Gajah 31 (2009) 50-60

Recent Publications on Asian Elephants

Compiled by Jennifer Pastorini

Anthropologisches Institut, Universität Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland and Centre for Conservation and Research, Rajagiriya, Sri Lanka S.L. Bartlett, N. Abou-Madi, M.S. Kraus, E.B. 9°. Position-speci c reference ranges should be Wiedner, S.R. Starkey & G.V. Kollias used when interpreting ECGs, and clinicians Electrocardiography of the Asian elephant must be aware of how age and body weight may (Elephas maximus) affect the ECG. © 2009 American Association of Journal of Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 40 (2009) Zoo Veterinarians. 466-473 Abstract. Electrocardiograms (ECGs) are A. Benz, W. Zenker, T.B. Hildebrandt, G. infrequently performed on Asian elephants Weissengruber, K. Eulenberger & H. Geyer (Elephas maximus), and few studies have been Microscopic morphology of the elephant’s reported in the literature. The aim of this study was hoof to determine reference ranges of ECG parameters J. of Zoo and Wildlife Med. 40 (2009) 711-725 in Asian elephants and to ascertain if age, body Abstract. As a result of the lack of basic weight, and position of the elephant signi cantly microscopic anatomy of the elephants’ foot, affected the ECG. Electrocardiograms were this study deals with the normal microscopic obtained from 27 captive, nonsedated apparently morphology of both the Asian (Elephas maximus) healthy Asian elephants while they were standing and African (Loxodonta africana) elephant foot (ST), in right lateral recumbency (RL), and/or with consideration of pathologic changes. A total in left lateral recumbency (LL). Six-lead ECGs of 727 histologic samples from de ned locations were obtained using novel clamps and long ECG of 24 hooves of both species (17 Asian and seven cables (71 cm). From lead I, standard waveforms African species) were studied, measured, and and intervals were analyzed, including PR evaluated. Minor differences between the feet interval, QT interval, ST segment, P, QRS, T, and and species are seen histologically. Poor horn U waves if they were present. One animal was quality in captive elephants’ hooves and loci of determined to have a previously undiagnosed minor resistance in captive and wild animals are conduction abnormality and was not included in detected. The thickness of the weight-bearing the study. Most elephants had a sinus arrhythmia surface of the captive elephants’ hooves is in at least one position. With increasing age, histologically measured as “very thin” (about 10 there was a trend toward a slower heart rate and mm). The normal histologic ndings provide a signi cantly longer P waves. Increasing body basis for assessing histopathologic changes and weight was signi cantly correlated with longer especially horn quality. The histologic ndings QT intervals and T waves with lower amplitude. might explain some of the foot problems, Compared with measurements in ST, LL resulted but they also give rise to questions about the in P waves and QRS complexes with shorter quality and correctness of current husbandry amplitude, U waves with greater amplitude, PR techniques. © 2009 American Association of intervals with shorter duration, and an increased Zoo Veterinarians. heart rate. Compared with measurements in LL, RL resulted in larger QRS complexes. U waves R.W. Byrne, L.A. Bates, & C.J. Moss were most commonly detected in RL and LL. Elephant cognition in primate perspective Mean electrical axis calculated in the frontal Comparative Cognition & Behavior Reviews 4 plane were as follows: standing range -125 to (2009) 65-79 +141°, mean -5°; left lateral range -15 to +104°, Abstract. On many of the staple measures of mean 27°; right lateral range -16 to +78°, mean comparative psychology, elephants show no

50 obvious differences from other mammals, such have shorter adult lifespans than protected as primates: discrimination learning, memory, conspeci cs in range countries. This effect was spontaneous tool use, etc. However, a range the cause of greatest concern in Asian elephants, of more naturalistic mea sures have recently and risk factors within this species included suggested that elephant cognition may be being zoo-born, transferred between zoos, and rather different. Wild elephants sub-categorize possibly removed early from the mother. Here, humans into groups, independently making this we investigate these risk factors further; assess classi cation on the basis of scent or colour. fecundity and sustainability in European zoos; In number discrimination, elephants show no and propose testable hypotheses as to the causes effects of absolute magnitude or relative size of these animals’ problems. Although imported disparity in making number judgements. In wild-born Asian elephants live longer than zoo- the social realm, elephants show empathy into born conspeci cs, being imported when juvenile the problems faced by others, and give hints of or adult appears no more protective than being special abilities in cooperation, vocal imitation imported in infancy, suggesting that the bene ts of and perhaps teaching. Field data suggest that the being wild- rather than zoo-born are conferred early elephant’s vaunted reputation for memory may in life. Zoo-born Asian neonates are signi cantly have a factual basis, in two ways. Elephants’ heavier than those born to working animals in ability to remember large-scale space over long range countries, with a possible tendency to be periods suggests good cognitive mapping skills. fatter. In zoos, African elephants have tended to Elephants’ skill in keeping track of the current be removed from their mothers at older ages than locations of many family members implies that young Asians, and were also transferred between working memory may be unusually developed, zoos signi cantly less often: factors that could consistent with the laboratory nding that their possibly underlie this species’ lower calf losses quantity judgements do not show the usual and improving adult survivorship in Europe. Both magnitude effects. © 2009 Byrne. species have low fecundity in European zoos compared to in situ populations, and are not self- A. Campos-Arceiz sustaining, declining at approximately 10% per Shit happens (to be useful)! Use of elephant annum if reliant on captive-bred females under dung as habitat by amphibians historically prevailing conditions. Data from Biotropica 41 (2009) 406–407 other species suggest that stress and/or obesity Abstract. Although elephants are commonly are parsimonious explanations for the suite of cited as an example of ecosystem engineering, problems seen. We recommend speci c screens cases involving Asian elephants are missing in the for testing these hypotheses, and for potentially literature. In a dry environment of southeastern identifying vulnerable individuals within the Sri Lanka, I examined 290 elephant dung piles extant zoo populations. © 2009 Universities and found a total of six frogs from three different Federation for Animal Welfare. species in 1.7 percent (N= 5) of the dung piles. This suggests a facilitative role of elephants by A. Datta-Roy, N. Ved & A.C. Williams providing habitat for amphibians. © 2009 The Participatory elephant monitoring in South Author. Garo Hills: ef cacy and utility in a human- animal con ict scenario R. Clubb, M. Rowcliffe, P. Lee, K.U. Mar, C. Tropical Ecology 50 (2009) 163-171 Moss & G.J. Mason Abstract. We evaluate the ef cacy of community Fecundity and population viability in based elephant monitoring programme in South female zoo elephants: problems and possible Garo Hills, Meghalaya (India). Major objectives solutions of the programme are to understand the ranging Animal Welfare 18 (2009) 237-247 and habitat utilization patterns of free ranging Abstract. We previously reported that African Asian elephants in a human interspersed habitat (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas with frequent human - elephant con icts. We maximus) female elephants in European zoos collected information on elephant presence in

51 the landscape through participatory wildlife signi cant health problems. Circus animals travel monitoring techniques by modifying an existing frequently and the associated forced movement, model for African elephants from six ‘akings’ human handling, noise, trailer movement and or clan villages which are worst affected by con nement are important stressors. Although human-elephant con ict (HEC). A total of 201 there is no conclusive evidence as to whether visits were recorded in six ‘akings’ during June animals habituate to travel, con nement in 2005 to July 2006, of which solitary elephants beast wagons for long timeperiods is a de nite accounted for 100 visits. The visits were found welfare concern. Circuses have a limited ability to peak during the two main harvesting periods to make improvements, such as increased space, in the Garo hills indicating a de nite seasonality environmental enrichment and appropriate social pattern in the visits. Information from individual housing. Consequently, we argue that non- ‘akings’ also indicate that some ‘akings’ were domesticated animals, suitable for circus life, particularly prone to visits by solitary animals should exhibit low space requirements, simple indicating the complexity in the dynamics of social structures, low cognitive function, non- elephant ranging patterns within the landscape. specialist ecological requirements and an ability We note that participatory elephant monitoring to be transported without adverse welfare effects. can be a useful tool to collect basic data on None of the commonest species exhibited by elephant presence in tropical ecosystems where circuses, such as elephants and large felids, traditional line transect method is restricted by currently meet these criteria. We conclude that the considerations of terrain, access and resources. species of non-domesticated animals commonly Other advantages, limitations and conservation kept in circuses appear the least suited to a circus implications are discussed. © 2009 International life. © 2009 Universities Federation for Animal Society for Tropical Ecology. Welfare.

G. Iossa, C.D. Soulsbury & S. Harris R. Joshi Are wild animals suited to a travelling circus Asian elephant’s Elephas maximus behaviour life? in the Rajaji National Park, north-west India: Animal Welfare 18 (2009) 129-140 Eight years with Asian elephant Abstract. A comprehensive synopsis of the Nature and Science 7 (2009) 49-77 welfare of captive, wild (ie non-domesticated) Abstract. In order to generate scienti c animals in travelling circuses is missing. We knowledge on behaviour of wild Asian elephant examined circus animal welfare and, speci cally, Elephas maximus, eld study was conducted from behaviour, health, living and travelling conditions. 1999 to 2007. The data were derived from a novel We compared the conditions of non-domesticated combination of self eld observations (direct animals in circuses with their counterparts kept and indirect methods), traditional knowledge in zoos. Data on circus animals were very scarce; of various local communities, and available where data were absent, we inferred likely welfare literature on elephant studies. During the course implications based on zoo data. Circus animals of study 19 different behaviours of elephant were spent the majority of the day con ned, about documented from Rajaji National Park, north- 1–9% of the day performing/training and the west India. Despite, the status, movement pattern, remaining time in exercise pens. Exercise pens habitat utilization, feeding behaviour and human- were signi cantly smaller than minimum zoo elephant con ict of Asian elephant, extremely standards for outdoor enclosures. Behavioural rare research work has been carried out on its budgets were restricted, with circus animals behaviour in the wild. My review of available spending a great amount of time performing evidences suggested that wild elephants also used stereotypies, especially when shackled or con ned to perform various usual and unusual behaviours, in beast wagons. A higher degree of stereotyping which are directly linked with their management in circuses may be indicative of poorer welfare. and conservation. The elephants in Rajaji are Inadequate diet and housing conditions, and the emerge out in the open areas in evening hours. effects of repeated performances, can lead to The movement of elephants was entirely seasonal

52 and they also utilize the adjoining protected programme 512 families were resettled at Pathri habitats. Fodder requirements are quite variable area and 613 were relocated at Gaindikhatta in groups and bulls and breeding season seems area. Presently 265 families are to be relocated maximum to extent from May to November. who are residing inside the national park area. Locomotion, social organization, drinking and After the establishment of state Uttarakhand the bathing, resting and sleeping, defecation and rehabilitation programme has conducted very urination, recognition, male-male aggression, rapidly and over the past six years ve forest syampathy and cooperation, play behaviour, ranges of the park are freed from the Gujjars. © association with other wild animals, parental care 2009 Kamla-Raj Enterprises, Delhi, India. and elephant communication were another major behaviours observed in elephants. Besides, four N. Kontogeorgopoulos unusual behaviours were also studied during this Wildlife tourism in semi-captive settings: a period. This is the rst documented study, which case study of elephant camps in northern could be helpful in generating more biological Thailand information about the activities of wild Asian Current Issues in Tourism 12 (2009) 429-449 elephants. All of these ndings may have wider Abstract: Due to improved transportation and implications for developing predictive models of communication technology, changing social human – elephant interactions. attitudes towards nature and wildlife, and the physiological bene ts of interaction with animals, R. Joshi & R. Singh tourism centred on wildlife in captive and Gujjar community rehabilitation from Rajaji semi-captive settings is becoming increasingly National Park: Moving towards an integrated popular. One example of wildlife tourism in Approach for Asian elephant (Elephas a semi-captive setting is the proliferation of maximus) conservation ‘elephant camps’ in Thailand, where tourists Journal of Human Ecology 28 (2009) 199-206 interact in a variety of ways with domesticated Abstract. Rehabilitation of Gujjar community elephants. Though work in elephant camps can from the Rajaji National Park area is a persistent be dif cult for elephants, tourism provides the and better effort in the direction of wildlife only viable legal option for elephant owners and conservation in India. On one hand it has handlers to earn income. This study examines provided the better opportunity for livelihood the characteristics, preferences, and values of the to pastoral Gujjars and on the other hand it has visitors of three elephant camps in the vicinity promoted the regeneration of forest wealth along of Chiang Mai in northern Thailand and argues with movement related activities of wildlife. The that despite re ecting divergent worldviews on, major objectives of the study are to generate and practical approaches to, animal rights, each the database of impact of Gujjar rehabilitation type of camp makes signi cant contributions to on frequent movement of wildlife. Eight forest the overall welfare of Thailand’s domesticated ranges were surveyed for about seven years elephants. © 2009 Taylor & Francis. before and after the resettlement of Gujjar and all the data on animal sighting, movement and J.A. Landol , S.A. Schultz, S.K. Mikota & K.A. vegetation component were recorded. Currently Terio wild animals are utilizing whole of the forest area Development and validation of cytokine frequently for their routine activities whereas quantitative, real time RT-PCR assays for before the resettlement of Gujjars wild animals characterization of Asian elephant immune generally used the water points after sunset. responses The undisturbed conditions created as a result Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology of the resettling of the pastoral Gujjars, have 131 (2009) 73-78 had a noticeable effect on the elephant and tiger Abstract. Infectious disease is an important population of the forest area. As per the records factor in Asian elephant health and long- of 1998 a total of 1390 families were existing in term species survival. In studying disease the park area and after the commencement of the pathogenesis, it is important to consider not only

53 the pathogen, but also the effectiveness of the host antibody responses to tetanus toxoid vaccinations immune response. Currently, there is a paucity in 22 Asian elephants ranging in age from 24 to 56 of information available on elephant immune years (mean age 39 years) over a 7-month period. function. Measurement of cytokine levels All animals had been previously vaccinated with within clinical samples can provide valuable tetanus toxoid vaccine, with the last booster information regarding immune function during administered 4 years before the start of the study. health and disease that may elucidate disease The great majority of elephants had titers prior to susceptibility. To develop tools for assessment booster vaccination, and following revaccination of elephant immune function, Asian elephant all elephants demonstrated anamnestic increases partial mRNA sequences for interleukin (IL)- in titers, indicating that this species does respond 2, IL-4, IL-10, IL-12, interferon (IFN)-, tumor to tetanus vaccination. Surprisingly older animals necrosis factor (TNF)-, transforming growth mounted a signi cantly higher response to factor (TGF)-, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate revaccination than did younger animals. © 2009 dehydrogenase (GAPDH), and -actin were with permission from Elsevier. determined. Sequence information was then utilized to design elephant-speci c primers and J. Lorimer & S. Whatmore probes for quantitative, real time, RT-PCR assays After the ‘king of beasts’: Samuel Baker for the measurement of cytokine mRNA. Greater and the embodied historical geographies of than 300 bps of Asian elephant mRNA sequence elephant hunting in mid-nineteenth-century were determined for each cytokine of interest. Ceylon Consistent and reproducible, real time, RT-PCR J. of Historical Geography 35 (2009) 668-689 assays with ef ciencies of greater than 93% were Abstract. This paper draws on and develops a also developed. Assay sensitivities ranged from range of concepts and methodologies from ‘more- less than 1 to 5000 DNA copies with the exception than-human’ and animal geographies to map some of IL-12, which had a sensitivity of 42,200 copies. embodied historical geographies of elephant Employment of molecular techniques utilizing hunting in mid-nineteenth-century Ceylon. It mRNA-based detection systems, such as real focuses in particular on the exploits of Samuel time, RT-PCR, facilitate sensitive and speci c Baker and some of his contemporaries. The paper cytokine detection and measurement in samples attends to the attachments, crossings and ethics from species for which commercial reagents that passed between hunted and hunting bodies are not available. Future studies utilizing these to esh out the colonial visions of these ‘seeing techniques to compare elephant immune function men’ of empire. It critically engages with existing during health and in the face of infection will be work on hunting and colonial natural history by useful for characterizing the contribution of the examining interwoven human and nonhuman elephant immune system to disease. © 2009 with experiences, exploring elephant hunting as a permission from Elsevier. collection of embodied and co-evolutionary processes with complex material histories. W.A. Lindsay, E. Wiedner, R. Isaza, H.G.G. Drawing out the importance of embodiment, Townsend, M. Boleslawski & D.P. Lunn affect and intercorporeal exchange the paper Immune responses of Asian elephants (Elephas then re ects on the performance, epistemology maximus) to commercial tetanus toxoid and ethics of hunting practice and traces the role vaccine played by a code of sportsmanship in orientating Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology and legitimating the ethical sensibility of hunting. 133 (2010) 287-289 In conclusion the paper details what is gained Abstract. Although captive elephants are from this style of embodied historical analysis commonly vaccinated annually against tetanus which unsettles any simple spatio-temporal using commercially available tetanus toxoid territorialisation of (post-) colonial historical vaccines marketed for use in horses and livestock, geographies. © 2008 with permission from no data exists to prove that tetanus toxoid Elsevier. vaccination produces measurable antibody titers in A. Mallapur & A. Ramanathan elephants. An ELISA test was created to measure

54 Differences in husbandry and management pig (100 mOsm/kg), hamadryas baboon (range systems across ten facilities housing Asian 50-125 mOsm/kg), and central rock rat (range elephants Elephas maximas in India 50-100 mOsm/kg), and the ejaculated sperm International Zoo Yearbook 43 (2009) 189-197 from the emu (50 mOsm/kg) and the Asian Abstract. A face-to-face questionnaire survey elephant (range 75-150 mOsm/kg). A solution of was conducted to document the husbandry and TALP-HEPES medium at 100 mOsm/kg would management systems followed by ten facilities be suitable to obtain the maximal response in this housing Asian elephants Elephas maximas in range of mammals tested, though it would need India. Eighty-two Asian elephants at these ten to be diluted to at least 50 mOsm/kg when testing facilities were surveyed between November the viability of the emu sperm. © 2009 Society 2004 and February 2005. A signi cantly greater for Biology of Reproduction. percentage of the elephants managed by zoos http://www.repbiol.pan.olsztyn.pl/jul2009.htm (n=4 zoos; 13 elephants surveyed) and the forest Copyright ok elephant camp (n=1 forest elephant camp; ve elephants surveyed) were housed in pairs or N.K. Nath, B.P. Lahkar, N. Brahma, S. Dey, J.P. groups; whereas animals maintained by tourist Das, P.K. Sarma & B.K. Talukdar camps (n=2 tourist camps; 40 elephants surveyed) An assessment of human-elephant con ict in and temples (n=3 temples; 24 elephants surveyed) Manas National Park, Assam, India were permanently restrained with minimal social Journal of Threatened Taxa 1 (2009) 309-316 contact (physical contact with other elephants). Abstract: An assessment of human-elephant A considerably larger proportion of elephants con ict was carried out in the fringe villages from tourist camps and temples were housed in around Manas National Park, Assam during environments devoid of natural features, such as 2005-06. The available forest department trees, shrubs and water bodies. Forest elephant con ict records since 1991 onwards were also camp and zoo elephants, on the other hand, were incorporated during analysis. Con ict was housed in complex species-speci c environments, intense in the months of July-August and was which included water bodies, trees/shrubs and a mostly concentrated along the forest boundary substrate of compacted mud. From this paper, it areas, decreasing with distance from the Park. is evident that the husbandry and management Crop damage occurred during two seasons; paddy protocols vary signi cantly across the degrees (the major crop) suffered the most due to raiding. of captivity, with some facilities (e.g. zoos and a Crop maturity and frequency of raiding were forest elephant camp) being more conducive for positively correlated. Single bull elephants were housing elephants than others (e.g. temples and involved in con icts more frequently (59%) than tourist camps). © 2009 The Zoological Society female herds (41%), while herds were involved of London. in majority of crop raiding cases. Of the single elephants, 88% were makhnas and 11.9% were P. Matson, Wendy Kappelle & I. Malecki tuskers. The average herd size recorded was 8 The use of a hypo-osmotic swelling (HOS) test individuals, with group size ranging up to 16. on sperm of the pig (Sus scrofa domesticus), Mitigation measures presently adopted involve emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae), Asian traditional drive-away techniques including elephant (Elephas maximus), hamadryas making noise by shouting, drum beating, bursting baboon (Papio hamadryas hamadryas), and re crackers and ring gun shots into the air, and central rock rat (Zyzomys pedunculatus) using torch light, pelting stones and throwing Reproductive Biology 9 (2009) 181-187 burning torches. Kunkis have been used in severe Abstract. A hypo-osmotic swelling test using cases. Machans are used for guarding the crops. TALP-HEPES medium over a range of 50 to 300 Combinations of methods are most effective. mOsm/kg was applied to sperm from domestic Family herds were easily de ected, while single and endangered species. Maximal responses of bulls were dif cult to ward off. Affected villagers curling of the sperm tails were seen over a range have suggested methods like regular patrolling of osmolalities for epididymal sperm from the (39%) by the Forest Department of cials along

55 the Park boundary, erection of a concrete wall published article: “Ren, L., Butler, M., Miller, (18%) along the Park boundary, electric fencing C., Paxton, H., Schwerda, D., Fischer, M.S. & (13%), simply drive away (13%), culling (11%) Hutchinson, J.R. (2008) The movement of limb and lighting the Park boundary during night hours segments and joints during locomotion in African (6%). Attempts to reduce con ict by changing and Asian elephants. Journal of Experimental the traditional cropping pattern by introducing Biology 211: 2735-2751.” There is also a reply some elephant-repellent alternative cash crops included from J.R. Hutchinson: “Response: Of (e.g. lemon and chilli) are under experiment. © ideas, dichotomies, methods, and data – how 2009 The Authors. much do elephant kinematics differ from those of other large animals?” W. Pan, L. Lin, A. Luo, & L. Zhang Corridor use by Asian elephants P.A. Rees Integrative Zoology 4 (2009) 220–231 Activity budgets and the relationship between Abstract. There are 18 km of Kunming–Bangkok feeding and stereotypic behaviors in Asian Highway passing through the Mengyang Nature elephants (Elephas maximus) in a zoo Reserve of Xishuangbanna National Nature Zoo Biology 28 (2009) 79-97 Reserve in Yunnan Province, China. From Abstract. Activity budgets were studied in September 2005 to September 2006 the impact eight Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) at of this highway on movement of wild Asian Chester Zoo (UK) for 35 days, between January elephants between the eastern and western part and November 1999. Recordings were made of the nature reserve was studied using track between 10:00 and 16:00 hr (with most behavior transecting, rural surveys and direct monitoring. frequencies calculated between 10:00 and 14:00 Our results showed that the number of crossroad hr). The elephants exhibited variation in activity corridors used by Asian elephants diminished depending on their age, sex, the time of day from 28 to 23 following the construction of the and the time of year. Only the ve adult cows highway. In some areas, the elephant activity exhibited stereotypic behavior, with frequencies diminished or even disappeared, which indicated ranging from 3.9 to 29.4%, of all observations. a change in their home ranges. The utilization These elephants exhibited individual, diurnal rate of arti cial corridors was 44%. We also and seasonal variation ill stereotypic behavior. found that elephants prefered arti cial corridors This has implications for studies that use short that were placed along their original corridors. sampling periods and may make comparisons During the research, wild elephants revealed of data collected at different times of the day or their adaptation to the highway. They were found year invalid. The six adult elephants spent 27.4- walking across the highway road surface many 41.4% of the time feeding (between 10:00 and times and for different reasons. We suggest that 14:00 hr), 22.9-42.0% standing still, 6.1-19.2% the highway management bureau should revise walking and 3.9-9.6% dusting. The hypothesis their management strategies to mitigate the that the frequency of stereotypic behavior in potential risks caused by elephants on the road adult cow elephants was negatively co-related for the safety of the public and to protect this with the frequency of feeding behavior was endangered species from harm. It is also very tested and was found to be true. Stereotypic important to protect and maintain current Asian behavior increased with frequency toward the elephants corridors in this region. © 2009 ISZS, end of the day-while waiting to return to the Blackwell Publishing and IOZ/CAS elephant house for food-and elephants spent more time stereotyping during the winter months G. Paul than during the summer months. Elephants were The nearly columnar limbs of elephants are inactive (i.e. exhibited behaviors other than very different from the more exed, spring locomotion) for between 70.1 and 93.9% of the action limbs of running mammals and birds time. Creating more opportunities for elephants J. of Experimental Biology 212 (2009) 152-154 to exhibit foraging behavior and the introduction No abstract. This is correspondence to the recently of greater unpredictability into management

56 regimes, especially feeding times, may reduce the growth factor 5 (FGF5) gene affects hair length frequency of stereotypic behavior and increase in a diverse set of mammalian species. Mutations general activity levels. © 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc. in FGF5 lead to recessive long hair phenotypes in mice, dogs, and cats; and the gene has been Y. Ren, M.T. Johnson, P.J. Clemins, M. Darre, S. implicated in hair length variation in rabbits. Stuart Glaeser, T.S. Osiejuk & E. Out-Nyarko Thus, FGF5 represents a leading candidate gene A framework for bioacoustic vocalization for the phenotypic differences in hair length analysis using hidden Markov models notable between extant elephants and the woolly Algorithms 2 (2009) 1410-1428 mammoth. We therefore sequenced the three Abstract. Using Hidden Markov Models exons (except for the 3’ UTR) and a portion of (HMMs) as a recognition framework for automatic the promoter of FGF5 from the living elephantid classi cation of animal vocalizations has a number species (Asian, African savanna and African of bene ts, including the ability to handle duration forest elephants) and, using protocols for ancient variability through nonlinear time alignment, DNA, from a woolly mammoth. Results: Between the ability to incorporate complex language or the extant elephants and the mammoth, two recognition constraints, and easy extendibility to single base substitutions were observed in FGF5, continuous recognition and detection domains. In neither of which alters the amino acid sequence. this work, we apply HMMs to several different Modeling of the protein structure suggests that species and bioacoustic tasks using generalized the elephantid proteins fold similarly to the spectral features that can be easily adjusted across human FGF5 protein. Bioinformatics analyses species and HMM network topologies suited and DNA sequencing of another locus that to each task. This experimental work includes has been implicated in hair cover in humans, a simple call type classi cation task using one type I hair keratin pseudogene (KRTHAP1), HMM per vocalization for repertoire analysis of also yielded negative results. Interestingly, Asian elephants, a language-constrained song KRTHAP1 is a pseudogene in elephantids as in recognition task using syllable models as base humans (although fully functional in non-human units for ortolan bunting vocalizations, and a primates). Conclusion: The data suggest that the stress stimulus differentiation task in poultry coding sequence of the FGF5 gene is not the vocalizations using a non-sequential model via a critical determinant of hair length differences one-state HMM with Gaussian mixtures. Results among elephantids. The results are discussed in show strong performance across all tasks and the context of hairlessness among mammals and illustrate the exibility of the HMM framework in terms of the potential impact of large body size, for a variety of species, vocalization types, and subarctic conditions, and an aquatic ancestor on analysis tasks. © 2009 by the authors. hair cover in the Proboscidea.© 2009 Roca et al.

A.L. Roca, Y. Ishida, N. Nikolaidis, S.O. J. Saragusty, R. Hermes, F. Göritz, D.L. Schmitt Kolokotronis, S. Fratpietro, K. Stewardson, & T.B. Hildebrandt S. Hensley, M. Tisdale, G. Boeskorov & A.D. Skewed birth sex ratio and premature Greenwood mortality in elephants Genetic variation at hair length candidate Animal Reprod. Science 115 (2009) 247–254 genes in elephants and the extinct woolly Abstract. Sex allocation theories predict equal mammoth offspring number of both sexes unless differential BMC Evolutionary Biology 9 (2009) 232 investment is required or some competition Abstract. Background: Like humans, the exists. Left undisturbed, elephants reproduce living elephants are unusual among mammals well and in approximately even numbers in the in being sparsely covered with hair. Relative to wild. We report an excess of males are born and extant elephants, the extinct woolly mammoth, substantial juvenile mortality occurs, perinatally, Mammuthus primigenius, had a dense hair cover in captivity. Studbook data on captive births (CB, and extremely long hair, which likely were n=487) and premature deaths (PD, <5 years of adaptations to its subarctic habitat. The broblast age; n=164) in Asian and African elephants in

57 Europe and North America were compared with dilution with cryoprotectant-free BC solution data on Myanmar timber (Asian) elephants (CB, and the addition of 10% (v/v) of autologous n=3070; PD, n=738). Growth in CB was found seminal plasma. The resulting optimal freezing in three of the captive populations. A signi cant protocol uses cushioned centrifugation, two- excess of male births occurred in European Asian step dilution with isothermal 285 m Osm/kg elephants (ratio: 0.61, P = 0.044) and in births Berliner Cryomedium (BC) with nal glycerol following arti cial insemination (0.83, P=0.003), concentration of 7% and 16% egg yolk, and and a numerical inclination in North American freezing in large volume by the directional African elephants (0.6). While juvenile mortality freezing technique. After thawing, samples in European African and Myanmar populations are diluted 1:1 with BC solution. Using this was 21–23%, it was almost double (40–45%) in protocol, post-thaw evaluations results were: all other captive populations. In zoo populations, motility upon thawing: 57.2 +/- 5.4%, motility 68–91% of PD were within 1 month of birth with following 30 min incubation at 37 degrees C: stillbirth and infanticide being major causes. 58.5 +/- 6.0% and following 3 h incubation: 21.7 In Myanmar, 62% of juvenile deaths were at +/- 7.6%, intact acrosome: 57.1 +/- 5.2%, normal >6 months with maternal insuf cient milk morphology: 52.0 +/- 5.8% and viability: 67.3 production, natural hazards and accidents being +/- 6.1%. With this protocol, good quality semen the main causes. European Asian and Myanmar can be accumulated for future use in arti cial elephants PD was biased towards males (0.71, inseminations when and where needed. © 2008 P=0.024 and 0.56, P<0.001, respectively). The with permission from Elsevier. skewed birth sex ratio and high juvenile mortality hinder efforts to help captive populations become B.E. Slade-Cain, L.E.L. Rasmussen & B.A. self-sustaining. Efforts should be invested to Schulte identify the mechanism behind these trends and Estrous state in uences on investigative, seek solutions for them. © 2008 with permission aggressive, and tail icking behavior in captive from Elsevier. female Asian elephants Zoo Biology 27 (2008) 167-180 J. Saragusty, T.B. Hildebrandt, B. Behr, A. Abstract. Females of species that live in matrilineal Knieriem, J. Kruse & R. Hermes hierarchies may compete for temporally limited Successful cryopreservation of Asian elephant resources, yet maintain social harmony to facilitate (Elephas maximus) spermatozoa cohesion. The relative degree of aggressive and Animal Reprod. Science 115 (2009) 255-266 nonaggressive interactions may depend on the Abstract. Reproduction in captive elephants reproductive condition of sender and receiver. is low and infant mortality is high, collectively Individuals can bene t by clearly signaling and leading to possible population extinction. detecting reproductive condition. Asian elephants Arti cial insemination was developed a decade (Elephas maximus) live in social matrilineal ago; however, it relies on fresh-chilled semen herds. Females have long estrous cycles (14–16 from just a handful of bulls with inconsistent weeks) composed of luteal (8–12 weeks) and sperm quality. Arti cial insemination with follicular (4–8 weeks) phases. In this study, we frozen-thawed sperm has never been described, observed the behavior of four captive Asian probably, in part, due to low semen quality after elephant females during multiple estrous cycles cryopreservation. The present study was designed over 2 years. We evaluated whether investigative, with the aim of nding a reliable semen freezing aggressive, and tail icking behaviors were protocol. Screening tests included freezing related to reproductive condition. Investigative semen with varying concentrations of ethylene trunk tip contacts showed no distinct pattern by glycol, propylene glycol, trehalose, dimethyl senders, but were more prevalent toward female sulfoxide and glycerol as cryoprotectants and elephants that were in their follicular compared assessing cushioned centrifugation, rapid chilling with their luteal phase. The genital area was the to suprazero temperatures, freezing extender most frequently contacted region and may release osmolarity, egg yolk concentration, post-thaw reproductively related chemosignals. Aggression

58 did not differ signi cantly with estrus; however, in range countries. © 2008 with permission from rates of aggression were elevated when senders Elsevier. were approaching ovulation and receivers were in the luteal phase. © 2008 Wiley-Liss, Inc. C. Thitaram, P. Pongsopawijit, S. Chansitthiwet, J.L. Brown, K. Nimtragul, K. Boonprasert, P. C. Thitaram, S. Chansitthiwet, P. Pongsopawijit, Homkong, S. Mahasawangkul, S. Rojanasthien, J.L. Brown, W. Wongkalasin, P. Daram, R. B. Colenbrander, G.C. van der Weijden & Roongsri, A. Kalmapijit, S. Mahasawangkul, F.J.C.M. van Eerdenburg S. Rojanasthien, B. Colenbrander, G.C. van der Induction of the ovulatory LH surge in Weijden & F.J.C.M. van Eerdenburg Asian elephants (Elephas maximus): a novel Use of genital inspection and female urine tests aid in captive breeding management of an to detect oestrus in captive Asian elephants endangered species Animal Reprod. Science 115 (2009) 267–278 Reproduction, Fertility and Development 21 Captive Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) (2009) 672-678 populations are decreasing due to low birth rates A unique feature of the reproductive physiology compared to wild elephants. Improving oestrous of Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) is the detection in female elephants is required to ensure occurrence of two LH surges before ovulation, successful mating in captive and semi-captive instead of one. An anovulatory LH (anLH) herds. Responsive behaviours of eight semi- surge, the function of which is unknown, occurs captive bull elephants to the uro-genital area consistently 3 weeks before the ovulatory LH (genital inspection test) or urinary pheromones (ovLH) surge that induces ovulation. Thus, (urine test) of 14 female elephants throughout the ability to induce an ovLH surge would be the oestrous cycle were evaluated. Weekly useful for scheduling natural mating or arti cial blood samples were collected for 27 consecutive insemination. The present study tested the months (14 months for the genital inspection ef cacy of a gonadotrophin-releasing hormone test and 13 months for the urine test) from agonist (GnRH-Ag) to induce LH surges during female elephants to characterize the patterns of the follicular phase of the oestrous cycle, which circulating progestagen. Responsive behaviours resulted in varied LH responses, but generally of bulls were compared between females in the none were as high as previously documented follicular versus the luteal phase of the cycle. The natural surges. Thus, for the ovulation-induction sensitivity and speci city of the genital inspection trials, nine females were administered 80μg test were 65% and 68%, while those of the urine GnRH-Ag intravenously at three time periods test were 52% and 61%, respectively. The bulls during the oestrous cycle, namely the anovulatory showed signi cantly higher “genital inspection”, follicular phase, the ovulatory follicular phase “ ehmen from genital area” and “trunk on back” and the luteal phase. During the late anovulatory behaviours during the genital inspection test, and follicular phase, nine of 10 females (90%) “ ehmen” behaviours during the urine test in responded with an immediate LH surge followed oestrous than in non-oestrous females. In sum, this 15–22 days later by an ovLH surge or a post- study showed that monitoring sexual behaviours ovulatory increase in progestagens. In contrast, of Asian elephant bulls towards females or their despite responding to the GnRH-Ag with an urine can be used to detect the oestrous period. immediate increase in LH, none of the females Although the sensitivity and speci city of both treated during other periods of the oestrous tests were not as high as expected, still, these cycle exhibited subsequent ovLH surges. One methods appear to be more ef cient at detecting cow got pregnant from natural mating following oestrous than traditional methods based on the induced ovLH surge. In conclusion, ovLH mahout estimations of female receptivity. The induction is possible using a GnRH-Ag, but only use of genital inspection and urine testsmay lead during a speci c time of the anovulatory follicular to more successful matings and thus to creating phase. © 2009 CSIRO, www.publish.csiro.au. self-sustaining populations of captive elephants N. Thongtip, S.l. Mahasawangku, C. Thitaram,

59 P. Pongsopavijitr, K. Kornkaewrat, A. Pinyopu- Findings included urine that was less concentrated mmin, T. Angkawanish, S. Jansittiwate, R. compared to other mammals, predominantly Rungsri, K. Boonprasert, W. Wongkalasinh, P. alkaline pH, crystalluria of varying types in all Homkong, S. Dejchaisri, W. Wajjwalku & K. samples, and minimal cellularity. Glucose and Saikhun urobilinogen were not detected in any samples. Successful arti cial insemination in the Asian Trace ketones and trace bilirubin occurred in two elephant (Elephas maximus) using chilled and different samples. Trace blood was identi ed in frozen-thawed semen. another sample. Three samples tested positive Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology 7 for protein via dipstick but were con rmed (2009) 75 negative through the sulfosalicylic acid test. Two Abstract. Background: Arti cial insemination samples contained mucus threads. Bacteria were (AI) using frozen-thawed semen is well seen microscopically in four samples, and could established and routinely used for breeding in be cultured from six others, but, because of the various mammalian species. However, there is no lack of an associated in ammatory response report of the birth of elephant calves following AI and the heterogeneous populations of organisms with frozen-thawed semen. The objective of the observed, were considered to be contaminants present study was to investigate the fertilizing from the distal urethra, the vestibulovulva, or ability of chilled and frozen-thawed semen in the the environment. Because of the variability in Asian elephant following arti cial insemination elephant urine, baseline values for elephants (AI). Methods: Semen samples were collected within captive herds should be obtained and by from 8 bulls (age range, 12-to 42-years) by regular assessments should be performed over manual stimulation. Semen with high quality time to allow trending of data. Establishment were either cooled to 4°C or frozen in liquid of normal urine values provides an important nitrogen (-196°C) before being used for AI. Blood tool in elephant health care. © 2009 American samples collected from ten elephant females (age Association of Zoo Veterinarians. range, 12-to 52-years) were assessed for estrus cycle and elephants with normal cycling were used for AI. Arti cial insemination series were If you need additional information on any of the conducted during 2003 to 2008; 55 and 2 AI trials articles in the above section, please feel free to were conducted using frozen-thawed and chilled contact me. You can also let me know about new semen, respectively. Pregnancy was detected (2009-2010) publications on Asian elephants. using transrectal ultrasonography and serum progestagen measurement. Results: One female E-mail: [email protected] (Khod) inseminated with chilled semen became pregnant and gave birth in 2007. The gestation length was 663 days and the sex of the elephant calf was male. One female (Sao) inseminated with frozen-thawed semen showed signs of pregnancy by increasing progestagen levels and a fetus was observed for 5 months by transrectal ultrasonography. © 2009 Thongtip et al.

E. Wiedner, A.R. Alleman & R. Isaza Urinalysis in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) J. of Zoo and Wildlife Med. 40 (2009) 659-666 Abstract. Urine was collected from 22 healthy female adult Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) and analyzed for the purpose of determining Collared elephant “Tzu Chi”, Sri Lanka normal biochemical and microscopic parameters. Photo by Jennifer Pastorini

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