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Intrinsic Patterns in the History of Religious Change from Early Hindu

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Intrinsic Patterns in the History of Religious Change from Early Hindu INTRIN.SIC PATTERNS IN THE HISTORY OF RELIGIOUS CHANGE FROM EARLY HINDU TRADITIONS TO CONTEMPORARY MAHAYANA BUDDHISM: AN APPLICATION OF CUMPSTY'S THEORY OF RELIGION by University of Cape Town ANN-MARIE LEATT Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Social Science in Religious Studies, University of Cape Town · The financial assistance ofthe Centre for Science Development (HSRC, South Africa) towards this research is hereby acknowledged Opinions expressed and conclusions arrived at, are those of the author and are not necessarily to be attributed to the Centre for Science Development. f''TI'" ·"·''rt'.,.,.""""''· .. ·».,_.,...,.-.,... ''-'-"'-··' •..::r-,, . ..,,,,,.-:1 i~':: ;:;; :. ;::'\::10$:;: :;~; :·.: ~:t;~' ,;;~~~ 1 11 ,1r m 1,,,.,c, (.,;,•;r1!)1r 1::, ~-''·.! b}' tnc .£:UL:cr. ~ ta'io"'X.~: _· ~~ .. ~"'':'.f'ft·x:;;:.,,•¥• :)ldt ~,.;:-,;,.~.. - . ..-:s·.~i=;·,_. ,:-;...-.~.:.. ·.-.: ... :.~~... .JI: The copyright of this thesis vests in the author. No quotation from it or information derived from it is to be published without full acknowledgement of the source. The thesis is to be used for private study or non- commercial research purposes only. Published by the University of Cape Town (UCT) in terms of the non-exclusive license granted to UCT by the author. University of Cape Town ABSTRACT This thesis, Intrinsic Patterns in the History of Religious Change from ear~v Hindu Traditions to contemporary Mahayana Buddhism: an Application of Cumpsty's Theory of Religion, is an application of a comprehensive theory of religion to a broad sweep of religious history and diversity. It follows development from tr~ Indian sub-continent to Japan, and to the West. It covers the period from about 500BCE to the '::es~I'.: , .s such, it assumes in the reader some background in theory of religion, and John Cumpsty's theory in particular, as well as some knowledge of the history and traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism. The first chapter deals with conceptual issues through a characterisation of early Hinduism, a description Cumpsty's three ideal-types, and a discussion of the relationship between moksa and dharma. Chapter two provides historical grounding to the thesis by providing empirical evidence for the arguments made in chapter one about the "bridging-out" to the Withdrawal paradigm. It studies four orthodox reponses to the paradigm, that is, the brahmanical synthesis, Saivism, the Gita, and Sankara. The third chapter offers an analysis of early Buddhism, the development of Theravada and its academic characterisation, as an example of "allocation" as a bridging and change mechanism. Chapter four offers an analysis ·of the Mahayana in China and Japan. It gives reasons for its missionary success, and provides three examples of bridging symbols common to all Mahayana - the Trikaya, skilful means, and the Bodhisattva ideal. The fifth chapter discusses developments in the Mahayana. Three modes of creating correspondence between Samsara and Nirvana are described: Madhyamika, Ch'an (Zen), and Yogacara. It also deals with developments in the Pure Land and the move into the Secular World Affirming paradigm. The final chapter deals with the modem period and draws together the argument of the thesis. "Socially engaged Buddhism" as a modem phenomenon in Therevada is described, and Mahayana is examined for similar moves, and an explanation is given. The chapter then goes on to describe religious transference back to the West, and explains their success. The thesis concludes with an assessment of the fruitfulness of the application of Cumpsty's theory of religion. In terms of methodology the thesis is an application of a theory of religion to a broad sweep of religious history in the Indian sub-continent and eastwards, as well as the West. The thesis highlights situations of change in both worldview and practice, and subjects them to analysis in terms of the theory. The result is an extension of that part of the theory that is most involved in the analysis of the religious traditions concerned. In order to do this a wide range of phenomenological and sociological material has been used. CONTENTS Title Page Ahstract Tahle of Contents Glo11ary iv Chapter One: Conceptual Issues 1 - Theoretical characterisation of early Hinduism and the developments preceding the moksa movements - emergence of the new soteriologies - introduction to John Cumpsty's three ideal types and their logical concomitants - dharma as nature religion and moksa as withdrawal ... Larson and the five modes of relationship between moksa and dharma. Chapter Two: Historical and Sociological 9roundin9 24 - negative assessment of the immediate environment as a causal factor - supporting evidence from pre-Upanishadic Hinduism - the bridge out to a withdrawal paradigm - early Buddhism - orthodox responses including: the brahmanical synthesis the mythology of siva and Saivism the Bhagavadgita Sankara's Advaita Vedanta Chapter Three: Buddhism, The Theravada S1 - characteristics of archaic Buddhism - early schools - grounds of contention - the Theravada: academic characterisation phenomenological response sangha and state the mechanism of allocation Chapter Four: The Mahayana 68 - issues raised at the first councils - general characteristics - Mahayana in China - Mahayana in Japan - reasons for missionary success - bridging symbols in common to the Mahayana the Trikaya skilful means the bodhisattva ideal Chapter Five: Developments in the Mahayana 90 - the Madhyamika School - Cha'an (Zen) - the Y ogacara School - the Pure Land (Amadism) 11 Chapter Six: The Modern Period and Discussion 10S - "Socially Engaged Buddhism" - the Mahayana - the West - the application of Cumpsty's Theory Bihliography 124 Ill GLOSSARY: anatman: litt. no self atman is the Hindu term for the real immortal self Buddhism denies its existence stating that there is nothing which can be designated as an independent, imperishable essence. One of the three marks of being. anatta: Pali term for the above, no self anava: egoism, or a too ridged ego. anicca: litt. impermanence. One of the three marks of being, the fundamental property of everything conditioned. From it derive the other two marks of being, no-self and suffering. Arhat: (Pali: arahat) Litt. worthy one. The Theravadin ideal and the highest level of spiritual attainment. A state in which all passions and defilements have passed away from them, the fruition of which is nirvana. artha: One of the three religious goals of classical Hinduism. It connotes the realm of the material, especially as it pertains to wealth, status and material success. atman: Self The Hindu doctrine of soul or immutable essence. The Upanishads made a correlation with the Self and Brahman. avatar: Litt. an incarnation. Used especially where a Hindu deity is to be found in human or animal form in order to test, teach or amuse themselves. The best known of these is Krishna who is an Avatar ofVisnu. avidya: litt. ignorance. It is one of the Buddhist "sins", and also the natural concomitant of the illusory nature of material existence. The soteriological goal of nirvana is to be achieved through the negation of this ignorance in various paths of spiritual training. These generally involve meditation on the four noble truths, the three marks of being and dependant co-origination. bhakti: Litt. devotion. It describes the ideal relationship between a devotee and a deity. bhaktiyoga: The path of devotion, and one of three yogas or paths in the Hindu tradition. In comprises making oneself available to the grace of the deity in order to gain salvation. Bhakti traditions have grown most notably around the deities of Krishna, Siva and Kali. bodhicitta: litt. awakened mind. Also the mind of enlightenment, it is viewed as a vision of the true nature of phenomena. IV Bodhisattva: litt. enlightenment being. One who seeks enlightenment through the systematic practice of perfect virtues (paramitas), but renounces complete entry into nin,ana until all beings are saved. A bodhisattva provides active help, and is capable of merit transfer for the benefit of others. A Mahayana concept in contradiction to the Theravada ideal of the arhat. dharma: 1. Hindu: social duty, that which is required to maintain order in the universe. 2. Hindu: used in this thesis to refer to the complex more closely associated with Cumpsty's ideal type of the nature religion paradigm. 3. Buddhist: The teachings of the Buddha. 5: Buddhist: the law as in the ordering principal of the universe. 6. Buddhist: word denoting the smallest particles of reality, as in all things are comprised of dharmas (Theravadin) or material existence is comprised of the interrelationship between non-material dharmas (Mahayana). etc. dukkha: suffering. One of the three marks of being. The roots of the word lie in the image of a wheel that is uncentered. It is the nature of conditioned reality that suffering permeates conditioned things. gunas: Litt. strands. From the Saqikhya philosophy. There are three of these strands which make up material existence, each of them has different natures and the relative mix of them describes and defines an object or being's nature and capacity. (see sattva, rajas and tamas) honji: litt. source. From the honji-suijaku (source-manifestation) theory which was used to integrate Buddhist and Shinto pantheons in Japan. The kami in this schemata, became manifestation of the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas who were there sources. janashakti: collective power. Used in the Sarvodaya movement to dennote the power of people in groups and in community for transformation and collective development through and with personal development. Joana: litt. wisdom. It relates always to knowledge of the absolute. Hindu origins. jiianayoga: The path of wisdom, one of the three acknowledges paths to salvation in traditional Hinduism, Practically this meant the path of the Upanishads in general, and to Sankara's means of attaining knowledge through the mahavakyas in particular. kami: the Shinto term for gods or spirits. These could be either personified or not, and comprised a pantheon which was subsumed to some degree by the Buddhist one until separation in the Meiji restoration.
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