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Elephants Know When They Need a Helping Trunk in a Cooperative Task

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Elephants Know When They Need a Helping Trunk in a Cooperative Task Elephants know when they need a helping trunk in a cooperative task Joshua M. Plotnika,1,2, Richard Lairb, Wirot Suphachoksahakunb, and Frans B. M. de Waala,2 aLiving Links, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, and Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322; and bThai Elephant Conservation Center, Forest Industry Organization, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Lampang 52000, Thailand Contributed by Frans B. M. de Waal, February 3, 2011 (sent for review November 20, 2010) Elephants are widely assumed to be among the most cognitively thodically manipulate objects (e.g., refs. 23–26, 35, 40, 42, and 43), advanced animals, even though systematic evidence is lacking. suggesting that they would make good candidates for experi- This void in knowledge is mainly due to the danger and difficulty mental tasks that exploit these abilities and their cooperative ten- of submitting the largest land animal to behavioral experiments. dencies. This study investigated the cooperative abilities of ele- In an attempt to change this situation, a classical 1930s coope- phants at the Thai Elephant Conservation Center (TECC) in ration paradigm commonly tested on monkeys and apes was Lampang, Thailand—assisted by each of the elephant’scaretakers, modified by using a procedure originally designed for chimpan- or “mahouts”—through the adaptation of a paradigm designed by zees (Pan troglodytes) to measure the reactions of Asian elephants Hirata and Fuwa (5; also see ref. 7) for chimpanzees. (Elephas maximus). This paradigm explores the cognition underly- ing coordination toward a shared goal. What do animals know or Results and Discussion learn about the benefits of cooperation? Can they learn critical In traditional captive elephant management throughout South- elements of a partner’s role in cooperation? Whereas observations east Asia virtually every animal is assigned their own individual in nature suggest such understanding in nonhuman primates, ex- mahout (i.e., an elephant caretaker responsible for the daily care perimental results have been mixed, and little evidence exists with of the animal), a close relationship that enables the safe con- regards to nonprimates. Here, we show that elephants can learn duction of controlled experiments (44). Using mahouts does, to coordinate with a partner in a task requiring two individuals to however, require some deviations from primate-centric proto- simultaneously pull two ends of the same rope to obtain a reward. cols. Our study elephants were docile and in most novel sit- Not only did the elephants act together, they inhibited the pulling uations responded only to mahout commands. Because this study response for up to 45 s if the arrival of a partner was delayed. They required spontaneous problem solving, some initial, preliminary also grasped that there was no point to pulling if the partner training was necessary. Twelve elephants first learned to pull lacked access to the rope. Such results have been interpreted as a single rope attached to the center of an out-of-reach sliding demonstrating an understanding of cooperation. Through conver- table with a food bowl attached at each end. Pulling the table gent evolution, elephants may have reached a cooperative skill brought the food within the elephants’ reach, a task reliably level on a par with that of chimpanzees. accomplished by all subjects within 1 d of training them to pull the rope with their trunks (Table S1 and Materials and Methods). animal behavior | comparative cognition | problem solving The 12 elephants were then grouped into six unique pairs to participate in a task that required coordinated pulling. A clas- he last decade has seen increased attention to the cognitive sical, 1930s cooperation paradigm (45) used a counterweight so Tcomplexity of animal cooperation. Ethological observations heavy that it required two chimpanzees to pull together, but we suggest that nonhuman primates have some understanding of used a variation with a single rope, thus precluding the need for how cooperation works (1, 2), but experimental research has a counterweight (5). A single rope was threaded around the produced mixed results. Some investigators have ascribed suc- apparatus such that pulling on one end would only move the cessful cooperation to random coaction (3, 4), whereas others rope, not the sliding table, making the other end of the rope report deliberate coordination to attain a goal (5–8). Co- unavailable to a partner. Only if both rope ends were pulled at operation is tested experimentally by gauging the reactions of the same time could the table be moved (5). Each rope end was animals to a partner’s presence or absence, specific behavior, and placed in the center of two separate, fenced lanes into which motivation (or lack thereof) in a context requiring interindividual each elephant was released for testing. If one elephant arrived coordination (9, 10). Apart from a few studies (11–15), little before the other and pulled the rope without waiting, the op- experimental evidence exists with regards to the cooperative portunity for collective pulling was lost and the table stayed in abilities of nonprimates. Although much research explores the place (Fig. 1). The pairs were tested sequentially under the fol- cognitive bases for complex sociality and cooperation in various lowing three primary conditions: animals, including primates (16, 17), corvids (18), and cetaceans (19), elephants have rarely been subjected to cognitive tasks of Simultaneous Release. Both elephants were released together any kind (see refs. 20–23 for reviews). However, these animals from 10 m back by their respective mahouts. From then on, the are well-known for their complex sociality in nature (24–30) and mahouts remained silent, turned their backs to or looked away their relatively large and complex brains (e.g., refs. 31–35). Af- rican (the genus Loxodonta) and Asian elephants (24–30, 36) live in closely bonded, female-centric family groups and display Author contributions: J.M.P., R.L., W.S., and F.B.M.d.W. designed research; J.M.P., R.L., and W.S. performed research; J.M.P. analyzed data; J.M.P. and F.B.M.d.W. wrote the a wide range of other-directed, often cooperative behaviors that paper. may be supported by specialized cognitive mechanisms (37, 38). The authors declare no conflict of interest. For example, elephants often act as allomothers toward each oth- ’ 1Present address: Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Cambridge, er s calves (39), assist distressed or immobilized family members by Cambridge CB2 3EB, United Kingdom. pulling or pushing them out of prostrate or otherwise dangerous 2To whom correspondence may be addressed. E-mail: [email protected] or dewaal@ positions (40, 41), and form close, multi-individual coalitions to emory.edu. protect calves against predation (39, 40). In addition, elephants are This article contains supporting information online at www.pnas.org/lookup/suppl/doi:10. natural problem solvers and use their trunks to carefully and me- 1073/pnas.1101765108/-/DCSupplemental. 5116–5121 | PNAS | March 22, 2011 | vol. 108 | no. 12 www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1101765108 Downloaded by guest on September 26, 2021 Fig. 1. A multiview diagram of the elephant cooperation apparatus. View 1 pictures a ground view from beyond the table. In test and control trials, the two elephants, lined up at the release point, walked down two separate, roped-off lanes (presented here in views 1 and 2 as a dashed line) from a point 10 m behind the apparatus. The apparatus, a sliding table, could be moved by grasping rope ends fed through metal rings set in the ground. These rings were positioned under a stout but transparent barrier (a volleyball net and wire ropes) needed to prevent the elephants from physically approaching the table and attached food bowls. Upon release, the elephants were free to approach the ropes and to pull. The catch was that only coordinated pulling of both rope ends at the same time would bring the table toward the elephants so that they could retrieve the food in the bowls. Any pulling of one rope end without the other would result in the rope becoming unthreaded, thereby denying pulling access to the second elephant. View 2 mirrors that of the bird’s-eye video footage in the supporting information taken from above the elephants. View 3 shows a side view from the base of the barrier. Drawings from video stills by F.B.M.d.W. COGNITIVE SCIENCES from the elephants, and did not interfere with the behavior of the no errors are made), and each elephant made fewer than a total PSYCHOLOGICAL AND animals. The elephants were tested in 20 trials per day for 2 d. of 12 errors (Table S1 for raw data). The range of errors across All pairs reached the criterion of at least eight successful pulls in all six elephants was 3–12 [compared with 0–28 for chimpanzees the final 10 trials (Table S1 and Movie S1). Although this phase in a similar procedure (7)]. The same elephant subjects were tells us little about coordination because the elephants could, then tested for 3 d with 20 randomized trials per day including 10 after having reached the rope ends at the same time, simply have trials of release intervals between 1 and 25 s and 10 trials of used a “see the rope, pull the rope” strategy based on previous longer release intervals, not previously experienced, between 26 training, the simultaneous release phase was necessary before and 45 s (see Table S2 for details on interval lengths). progressing to the next condition. All six elephants were highly successful in waiting for their partners across the 60 trials, which they did between 88% and Delayed Release. Using the same apparatus, the release times of 97% of the time (mean ± SD across the six elephants = 93.33 ± the elephants were staggered.
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