic species Chomdej, P. Bansiddhi & C. Thitaram Tropical Conservation Science 11 (2018) 1-5 Genetic diversity and variation in captive Abstract. Developmental activities have been Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in one of the major drivers of conversion of natural Thailand forest areas into mosaics of forest fragments, Tropical Conservation Science 11 (2018) 1-10 agriculture, and plantations, threatening the Abstract. Numbers of wild Asian elephants existence of wildlife species in such altered (Elephas maximus) have been decreasing landscapes. Most conservation research and gradually throughout Asia due primarily to actions are protected area centric and seldom human activities, such as poaching, and habitat addresses the importance of landscape matrices encroachment and destruction that lead to human– around these protected areas in providing habitats elephant conflict. Sustainability problems exist to a wide range of species. In this article, we bring in captive populations as well, where morbidity out the crucial role of natural and anthropogenic and mortality rates are high and reproduction habitats for the existence of three charismatic is low. Determining the genetic diversity of species, namely, Asian elephants, leopard, these populations is essential for conservation and lion-tailed macaques. The larger public and sustainable utilization efforts. Intersimple perception of where the animals should be and sequence repeat markers were used to assess the where the animals actually are is also discussed. genetic variation and differentiation in 97 captive We emphasize that, while habitat generalists Asian elephants from seven elephant camps in often adapt behaviorally and ecologically to Chiang Mai, Thailand. The nine primers chosen modified landscapes, habitat specialists, such for the analysis revealed 88 bands in male and 115 as the lion-tailed macaques could find survival bands in female elephants, of which 37 (42.05%) harder, with increasing anthropogenic pressures and 83 (63.64%) were polymorphic, respectively. and loss of their habitats. © 2018 The Authors. Shannon’s index information (I = 2.415 ± 0.054) and expected heterozygosity (He = 0.892 ± 0.008) S.P.S. Kushwaha, S. Nandy, M.A. Shah, R. indicated high species- level genetic diversity. Agarwal & S. Mukhopadhyay
The fixation index st (F ) was –0.130 ± 0.016, Forest cover monitoring and prediction in a demonstrating there was no genetic subdivision Lesser Himalayan elephant landscape
43 Current Science 115 (2018) 510-516 of a single panmictic population in the region. Abstract. We have monitored the forest cover Demographic tests produced some indication of depletion in parts of Assam and Arunachal a recent bottleneck in the microsatellite dataset, Pradesh over an area of 42,375 km2 in an elephant but the mtDNA sequences did not show either landscape falling in the Lesser Himalaya, North a signature of past expansion or bottlenecks. © East India and report the results here. The US 2018 Associazione Teriologica Italiana. Army topographic maps (1924) and multi-date satellite images (1975, 1990, 2000 and 2009) M. Lahdenperä, K.U. Mar, A. Courtiol & V. were visually interpreted on-screen for post- Lummaa classification comparison and forest cover change Differences in age-specific mortality between detection. The exercise showed continuous high wild-caught and captive-born Asian elephants loss of forest cover during the study period. Nature Communications 9 (2018) e3023 A land area having 17,846.27 km2 forest in Abstract. Wild-capture of numerous species 1924 was depleted to 12,514.56 km2 by 1975, is common for diverse purposes, including 11,861.75 km2 by 1990, 10,808.92 km2 by 2000 medical experiments, conservation, veterinary and 10,256.58 km2 by 2009, thereby indicating interventions and research, but little objective data a constant decrease in forest cover by 12.59%, exists on its consequences. We use exceptional 1.54%, 2.48% and 1.31% respectively. The total demographic records on Asian elephants from loss in forest cover was estimated to be about 7590 timber camps in Myanmar to investigate the km2 from 1924 to 2009. The Cellular Automata long-term consequences of wild-capture during Markov Model has predicted a further likely 1951–2000 on their mortality (N = 5150). We decrease of 9007.14 km2 by 2028. In general, show that captured elephants have increased more districts of Assam than Arunachal Pradesh mortality compared to captive-born elephants, and more plains than hills faced deforestation. We regardless of their capture method. These have identified increasing human population and detrimental effects of capture are similar for subsequent demand on the land for cultivation as both sexes but differ substantially according to major reasons for forest cover depletion. age. Elephants captured and tamed at older ages show a higher increase in mortality after capture S. Kusza, F. Suchentrunk, H. Pucher, K.U Mar & than elephants captured and tamed young. F.E. Zachos Moreover, the increased mortality risk following High levels of mitochondrial genetic diversity capture and taming is still perceived several in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) from years after capture. Our results are timely given Myanmar the continued capture of elephants and other HYSTRIX the Italian Journal of Mammalogy 29 wild animals to supplement captive populations (2018) 152-154 despite the alarming declines of wild populations Abstract. We analysed mtDNA control region globally. © 2018 The Authors. sequences and 11 microsatellites in 78 Asian working elephants (Elephas maximus) from two Nicolas Lainé camps in Myanmar (ca. 60 km apart), which Asian elephant conservation: Too elephanto- holds the second largest elephant population in centric? Towards a biocultural approach of Asia. We found limited heterozygosity (overall conservation Ho and He of 0.55 and 0.59) but high mtDNA Asian Bioethics Review 10 (2018) 279-293 diversity (overall haplotype and nucleotide Abstract. Drawing from the example of Asian diversities of 0.89 and 0.011, respectively) due elephant (Elephas maximus) conservation in to the presence of both mitochondrial lineages Laos, this article primarily intends to reveal the (α and β) known for Asian elephants. The elephantocentric vision adopted by mainstream fact that 13 of the 23 haplotypes found in this conservation project in direction to the species. In study were novel emphasises the importance of the second part, I will present some ethnographic Myanmar for the conservation of this endangered notes collected among local population who species. Both markers support the occurence daily live and work with pachyderms. These
44 notes will help in opening up a broader and more imposing severe impacts upon the production and ecocentric approach of elephant conservation living activities and even personal safety of the by highlighting links between biological and residents. Human-elephant conflict has existed as cultural diversity. By revealing the cosmo- a phenomenon of human settlement development ecological view of elephants as thought locally, I for more than 20 years in Xishuangbanna, China. will then propose an enlarged vision of elephant There are periodic incidents of wild elephants conservation. © 2018 Reprinted by permission hurting/killing people as well as feeding on and from National University of Singapore and destroying subsistence and cash crops. It is an Springer Nature. increasingly urgent and important issue for China to resolve while protecting and managing Asian P. Laricchiuta, V. Russo, A. Costagliola, G. elephants. Our study employed an Ecological- Piegari, M. Capasso, P. Silvestre, M. Martano & Niche Factor Analysis model to perform a risk O. Paciello assessment of areas where the Asian elephant Histological and immunohistochemical char- currently is distributed and to predict future acterisation of uterine adenocarcinoma in an risks. It employed a Circuit Theory model based Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) on random walk theory to predict multiple Folia Morphologica 77 (2018) 771-774 potential movement or migration pathways Abstract. A 56-year-old nulliparous female of Asian elephants within Xishuangbanna. Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) living at The results indicated that: (1) the regions with the zoological garden of Naples (Italy), with a human-elephant conflict risk in Xishuangbanna clinical history of recurrent colic, was found in Prefecture had an area of about 4349.08 km2, agonal state and humane euthanasia was elected. accounting for 22.77% of the total prefecture At necropsy the uterine body was moderately area, with the risk regions primarily present in increased in size and the lumen was reduced the middle and north parts of Menghai County due to a poorly demarcated and infiltrative and Jinghong City and in Mengla County in neoplasm. Furthermore, multiple, whitish, firm which there was a wide geographical distribution nodules were present in both lungs. Histological covering from the south to the north; (2) The examination of the uterine mass revealed regions of agriculture and garden that were epithelial cells arranged in tubular or solid pattern close to Asian elephant distribution and roads infiltrating the endometrium and the muscular were likely occurring risk; (3) There were more layer. Immunohistochemical examination potential movement paths of elephants within showed immunoreactivity of neoplastic cells to Mengyang and Menghai distribution regions, oestrogen receptors antibody. Pulmonary lesions which indicated that the connection of these areas were histologically and immunohistochemically was better. While the potential movement paths superimposable to the epithelial uterine neoplasm. of elephants within Mengla and Shangyong were A definitive diagnosis of uterine adenocarcinoma little; (4) There were some potential movement with pulmonary metastases was made. © 2018 paths between different distribution areas of Via Medica. Asian elephant, but the migration possibility of elephants in different distribution areas was W. Li, P. Liu, X. Guo, L. Wang, Q. Wang, Y. Yu, decreasing due to natural barriers (Mengyang- Y. Dai, L. Li & L. Zhang Menghai has Lancang river) and discontinuous Human-elephant conflict in Xishuangbanna potential paths between Mengla and Shangyong. Prefecture, China: Distribution, diffusion, Additionally, we discussed that created and mitigation ecological corridors between different natural Global Ecology and Conserv. 16 (2018) e462 reserves to allow more dispersal and gene flow of Abstract. The conflict between humans and elephants and diminish conflict between human wild animals is a special type of phenomena and elephant. We also put forward compensation between human development and wild animal suggestions in different risk area. We hope our conservation, not only leading to massive analytical methods can be applied, improved and economic loss to local residents, but also expanded to other areas with similar wildlife
45 damage. © 2018 The Authors. Reprinted with K.R. McConkey, A. Nathalang, W.Y. Brockelman, permission from Elsevier. C. Saralamba, J. Santon, U. Matmoon, R. Somnuk & K. Srinoppawan I. Lueders, C. Niemuller, H.W. Steinmetz, T. Different megafauna vary in their seed Bouts, C. Gray, T. Knauf-Witzens, K. Taya, G. dispersal effectiveness of the megafaunal fruit Watanabe, Y. Yamamotog & A.-K. Oerke Platymitra macrocarpa (Annonaceae) Prolonged luteal lifespan and pseudopreg- PLoS ONE 13 (2018) e0198960 nancy in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) Abstract. The world’s largest terrestrial Animal Reproduction Science 197 (2018) 58-66 animals (megafauna) can play profound roles Abstract. Pseudopregnancy is a physiological in seed dispersal. Yet, the term ‘megafauna’ occurrence in mammals which have copulation is often used to encompass a diverse range induced ovulation, but is rarely described in of body sizes and physiologies of, primarily, spontaneous ovulating species. In this study, herbivorous animals. To determine the extent three cases of prolonged luteal lifespan are to which these animals varied in their seed reported in non-pregnant Asian elephants dispersal effectiveness (SDE), we compared the (Elephas maximus). Case 1 was a 25-year-old contribution of different megafauna for the large- female that had produced three calves previously; fruited Platymitra macrocarpa (Annonaceae), Case 2 was a nulliparous and 32-year-old at the in a tropical evergreen forest in Thailand. We start of the pseudopregnancy episode; and Case quantified ‘seed dispersal effectiveness’ by 3 occurred in a 49-year-old nulliparous elephant. measuring the quantity and quality contributions Serum progesterone metabolite concentrations of all consumers of P. macrocarpa fruit. Seed remained elevated for 10 months in Case 1. dispersal quantity was the proportion of the crop Urinary progestagens were high for >16 months consumed by each species. Quality was defined in Case 2 and for five months in Case 3. In Case 1, as the proportion of seeds handled by each multiple persistent corpora lutea were visualized animal taxon that survived to produce a 2-month monthly by ultrasonography. In all three cases, seedling. Megafauna (elephants, sambar deer, uterine leiomyoma were present and progestagen bears) dispersed 78% of seeds that produced concentrations decreased spontaneously. In Case seedlings, with 21% dispersed by gibbons (a 1, the elephant became pregnant 3 years later, medium-sized frugivore). The main megafaunal whilst with Case 2, the female resumed estrous consumers displayed different dispersal cycling normally, and for the Case 3 female, there strategies. Elephants were the most effective was continuation with another prolonged luteal dispersers (37% of seedlings) and they achieved phase before ovarian function was purposely this by being high-quality and low-quantity suppressed. These examples indicate that dispersers. Bears displayed a similar strategy but persistently elevated progestagen concentrations were especially rare visitors to the trees (24% of may not always be indicative of pregnancy in the total seedlings produced). Sambar were high- elephants. The reasons for prolonged luteal quantity dispersers, but most seeds they handled lifespan are not understood, although serum did not survive and they were responsible for prolactin concentrations quantified in the Case only 17% of seedlings. Gibbons displayed a high 1 female were elevated compared to values SDE relative to their body size, but they probably from previous reports and two other herd mates. cannot match the role of elephants despite being Furthermore, all three elephants had varying more regular consumers of the fruit. The low degrees of uterine pathologies. It is believed that density and poor regeneration of P. macrocarpa in the resulting damage to the endometrium may the study site suggest that current dispersal rates have led to a reaction similar to implantation, by megafauna are insufficient, possibly reflecting which includes prolactin secretion. Prolactin reduced or missing megafauna populations. We may exert luteotropic properties and is thought show that different megafaunal species disperse to initiate luteal rescue during pregnancy in seeds in different ways and may make unique elephants. © 2018 Reprinted with permission contributions to the reproductive success of the from Elsevier. plant species. © 2018 The Authors.
46 L.J. Miller, J.F. Luebke & J. Matiasek and lessons learned Viewing African and Asian elephants at Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 49 (2018) accredited zoological institutions: Conserva- 748-754 tion intent and perceptions of animal welfare Abstract. Tuberculosis (TB) was diagnosed in Zoo Biology 37 (2018) 466-477 four Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in a zoo Abstract. African and Asian elephants are in the United States. The first case was detected popular within zoos, however there is currently by isolation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis limited information on how viewing them during routine trunk wash (TW) culture testing impacts zoo visitors. The goal of the current study of a herd of eight elephants. Retrospective was to examine the relationship between viewing antibody analyses revealed seroconversion 1 elephants in zoos accredited by the Association yr before diagnosis. Serological testing of the of Zoos and Aquariums and zoo visitors’ reported whole elephant herd identified two additional conservation intent and perceptions of animal suspect bulls with detectable antibody, but which welfare. Visitors were systematically selected remained culture-negative and had no clinical to fill out questionnaires following elephant signs of disease. In the following months, M. observation at nine facilities throughout North tuberculosis, identical to the isolate from the America. Questions included information on index case, was isolated from TW samples conservation predispositions, exhibit experience, of these two elephants. A fourth elephant exhibit perceptions, animal welfare perceptions, seroconverted nearly 4 yr after the first TB case emotional experience, learning outcomes, was detected, and M. tuberculosis was isolated conservation intent, and demographics. Results from a TW sample collected 1 mo later. All four suggest that observing elephants engaged in a infected elephants received anti-TB therapy. Two variety of species‐typical behaviors and having an treated elephants were eventually euthanized for up‐close experience was significantly correlated reasons unrelated to M. tuberculosis and found to to visitors having a positive emotional response. be culture-negative on necropsy, although one of The positive emotional response, combined them had PCR-positive lung lesions. One infected with visitor conservation predisposition had a animal had to be euthanized due to development significant positive relationship with reported of a drug-resistant strain of M. tuberculosis; this interest in getting involved in conservation. animal did not undergo postmortem examination Perceptions of animal welfare were significantly due to risk of staff exposure. The fourth animal related to a positive emotional experience driven is currently on treatment. Serial serological and by seeing animals engaged in a variety of active culture results of the other four herd mates have species‐typical behaviors as well as exhibit remained negative. © 2018 American Association perceptions and whether or not visitors thought it of Zoo Veterinarians. was important to have elephants in zoos. Exhibit perception was primarily correlated with exhibit T. Norkaew, J.L. Brown, P. Bansiddhi, C. size. The results provide factors that could help Somgird, C. Thitaram, V. Punyapornwithaya, to increase visitor interest in conservation as well K. Punturee, P. Vongchan, N. Somboon & J. as the potential impact of viewing elephants in an Khonmee accredited zoo. Facilities can use this information Body condition and adrenal glucocorticoid to help ensure their visitors have similar type activity affects metabolic marker and lipid experiences in order to inspire visitors’ interest profiles in captive female elephants in Thailand in conservation as well as positive perceptions of PLoS ONE 13 (2018) e0204965 animal welfare. © 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Abstract. Studies in western zoo elephants have found relationships between body condition and M.A. Miller, M. Finnegan, T. Storms, M. Garner physiological function, and identified mitigating & K.P. Lyashchenko management strategies to optimize health and Outbreak of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in welfare. A similar methodological approach a herd of captive Asian elephants (Elephas was used in this study, which evaluated a body maximus): Antemortem diagnosis, treatment, condition score (BCS; 1 = thinnest, 5 = fattest)
47 every other month and fecal glucocorticoid Hofreiter, H. Poinar & D. Reich metabolite (FGM) concentrations twice monthly A comprehensive genomic history of extinct in 33 tourist camp elephants in Thailand for a and living elephants 1-year period to assess seasonal variations, and PNAS 115 (2018) E2566-E2574 determine how lipid profiles [total cholesterol Abstract. Elephantids are the world’s most iconic (TC), low density lipoproteins (LDL), high megafaunal family, yet there is no comprehensive density lipoproteins (HDL), triglycerides (TG)] genomic assessment of their relation- ships. We and metabolic parameters [insulin, glucose, report a total of 14 genomes, including 2 from fructosamine, glucose to insulin ratio (G:I)] the American mastodon, which is an extinct related to measures of body condition and elephantid relative, and 12 spanning all three adrenal function. The most prevalent BCS extant and three extinct elephantid species was 3–3.5 (60.6%), with 27.3% at BCS = 4 including an ∼120,000-y-old straight-tusked (overweight) and 12.1% at BCS = 4.5–5 (very elephant, a Columbian mammoth, and woolly overweight); no elephants had a BCS <2. mammoths. Earlier genetic studies modeled BCSs were higher in rainy and winter seasons elephantid evolution via simple bifurcating trees, compared to summer, with FGM, TG, HDL, but here we show that interspecies hybridization LDL, and insulin also higher in the rainy and/ has been a recurrent feature of elephantid or winter seasons (p<0.05). By contrast, TC and evolution. We found that the genetic makeup of glucose were lowest in the rainy season. FGM the straight-tusked elephant, previously placed measures were negatively associated with two as a sister group to African forest elephants environmental factors: temperature and rainfall, based on lower coverage data, in fact comprises but not humidity. Positive correlations were three major components. Most of the straight- found between BCS and TC, LDL, and HDL, tusked elephant’s ancestry derives from a lineage and between FGM and TC, HDL, glucose, and related to the ancestor of African elephants insulin (p<0.05), whereas BCS and FGM were while its remaining ancestry consists of a large both negatively associated with the G:I (p<0.05). contribution from a lineage related to forest However, there was no relationship between elephants and another related to mammoths. BCS and FGM among the camp elephants. Using Columbian and woolly mammoths also showed BCS and FGM measures as outcome variables evidence of interbreeding, likely following a in separate regression models, this study found latitudinal cline across North America. While high BCS and elevated FGM concentrations hybridization events have shaped elephantid were associated with altered lipid profiles and history in profound ways, isolation also appears metabolic status in elephants. Furthermore, more to have played an important role. Our data reveal work hours/day was associated with better body nearly complete isolation between the ancestors condition and health measures. Thus, being of the African forest and savanna elephants for overweight and exposed to factors that increase ∼500,000 y, providing compelling justification adrenal activity could adversely affect health for the conservation of forest and savanna status, requiring alterations in management for some individuals, whereas exercise appears to have a protective effect.
E. Palkopoulou, M. Lipson, S. Mallick, S. Nielsen, N. Rohland, S. Baleka, E. Karpinski, A.M. Ivancevic, T.-H. To, R.D. Kortschak, J.M. Raison, Z. Qu, T.-J. Chin, K.W. Alt, S. Claesson, L. Dalén, R.D.E. MacPhee, H. Meller, A.L. Roca, O.A. Ryder, D. Heiman, S. Young, M. Breen, C. Williams, B.L. Aken, M. Ruffier, E. Karlsson, J. Johnson, F. Di Palma, J. Alfoldi, D.L. Adelson, T. Mailund, K. Munch, K. Lindblad-Toh, M. Elephants in Minneriya National Park (Sri Lanka)
48 elephants as separate species. © 2018 The on samples from eight elephants in Nepal that Authors. died of suspected or confirmed tuberculosis (TB) between 2007 and 2013. Among them, all I.N. Pathirana, C. Rajapaksa, N. Kawate, A. elephants were reactive to DPP VetTB® Assay, Wimalarathne, L. Fonseka, P.N. Weerakoon, five to Elephant TB STAT-PAK,® and two were M.A. Hannan, B. Alexander, A. Pushpakumara, reactive to MAPIA. Similarly, six elephants S. Ariyaratne & H. Tamada were positive on culture on samples collected Effects of gonadotropin-releasing hormone antemortem or postmortem. We observed antagonist degarelix on musth and serum antibody responses months to years before culture testosterone concentrations in Asian elephants confirmation of TB which shows that serological (Elephas maximus) tests can be highly useful for the early diagnosis Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 49 (2018) of TB in elephants. Validated point-of-care 779-783 serological tests are easily performed in the field Abstract. Two male Asian elephants (bulls 1 and and hold promise for improved TB surveillance 2) in musth were subcutaneously injected with in other non-domestic species. © 2018 Reprinted a long-acting gonadotropin-releasing hormone by permission from Springer Nature. (GnRH) antagonist, degarelix acetate (240 μg/kg; total dose of 960 mg). Musth behavior (MB) and P. Paul, T. Hasan & M.M. Rahman temporal gland secretions (TGS) were monitored Medical management of bilateral corneal and serum testosterone concentrations were opacity in an Asian elephant (Elephas determined. In bull 1, MB and TGS ceased on day maximus): A case report 1 and reappeared 5.5 mo after the treatment (day Journal of Advanced Veterinary and Animal 0). During the subsequent musth cycle, MB and Research 5 (2018) 98-100 TGS ceased on day 1 and did not appear for 4 mo. Abstract. This study was aimed at studying In bull 2, MB and TGS ceased at day 7 after the efficacy of medical management of corneal treatment. Musth behavior and TGS recurred on opacity in an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). Day 11 and continued for 1 wk, then disappeared A 42 years old male Asian elephant was brought for 8 mo. Serum testosterone concentrations to the Teaching Veterinary Hospital (TVH) at decreased (P < 0.05) in all occasions from day Chittagong Veterinary and Animal Sciences 0 (29.8 ± 15.8 ng/ml; mean ± SEM) to day 1 University (CVASU) with a history of chronic (2.2 ± 1.1 ng/ml), suggesting a sudden drop lacrimation and impaired vision. On clinical in circulating testosterone in musth elephants examination, the animal was found apparently after the GnRH-antagonist treatment. © 2018 healthy. Opthalmological examination tentatively American Association of Zoo Veterinarians. revealed the condition as corneal opacity. The left eye was much more affected as compared to the S. Paudel, S.K. Mikota, J. Thapa, K.P. Lyash- right one. Medical management was instituted chenko, K.P. Gairhe, I.P. Dhakal, N. Subedi, B. with topical administration of ciprofloxacin, Maharjan, S. Subedi, G.E. Kaufman & T. Tsubota dexamethasone, subconjunctival prednisolone Serodiagnosis of elephant tuberculosis: A and dexamethasone along with intramuscular useful tool for early identification of infected ketoprofen (at 1 mg/kg bwt) and vitamin A elephants at the captive-wild interface (at 5000 IU/kg bwt). The “mahout” (elephant European Journal of Wildlife Research 64 (2018) caretaker) of the elephant was kept in close e70 contact over cell phone to follow up the progress Abstract. Tuberculosis (TB) is an emerging of the condition. Clinical examination after 19 disease in elephants primarily caused by days revealed complete recovery of the cornel Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tb) and in some opacity. There was no sign of lacrimation and the occasions by M. bovis. We performed culture and animal regained its normal vision. The treatment three serological tests—the Elephant TB STAT- protocol successfully eliminated the discomfort PAK,® DPP VetTB® Assay, and MAPIA (multi- along with corneal opacity and lacrimation in an antigen print immunoassay)—prospectively Asian elephant.
49 E.J. Polla, C.C. Grueter & C.L. Smith Abstract. Wildlife poisoning is an important Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) dis- conservation threat for endangered species in criminate between familiar and unfamiliar India. There are no publications in the scientific human visual and olfactory cues literature that identify the specific poisons or Animal Behavior and Cognition 5 (2018) 279- chemicals involved in wildlife poisoning cases 291 from the state of Kerala. In this report, all cases Abstract. Social animals use individual identity of wildlife mortality recorded between 2011 cues to form and maintain social relationships and 2013 at the office of the Assistant Forest with conspecifics. This ability to discriminate Veterinary Officer, Periyar Tiger Reserve in between individuals extends to heterospecifics Kerala were reviewed and cases where poisoning in some social mammals. The aim of this study was considered as a differential diagnosis were was to determine if Asian elephants (Elephas identified. Specific poisons or chemicals were maximus) could differentiate between familiar identified in three cases, while in a fourth, and unfamiliar people using visual, auditory, poisoning was determined to have occurred based and olfactory cues independently. Two female on physical traces of the poison in gut contents. Asian elephants at the Perth Zoo were tested The poisons identified include carbofuran (a with stimuli generated from six humans. Video carbamate pesticide) in a bonnet macaque playbacks, auditory playbacks and pieces of (Macaca radiata), warfarin (a rodenticide) in a worn shirts were used to present familiar and mortality event involving four wild boars (Sus unfamiliar human stimuli to the elephants using scrofa), endosulfan (an organochlorine pesticide) a simultaneous two-choice task. Trunk reach toxicity in a gaur (Bos gaurus) and imidacloprid duration and trunk reach frequency were used as (a neonicotinoid pesticide) toxicity in a wild measures of the elephants’ interest in the stimuli. adult Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). This The elephants’ trunk reach durations revealed communication thus reports for the first time on a significant difference between familiar and the specific chemical compounds identified in unfamiliar human stimuli using visual cues alone, wildlife poisoning cases from Kerala state and with significantly more trunk reaching toward argues for greater regulation of the sale and use familiar human stimuli. No significant difference of such toxic compounds in India. © 2018 The in trunk reach duration was seen between familiar Author. and unfamiliar human stimuli for auditory or olfactory cues. Trunk reach frequency revealed C. Schiffmann, M. Clauss, P. Fernando, J. a significant difference between familiar and Pastorini, P. Wendler, N. Ertl, S. Hoby & J.-M. unfamiliar human stimuli for visual and olfactory Hatt stimuli, with a greater frequency of trunk reaching Body condition scores of European zoo towards familiar stimuli for both modes. No elephants (Elephas maximus and Loxodonta significant difference in trunk reach frequency africana): Status quo and influencing factors was seen between familiar and unfamiliar human Journal of Zoo and Aquarium Research 6 (2018) stimuli for auditory cues. This is the first study to 91-103 use video playbacks with any species of elephant Abstract. Obesity is a common problem in and demonstrates a potential new method for captive elephants. Therefore, physical state cognitive testing in this species. The results monitoring presents a critical aspect in preventive suggest that familiar humans may be important elephant healthcare. Some institutions lack the to zoo-housed Asian elephants. © Attribution 3.0 equipment to weigh elephants regularly, so body Unported (CC BY 3.0). condition scoring (BCS) is a valuable alternative tool. As yet, the BCS of both elephant species Sreejith Radhakrishnan has not been assessed comprehensively for the A note on wildlife poisoning cases from Kerala, European captive population. Using a previously South India validated visual BCS protocol, we assessed 192 European Journal of Wildlife Research 64 (2018) African (Loxodonta africana) and 326 Asian e58 elephants (Elephas maximus) living in European
50 zoos (97% of the living European elephant to each dung type. The pigtailed macaque dung population). The majority of elephants scored in community was significantly different from that the upper categories with 56% of adults assessed of all other baits (p< 0.001), whereas overlap in the range 7–10 out of 10. Adult Asian elephants existed among the other bait treatments; 83.3% had significantly lower BCS (males: mean 6.2 of the pitfalls were re-classified to the correct bait ± 1.0, median 6.0, range 4–8; females: mean type. Dung of the omnivorous macaques attracted 6.6 ± 1.3, median 6.0, range 3–9) than African a beetle community that was dramatically elephants (males: mean 6.7 ± 0.7, median 6.0, distinct from those of the other bait treatments range 6–8; females: mean 6.9 ± 1.2, median 6.0, and with the greatest abundance and richness of range 1–9). Comparison with samples of free- scarab species, whereas dung of the herbivorous ranging populations (163 Asian elephants and 121 species was far less attractive. This corroborates African elephants) revealed significantly lower New World studies that have shown dung from scores in free-ranging elephants independent the diet of omnivorous mammals attracts greater of species, age and sex category. Compared numbers and diversity of dung beetles. As such, to previous reports from captive populations, conservation of omnivorous large animals in the European zoo elephant population is tropical forest systems is necessary for the nevertheless less obese. In adult Asian elephant conservation of rich dung beetle communities. females, BCS was significantly correlated to © 2018 National University of Singapore. their breeding status with lower scores in current Reproduced with permission from Lee Kong breeders; however, breeding status was also Chian Natural History Museum. correlated to group size, enclosure size, and a diet with less vegetables. Further attention to zoo C.D. Sullivan, E.M. Slade, M. Bai, K. Shi & P. elephant weight management is recommended Riordan with regular longitudinal monitoring by body Evidence of forest restoration success and condition scoring. © 2018 The Authors. the conservation value of community-owned forests in Southwest China using dung beetles R.W. Sites, P. Lago & G.A. Gale as indicators Associations of scarab beetles (Insecta: PLoS ONE 13 (2018) e0204764 Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) with dung of four Abstract. Protection of the world’s remaining species of mammals in Khao Yai National forests and biodiversity is a matter of global Park, Thailand concern. Yunnan, China is home to China’s only Raffles Bulletin of Zoology 66 (2018) 87-95 mainland tropical rainforests, and 20% of China’s Abstract. To determine if dung from various total biodiversity. Despite restoration measures species of native mammals are attractive to and establishment of new protected areas, this species of Scarabaeidae differentially in a region is still experiencing biodiversity loss due seasonal evergreen forest in Thailand, we used to inadequate management and monitoring. We pitfall traps baited with fresh dung of four species evaluate restoration success of China’s tropical (barking deer, sambar deer, Asian elephant, pig- forests in Xishuangbanna National Nature tailed macaque) and an unbaited control. The Reserve (XSBN-NNR), Yunnan, China using pitfalls were deployed in Khao Yai National Park dung beetles as an indicator taxon. We sampled for 24 hours in March 2010. All totaled, 9 genera across a land-use gradient of human alteration: and 23 species of scarab beetles were collected. protected forest, restored forest, community Of these, Loboparius schereri (Petrovitz) owned forest, and rubber plantation. We collected represents a new country record with a known 3,748 dung beetles from 21 species over a 3 range to the northwest of Thailand. Overall month period. Multivariate analyses revealed scarab abundance and richness each differed unique assemblages in each land-use category, significantly (p< 0.001) among bait types. From but with restored forest most similar to protected a multivariate perspective, discriminant function areas, suggesting restoration success in this analysis computed four axes to distinguish the region. Community forests were more diverse community of scarab beetles that was attracted than plantations, suggesting that community
51 forests may be a valuable and practical phant dung coffee using static headspace conservation tool in this region. Most species gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and were generalists, although some had dietary and chemometrics habitat preferences. Furthermore, dietary niche Molecules 23 (2018) e1910 breadths were, on average, higher in disturbed Abstract. Elephant dung coffee (Black Ivory areas, suggesting that disturbance may result Coffee) is a unique Thai coffee produced in dietary changes. We show that restoration of from Arabica coffee cherries consumed by tropical forests appears to be successful for a key Asian elephants and collected from their ecological and biological indicator group- dung feces. In this work, elephant dung coffee and beetles. Furthermore, community-owned forests controls were analyzed using static headspace appear to be valuable and practical method of gas chromatography hyphenated with mass maintaining ecosystem health and biodiversity spectrometry (SHS GC-MS), and chemometric in the region. Future management in this region approaches were applied for multivariate analysis would likely benefit from encouragement to and the selection of marker compounds that maintain com- munity-owned forests, economic are characteristic of the coffee. Seventy-eight incentives for restoring farmland to forest, and volatile compounds belonging to 13 chemical increased environmental monitoring across the classes were tentatively identified, including six land-use gradient. © 2018 The Authors. alcohols, five aldehydes, one carboxylic acid, three esters, 17 furans, one furanone, 13 ketones, N.R. Talukdar, B. Singh & P. Choudhury two oxazoles, four phenolic compounds, 14 Conservation status of some endangered pyrazines, one pyridine, eight pyrroles and three mammals in Barak Valley, Northeast India sulfur-containing compounds. Moreover, four Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity 11 (2018) potential discriminant markers of elephant dung 167-172 coffee, including 3-methyl-1-butanol, 2-methyl- Abstract. From the ancient time, the Northeast 1-butanol, 2-furfurylfuran and 3-penten-2-one part of India is rich in biodiversity because of its were established. The proposed method may be diverse topographic, climatic features. Different useful for elephant dung coffee authentication varieties of mammalian, avian, and herpetofauna and quality control. are endemic to this region. Unfortunately, life of this diverse flora and fauna is in jeopardy due A.A.E. van der Geer, G.A. Lyras, P. Mitteroecker to serious anthropogenic pressure. Once a large & R.D.E. MacPhee number of globally important species sustained From Jumbo to Dumbo: Cranial shape in the Barak Valley. However, with the increasing changes in elephants and hippos during population and subsequent demand on natural phyletic dwarfing resources and developing activities, many of the Evolutionary Biology 45 (2018) 303-317 species are no more found in the valley. If the Abstract. Members of the mammalian families conservation action is not initiated, the remaining Elephantidae and Hippopotamidae (extant and species will also vanish with time. This article extinct elephants and hippos) include extinct highlights the distribution and conservation dwarf species that display up to 98% decrease problems of four endangered species in the in body size compared to probable ancestral Barak Valley of Assam, India and recommended sources. In addition to differences in body mass, conservation tactics. © 2018 National Science skulls of these species consistently display Museum of Korea (NSMK) and Korea National distinctive morphological changes, including Arboretum (KNA), Publishing Services by major reduction of pneumatised areas in dwarf Elsevier. elephants and shortened muzzles in dwarf hippos. Here we build on previous studies of island dwarf P. Thammarat, C. Kulsing, K. Wongravee, N. species by conducting a geometric morphometric Leepipatpiboon & T. Nhujak analysis of skull morphology and allometry Identification of volatile compounds and in target taxa, living and extinct, and elaborate selection of discriminant markers for ele- on the relation between skull size and body
52 size. Our analysis indicates that skull size and not sufficient) for the evolution of large body body size within terrestrial placental mammals sizes in proboscideans. © 2018 The Authors. scale almost isometrically (PGLS major axis slope 0.906). Furthermore, skull shape in dwarf S. Vijayakrishnan, M.A. Kumar, G. Umapathy, species differed from both their ancestors and Vinod Kumar & A. Sinha the juveniles of extant species. In insular dwarf Physiological stress responses in wild Asian hippos, the skull was subject to considerable elephants Elephas maximus in a human- anatomical reorganisation in response to distinct dominated landscape in the Western Ghats, selection pressures affecting early ontogeny (the southern India “island syndrome”). By contrast, skull shape in General and Comparative Endocrinology 266 adult insular dwarf elephants can be explained (2018) 150-156 well by allometric effects; selection on size may Abstract. Increasing anthropogenic pressures thus have been the main driver of skull shape on forests, especially in the tropical regions in dwarf elephants. We suggest that a tightly of the world, have restricted several large constrained growth trajectory, without major mammalian species such as the Asian elephant anatomical reorganization of the skull, allowed to fragmented habitats within human-dominated for flexible adaptations to changing environments landscapes. In this study, we assessed the effects and was one of the factors underlying the of an anthropogenic landscape and its associated evolutionary success of insular dwarf elephants. conflict with humans on the physiological stress © 2018 Reprinted by permission from Springer responses displayed by Asian elephants in the Nature. Anamalai Hills of the Western Ghats mountains in south India. We have quantified faecal J.M. Vazquez, M. Sulak, S. Chigurupati & V.J. glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) concentrations Lynch in focal individual elephants within and A zombie LIF gene in elephants is upregulated across herds, inhabiting both anthropogenic by TP53 to induce apoptosis in response to and natural habitats, and evaluated their DNA damage physiological responses to different socio- Cell Reports 24 (2018) 1765-1776 ecological situations between November 2013 Abstract. Large-bodied organisms have more and April 2014. Physiological stress responses cells that can potentially turn cancerous than varied significantly among the tested elephant small-bodied organisms, imposing an increased age- and sex categories but not across different risk of developing cancer. This expectation types of social organisation. Adults generally predicts a positive correlation between body size showed higher FGM concentrations, even in and cancer risk; however, there is no correlation the absence of stressors, than did any other age between body size and cancer risk across species category. Males also appeared to have higher (‘‘Peto’s paradox’’). Here, we show that elephants stress responses than did females. Although and their extinct relatives (proboscideans) may there was no significant variation in mean stress have resolved Peto’s paradox in part through levels between elephants on the plateau in the refunctionalizing a leukemia inhibitory factor absence of human interactions and those in pseudogene (LIF6) with pro-apoptotic functions. adjacent, relatively undisturbed forest habitats, LIF6 is transcriptionally upregulated by TP53 FGM concentrations increased significantly for in response to DNA damage and translocates adult and subadult individuals as well as for to the mitochondria where it induces apoptosis. calves following drives, during which elephants Phylogenetic analyses of living and extinct were driven off aggressively by people. Our proboscidean LIF6 genes indicates that its study emphasises the general importance of TP53 response element evolved coincident understanding individual variation in physiology with the evolution of large body sizes in the and behaviour within a population of a seriously proboscidean stem lineage. These results suggest threatened mammalian species, the Asian that refunctionalizing of a proapoptotic LIF elephant, and specifically highlights the need for pseudogene may have been permissive (although long-term monitoring of the stress physiology and
53 behavioural responses of individual elephants required to efficiently monitor and improve across both human-dominated and natural the welfare of elephants in captivity. © 2018 landscapes. Such studies would not only provide Universities Federation for Animal Welfare. comprehensive insights into the adaptive biology of elephants in changing ecological regimes Z. Yang, Y. Chen, J. Li, L. Wang, Y. Piao, Z. Song but also aid in the development of effective & K. Shi management and conservation strategies for Individual identification and population endangered populations of the species. © 2018 size assessment for Asian elephant based on Elsevier Inc. camera-trapping techniques Acta Theriologica Sinica 38 (2018) 18-27 E. Williams, C.L. Chadwick, L. Yon & L. Asher Abstract. We studied and assessed the minimum A review of current indicators of welfare in population number of Asian elephants (Elephas captive elephants (Loxodonta africana and maximus) in Shangyong Sub-Reserve (SYSR), Elephas maximus) Xishuangbanna National Nature Reserve in Animal Welfare 27 (2018) 235-249 Yunnan Province, China using camera-traps. Abstract. Concerns over elephant welfare in We set up 27 camera-traps in SYSR from UK zoos have implications for their future in January to April 2016, which ran for a total of captivity. To monitor improvements made to 621 camera-trap days and obtained 1944 sample elephant welfare in UK zoos, non-invasive, valid photographs. Within this period individual and reliable indicators of welfare are needed. camera units were active for between 9–52 full Using a rapid review strategy and critical days (mean = 24). We identified a minimum appraisal tool, we aimed to appraise evidence number of 69 unique individual elephants from from peer-reviewed literature on potential welfare photographs (38 adults, 16 sub-adults, 15 calves) indicators for captive elephants. Scopus, Web of in SYSR. We detected 7 Asian elephants that Knowledge and Ovid were searched in January moved actively across the China-Laos border. 2014 using terms relevant to captive elephants The advantages and disadvantages of our and welfare assessment. Inclusion and exclusion camera-trap methodology compared with those criteria were applied and remaining articles were of other techniques for individual identification critically appraised against a specially designed is discussed, and we explore the potential for welfare indicator appraisal tool. Thirty-seven robust methods for fast, real-time and effective unique indicators of welfare were extracted from population evaluation in the future. This study 30 peer-reviewed papers which met the inclusion strengthened our understanding of Asian elephant criteria. Behavioural measures of welfare (n = 21) status in SYSR and provides scientific evidence were more common than either physical (n = 11) to support conservation planning and actions. or physiological (n = 5) measures. Stereotypies [MAIN TEXT IN CHINESE] were the most frequently used behavioural measure, glucocorticoids were the most S. Yoshida, S. Suga, S. Ishikawa, Y. Mukai, K. frequently used physiological measure and body Tsuyuguchi, Y. Inoue, T. Yamamoto, & T. Wada condition scores were the most frequently used Mycobacterium caprae infection in captive physical measure. There was most support for the Borneo elephant, Japan following indicators of improved welfare state: Emerging Infectious Diseases 24 (2018) 1937- reduced stereotypies, reduced glucocorticoids 1940 and improved body condition scores. Additional Abstract. In 2016, disseminated tuberculosis measures which require further validation but caused by Mycobacterium caprae was diagnosed had strong associations with the most supported in a captive Borneo elephant in Japan. The measures, and thus have potential use in welfare bacterium was initially identified from clinical assessment, were: increased lying rest and isolates. An isolate collected during a relapse positive social interactions. Further validation showed isoniazid monoresistance and a codon of the described measures is needed, but this 315 katG mutation. information forms a crucial part of the knowledge
54 News and Briefs Gajah 49 (2018) 55-64
News Briefs
Compiled by Jayantha Jayewardene
Biodiversity and Elephant Conservation Trust, Rajagiriya, Sri Lanka E-mail: [email protected]
1. Six pygmy elephants found dead died due On July 5, a canteen has received its latest guests to disease (Malaysia) -- 20 Asian elephants. They enjoyed their meal, which lasted around two hours. Authorities hope The Star – 5.7.2018 the open-air canteens can help draw elephants away from human settlements to prevent conflicts The six endangered pygmy elephants found between the animal and villagers. dead on Sabah’s east coast between April and May had died due to diseases, said Deputy Chief The wild Asian elephant is an endangered Minister Christina Liew. Liew said that this was species. In China, the animals mainly live in determined by postmortems conducted on the Xishuangbanna, Pu’er and Lincang in Yunnan. elephants, but did not say what disease caused The population of the species in China has grown the deaths. from over 170 in the 1990s to around 300 today.
The Tourism, Culture and Environment Minister 3. Baby Asian elephants are being crippled by said that a circular has since been sent to all snares (Cambodia) stakeholders on the need to protect elephants in the state. “Elephants are very precious to Sabah, National Geographic – 12.7.2018 because they are tourist attractions and because they are endangered species,” she said. “We Cambodia’s Cardamom Mountains, blanketed understand that sometimes these animals will in emerald-green rain forest, should be a haven encroach into plantations and housing areas but for endangered Asian elephants. But cameras do not kill them,” Liew said. triggered by motion sensors reveal that most of the baby elephants in the region have been 2. “Canteens” ease tensions between elephants injured, some fatally, by wire traps intended for and humans (China) other animals.
XinhuaNet – 12.7.2018 Thousands of snares litter the stomping grounds of the Cardamoms’ resident elephants. Hunters Environmental workers in southwest China’s set them in order to feed the nation’s growing Yunnan Province have opened a number of demand for bush meat from illegally caught wild “canteens” for wild Asian elephants to reduce animals, especially wild pigs and deer. conflicts between villagers and the endangered animal. In Pu’er City, more than 253 hectares of Of the seven babies less than a year old that sugarcane, bananas and maize have been planted the researchers identified, four could be seen for the elephants. hobbling with severe limps and wires cinching their lower legs. The encircling wires restrict This year, staff from Xishuangbanna National the blood supply, and the deep cuts are prone to Nature Reserve have created a total of around infections that can be fatal. Two calf carcasses 100 hectares of the elephant’s favorite food, such with injuries like the ones recorded by the camera as bamboo and paper mulberry, in three different traps were recently reported by local villagers. sites.
55 4. Yok Đôn National Park ends elephant 6. A dangerous place for elephants (Indonesia) riding (Vietnam) Global Indonesian Voices – 16.7.2018 Viet Nam News – 13.7.2018 Conservationists are worried that Indonesia As of this month, Yok Đôn National Park will will continue to see a decreasing number of no longer offer elephant riding for tourists elephants amidst no serious efforts made to visiting the Central Highland province of Đắk prevent the occurrence. Found mostly in Sumatra Lắk. Under an agreement signed by the national and Kalimantan, Indonesia is currently home to park and Animals Asia Foundation on Friday, the at least 1740 elephants belonging to two sub- park committed to develop an alternative tourism species of Asian elephant. activity designed around watching elephants in social groups within an elephant sanctuary. More than 1000 Sumatran elephants are reportedly found in Sumatra, the country’s The Animals Asia Foundation gave the national largest islands. But, the number of elephants in park US$ 65,000 to support the transition towards Indonesia has fallen over the past 25 years due to elephant watching tourism from July 2018 to different reasons. July 2023. The alternative benefited not only the elephants but also their owners, tamers and local Many of the animals, which included a pregnant community. There are 45 captive elephants in one, reportedly died from poisoning, and crime Đắk Lắk Province. For years, elephant riding has groups were suspected as culprits. Other causes been a popular tourism activity for visitors to the were said to include natural death and the decline province. in conserved forest areas due to the opening of new plantations, notably palm oil estates. 5. Sumatran elephant ‘poisoned’ in Indonesia palm plantation 7. Rajaji National Park gets soil ramps for safe passage of elephants (India) The Express Tribune – 13.7.2018 The Press Trust of India – 17.7.2018 A critically endangered elephant has been found dead in a palm oil plantation on Indonesia’s Over a half-dozen soil ramps have been built Sumatra island in what is suspected to be a along the 18-km corridor between Motichur deliberate poisoning, an official said Friday. and Kansrau ranges of the Rajaji Tiger Reserve The 10-year-old female Sumatran elephant was for the safe passage of elephants. The stretch, found in Jambo Reuhat village in North Aceh on which passes through the heart of the reserve, Thursday -- the third of its species to be found had become notorious as the “killer track” due dead of suspected poisoning in the same palm to frequent deaths of elephants in collision with plantation since 2015. speeding trains on the route.
“We found fruits and a pouch with traces of Twenty-five elephants were killed after collision powder inside the animal,” Aceh conservation with trains along the track in the last 18 years. centre head Sapto Aji Prabowo told AFP. “We The ramps, made of raw earth, will give a safe suspect the death was caused by deliberate passage to elephants on the route. A total of 15 poisoning because her liver and spleen turned such ramps are to be built at identified spots dark, a classic sign of poison,” he added. between Suswa rail bridge Haridwar and Kansrau out of which seven are complete, Sonkar said. Sumatran elephants are a critically endangered He said the ramps were built in just a month at species. Rampant deforestation to create a cost of Rs 3.5 lakh and funds were awaited plantations has reduced their natural habitat and from the Centre under its elephant project for the brought them into conflict with humans. construction of the remaining eight ramps.
56 8. Dong Nai adds more electric fences to internal bleeding inside the abdomen suggesting protect wild elephants (Vietnam) several blood vessels were damaged.
Vietnam Net Bridge – 18.7.2018 Pygmy elephants are baby-faced with huge ears, plump bellies and long tails that often drag on Dong Nai Province will add more than 20km the ground. There are only an estimated 1500 left of electric fence to minimise conflicts between in the wild, according to environmental group wild elephants and residents in the area. The WWF. They roam the rainforest in Borneo, the Department of Planning and Investment has world’s third-largest island, which is shared been working with various units to evaluate between Malaysia, Indonesia and Brunei. the project. The new fences will extend from Dinh Quan District to Vinh Cuu District. The 10. Killing of Myanmar elephants rise in a investment of VNĐ20 billion (US$867) was decade sourced from state and local budgets. Eleven Myanmar – 24.7.2018 According to Dong Nai Province’s Forest Department, a herd of 16 elephants has damaged Myanmar’s wild elephants face alarming rate of crops and orchards in Dinh Quan District 35 extinction by hunters during the 2010 to 2018. times since the beginning of the year. Nguyen Around 123 wild elephants have been killed so Viet Phuc, a farmer in Dinh Quan District, said far, according to Director of Mandalay Region six wild elephants had destroyed his banana crop Forestry Department Tint Swe. in only one night. “According to the statistics I’ve gathered, during Due to conflicts between wild elephants and 2010 to 2018, about 123 elephants have been people, a 50-km electric fence was erected from killed. It could lead to the extinction of wild Dinh Quan District to Vinh Cuu District in July elephants. It reached an alarming rate. We all last year with capital of VNĐ85 billion (US$3.75 need to join hands to protect these elephants,” million). The 50km electric fence is part of the said Tint Swe. elephant conservation project, which began in 2104 and will end in 2020. Poachers escaped without getting to carved the dead elephants for parts. Elephant skin as well as 9. Endangered pygmy elephant shot dead for ivory or tusks have long been part of the illegal destroying crops on Borneo Island (Malaysia) wildlife trade and the demand of elephant skin had increased recently, leading to the rise in Newsweek – 26.7.2018 elephant killings. Some elephants were killed in wars waged against humans over land and A villager in a remote settlement shot and killed resources. According to government figures, an endangered pygmy elephant on Borneo island since 2010, at least 35 people and 95 elephants after it destroyed palm oil trees. Local wildlife have died this way. officials are now investigating the elephant’s death after the body was found on the side of a 11. Malaysia, Indonesia collaborate on road Monday on the Malaysian part of Borneo. conservation effort
“(The elephant) was killed out of revenge for The Star – 1.8.2018 destroying crops,” Tuuga said. An autopsy of the body determined that its cause of death was from Partners in Kalimantan and Sabah continue to a bullet hole in the right side of its abdomen. work together to secure wildlife corridors under The wound was traced and it led to the finding the “Heart of Borneo” initiative. The landscape of a bullet pellet inside the abdomen. Some parts of south Sabah and North Kalimantan not only of the intestines were torn. There was a severe serves as a border between the two countries, but
57 also as key corridors that are important to the Prior to this, solar fencing and tunnel fencing movement of Borneo elephants. were adopted to keep tuskers away. As many as 35 persons have lost lives in Jhapa from tusker Recognising the importance of protecting these attacks, while nine elephants were killed by corridors, WWF-Malaysia signed an agreement locals in the past seven years. with the Sabah Forestry Department and Sabah Wildlife Department last October to secure and 13. Bhutan has 678 elephants protect key elephant habitats in the transboundary area. As a part of the Heart of Borneo initiative, Kuensel – 13.8.2018 the agreement served as a precursor to the trans- boundary work between Malaysia and Indonesia. Bhutan has 678 elephants roaming the wild, an increase from 513 elephants in 2011. This is Sabah Softwoods was selected as one of the according to the second edition of the National host plantations due to their long-standing Elephant Survey report launched yesterday. commitment towards conservation. In 2013, the plantation company agreed to set aside The Department of Forest and Park Services approximately 1067 ha of its land to establish (DoFPS) and World Wildlife Fund (WWF) a wildlife corridor to promote connectivity conducted the survey. Chief forestry officer with between the fragmented Ulu Kalumpang Forest Nature Conservation Division, Sonam Wangdi, Reserve, to the Ulu-Segama Malua main forest said that the increase in the number could be due complex. to the nation’s conservations efforts. He added that since the elephants were trans-boundary This enables elephants to access larger foraging animals, they could have moved to the habitats in areas away from human activity, which therefore Bhutan. “We can see that along the Indian border, helps to reduce conflict with humans as a whole. the once elephant habitats are now villages. And Sabah Softwoods has also set aside a corridor to the habitats in Bhutan are strongly protected. This allow elephants to move through another area also shows that we have succeeded in protecting being newly planted with oil palm. the habitat.”
12. Work on elephant corridor starts, Province 14. WWF urges stronger elephant conser- 1 govt allocates budget (Nepal) vation (Cambodia)
The Himalayan Times – 9.8.2018 The Khmer Times – 14.8.2018
Conceived as an effective measure to reduce WWF Cambodia yesterday urged conservation human-elephant conflicts, work related to the groups to unite and protect elephants by battling elephant corridor project has picked up the pace illegal logging and wildlife hunting. in Jhapa. WWF Cambodia said that elephants play a crucial The government of Province 1 allocated Rs 60 role in balancing ecosystems by maintaining million for the project, which will appropriate biodiversity. It said that elephants continue to some 152 km of forest land and river banks face extinction due to habitat destruction and from Jhapa’s Kachankabal Rural Municipality to conflict with humans, including poaching. Bahundangi of Mechinagar Municipality. “Together we can save the Asian elephant by not Once the corridor is constructed, it is expected to eating bushmeat and by not using luxury wood,” minimise damage to human life and property from it said. There are about 70 elephants in Cambodia, wild tuskers keeping them away from settlement including 40 in his province. He said that wild areas while conserving the bio diversity of the elephants continue to face loss of habitat due to region. deforestation.
58 15. Felda worker finds out elephants really Since the early-1990s, scientists have documented never forget (Malaysia) the deaths of more than 100 captive elephant calves from EEHV, a mammalian herpes virus The Sun Daily – 15.8.2018 that can cause acute haemorrhagic disease and that had been identified in 1990. It is said that elephants never forget. Felda worker Mohd Khairul Abdul Karim, 33, found out about The virus has since then also turned up in captive this the hard way. elephant calves in Borneo, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Singapore and Thailand, prompting some At about 10:30 pm yesterday, he drove his Toyota scientists to suggest that EEHV affects only Avanza mini MPV into a herd of elephants captive elephants and that it had crossed into at Batu 8 of Jalan Mawai here while returning Asian elephants from African elephants. home to Taman Sedili, hitting a leg of one of the elephants. He had not noticed the animals, a 17. Alert helps train save jumbos in nick of small herd of three or four of them, on the road time (India) as he was driving with his low lights on and the road was dark. The Telegraph India – 27.8.2018
He injured his lips, eyelids and left cheek in the The Northeast Frontier Railway on Sunday incident, which needed 20 stitches at the hospital tweeted video footage, showing a herd of later. After he knocked the elephant, Mohd elephants along tracks under the Mahananda Khairul alighted from the vehicle and in a state of Wildlife Sanctuary and claiming that they could panic ran into the jungle for fear of being attacked be saved because the Forest Department had by the herd, but the elephants also disappeared shared the animals’ movement on time. into the jungle. The train stopped 250 m from the elephants, A married couple who had come along, helped which were on the tracks on Friday evening and to call an ambulance, he said. “While waiting for waited for 10 minutes for the herd to move away. the ambulance, the herd of elephants returned and stomped my vehicle until the front portion The railways, which had often been blamed in was wrecked and then returned to the jungle,” he the past for elephant deaths on the tracks in the said. Dooars, said on Sunday that if the movement of herds was informed on time by the forest 16. Lethal virus detected in wild elephants department, the animals could be saved. (India) The train didn’t knock down the herd as the The Telegraph India – 27.8.2018 information about the animals was shared with the drivers in advance. We are proud of the driver Scientists have detected multiple cases of a lethal and the assistant driver, a railway official said. haemorrhagic viral infection for the first time in wild elephant calves in India and raised concerns 18. Sabah steps up efforts to destroy jumbo that it could threaten the long-term survival of snare traps some Asian elephant populations. The Star Online – 28.8.2018 Wildlife officials in India have identified 13 lethal cases of elephant endotheliotropic herpes Efforts to find and destroy snare traps responsible virus (EEHV) between 2013 and 2017, eight for a number of injuries and deaths of Sabah’s among them in elephant calves living among critically endangered pygmy elephants have free-ranging wild herds, three in camp-raised been carried out, says state Tourism, Culture and orphans and two in captive-born calves. Environment Minister Christina Liew.
59 She said wildlife officials had been on the ground The swamp is located on a migratory route and doing this for some time. “We hope plantation the animals may have become bogged down and owners and anyone else who comes across snare exhausted battling through the plants and then traps can help by destroying them or informing drowned. the authorities immediately for the sake of our wildlife.” She said the decreasing number of the Sri Lanka considers elephants a national treasure pygmy elephants was alarming. and they are protected by law. However, human- elephant conflict near wildlife sanctuaries have 19. Worry over live wire deaths of elephants led to the deaths of 375 people in the past five (India) years, according to official figures. Enraged villagers have retaliated by slaughtering nearly The Telegraph India – 2.9.2018 1200 of the beasts.
Conservationists have expressed concern 21. Elephant dies as neck gets stuck in tree over the rise in cases of elephants’ death due trunk (India) to electrocution. On Friday, a tusker died of electrocution after it had come in contact with The Times of India – 10.9.2018 live wire trap laid by suspected poachers in the Denguri forest. Electrocution is fast emerging as A female elephant aged about 15–20 years was a major cause of elephants’ mortality in the state. found dead on the forest boundary at Jambukandi near Anaikatti on Sunday evening. Forest These long-ranging elephants perish mostly due department officials said the elephant died after to poaching, electrocution, train collision and its neck got trapped in a tree trunk as it was road mishap besides by falling into open wells. moving down a slope. Odisha has lost 167 elephants to electrocution since 2000. The decade following 2000 year Anti-poaching watchers, guards and foresters witnessed 77 electrocution deaths, mostly due to attached to Coimbatore forest range came the sagging and live power lines, according to the across the carcass of the animal during a patrol Wildlife Society of Orissa. at Jambukandi area on Sunday around 6:30 pm. The elephant was moving down a slope and hit The state has lost 90 elephants to electrocution against a tree. Its neck got stuck in a tree trunk from April 1, 2010 till August 21, 2018, averaging and died. A herd of elephants were roaming in nearly 11 elephants a year. Before 2010, the majority the area. of the unnatural elephant deaths, approximately 80%, were attributed to the sagging power lines. The forest officials have left the carcasses at Since 2010, of the 90 electrocution deaths, 33 the spot itself. “We will bring a veterinarian on were due to sagging lines and 57 to live wire Monday morning to perform post-mortem.” poaching. 22. Drone camera made elephant go berserk, 20. Sri Lanka probes deaths of wild elephants says activist (India)
Phys.Org – 3.9.2018 The Hindu – 16.9.2018
Sri Lankan authorities on Monday began The recent incident in which a wild bull elephant investigating the deaths of wild elephants in the entered a human habitat near Iritty here and east of the island after pulling seven carcasses out caused injuries to Forest Department personnel of a marsh. Six out of the seven animals found in and the death of a domestic animal was due to the swamp were young—below the age of 12— the use of drone camera, according to an animal and he suspected that many more may have died enthusiast. there.
60 In his complaint to the Divisional Forest Officer the tea industry is facing economic challenges, (Flying Squad) here, Manoj Madhavan, a member Mills said it was an opportune time to engage of a group that campaigns for the prevention of more stakeholders. This will create a paradigm cruelty against elephants, said the animal had shift towards more ecologically sustainable tea entered the Haji Road area at Vellakode after that is also economically viable. “The tea regions getting panicked by a drone camera deployed by are among the last strongholds for wild Asian the Forest Department to track the movement of elephants and what we do now on and around elephants. tea estates will determine whether or not our grandchildren will see elephants in the wild,” she The wild elephant had gone berserk then, said. overturning a department vehicle and killing a domestic animal. Incidentally, the video captured 24. Seismic sensors to warn train drivers of by the camera was extensively circulated on elephants (India) social media. According to the complaint, the animal was petrified by the sound of the drone The Tribune – 19.9.2018 camera, leaving it panicked. However, it calmed down once the camera was stopped and returned With increasing incidents of elephants getting to the forest later. killed after being hit by locomotives along railway tracks that pass through the tuskers’ 23. Indian tea estate gets world’s first natural habitats, Central Scientific Instruments ‘elephant-friendly’ tag Organisation (CSIO) here has developed a seismic-based sensor system to track their Asia Times – 18.9.2018 movement and trigger an alert. A pilot system has been installed. Nuxalbari, based in eastern India, has become the first large grower in the world to produce It has been developed in collaboration with the “Certified Elephant Friendly Tea” after research Wildlife Institute of India under a grant from by the Wildlife Friendly Enterprise Network the World Wide Fund for Nature. The system (WFEN) and the University of Montana in the consists of a number of interlinked seismic United States. activity sensing nodes laid a few inches below the earth’s surface along areas that are prone to Nuxalbari is a 1200-acre tea estate in Darjeeling elephant movements. in the east Indian state of West Bengal which is owned and operated by women. The certification A monitoring node with embedded algorithms is a unique program that combines efforts to discerns the actual signal of elephant movement mitigate climate change, educate the stakeholders from other man-made or animal noises or natural – especially children – on the environment and to seismic activities. The pattern of elephant seismic provide a sanctuary for wild elephants. signature is stored locally at each sensing node and the key information is transmitted to a central Lisa Mills from the University of Montana server for generating alerts. pointed out that elephant-friendly tea aims to decrease one of the main sources of mortality 25. Baby elephant stuck in mud freed after for elephants. It mitigates issues that impact 24-hour operation (Sri Lanka) elephants such as habitat loss and degradation, poisoning from chemicals and other factors. Adaderana – 26.9.2018
Established in 1884, the Nuxalbari Tea Estate An elephant calf, which had been stuck in the serves as a model for elephant conservation, mud for several days, has been rescued yesterday biodiversity and ecological practices that can (26) following a 24-hour rescue mission in the be replicated in other tea growing areas. Since Sooriyapura area. According to the Kantale
61 Wildlife Officers, this five-year-old elephant calf the Wingabaw elephant conservation camp 90 has been trapped in mud for three days near the minutes north of Yangon, has become home for Janaranjana Wewa in Sooriyapura area on Ella- six baby elephants and a number of adults. Kantale road. The camp opened both for tourism, and as a Following the medical treatment, given by the place to take care of the elephants. And care Giritale veterinary surgeons, the rescued elephant they need because these babies’ short lives have calf has regained its health. been anything but peaceful. They are orphans – castaways in an alarming and growing threat 26. Demand for ‘lucky’ hair puts Vietnam’s to Myanmar’s Asian elephant population; the elephants in jeopardy killing and skinning of their adult folk.
Agence France-Presse – 26.9.2018 Less reported is the surging demand for elephant skin in China that is fuelling a spike in elephant “I’ll cut a hair off right in front of you here, so you killings in Myanmar. North and northeastern can be sure it’s not fake,” said the saleswoman Myanmar share a 2200 km border with China. in Tri A village in the country’s forested central Myanmar’s Asian elephant population is critical: highlands. A fondness for rings and bracelets India aside, no country is home to as many. embedded with elephant hairs is fuelling a worrying fashion fad in a country notorious 28. Five jumbos swept away by flood water in for its illicit wildlife trade, from rhino horns to Mahanadi (India) pangolin scales, tiger teeth and bear bile. Odisha TV – 15.10.2018 The trend is putting a strain on the few surviving elephants in Vietnam whose hairs are plucked At least five elephants were swept away by or tails cut off by poachers, leaving the animals flood waters in Mahanadi River near Mundali without the crucial appendage used to swat flies in Cuttack this morning.The incident took place and keep their backsides clean. when a herd of around 20 elephants were crossing the river while going from Athagarh to Chandaka With just 80 elephants left in captivity and about forest. 100 in the wild – down from as many as 2,000 in 1990 – It is suspected that most of the tails are The wild elephants used to cross the river on a being smuggled in from neighbouring countries daily basis but due to heavy flow of flood water or as far afield as Africa. in the river following incessant rain triggered under the impact of cyclone Titli, the jumbos The appetite for elephant parts is a cruel trend were swept away today. familiar to much of the region. In nearby Myanmar elephants are killed to feed a growing 29. Keeping watch on elephant herd (China) demand at home and in China for their skin, believed to cure eczema or acne. NHK World – 29.10.2018
27. Poachers are killing Myanmar’s elephants Authorities in China are turning to technology in increasing numbers to protect villagers from a herd of 100 wild elephants. Drones have been deployed to track The Irish Times – 27.9.2018 the animals, giving residents time to prepare. People who live in this village in southwest China Seeing a group of elephant calves up close, are troubled by the elephants’ frequent visits. The eyes calm and trunks playfully sniffing the video shows a giant creature taking a leisurely ground and each other, their lives seem nothing walk between houses. but serene. Since opening in November 2016,
62 It is swinging a bag of corn that it has scavenged. care centre, the hospital is designed to treat The villager says an elephant destroyed his door. injured, sick or geriatric elephants and is equipped Local forestry authorities hope unmanned drones with a medical hoist for lifting elephants, as also will help residents stay safe and prevent damage. an elephant restraining device with a dedicated They plan to track the elephants’ movements and indoor treatment enclosure for long duration analyze activity patterns in a bid to issue early medical procedures. An observation deck will warnings about an approaching herd. allow veterinary students and interns to observe and learn about elephant’s behaviour and 30. Odisha lost 179 elephants to electrocution treatment from a safe distance. since 2000 (India) 32. Poachers kill 15 wild elephants in first 9 Down to Earth Magazine – 31.10.2018 months, say officials (Myanmar)
Electrocution is killing the pachyderms of Odisha, The Myanmar Times – 16.11.2018 once prized for its war elephants. Information provided by the Wildlife Society of Odisha Fifteen wild elephants were killed by poachers (WSO) reveals a picture of criminal neglect on from January to September this year, while five part of the state authorities to prevent the deaths others died of natural causes, the Nature Wildlife of the animals due to electrocution. Conservation Department said. Many of the wild elephants that were killed lived in Ayeyarwady The data shows that since 2000, Odisha has lost and Yangon regions, where poaching remains a total of 179 elephants to electrocution. Between rampant. In Ayeyarwady alone, five elephants 2000 and 2010, there were 77 electrocution were killed by poachers while two died natural deaths, mostly due to sagging power lines deaths. In Yangon, three elephants were killed by averaging less than 8 elephants in a year. poachers while one died of natural causes.
However, from 2010 onwards, the situation In 2016, 17 wild elephants were killed across turned even worse. “From April 1, 2010 to the country from January to September, and that October 27, 2018 (8 years & 7 months), the state figure rose to 25 for the same period last year. has lost 102 elephants to electrocution, averaging In Myanmar, 80% of elephants are domesticated, about 12 elephants in a year,” the letter notes. and only 20% remain in the wild. It also points out that this uptick in deaths has come about despite some preventive steps being 33. 32 elephants recorded in Gelephu (Bhutan) taken by the government, including allocation of adequate funds to strengthen power lines. Kuensel – 28.11.2018
31. India’s first elephant hospital opens in It took a dozen forest officials and eight farmers Mathura (India) of Shershong gewog in Sarpang at least eight hours to chase a herd of seven elephants away The Business Standard – 16.11.2018 from the settlement in Shershong yesterday. Among the herd were three juvenile elephant and India’s first specialized hospital for elephants was four adults. The herd was chased into the forest on Friday formally opened by Agra Divisional above Umling gewog. Commissioner Anil Kumar at Farah block’s Churmura village. The unique medical centre Last week, it was villagers of Pelrithang in offers wireless digital X-ray, laser treatment, Gelephu gewog that spent a night chasing away dental X-ray, thermal imaging, ultra-sonography, the elephants from the field. Farmers started by hydrotherapy and quarantine facilities. 10 pm and whistle, crackers and loud drum noise could be herd until 4 am. Located close to the elephant conservation and
63 Singye Wangchuk said there are a total of 32 and people alike panicked. Elephants ran hap- elephants in Gelephu, Samtenling, Shershong hazardly, looking for an exit, while people and Chuzagang. Eight are in Pelrithang, three desperately tried to seek cover and avoid being in Dzomlingthang, six in Dechenpelri, another trampled. Tragedy followed. eight in the Airport area, six in Chuzagang and one in Shershong. In total, elephants killed 13 people between September 2017 and February 2018. In March, 34. Wild elephant killed with poison arrow in the deaths stopped, in large part thanks to efforts Ayeyarwady (Myanmar) by the IUCN and the office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). The Myanmar Times – 28.11.2018 These organizations teamed up to teach people living on and around the corridors how to cope A 15-year-old wild elephant was killed by with future elephant encounters and how to better suspected poachers in Pathein township of understand elephants themselves. Ayeyarwady Region, the regional Forest Depart- ment said. Residents notified officials in the area 36. Fence built along China-Laos railway to the elephant had been killed with a poison arrow. protect wild elephants
A combined team of officers from the department, Xinhua – 3.12.2018 forest police, Elephant Emergency Response Unit and police found the dead elephant, which Builders are establishing a fence along a newly had been skinned, in Chaung Thar forest. The completed section of a railway to connect China male elephant was about, had an 3.4 m girth, and with Laos in efforts to protect wild elephants. was 2.4 m tall. China Railway’s Kunming bureau said on Monday that the fence will be extended to 36 From January to September, seven wild elephants km long in valley areas, where a tunnel group died in Ayeyarwady, three of them killed by on the railway was completed on Friday in poachers. Seven suspected poachers have been Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture of arrested. southwest China’s Yunnan Province.
35. Endangered elephants trapped by world’s Zheng Xiancan, a project manager with the largest refugee camp (Bangladesh) bureau said the project planning has taken into consideration avoiding a migration pass of wild National Geographic – 27.11.2018 elephants. The fence is built with light and sound resistant technology to further reduce the For thousands of years, Asian elephants around the railway’s disturbance to wild animals. There are city of Cox’s Bazaar, in southeastern Bangladesh, around 300 wild elephants living in the region. have walked the same forest paths over and over on their migration to and from Myanmar. Then, last year, the refugees started coming. Between August and December 2017, 600,000 Rohingya Muslim refugees poured from Myanmar across the Bangladeshi border. Fleeing rape, murder the refugees settled in camps that happen to be right on eight vital elephant migration corridors.
When elephants attempted to migrate in September of last year, they encountered a sea of people—the tragic irony of one displaced group inadvertently displacing another. Elephants Elephants in Yala National Park (Sri Lanka)
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Olivier RCD (1978) On the Ecology of the Asian Elephant. Ph.D. thesis, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
Rajapaksha RC, Mendis GUSP & Wijesinghe CG (2004) Management of Pinnawela elephants in musth period. In: Endangered Elephants, Past Present and Future. Jayewardene J (ed) Biodiversity & Elephant Conservation Trust, Colombo, Sri Lanka. pp 182-183.
Sukumar R (1989) The Asian Elephant: Ecology and Management. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
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GAJAHJournal of the Asian Elephant Specialist Group
Contents Gajah 49 (2018)
Editorial 1 Jennifer Pastorini
Notes from the Chair IUCN SSC Asian Elephant Specialist Group 2-3 Vivek Menon
Research Articles
Faecal progesterone assay and its use in comparing reproductive status in four groups 4-10 of captive Asian elephants D.M.N.J. Dissanayake, C. Santiapillai, D.L. Schmitt, A. Dangolla & H.P.S.D. Palliyage
A new type of elephant fence: Permeable for people and game but not for elephant 11-19 Yorick Liefting, Joost F. de Jong & Herbert H.T. Prins
Auditory and cognitive enrichment training for a male Asian elephant 20-24 Clair Holland
Short Communications
Cobboldia elephantis (Cobbold, 1866) in a free-ranging Asian elephant in Ram Nagar 25-26 Forest Division, Uttarakhand, India Vimalraj Padayatchiar Govindan, Parag Madhukar Dhakate & Ayush Uniyal
Anaplocephala sp. infection in a captive Asian elephant in Sri Lanka 27-30 T.P.J. Athapattu, A.D. Muthugala, D. Rajapaksha, K.L.D.T.D. Liyanage, W.K.S.M. Weththewa, T.A.N. Mahakapuge, A. Dangolla, P.C. Prematilake & R.P.V.J. Rajapakse
News and Briefs
EEHV testing capacity-building in Asia, facilitated by the EEHV Asia Working Group 31-32 Erin Latimer, Supaphen Sripiboon, & Sonja Luz
Elephant conservation in Bangladesh – bringing conservation effort and humanitarian response together Haseeb Md. Irfanullah 33-35
Recent Publications on Asian Elephants 36-54 Jennifer Pastorini
News Briefs 55-64 Jayantha Jayewardene