The Journal of the International Society for Frontier Missiology

Int’l Journal of Frontier Missiology

Frontier Theologizing

147 From the Editor’s Desk Brad Gill Athens Redux 149 Articles 149 Prospects for Indigenous People Movements in the Buddhist World: A Call for Collaborative Local and Global Theologizing Todd Pokrifka Facing contradictions at the grassroots of theological encounter 157 From Mozambique to Millennials: Shame, Frontier Peoples, and the Search for Open Atonement Paths Alan B. Howell and Logan T. Th ompson The globalization of cultures calls for greater competence in multiple atonement metaphors 167 A Refl ection on Insider Movements in Korean Church History John Kim Once upon a time, before the missionaries came . . . 175 The Early Church in China: A Case Study of an Insider Movement David G. Cashin One small step in archeology, one giant step for missiology

184 Book Reviews 184 Insider Jesus: Theological Refl ections on New Christian Movements 186 Engaging Islamic Traditions: Using the Hadith in Christian Ministry to Muslims 187 Challenging Islamic Traditions: Searching Questions about the Hadith from a Christian Perspective

190 In Others’ Words 190 Warrick Farah on Insider Jesus Victoria Emily Jones on Martin Palmer’s The Jesus Sutras 69% of Yemenis Don’t Know Where Their Next Meal is Coming From Advice From a Chinese Christian 33:4October–December 2016 “J. Christy Wilson will go down in history as one of the great and courageous missionaries for the gospel in the twentieth century.” —Billy Graham

WHERE NO ONE HAS HEARD The Life of J. Christy Wilson Ken Wilson

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William Carey Library is a ministry of Frontier Ventures Athens Redux October–December 2016 Volume 33:4 ome of you may have caught the subtitle of Ian Johnson’s new book on Editor China: Th e Return of Religion after Mao. Th e kairos moment we’re witness- Brad Gill ing in the growth of the church in China is part of a broader phenomenon: Editor-at-Large S Rory Clark old religions are renewing in the vacuum of Mao’s massive secularization. Johnson Consulting Editors describes in vignette after vignette a fresh dynamic across this old frontier. Rick Brown, Darrell Dorr, Gavriel Gefen, Herbert Hoefer, Rebecca Lewis, Frontier Missiology. It’s a crucial modifi er. A dynamic modifi er. H. L. Richard, Steve Saint We publish on the assumption that mission frontiers present boundaries or bar- Copy Editing and Layout Elizabeth Gill, Marjorie Clark riers beyond which we must go—yet beyond which we may not be able to see clearly. Secretary Th ose boundaries may even be disputed or denied, and require study, evaluation Lois Carey and reevaluation. But, most crucial for today, those barriers are not just evaporat- Publisher ing in an age of globalization. Th ey are intensifying and renewing as global condi- Frontier Mission Fellowship 2016 ISFM Executive Committee tions shift. Barriers make a diff erence—not necessarily the same diff erence over Len Barlotti, Larry Caldwell, Dave Datema, time—but overcoming them has everything to do with the advance of the gospel. Darrell Dorr, Brad Gill, Steve Hawthorne, David Lewis, Rebecca Lewis, Greg Parsons Th e theme of this issue is “frontier theologizing,” which refl ects the theological chal- lenge of these barriers. Th e articles range from Africa to Asia, across Buddhist and Web Site www.ijfm.org Islamic contexts, and from the 7th to the 21st centuries. However, such a small col- lection can only begin to portray the theological exercise required in frontier mission. Editorial Correspondence 1605 E. Elizabeth Street Consider the biblical precedent. When the Apostle Paul was hauled up the hill Pasadena, CA 91104 called the Areopagus there in Athens (Acts 17), he faced no small challenge. His (734) 765-0368, [email protected] own theology may have been clear, but its transmission demanded translation Subscriptions into the mental maps of the Greek philosophers—and idols were everywhere in One year (four issues) $18.00 the wake of a new religious pluralism. Luke’s summary of this strange sermon is Two years (eight issues) $34.00 Three years (twelve issues) $48.00 a wonderful example of “frontier theologizing.” Andrew Walls has reminded us Single copies $5.00, multiple copies $4.00 that, again and again throughout history, we’ve witnessed this same challenge— Payment must be enclosed with orders. an “Athens Redux”—where the gospel encounters the accumulated wisdom and Please supply us with current address and coherent thought of an unreached civilization. change of address when necessary. Send all subscription correspondence to: Th at same exercise is refl ected in David Cashin’s missiological interpretation of IJFM Martin Palmer’s work on the Jesus Sutras (p. 175). Th ese 7th century documents PO Box 433303 Palm Coast, FL 32143 were initially translated by Nestorian missionaries to reach into a Taoist Chinese Tel: (888) 895-5566 (US); (386) 246-0171 world. While others may respond to them diff erently (p. 190), Cashin has done Fax: (626) 398-2263 Email: [email protected] us all the favor of tying this signifi cant piece of mission history to the discussion of insider movements today. IJFM (ISSN #2161-3354) was established in 1984 by the International Student Editorial continued on p. 148 Leaders Coalition for Frontier Missions, an outgrowth of the student-level meeting of The views expressed in IJFM are those of the various authors and not necessarily those Edinburgh ‘80. of the journal’s editors, the International Society for Frontier Missiology or the society’s COPYRIGHT ©2016 International Student Leaders Coalition for Frontier Missions. executive committee. PRINTED in the USA 148 From the Editor’s Desk, Who We Are

John Kim has also dipped back into Our systematic theologians may get Jesus, will be the plenary speaker for history with his analysis of the Korean nervous with all these uses of reli- the ISFM portion of the program movement to Christ (p. 167) that gious concepts; any Athens Redux (see Duerksen’s review on p. 184 and emerged in the 19th century. While threatens our established categories. Warrick Farah’s commentary on p. not theology per se, Kim calls the Todd Pokrifka gets it—he teaches 190). And Henk Prenger’s three ses- church to reconsider the essential systematic theology and empathizes sions on his recently published theo- groundwork laid during that early with those who may take off ense. His logical analysis of insider movements movement. Kim’s concern is one heard work among Buddhists has pressed will certainly frame the challenge of across the global church, especially in him to discern ever more carefully just frontier theologizing in the Muslim the West where a “stained glass bar- how the fl uid worlds of the Christian world. We hope to see you there, but if rier” calls for a re-contextualization of and the Buddhist can intersect in the you can’t make it, we intend to publish the gospel into new ecclesial forms. identity of a believer (p. 149). He felt many of the papers in the upcoming Proximate but resistant populations, the need to coin the term “frontier issues of the journal. often representing other religions, will theologizing” for this crucial exercise. Frontier conditions are dynamic and demand the same theologizing we wit- He calls both the systematic theolo- call us to deepen and expand our edi- ness with Paul on the Areopagus. gian and the mission practitioner to torial reach, to stay ever more vigilant collaborate with indigenous voices and Th e conditions of these frontiers are and alert to the realities of globaliza- select indigenous concepts to see the dynamic, not static. Globalization goes tion, and to fi nd ways to make sub- gospel transmitted. before us, creating new predicaments, stantive missiology more available to a moods, and reactions that complicate Th ese articles are being published just rising generation in mission. the way we theologize. Howell and before the 2017 joint gathering of In Him, Th ompson have looked at the way the Evangelical Missiological Society honor/shame in both Africa and (EMS) and the International Society among American millennials requires for Frontier Missiology (ISFM) in us to draw upon another historical Dallas, TX, September 15–17 (see Brad Gill slant on the atonement (p. 157). Th eir emsweb.org). Th is year, the focus is on Senior Editor, IJFM thesis demonstrates the speculative majority world theology, theologians nature of our frontier theologizing— and theological education. William like Paul we pull from any and every Dyrness, systematic theologian at corner of truth to present the gospel. Fuller Seminary and author of Insider

The IJFM is published in the name of the International Student Leaders Coalition for Frontier Missions, a fellowship of younger leaders committed to the purposes of the twin consultations of Edinburgh 1980: The World Consultation on Frontier Missions and the International Student Consultation on Frontier Missions. As an expression of the ongoing concerns of Edinburgh 1980, the IJFM seeks to:

promote intergenerational dialogue between senior and junior mission leaders; cultivate an international fraternity of thought in the development of frontier missiology; highlight the need to maintain, renew, and create mission agencies as vehicles for frontier missions; encourage multidimensional and interdisciplinary studies; foster spiritual devotion as well as intellectual growth; and advocate “A Church for Every People.”

Mission frontiers, like other frontiers, represent boundaries or barriers beyond which we must go yet beyond which we may not be able to see clearly and boundaries which may even be disputed or denied. Their study involves the discovery and evaluation of the unknown or even the reevaluation of the known. But unlike other frontiers, mission frontiers is a subject specifi cally concerned to explore and exposit areas and ideas and insights related to the glorifi cation of God in all the nations (peoples) of the world, “to open their eyes, to turn them from darkness to light and from the power of Satan to God.” (Acts 26:18)

Subscribers and other readers of the IJFM (due to ongoing promotion) come from a wide variety of backgrounds. Mission professors, fi eld mission- aries, young adult mission mobilizers, college librarians, mission executives, and mission researchers all look to the IJFM for the latest thinking in frontier missiology.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Frontier Theologizing Prospects for Indigenous People Movements in the Buddhist World: A Call for Collaborative Local and Global Theologizing

by Todd Pokrifka

Introduction or several decades, missiologists have emphasized the importance of people movements to Jesus as a primary way in which God expands F his kingdom in the world. More recently, there has been a great deal of missiological and theological refl ection and debate concerning one kind of indigenous people movement, namely “insider movements.” Th ese are move- ments to Christ among those who, in some way, remain identifi ed with a non-Christian socio-religious community. Most of the published discussions on this topic have focused on Islamic contexts, with signifi cantly fewer looking at Hindu contexts. Very little discussion has related to the prospects for insider movements in Buddhist contexts.1

Th is article will begin to fi ll this lacuna by off ering theological refl ections on the prospects for legitimate people movements and specifi cally insider movements in the Buddhist world. Buddhism stands in much greater “worldview confl ict” with Christianity than does Islam. Accordingly, if insider movements are contro- versial in Islam, then they will likely be even more controversial in Buddhism. Wouldn’t such movements have to embrace an unbiblical syncretism?

Not necessarily. Our answer to these questions depends on how we defi ne some key terms, on how we assess the degree of truth in Buddhism, and on how we understand the nature of social and religious identity.2

I will argue for two points that are in some tension with one another: (1) On the one hand, insider movements cannot retain the complete traditional theology and spiritual commitments of Buddhism and at the same time be faithful to Christ and Scripture. (2) Yet, on the other hand, one can speak of indigenous Spirit-led move- ments among those who stay within their Buddhist communities and who critically Todd Pokrifka is a professor of system- atic theology at Azusa Pacifi c Univer- evaluate and reinterpret Buddhism in light of Christ and our authoritative scriptures. sity. As a member of Frontier Ventures he also is the national director of the As a professor of systematic theology, I am vitally interested in the cooperative college-level INSIGHT program. theological discussions that must take place in our encounter with Buddhism

International Journal of Frontier Missiology 33:4 Winter 2016•149 150 Prospects for Indigenous Movements in the Buddhist World: A Call for Collaborative Local and Global Theologizing at the grassroots.3 I believe that for (“self-identifi cation”) or is it others Worldview Question 1: What is the faithful insider movements to emerge, in their native cultural or religious ultimate reality and what is the indigenous believers from a Buddhist setting (“other-identifi cation”)?7 nature of this reality? background need to be included in a I will not answer these questions de- For Christians, the God revealed in collaborative venture with missionar- fi nitively in this paper, but I will show the Bible is the ultimate reality. God ies who are alongsiders to successfully some of the implications of diff erent is personal, morally good, and eternal. develop biblically-based, culturally ways of answering them. For (classical) Buddhism, the ultimate relevant theology and practice. Th is reality is the realm or state of nirvana. joint project of local, indigenous, and Comparison of Buddhism Th is reality is in many ways beyond intercultural theologizing would be description since it is completely dif- one of the most signifi cant ways that and Christianity on Basic ferent than the transient life in this people movements in the Buddhist Worldview Questions world. Nirvana is not understood as world could demonstrate biblical dis- If we are to accurately describe and a personal divine being (contra all cernment, faithfulness and fruitfulness. analyze the prospects for insider forms of monotheism), although some movements in the Buddhist world, forms of Mahayana Buddhism affi rm Defi nitions one of our tasks is to summarize ways a kind of non-ultimate polytheism (or in which “Buddhism” overlaps and In this paper, a people movement refers theism). On the question of ultimate confl icts with “Christianity.” However, reality, Christianity and Buddhism to a communal movement to Christ both “Buddhism” and “Christianity” give mostly contrasting—yet possibly among a people group. As Donald Mc- complementary—answers. How- Gavran fi rst defi ned it, a people move- ever, both recognize that there is an ment is a series of multi-individual, unchanging reality (God or nirvana) mutually interdependent conversions that transcends the changing reality in which there is a “joint decision” that that we experience—which leads to normally enables the relevant indi- the next question. viduals to “become Christians without Both “Buddhism” social dislocation.”4 Th e people in these and “Christianity” are Worldview Question 2: What is the movements do not experience social nature of the “world,” or all that is dislocation, but they are switching notoriously diffi cult not the ultimate reality? religions by becoming “Christians.” to describe. For Christians, the world is the good, Th e term “insider movement” is a kind dependent creation of the one true of people movement that has come to God. It includes both material and have a fairly specifi c defi nition in most spiritual entities. For Buddhists, the missiological discussions. In the words world is made up of various changing of Jay Travis and Dudley Woodbury, and perishable entities that make up 10 an insider movement is are notoriously diffi cult to describe, the sphere of karma (Sanskrit). Most since each is marked by much internal Buddhists, who are folk Buddhists, a group or network of people who diversity. Th ere are “Christianities” believe that the karmic entities in this follow Jesus as Lord and Savior and and “Buddhisms.” Th ere are Th eravada world include spiritual beings like the the Bible as the Word of God, but re- Buddhists and Mahayana Buddhists. spirits of ancestors and other spirits, main a part of the socio-religious com- Th ere are classical Buddhists and folk munity of their birth or upbringing.5 both good and evil. On the question Buddhists.8 And so on. Th is makes the of the world and its entities, then, Some controversial questions in task of comparing the two problematic. Christians and Buddhists give answers understanding and evaluating insider that are partly contrasting (created vs. At the same time, some kind of provi- movements, defi ned thus, are: “uncreated”) and partly similar. sional characterization of the relationship 1. What is the meaning of “socio- between Christianity and Buddhism is Before I go on to the next worldview religious” community? Can or helpful to discern the main challenges questions, let me pause to say that should social and religious iden- that people would face who claim to these fi rst two questions concerning tity be distinguished?6 be both “Christian” and “Buddhist” in the nature of ultimate reality and of 2. Who has the right to deter- diff erent respects, like those in insider non-ultimate reality were not the direct mine if a particular group of movements. What are some worldview focus or concern of the Buddha. His Jesus followers are insiders? Is it factors that need to be considered as such concerns lay elsewhere. For that reason, the Jesus followers themselves persons negotiate their dual identity?9 he would regard defi nitive answers

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Todd Pokrifka 151 to these questions as speculative and his observation opens up the possibility of special therefore unadvisable. Th is perhaps is the best one can do with access to only revelation complementing or even fulfi lling the general revelation and without (bibli- underdeveloped areas of Buddhist worldviews. cal) special revelation. Th is observa- T tion opens up the possibility of special Worldview Question 4: What is the can be both insiders and outsiders on revelation complementing or even remedy for evil and suffering? a number of diff erent levels. At the fulfi lling the underdeveloped areas of Christians and Buddhists both believe risk of oversimplifying a bit, I will talk Buddhist worldviews, much as the rev- that salvation or escape from evil and about two options for how to conceive elation of Christ and the New Testa- suff ering is possible, but conceive of it of Buddhist and Christian identity: ment does in relation to the limitations diff erently. For Christians, God gra- Option 1: When Buddhism and Chris- of wisdom books like Ecclesiastes in ciously acts to save and restore fallen tianity are considered as distinct belief the Old Testament (see below). In any creation. Humans receive salvation by systems expressing one’s fundamental case, we now turn to the 3rd and 4th grace through faith or trust in God, spiritual allegiances, as Modern “essen- worldview questions—questions about which includes deliverance from evil tialists” have usually understood them, which Buddha’s central teachings pro- powers (demons) and the transforma- then there cannot be authentic, biblical vide some answers. tion of the person. For Buddhists, insider movements to Jesus among Worldview Question 3: What is the remedy to suff ering is the cessa- tion of desire (the third noble truth). Buddhists. If one remains committed the nature and cause of evil and to Buddhist self-eff ort and the doctrine suffering? Cessation of desire is made possible by following what Buddha called the of rebirth, then clashes with essential On the question of what is wrong with 13 noble eightfold path of “rightness” biblical beliefs are just too great. life in the world, Christians believe (the fourth noble truth). Th is enlight- Again, one cannot follow Jesus without that the creation has become corrupted ened way of right thinking and living believing wholeheartedly in a Creator, by evil through the sins of human- ultimately can lead one out of karma but Buddhism in all forms tends either ity and of other fallen agents, fallen and dukkha into nirvana, a perma- to deny the existence of such a Creator angels or demons. Th e creation and nent state free of suff ering and death. or at the least to render such a belief humanity were originally created good, Classical Th eravada Buddhism regards insignifi cant and speculative. but then there was the fall of human- this salvation as possible only by self- ity—brought about by sinful desire and Option 2: When Buddhism and eff ort, although folk Buddhists have disobedience to God. Th is led to vari- Christianity are considered as spheres often thought or acted inconsistently ous negative eff ects of sin, including of socio-religious and cultural identity, with this belief.12 In any case, there suff ering and death. Buddhists believe however, then there can be authentic, are strong contrasts between Christian life is inherently marked by dukkha, biblical insider movements to Jesus and Buddhist beliefs about the nature which is variously translated as “suff er- among Buddhists, i.e. among those of the remedy for evil and suff ering. ing,” “unease” or “dissatisfaction.” “All who remain devoted to a particular is dukkha” is thus the fi rst of Buddha’s On the whole, then, although there community and most of its values and four noble truths.11 All that we can ex- are some areas of overlap or similar- practices. Jesus-following, Bible-be- perience in the karmic realm is marked ity, there are signifi cant and strong lieving insiders can retain relationships by dukkha, a sense of things being both clashes between the basic worldviews with Buddhist family and friends, transient and not quite right. Bud- of (biblical) Christianity and Bud- participate in many of the rituals and dhists go on to believe that the cause dhism. For someone to follow Jesus religious festivals of Buddhist social or origination of this suff ering and but also remain Buddhist, then, would and religious life—yet with a new death is desire or craving, which is the be challenging, to say the least. But is way of interpreting them, of course. second noble truth of Buddhism. Folk it possible? According to their conscience, then, Buddhists also emphasize that many they could use many of the forms of instances of suff ering or misfortune are Levels of Identity, Insider Buddhist religious culture like wor- brought about by the curses or malevo- shipping in a temple, giving alms, or lent actions of various invisible spirits Movements and Frontier using Buddhist language and thought (including ancestors or demons). Th ere Theologizing patterns. One could do all these things is a large degree of similarity between Can a group of people learn to fol- in a way that expresses one’s newfound Christian and Buddhist views of suf- low Jesus faithfully and still remain faith in and love for Jesus. Of course fering and evil and their causes, while Buddhist insiders? Th e answer cannot the believers will reject or revise some some (important) diff erences remain. be simplistic, since a group of people Buddhist beliefs or practices, but one

33:4 Winter 2016 152 Prospects for Indigenous Movements in the Buddhist World: A Call for Collaborative Local and Global Theologizing

can imagine such people still seeing tentative view is that in most Bud- Again, a simple folk Buddhist would themselves insiders within the Bud- dhist cultures it makes more sense to see be open to following Jesus as savior dhist community and culture. In some a person’s Buddhist religious identity as if they experienced his delivering cases, such people might even be con- primarily horizontal. Th is inclines me power from evil spirits.18 However, sidered by the surrounding Buddhists to accept the prospect of Buddhist insider they would be less willing to convert as insiders. movements, understood rightly. Why do in these ways if they would have to break relationship with their family Th ese two distinct ways of understand- I incline towards this view? Th e main and community and become a “Chris- ing Buddhism and Christianity cor- reason relates to the observation that tian”—which they typically view as relate to two diff erent ways of under- the vast majority of Buddhists are folk replacing their old social identity with standing a person’s (or group’s) identity. Buddhists with unrefl ective, underde- a basically Western social identity. For Th e fi rst can be described as a person’s veloped belief systems. Except for a few “vertical identity, based upon their faith Buddhist monks and scholars, there this reason, it seems that being open in the person and work of Jesus Christ” are very few actual Buddhists who are to “insider movements” within the and related theological beliefs. Th e devoted to the formal beliefs of higher horizontal social world of Buddhism second can be described as the person’s Buddhism (say, atheism or even the would reduce unnecessary barriers to “horizontal identity, in which they necessity of self-salvation). Th is does conversion to Christ. relate to and share the cultural values not mean that there will not be a shift- Of course, by taking this stance in in which they were raised.”14 I believe ing of beliefs and paradigms for the favor of Buddhist insider movements, faithful followers of Jesus in the Bud- ordinary (folk) Buddhists who come I open myself to certain risks. Th ere is dhist world could be horizontal insiders the much vaunted danger, for instance, but vertical outsiders. Th at is, they that this stance could allow for syncre- would inwardly be spiritual-theological tism, a compromise of biblical truth. outsiders in their core identity, but Also, it is very diffi cult to separate the potentially be social-cultural insiders in Good frontier horizontal and spiritual elements of their communities (in their social and Buddhist belief and practice. However, collective identities). theologizing would such tricky problems can be overcome Are these Buddhist horizontal insid- on the ground through appropriate involve a collaborative 19 ers religious insiders also? Yes and no, discipleship. Discipleship in contexts depending on the way we are using partnership. in which the gospel is new involves “religious.” When we refer to Christi- what I call “frontier theologizing.” anity and Buddhism as “religions,” it Frontier theologizing is simply theo- can be ambiguous. Religion can refer logical refl ection and development that either to their vertical identity or their occurs on the frontiers of Christian 15 horizontal identity. If one under- to Christ, for there likely will be. But it mission. In this case, it would be the- stands religion as primarily concerned does mean that they would understand ologizing that takes place as the gospel with vertical identity (core spiritual Buddhism primarily as a horizontal advances from reached territories and and theological identity, faith commit- socio-cultural identity. For example, in people groups into unreached Buddhist ments and beliefs), then one will likely Th ailand there is a common belief that people groups. Good frontier theolo- reject the prospect of Buddhist insider “to be Th ai is to be Buddhist.” Ac- gizing in this setting would involve movements. By contrast, if one under- cordingly, among the greatest barriers a mutual collaborative partnership stands religion primarily as concerned that would keep most Buddhists from between two groups in Christ’s body, with horizontal identity, then one will becoming a Jesus-follower are social or namely between (a) the cultural “insid- likely affi rm the prospect of Buddhist horizontal barriers, not vertical barriers ers”—the new, indigenous “Buddhist insider movements.16 concerning fundamental theological Background Believers” (BBBs), and (b) But the debate about insider move- beliefs about God and reality.17 Th e the missionaries or “outsiders.” Mis- ments is not only a matter of arbitrary average Buddhist Th ai or Lao person, sionaries who start as outsiders can be- semantics. We must go on to ask which for example, would probably be willing come “alongsiders” that rightly aid the approach to religion is more appro- to consider believing in a creator God developing indigenous church.20 Th at priate to describe the reality of lived if they could be confi dent that such is, there is a collaboration between the Buddhism? Should we see a person’s a Creator God could enable them to native church’s task of indigenous local or group’s Buddhist religious identity escape from karma and suff ering. “self-theologizing” and the missionary as primarily vertical or horizontal? My church’s cross-cultural task of local,

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Todd Pokrifka 153 “contextual theologizing.”21 In this way, an the Bible itself suggest ways of handling insiders and missionaries can work together in producing complementary contradictions between forms of Buddhism aspects of an increasingly global theol- and the biblical gospel? ogy. Developing such a theology is part C of the growth and discernment process which diff erent statements address” matter” is to “fear God and keep his that believers experience in the process but in which one cannot say what the commandments.”26 of discipleship that follows an initial two speakers would say if they were But Christians have generally un- acceptance of the gospel. confronting similar circumstances.24 derstood these “contradictions” in a Speaking of contextual contradic- particular way, namely, to say that the A Strategy for Frontier tions in this sense is a way of handling statements of the Teacher are true Theologizing: a Biblical Way apparent contradictions between (and even inspired), but only from a of Handling Contradictions diff erent parts of the Bible, especially limited perspective. Th e statement that Between Local Buddhisms and between parts of the Old and New everything is vain and transient (Eccl. Testaments.25 It enables us to explain 1:2, 14, 2:17, etc.) is true of what life the Gospel how some of the Old Testament writ- is like when understood apart from One important aspect of frontier ings are true within a limited perspec- special revelation of God’s purposes theologizing in a Buddhist context tive, but not fi nally or fully true in for life and for the afterlife. Although would be to fi nd a way to understand the same way that the claims of the life can seem meaningless and “griev- and interpret the contradictions or New Testament are. What if we could ous” (2:17), the Teacher suggests that tensions that exist between local forms treat limited truths in Buddhism in a the best approach is to enjoy the tem- of Buddhism and the gospel. Dealing similar way? porary pleasures of life (see 5:18, 8:15 with such contradictions is a crucial and 9:9) amidst awareness of much 22 part of discipleship. The Role of Ecclesiastes in Scripture suff ering. Th is represents the best that Compared to the Role of General human reasoning can off er, based on a Contextual Contradictions in Revelation in the Buddhist World the Bible: A Model for Handling careful analysis of human experience. Contradictions Between Full Biblical More specifi cally, let us consider As such, it only applies to the realm Faith and Other Faiths typical Christian approaches to that of understanding “life under the sun” rather unruly book of the Old Testa- Can the Bible itself suggest ways (Eccl. 2:17, 5:18, 6:12, 8:15, 9:9). ment that we know as Ecclesiastes. of rightly handling contradictions Just as the Buddha made a number of Accordingly, Christians are able to between local forms of Buddhism specifi c statements that would contra- embrace the partial truths of the and the biblical gospel? Is there a dict parts of the Bible, so also does the Teacher as ultimately compatible with biblical way to allow for a somewhat Teacher or Preacher (Heb., Qoholeth the fuller truth of Jesus. Th e Teacher’s harmonious relationship between in Eccl. 1:1) in Ecclesiastes (whether refl ections are true only within a lim- them (avoiding infl ammatory “anti- or not this Teacher was the historical ited frame of reference and need to be Buddhism”)? I believe the answer to placed within the wider frame of refer- Solomon is a matter I will not ad- these questions is “Yes.”23 ence provided by the Grand Narrative dress here). Consider, for example, the of the Bible that culminates in Jesus What if Buddhism were seen as partly Teacher’s oft-repeated statement that Christ and the gospel. true (due to general revelation and/or “all is vanity” or “vapor” or “breath” common grace), or true within a lim- or “everything is meaningless” or an Th e Teacher’s conclusions are similar to ited sphere of reality, while the gospel empty “chasing after the wind” (e.g., those of the Buddha about the tran- and biblical theology were seen as true 1:2, 14). Certainly, Jesus and the gospel sience of all things and how this leads in a far fuller and more complete sense? are not vanity? Certainly, the Teacher’s to suff ering and dissatisfaction. One If this were the case, then some of the statements here would contradict Jesus’ could say that these shared conclusions apparent contradictions between Bud- claim to be “the way, the truth and the are partly the result of general revela- dhism and “Christianity” would not be life” (John 14:6). Indeed, if taken as tion and that they both need supple- substantial or fundamental contradic- a fi nal statement of truth that applies mentation from special revelation. tions but what we might call “con- to all things literally and comprehen- Accordingly, without affi rming that textual contradictions.” In the words sively, the Teacher’s statement would the Buddha’s writings are inspired or of biblical scholar John Goldingay, a contradict his own claims elsewhere in canonical like the book of Ecclesiastes, contextual contradiction is “a diff erence the book (e.g., such as his concluding we can fi ttingly treat his teachings as refl ecting the variety in circumstances statement in 12:13 that “the end of the a set of partial truths within a limited

33:4 Winter 2016 154 Prospects for Indigenous Movements in the Buddhist World: A Call for Collaborative Local and Global Theologizing

frame of reference. Th e Buddhist scrip- (some say over 40,000) of Buddhist Communication of the Gospel in Burmese tures, then, contain wise human obser- Background believers following Jesus Buddhist Context (Langham Partnership, vations of how life is, based on general and spreading the gospel. UK 2014). Also, the systematic theologian, revelation. Th e situation is similar in William Dyrness has dedicated a section Th is movement began with one people to theological refl ections on movements in Ecclesiastes (or Proverbs too), except group but has since spread to many the Buddhist world in his recent publica- that in the Bible we have an element other people groups.29 Among the tion Insider Jesus: Th eological Refl ections on of special revelation at work as well, in- approaches to evangelism and teach- New Christian Movements (IVP Academic, cluding the infallible, inspired records Downers Grove, 2016), 90–93. ing that this movement employs is of the Teacher’s observations, which are 2 Kang-San Tan has developed a theol- to present the gospel in terms of the based on general revelation. ogy of religions approach which respects “Four Noble Truths of Christ,” in a religious identity and multi-religious be- To clarify, this does not mean that we manner that recalls—but also super- longing in the Christian-Buddhist context. should regard Buddhism as the “Old sedes—the Four Noble Truths of the Th e Inter-Religious Frontier: A Buddhist- Testament” for Buddhists, or that the Buddha.30 Th at is, Christ followers use Christian Contribution (Mission Studies, Old Testament is only relevant to Jews, an existing, familiar teaching model, Volume 31, Issue 2, 2014), 139–156. 3 two beliefs that I fi rmly oppose.27 But but substitute the truth taught with the Simon Chan has recently addressed it does mean that there is an analogous teachings of Christ. Again, despite the the concern that Western theological way in which incomplete truths of the models have over-shadowed our ability to alleged dangers of syncretism, is it not hear important cultural themes necessary in Buddha and the Teacher of Ecclesi- possible that such people movements our theological encounter with grassroots astes (or many other parts of the Old among Buddhists are the work of God’s religious contexts in Asia. See Grassroots Testament ) can be affi rmed, “relativ- Asian Th eology: Th inking the Faith from ized,” and “contextualized” within the Ground Up (IVP Academic, Downers the wider, canonical, biblical truth of Grove, 2014). God.28 Th is is one example of the kind 4 McGavran 1970 and McGavran of theologizing that alongsiders and 1980, as cited in Smith 2005, 285. indigenous believers could do together Th is movement 5 Th is defi nition is adapted from Travis in particular contexts. and Woodberry 2010. presents the gospel 6 I will return to this question espe- cially in section 3 below. Conclusion: A Call for as the “Four Noble 7 In this paper I lean towards under- Collaborative Local and Global Truths of Christ.” standing insider movements as those groups whose members self-identify as being inside Frontier Theologizing the cultural or religious tradition of their I have argued that indigenous, insider birth (i.e. Buddhism or Islam), even if others movements are possible within Bud- in that cultural or religious tradition do not dhist contexts, but I am also arguing recognize them as such. Th is way of defi ning that such movements can only be Spirit? If so, then we should tentatively insider movements (prioritizing self-identi- fi cation) coheres with the point I will make faithful with much biblically-based, support and promote such movements, Spirit-led discernment. Th is discern- later about the importance of self-theologiz- while still calling for wise discernment. ing within indigenous people movements. ment process requires a process of One of the key ways in which such 8 Consider the situation in Th ailand, theologizing that takes place on the discernment can take place is through for example. According to Paul De Neui, frontiers of the gospel’s advance. a collaborative process of frontier although Th ailand is often considered one Despite the signifi cant clash of world- theologizing in the Buddhist world. By of the most faithful custodians of Th erevada responding to this call to discern and Buddhism, Buddhism is perhaps more ani- views that exists between Christians mist than classical Buddhist (De Neui 2015, and Buddhists, then, there are ways in theologize, God’s people will catalyze kingdom breakthrough among the 188 ). Wan Petchsongkram argues about which authentic indigenous or insider the Th ai Context that although Buddha people movements can take place in unreached, both in the Buddhist world originally taught his followers to depend on 31 Buddhist contexts and communities. and beyond. IJFM self, “they are now feverishly trying to fi nd Th ere is evidence that such move- Endnotes something outside themselves as a founda- ments—both biblically faithful and tion for their lives . . . Wherever there is some miracle or sacred things, people will contextually fi tting—are already taking 1 More recently the voice of Peter Th ein rent a taxi and go by the hundreds and Nyant has been heard on the implication place. In a church planting movement thousands” (Petchsongkram 1975, 3). John of contextualization and movements within in Myanmar set apart by its indig- Lambert comments, “[M]ost Th ai are deeply the Buddhist world with the publication enous Buddhist-sensitive approach, enmeshed in various forms of “popular” of his Mission Amidst Pagodas: Contextual there have been many thousands devotion that is tied to Th ai Buddhism, such

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Todd Pokrifka 155 as astrology, spirit devotion, spirit houses, 14 Garrison 2014, 37. Missionaries are generally more in touch monk veneration, fortune-telling, amulets, 15 Daniels & Waterman 2013, espe- with global theology, although they also power tattoos, and merit-making schemes cially 62–68 (see diagrams on 63 and 65 in possess and are shaped by the particular lo- such as the wildly popular Dhammakaya which religion overlaps with both culture cal theology in which they were raised. movement. All the while, Th eravada Bud- and theology. Th e two authors agree that us- 22 One promising way forward is to dhism struggles to stay relevant to modern ing the term “cultural insiders and theologi- fi nd ways of handling these confl icts that culture” (Lambert 2013). cal outsiders” would be accurate to describe appear within the resources of the biblical 9 To clarify, in this section I aim to many believers in insider movements in canon itself, rather than requiring extensive describe the basic contours of “scriptural” ver- the Muslim world. I tend to think this scholarly knowledge of Western theology or sions of Christianity and Buddhism, focusing would apply to the Buddhist context also, if even of Buddhism. By focusing on what the on the beliefs that would most naturally terms are defi ned rightly and “theological” Bible contributes to the discussion, we can emerge from their respective sacred writings includes “spiritual” and “faith” (as personal expect indigenous believers themselves to (although I will sometimes point out notable trust) as well. participate in the theologizing process—with exceptions to these beliefs among folk Chris- 16 Th is observation about the ambiguity their own indigenous biblical interpretations. tians or Buddhists). Th ese worldview ques- of the terms “religion” and “religious identity” I realize that I am assuming here that the tions are stated in my own terms, although has some interesting implications. It means, local or indigenous believers in question have they are the product of compiling and for example, that even if two people have ex- a decent Bible translation in a language they synthesizing the questions used by several actly the same theological convictions about can understand, a state of aff airs that is sadly Christian books on worldviews (most nota- what is necessary for a person to believe to often not the case for many of the unreached. bly Sire 2009 and Burnett 1990; for a copy of be saved, and about what beliefs within Bud- 23 What follows is an attempt to a document containing additional questions dhism need to be affi rmed and rejected, they explain one way that this could be possible, about knowledge, ethics, history and time could still be on opposite sides of the insider despite the signifi cant “clash of worlds” and sub-questions under each of the major movement debate. It would all depend on between Christianity and Buddhism. Th is questions presented in this paper, please how these two people defi ne religion. eff ort is intended as an initial attempt at contact the author ([email protected]). I 17 Paul De Neui expresses basically the bridging from a Western Christian perspec- am aware that the selection and form of the same point like this: “for most Th ai Folk Bud- tive to a Buddhist one. questions could be considered biased in the dhists, the strongest barriers to Christ they 24 See John Goldingay 1987: 19; see direction of a Christian worldview or set of experience are not religious but social. Th e 15–25. worldviews, but I believe that the worldviews so-called ‘religious tenets’ of their faith are 25 I realize that in speaking of “what of humans—together with human societies relative ” (De Neui 2003, 134). Notice, how- has become a common way,” I am appeal- and cultures—are suffi ciently commensurable ever, that De Neui is using “religious” here ing indirectly to certain Western Christian and share suffi ciently overlapping concerns to refer to something related to fundamental theological traditions or ways that Western that these questions do not unduly distort worldview beliefs—which I connect, with scholars have handled apparent contradic- the nature of the various worldviews they are vertical identity—rather than social identity. I tions in the Bible. But at the same time designed to understand. Further, I am aware would be more inclined to express his some- I think that virtually every Bible reader that worldview is not an adequate category to thing like, most barriers are social rather than around the globe will notice some of the understand the depth and fullness of human concerned with worldview beliefs. tensions between parts of the Bible and culture or religion, although I think world- 18 A leader in the main Protestant have their ways of handling them. Accord- view should be employed in a way that is church in Laos recently told the author that ingly, various kinds of indigenous believers much richer than its intellectual connotations the majority of converts from Buddhism who possess a Bible can thus relate to the might suggest. Understood rightly, worldview in his community resulted from power discussion and be helped by this tradition. can include matters of the heart and of social encounters involving deliverance from de- 26 Likewise, some have pointed out the structure and practice. mons. Th is points out that other signifi cant “contradictions” in the Buddha’s teaching, 10 Bauer 2014 emphasizes the “opposite barriers keeping Buddhist people are the such as between his “no-self ” doctrine and attributes” of the two spheres of the dualistic spiritual barriers of demonic bondages, but I his teachings on “rebirth.” view of reality of the Buddha; “all that is am not addressing these in this paper. 27 Even the rather “liberal” K. Koyama absent in nibbana is present in kamma, and 19 In any case, syncretism can emerge opposes these claims, affi rming that there is it makes our lives miserable.” just as readily if we call new believers to a “blood relationship” between the Old Tes- 11 For a clear statement and analysis of adopt a new, Westernized cultural form of tament and the New Testament in which the four noble truths and other aspects of Christianity, making them outsiders in their the Old Testament cannot be replaced by classical Buddhism, see Siderits 2011. own native culture. Th e reason of course the Hindu Upanishads or the Buddhist 12 Th ere are some forms of Buddhism is that missionaries too can be capable of Tripitaka (1999, p. xii). (most notably the “Pure Land” form of uncritical syncretism, as when we “baptize” 28 For further refl ections on this kind Mahayana Buddhism) that believe that faith individualism even when it runs against the of approach within biblical studies and or trust in the name of the Buddha can en- communal themes of the Scriptures. biblical theology, in relation to “problematic” able one to experience nirvana, but this is a 20 See Travis 2013 for an explanation of texts about women in the Old Testament, relatively rare form of Buddhism. the role of an “alongsider.” see Pokrifka 2011. 13 With folk Buddhists also, following 21 Ultimately, this distinction and 29 Judson 2014, 10–12. Th is movement Jesus would involve a shift in a number of relationship relates to the connection be- is probably not best classifi ed as a pure basic beliefs and practices. tween local theologies and global theology. “insider” movement (“C5”), since it draws

33:4 Winter 2016 156 Prospects for Indigenous Movements in the Buddhist World: A Call for Collaborative Local and Global Theologizing from what we might call Western-style Believers are Proclaiming the Gos- Questions about Jesus Move- church planting methods and includes some pel.” Mission Frontiers 36.6 (Nov/ ments within Muslim Communi- Western leadership, but is certainly highly Dec 2014 , 10–12). ties.” Mission Frontiers. ( July–Au- contexualized or indigenous (perhaps C4). Lambert, John gust 2010): 24–30. 30 Judson 2014, 11–12. 2013 “12 Months Blocs Spotlight for Van Engen, Charles May 2013: Peoples of Southeast 1991 God’s Missionary People: Re- 31 Th is collaborative process of critical Asia with an Emphasis on the thinking the Purpose of the Local and creative theological work will help to Th ai Family of Peoples.” Mission Church. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker. produce and cultivate movements that are Frontiers 35.3 (May–June 2013). Wetchgama, Banpote marked by both biblical faithfulness and cul- Lee, Sugwon Gus 2014 “Th e New Buddhists: How tural fi t. It would lead to a collaborative con- 2011 “A Topical Grid Analysis of Buddhists Can Follow Christ.” nection between local theologizing and glob- Insider Movement Discussions: A Mission Frontiers 36.6 (Nov/Dec al theologizing—theologizing that connects Roadmap.” Unpublished paper. 2014): 28–31. and draws from communities from various Lim, David parts of the world. I must leave refl ections 2015 “Transforming Power Encounters on the concrete features of such a theological into People Movements in the process to another writing project. Originally, Buddhist World and Beyond.” this paper included a second portion that Unpublished paper. off ered those kinds of refl ections. Contact me McGavran, Donald at [email protected] to obtain a document 1970 Understanding Church Growth. with these refl ections in it. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. Petchsongkram, Wan Bibliography 1975 Talk in the Shade of the Bo Tree. Bauer, Chris Tr. Frances E. Hudgins. 2014 “Th e Fingerprints of God in Siderits, Mark Buddhism.” Mission Frontiers 36.6 2014 “Buddha.” Th e Stanford Encyclo- (Nov/Dec 2014 , 6–9). pedia of Philosophy. Spring 2014. Bosch, David Edition, Edward N. Zalta (ed. 1991 Transforming Mission. Maryknoll, Accessible online at: http://plato. New York, USA: Orbis Books. stanford.edu/archives/spr2014/ Daniels, Gene and L. D. Waterman entries/buddha/.) 2013 “Bridging the ‘Socio-religious’ Smith, Alex G. Divide: A Conversation between 2005 “People Movements in Th ailand” Two Missiologists.” IJFM 30:2 In Sharing Jesus Eff ectively in the Summer, 59–68. Buddhist World. Eds. David Lim, De Neui, Paul H. Stephen Spaulding, and Paul De 2003 “Contextualizing with Th ai Folk Neui. Pasadena, CA: William Buddhists.” In Sharing Jesus in the Carey Library, 283–326. Buddhist World. Eds. David Lim Taylor, Geraldine and Steve Spaulding. Pasadena, CA: 1998 Behind the Ranges: Th e Life- William Carey Library. 121–146. Changing Story of J. O. Fraser. (Also accessible online at: http:// Littleton, CO: OMF International. www.thaicrc.com/collect/MIS/ Tennent, Timothy C. index/assoc/D4113.dir/4113.pdf .) 2007 Doing Th eology in the Context of Garrison, David World Christianity: How the Global 2014 A Wind in the House of Islam. Church Is Infl uencing the Way We Monument, CO: WIGTake Th ink About and Discuss Th eology. Resources. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Goldingay, John Travis, John 1987 Th eological Diversity and the Th e- 1998 “Th e C1 to C6 Spectrum.” ology of the Old Testament. Grand Evangelical Missions Quarterly 34 Rapids, MI: Eerdmans. (1998): 407–408. Hiebert, Paul G. Travis, John J. and Anna Travis 1987 “Critical Contextualization.” In- 2013 “Roles of ‘Alongsiders’ in Insider ternational Bulletin of Missionary Movements: Contemporary Ex- Research 11/3 ( July , 104–112). amples and Biblical Refl ections.” Hiebert, Paul G. IJFM 30.4 (Winter 2013): 161– 1994 Anthropological Refl ections on 169. (Accessible online at: http:// Missiological Issues. Grand Rapids, www.ijfm.org/PDFs_IJFM/30_4_ MI: Baker. PDFs/IJFM_30_4-Travis.pdf. Judson, Jay Travis, John J. and J. Dudley Woodberry 2014 “Longing for the Golden City: 2010 “When God’s Kingdom Grows How 42,500 Buddhist Background Like Yeast: Frequently Asked

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Frontier Theologizing From Mozambique to Millennials: Shame, Frontier Peoples, and the Search for Open Atonement Paths

by Alan B. Howell and Logan T. Thompson

“Sharing about how Jesus paid my sin debt with God won’t connect with them at all.”

he realization that concepts of sin and guilt do not resonate strongly with our African neighbors marked the beginning of an important T shift in my (Alan’s) thinking. Our mission team arrived in Mo- zambique in 2003 with the goal of encouraging a church-planting movement among the Makua-Metto people, a people group whose religious identity has been predominantly shaped by Islam and Animism. Because of their lack of exposure to the Bible, we initially used a chronological storying method to prepare the way for people to hear the story of Jesus. In those fi rst villages, how- ever, I was unsure of what path to take to talk about the atoning work of Christ in ways that made sense to rural Mozambicans. I remember one of them saying, “We hear this story you are telling us—but why is Jesus’ death so important?”

Rather than sin and guilt, they most desire a way to deal with fear and evil. I learned that Jesus as “Christus Victor”—seeing him as the Lord who defeated Satan and the demonic powers—was the message that best connects with a Makua-Metto audience.1 Th at understanding changed me personally as I journeyed into a more robust picture of Christ’s work on the cross, recogniz- Alan Howell, his wife Rachel, and ing that Jesus did not simply address our sin problem with his death, but he their three girls live in Cabo Delgado, Mozambique. Alan is a graduate also addressed humanity’s other big enemies: Satan and Death itself. of Harding School of Th eology. Th e Howells have lived in Mozambique In this article, we will begin by looking at how these three enemies of ours since 2003 and are part of a team and how their corresponding emotional motivators fi t with certain atonement serving among the Makua-Metto people (www.makuateam.org). metaphors. Because of globalization and other signifi cant shifts within cultures,

Logan Th ompson and his wife Maryn Christians who want to meaningfully engage their world must possess greater live in Beebe, Arkansas. Logan is competency in multiple atonement theories. We will then show how recapitula- a graduate of Harding University (2015) and is currently an MDiv tion and theosis themes create open paths for explaining the meaning of the student at Harding School of Th eol- work of Christ in both the shame-infl uenced cultures of the Makua-Metto of ogy. He also serves as the youth minis- ter at the Beebe Church of Christ. Mozambique and in the culture of American youth.2 Along the way, we will

International Journal of Frontier Missiology 33:4 Winter 2016•157 158 From Mozambique to Millennials: Shame, Frontier Peoples, and the Search for Open Atonement Paths also briefl y explore how competency in a connect with our African friends who need for increased competency with mul- variety of diff erent atonement metaphors grew up in a fear-based culture. Th at tiple atonement metaphors. We foresee provides a more holistic, integrated, and does not imply, however, that I should the forces of globalization resulting in one ancient understanding of the doctrine. completely jettison any language of guilt of two outcomes in cultures around the and shame. Even though each culture world. First, cultures may become more Guilt, Shame, and Fear: has a primary orientation, they are all complex as they incorporate other colors still a hybrid of guilt, shame, and fear. into their palette, becoming more “three- How Culture Shapes Th erefore, in order to communicate the dimensional.” Second, and adversely, Atonement Perspectives gospel eff ectively, ministers will need to cultures may retreat back into “their own Eugene Nida observes that there are experiment and learn how to shape the corner” and become more entrenched three diff erent types of cultures, each message properly to help it resonate with in their primary color. Regardless of the with its own “reactions to transgres- their particular culture’s unique mixture. outcome, all Christians would benefi t sions of religiously sanctioned codes: from being prepared to walk down diff er- fear, shame, and guilt.”3 Jayson Georges Th ese three categories correspond with ent presentation paths in order to speak expands on this distinction to divide diff erent enemies facing humanity: eff ectively about the atonement. the world into three primary types of Guilt-Sin, Shame-Death, Fear-Satan societies. See our chart below (fi gure 1). & Evil Forces. Th is unholy trio appears together in the Garden of Eden (Gen. Recapitulation, Theosis, • Guilt-Innocence: “individualistic 3) and remains humanity’s antago- and Athanasius: How Christ societies (mostly Western), where nists throughout the story until the Addresses Shame and Death people who break the laws are Creator fi nally brings them to an end One model for understanding the atone- guilty and seek justice or forgive- (Rev. 20).8 1 John 3 shows how God, ment that we may be less familiar with ness to rectify a wrong” in Christ, addresses all three of these (and one that historically has greatly • Shame-Honor: “collectivistic cul- enemies.9 So, Jesus’ death and resurrec- infl uenced the Eastern Church) is called tures (common in the East), where tion saves us in three dimensions, not “recapitulation.” In recapitulation, Adam people shamed for not fulfi lling just one; Christ’s atonement eff ectively is the lens through which we see Jesus. group expectations seek to restore addresses our past, present, and future.10 Christ undoes death by becoming the their honor before the community” 11 As ministers present the story of Jesus second Adam and rising again. By iden- • Fear-Power: “animistic contexts tifying with humanity in the incarnation, in their contexts, they need to adapt (typically tribal or African), where the message to address the primary Christ recapitulated, or “summed up people afraid of evil and harm and secondary problems in that setting. in himself,” all of humanity, so that pursue power over the spirit world what humanity had lost in Adam (the through magical rituals”4 Furthermore, cultures are not static; because of shifts and changes over time, perfect image of God) could be re- 12 Georges recognizes that cultures are “a they are moving targets. I (Logan) believe covered in himself. blend of guilt, shame and fear,” but that that American culture is shifting from a Athanasius (Bishop of Alexandria) most every culture has a single, primary guilt-based to a more shame- and fear- argued that orientation.5 In order to communicate infl uenced society. I (Alan) have come to the Word takes on a human body ca- eff ectively in Mozambique, I (Alan) realize that while fear is the primary mo- pable of death so that he could die had to intentionally set aside the guilt tivator in Makua-Metto culture, the lan- 6 for all and enable all to be saved from palette (the color set I grew up with in guage of shame and honor is relevant as corruption by the grace of the resur- North America) and become comfort- well and should shape the presentation of rection. By participation in his death able teaching the message of Christ the atonement in Mozambique. In both and life, humanity has overcome with themes and vocabulary that would of our ministry contexts, we have seen the death and received incorruption.13

Figure 1. Cultural Orientations and Atonement Approaches

Response Problem Time Dimension Atonement Approach (Culture Type)

Sin Guilt-Innocence Past Penal Substitution Satan and Evil Fear-Power Present Christus Victor Death Shame-Honor Future Recapitulation/Theosis7

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Alan B. Howell and Logan T. Thompson 159 Th e “companion doctrine” of recapitu- thanasius’s path of theosis and recapitulation is lation is known as theosis.14 Th eolo- gians have defi ned theosis in a variety well-suited for traditionally Eastern cultures of ways,15 but simply put, it refers to the process of human beings becom- where honor/shame is linked to death. 16 A ing like God. Although he never uses death deathlessness has been made three major “death rituals” in Makua- the term, Athanasius is traditionally known to us, and through the Incar- Metto culture: funerals, initiations, and considered the champion of theosis. nation of the Word the Mind whence (for Christians) baptisms. For him, recapitulation is “more or less all things proceed has been declared, taken over” by the doctrine of theosis.17 and its Agent and Ordainer, the Word “Many cultures intuitively associate . . . 24 He takes the thinking of Irenaeus fur- of God Himself. He, indeed, assumed death with shame.” And to understand ther by stating, “[Christ] became man humanity that we might become God. the strong link between them in our He manifested Himself by means of a that we might be made God.”18 Pugh, Mozambican context, one must appreci- body in order that we might perceive commenting on Athanasius, writes, ate that death is “up close and personal.” the Mind of the unseen Father. He en- Death is a part of everyday life and is So then, Christ travels the path of the dured shame from men that we might not relegated to nursing homes, hospi- 20 fi rst Adam, with whom all human- inherit immortality. (emphasis mine) tals, or funeral parlors. People die in their kind has been walking in inescapable Athanasius’s approach outlines a path for homes if possible and want to be buried solidarity. But Christ’s solidarity with in their villages.25 Funeral rituals and Adam is transformative. By being theosis and recapitulation thinking that obedient where Adam was disobedi- is well-suited for traditionally Eastern ceremonies among the Makua-Metto ent, Christ opens up a new kind of sol- cultures where honor/shame is the pri- people are the main (or only) mecha- idarity, releases a “new ferment” into mary issue and linked to the problem of nism for grieving. In this context, both human nature. This new solidarity is death.21 But this path for presenting the churches and mosques function like forged by the Spirit through whom, atonement also has value in other cultures burial societies.26 Funerals are signifi - out of their union with the new head where shame22 is a less often recognized cant for a number of reasons: Funerals of humanity, Christ’s image is imprint- but nonetheless a powerful motivator. bring honor; 27 Funerals change status;28 ed on his people so that they begin to Funerals have serious religious signifi - live his resurrected life.19 In the following sections we will explore cance.29 Worth noting here, however, are how the doctrines of recapitulation Athanasius describes humanity’s root fi ve aspects of how the concept of shame and theosis connect with shame/death problem (why recapitulation is neces- is woven through the preparations for elements in the frontier cultures of sary for theosis) as ultimately related burial and the funeral itself. Mozambicans and Millennials. Since to death and shame. Athanasius’s most the language of “path” resonates with 1. When news of a death is sent out famous quote—“God became man so both American youth and the Animistic and family and neighbors gather that man might become God”—is sur- Makua-Metto people, that will be the together, women will cry and tell rounded by comments about both the frame we will use in our application the story of the death as a “wail enemy (the problem) and the emotion sections for those contexts. song” inside the house, but men (the response) associated with it. Th is is are not to cry. If a friend, relative, an important, early example of the con- or neighbor does not go “to cry” nection between recapitulation/theosis Walking the Recapitulation/ and participate in the funeral and shame/death. Theosis Path in Mozambique: activities, it is shameful, insulting, As, then, he who desires to see God Shame and the “Death Rituals” and seen as suspicious.30 Who by nature is invisible and not to I (Alan) have found that fear is the pri- 2. Th e head of the family or king be beheld, may yet perceive and know mary motivator for the Makua-Metto is in charge but typically does Him through His works, so too let him people, but the rhetoric of shame also everything by consultation and in who does not see Christ with his under- plays an important role.23 Th e phrase close collaboration with religious standing at least consider Him in His woona ihaya shows up regularly in leaders. His task is to make sure bodily works and test whether they be everyday language and literally means the burial proceeds in a way that of man or God. If they be of man, then shame for the deceased and their let him scoff; but if they be of God, let to “see shame.” Two key values of the him not mock at things which are no Makua Metto people are dependency family will be avoided. fi t subject for scorn, but rather let him and conformity, and the language of 3. While the grave is being dug, recognize the fact and marvel that shame is used to reinforce these values. others prepare the body for burial things divine have been revealed to us Th is shaming speech is especially prev- by washing the body, drying it, by such humble means, that through alent in what I group together as the and dressing the deceased in

33:4 Winter 2016 160 From Mozambique to Millennials: Shame, Frontier Peoples, and the Search for Open Atonement Paths

their nicest clothes. Th ere is a lot an adult male who is acting immature shame of death by following the path of discussion during these activi- by calling him luukhu (which means walked by Christ (recapitulation) and ties in order to make sure they “uncircumcised” or “uninitiated”). fi nd their place in the life of God in are carried out in such a way that his Kingdom (theosis). Since initiations are an important part of will not bring shame. Makua-Metto culture, they are the most 4. At the gravesite a small number natural frame in which to present the Walking the Recapitulation/ of men will climb down into the concept of baptism. As a “death ritual” Theosis Path with Millennials: grave. A sheet is extended over where the initiated buries his or her old Shame and Social Media them so that their work of posi- life, it should not be surprising that the tioning the body will not be seen. A defi ning development of the millen- Makua-Metto use language of shame to nial generation34 was the technological 5. Traditionally, there are other instruct believers in the way they should boom of the 1990s and 2000s and the funerary rituals on the third and now live and challenge those who have rise of social media. Th e rapid devel- fortieth day after the burial that forgotten to walk that path. Beck’s com- opment of millennials’ adolescence involve beautifying the gravesite, ments on the place of baptism fi t well was paralleled by the rapid advance in and weak participation by the within this understanding: communication technology, particularly community is seen as shameful. Baptism is a renunciation of Satan, the internet and cellular phones.35 It Th ese are just a few of the connections sin and the evil powers at work in our was during this time that using portable between shame and the rituals surround- hearts and minds. But many have a communication devices and staying con- ing death and burial in Makua-Metto nected to others online was no longer culture. I have found that 2 Tim. 1:8–10, “seen as a subcultural practice [but in- a passage that highlights the connection stead] became normative.”36 Th e rise of between shame and death, is a powerful the internet, personal cell phone use, and preaching text for graveside sermons.31 social media has played a signifi cant role Verse 8 references the concepts of shame in shifting the traditionally guilt-based and suff ering,32 and the following verse Th e Makua-Metto worldview of the West to a more shame- talks about how God saves people not by based one, especially for those under the merit but by mercy and grace (a helpful use language of shame age of 30—a shift that continues with corrective to the popular presentation of to instruct believers. the youngest generation today. following Islam’s pillars in this context). Th en in verse 10, we hear Paul’s asser- Language is a primary indicator of tion that Christ saves us through his cultural shifts. Georges provides vo- destruction of the weapon of death that cabulary lists for the three dimensions Satan wields against us. Th is passage and of culture—guilt, shame, and fear—and even a cursory comparison yields great its recapitulation/theosis themes have thin view of what this renunciation provided a helpful way of addressing the insight. Words associated with guilt looks like–we tend to think of it as include: rules, debt, judge, personal, pen- concepts of shame and death. an act of willpower, as simply resisting alty, pardon, commands, and sacrifi ce.37 cravings and temptations. [But] . . . the Th e funeral ritual in the Makua-Metto problem is much deeper and more Words associated with shame include: context is naturally the one most as- pervasive. Sin . . . is less about hedonic worthy, identity, approval, face, inclusion, sociated with shame and death, but it craving than it is about our slavery public, community, humiliation, and ac- should be noted that shame language and bondage. The issue isn’t tempta- ceptance.38 Th e latter set resonates much also appears at initiation and baptism. tion as much as it is identity and how more than the former within the hearts Makua-Metto adolescents (both boys we ground our sense of self-defi nition of millennials whose participation in and girls) traditionally go through an and self-worth. So . . . our baptismal networked communities is an integral initiation ceremony around the time of renunciations are less focused on will- part of their daily lives. Learning how puberty, and shame is woven through power (i.e., saying “no” to tempta- to avoid and address shame is of utmost the rhetoric of that ritual. Initiates are tion) and more concerned with a deep importance for today’s teenagers who 33 instructed on how to live once their old reconfi guration of our personhoods. strive to create impressive public profi les way of life (childhood) is put to death Claiming our identity as baptized on Facebook, who quantify their self- and are exhorted—even shamed—into people who have passed through worth by counting their “followers” on not going back to that former way of a “death ritual” into a new state of Twitter and Instagram, and who, at the life. One of the harshest insults in the personhood allows Makua-Metto end of the day, are simply “passionate Makua-Metto language is to shame believers to respond diff erently to the about fi nding their place in society.”39

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Alan B. Howell and Logan T. Thompson 161 Establishing meaningful friendships he heart language of younger generations is and becoming part of a wider com- munity is not a new phenomenon: it now one of shame and our presen tations of the forms a vital component of any per- Gospel must refl ect that shift. son’s social well-being, no matter his or T her age, and it is particularly important than guilt? A recent study sought to once found so compelling. Simply tell- for the coming-of-age process. Boyd investigate the eff ects of both guilt and ing the story of the cross is as appeal- observes that for teenagers shame on individuals, as well as how ing to this generation as the previous one, but when we come to interpret social acceptance depends on the abil- those two emotions did or did not mo- and apply the story, it seems we should ity to socialize with one’s peers at the tivate these individuals to change their un-learn some of the familiar language “cool” place. Each cohort of teens has lives.44 Researchers found that the dif- and try a different emphasis.49 a different space that it decides is cool. ference between guilt and shame is that It used to be the mall, but [now], social guilt “arises when a person focuses on Christ’s work on the cross is not only network sites . . . are the cool places. . . . what specifi cally he or she did wrong,” about changing external behaviors that Social media has enabled them to while shame “has a more dispositional cause guilt before God (though that is participate in and help create . . . net- focus in which people attend to nega- important). It is ultimately about trans- worked publics. (emphasis hers)40 tive aspects of the self.”45 Th at is, guilt forming individuals more and more Th ese communities, however, form can promote external change; whereas into the image of Christ through their in the midst of a larger culture that shame, at its best, calls for internal trans- union with him in his body, the church. is almost entirely individualistic. Th e formation.46 Lickel et al. conclude that Th e psychological and theological West (and particularly the United shame “is an important motivator of a fi ndings outlined above show that this States) has placed heavy emphasis on desire to change oneself for the better”47 latter aim of the Gospel—which will the personal accomplishments of the and that it can “elicit stronger desire for undoubtedly accomplish the former 48 individual, not on the achievements lasting self-change than guilt.” can best be achieved in members of the of society as a whole (e.g., climbing Having observed the cultural shift tak- emergent shame-based culture through the corporate ladder).41 Th e rise of ing place in the millennial generation, it recapitulation and theosis. social media and the increasing infl u- is clear that these fi ndings are invaluable ence of networked publics, however, When I present the signifi cance of the for those who minister to young people have brought communal dynamics Gospel to the teenagers in our con- in the West today. Preaching and teach- closer to the forefront of the Western gregation, my go-to text is the book ing the Gospel using guilt-based lan- worldview, especially for millennials. of Romans. Many Christians consider guage and metaphor no longer connects According to Georges and Baker, the book of Romans—with its lengthy like they once did for individuals in the discussions on human culpability for When social reputation is the basic West. Th e heart language of younger sin (1:18–32; 3:22–23), justifi cation foundation of life and identity, peo- generations is now that of shame and (3:24–25; 5:1–9, 18–21), the law and ple’s pursuit of respect, honor and our presentations of the gospel must 42 grace (4:13–15; 6:13–14; 7:1–25; 8:2), status frames every facet of life. refl ect that shift, especially if shame and the eff ectiveness of Christ’s sacri- has the potential to be a better catalyst In short, the social change caused by fi ce (5:10–11; 6:1–4; 8:1, 34–39)—to for self-change than guilt. Pugh argues the technological boom of the last be a robust presentation of a guilt- that recalibrating the way we preach twenty-fi ve years is driving Western based Gospel.50 But is this all there is and teach the atonement to highlight culture toward becoming more shame- to Paul’s letter? Romans may not be a recapitulation and theosis could be based. As this cultural shift from guilt “compendium of Christian doctrine,” helpful in reaching younger generations to shame relocates and reemphasizes a but Gorman argues that there is more in North America. He writes: sense of emptiness, those who minister than meets the eye to this epistle, call- to millennials must become conver- When we speak of Christ’s work to ing it “the fi rst Christian treatise on sant in how the Gospel addresses the eighteen- to thirty-year-olds, it seems theosis.” 51 He writes, shame that they feel. we should accent the representative corporate Christ as the hero of the The West’s fi xation on sin and guilt Guilt and shame are typical emotions piece and, perhaps, soft-pedal the sub- has sometimes hampered us from experienced as a result of transgressions, stitutionary sin-bearer. . . . We should seeing how central to Paul’s an- especially those against the social or talk of the bigger picture of a new peo- thropology and soteriology are the moral expectations of a community.43 ple of God refl ecting his image into the themes of glory, life, and immortal- But, practically speaking, does shame world, and not harp on about the ful- ity–both their absence in Adam and function in a signifi cantly diff erent way fi llment of individual needs that we all their restored presence in Christ.52

33:4 Winter 2016 162 From Mozambique to Millennials: Shame, Frontier Peoples, and the Search for Open Atonement Paths

As mentioned above, both recapitula- in the days of the sages as well. Th e communities and instead speak only of tion and theosis affi rm that Christ re- decisions individuals make during their shame and the salvation Jesus provides deems humanity by walking the path of transition from childhood to adulthood through the path of recapitulation and Adam, who represents all of humanity. have a lasting eff ect on the rest of their theosis. But that would miss the point. Th is idea is seen most clearly in Rom. lives, and many of the paths available to Instead, the more robust take-away is 5:12–21. So, Christ’s work does not stop them will surely lead to shame—both this: the resurgence of these Orthodox at justifying human beings and remov- personal and public. It is ancient wisdom, atonement theories are timely, given ing their guilt. Paul goes on to write in repeated throughout the history of Israel the inroads that the church is mak- chapter eight, the concluding chapter and the church, that those who minister ing among the Makua-Metto and the to “the most majestic set piece [he] ever to adolescents are speaking to individuals shifting heart language of millennials wrote,”53 that through Jesus’ recapitula- who face a life-or-death decision. in the West; however, we must also tion, believers have received “adoption,” Teenagers in all times and cultures need remember that what God has done in making them “children of God” and a guide who will point them toward the Christ is much more than recapitula- “fellow heirs with Christ” who will one path that leads to life. But more than tion or theosis alone can describe. day “be glorifi ed with him” (vv. 15–17). that, adolescents need to know that All along, this was the fi nal aim of the Like a mighty river that diverges into someone has walked this path before atonement. Paul writes in vv. 29–30, many smaller streams as it courses them, someone who has done so without through a valley, the way that Christians For those whom he foreknew he also guilt, fear, or shame and empowers them have described the redemptive work of predestined to be conformed to the to do the same. Th is is none other than the one true Lord throughout history image of his Son, in order that he might be the fi rstborn among many spreads in diff erent directions as the brothers. And those whom he predes- Gospel traverses the vast, diverse terrains tined, he also called, and those whom of human cultures. Human beings need he called he also justifi ed, and those these divergent streams because they whom he justifi ed he also glorifi ed. Atonement metaphors contextualize the salvation event into specifi c times and places. But to focus Th rough Christ’s recapitulation, believers now walk the same path, emerge from a common exclusively on one stream can cause us to replacing their shame with his glory by source and converge lose sight of the whole picture. A mature becoming more and more like him.54 perspective on the atonement, there- downstream. fore, holds on to an awareness of how Although the West has experienced a atonement metaphors emerged from a recent shift from a guilt-based to a more common source and a knowledge that, shame-based context for teenagers, em- in following them downstream, we can ploying the metaphor of “life as a path” in see how they converge again. order to cultivate spiritual growth in the lives of adolescents is nothing new. Th e Jesus Christ. Continuing the wisdom Th e ways that Christians speak about language of this metaphor—seen repeat- tradition of ancient Israel, Jesus also used the atonement will no doubt be shaded edly both in recapitulation and theosis— path language in order to call his disciples by the heart language of the culture 57 goes back to church fathers like Athana- to follow his lead. By encouraging mil- in which they fi nd themselves—guilt, sius and Irenaeus, as well as the apostle lennials to choose Jesus’ path of recapitu- shame, or fear. Although people in Paul. Yet even they were not the fi rst of lation and theosis, we are speaking to various cultures may primarily recognize God’s people to use the path metaphor as them about the atonement in a way that the need for Christ to deal with only they taught and encouraged others along directly addresses the shame that they one of these eff ects of sin, that does life’s journey. As Fox observes, this is the feel, pointing them toward the abundant not mean that they do not need Jesus’ primary metaphor55 used by the implied life to be found in God’s Kingdom. saving power to redeem them from the speaker in Prov. 1–9, a father whose other two. Th ose in guilt- or fear-based “ostensive audience [is] a youth who is Conclusion: Converging Paths cultures still need Jesus to bring them out nearing adulthood and must choose his and Atonement Metaphors of the shame of death, and those who 56 have a fuller awareness of their shame course of life.” Th is is made clear in From what we have explored above, do not live without the weight of guilt chapter two: if the son treasures up his one might gain the impression that all and fear upon their lives. In the midst of father’s words (v. 2), he “will walk in the Christians, regardless of their particular a rapidly-changing world where cul- way of the good and keep to the paths cultural contexts, should stop speaking of the righteous” (v. 20). What is true of about fear and guilt with those in their tures have increasing infl uence on one teenagers today was true for adolescents another, missionaries, youth ministers,

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Alan B. Howell and Logan T. Thompson 163 and indeed all Christians must be willing can be helpful, it is outside the scope of this recovery of a concrete form . . . the restoration of to explore other paths of the atonement article. Weaver refers to Moral Infl uence as a an original beauty”; in David Bentley Hart, Th e that may not be tinted with the particular subjective approach: “Jesus died as a demon- Beauty of the Infi nite: Th e Aesthetics of Christian Truth (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2003), 318. hues with which they are most familiar. stration of God’s love. And the change that results from that loving death is not in God 13 Shelton, 160. Th rough an awareness of cultural shifts but in the subjective consciousness of the 14 Ben Pugh, Atonement Th eories: and a fl uency in other heart languages, sinners, who repent and cease their rebellion A Way through the Maze (Eugene, OR: Christians will be able to present the against God . . . It is this psychological or sub- Cascade Books, 2014), 31. Although most Gospel in such a way that allows those of jective infl uence worked on the mind of the modern Westerners are unfamiliar with the all cultures to connect to its message and sinner . . . ” that brings about change. J. Denny doctrine, Pugh notes, “It seems likely that begin walking the true path to human Weaver, Th e Nonviolent Atonement (Grand something very like theosis was held to by fl ourishing, new life in Christ. IJFM Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001), 18. a number of (early, pre-Schism) Western 8 Hendrix notes that, for Martin Lu- thinkers using diff erent designations for it” ther, “Humanity was ruled by sin, death, and (33). Th eosis themes are found in the NT in Endnotes the devil—Luther’s unholy triumvirate—and John 10:34, 2 Cor. 5:21, and 2 Pet. 1:4. 1 I argue that the Christus Victor their rule would persist, in Luther’s eyes, un- 15 “[Christ] became what we are in order metaphor helps contextualize presentations til the gospel weakened their hold and faith to make us what he is himself,” (Irenaeus, of the Atonement among the Makua-Metto set people free.” Scott H. Hendrix, Martin Against Heresies 5, Preface); “Christ becomes people and is the one that best resonates Luther: A Very Short Introduction (New York: what we are, that we through his death may be- with Animists in Howell, “Th rough the Ka- Oxford University Press, 2010), 83. come what he is” (Wilhem Wrede, Paul, trans. leidoscope: Animism, Contextualization and 9 In 1 John 3, we are told that Christ Edward Lummis [London: Green, 1907], the Atonement,” IJFM 26, no. 3 (Fall 2009). “appeared in order to take away sins” (v.5); 110); “[Christ] became like human beings, so 2 For the purposes of the article we will that the “reason the Son of God appeared that we would be like him,” (Dietrich Bonhoef- use the following defi nitions of these doc- was to destroy the works of the devil” (v. 8); fer, Discipleship, trans. Barbara Green and trines. Recapitulation—the work of Christ to and that Christ’s love and example has fa- Reinhard Krauss, Dietrich Bonhoeff er Works, become the new head or captain of humanity. cilitated our passing “out of death into life” vol. 4 [Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2001], 285); Th eosis—the process of human beings be- (v. 14–16). Direct quotations from Scripture “Christ became what we are—‘adam’—in order coming like God. We are certai nly aware that in this article will come from the ESV. that we might share in what he is—namely the recapitulation and theosis are much broader 10 One helpful way to think about this true image of God,” [Morna D. Hooker, From theological concepts with wider implications is to picture oneself in the driver’s seat of a Adam to Christ: Essays on Paul (Cambridge: than addressing merely the atonement. But, car. Sin is in the rear-view mirror and Christ’s Cambridge University Press, 1990), 19]. See for ease of use and clarity in this article we atonement deals with one’s guilt in the past. also Michael J. Gorman, “Romans: Th e First will use those terms as a shorthand to talk But the eff ects of Christ’s work exceed the Christian Treatise on Th eosis,” Journal of Th eo- about their implications for the atonement. forgiveness of sins—Christ also addresses logical Interpretation 5.1 (2011): 13–14, 17. 16 3 Eugene Nida, Customs and Cultures: Satan’s eff orts to work evil in one’s current sur- Russell describes theosis as “our res- Anthropology for Christian Missions (New roundings (present with you in the car). And toration as persons to integrity and whole- York: Harper & Brothers, 1954), 150. Th is fi nally, Christ also deals with the death we will ness by participation in Christ through idea was expanded by Roland Muller, Honor experience down the road. A serious problem the Holy Spirit, in a process which is and Shame: Unlocking the Door (Philadel- in guilt-based societies (like North American initiated in this world . . . and fi nds ultimate phia, PA: Xlibris, 2001). cultures) that focus on sin is that that perspec- fulfi llment in our union with the Father” 4 Jayson Georges, Th e 3D Gospel: tive provides such a limited view. To use our car [Norman Russell, Fellow Workers with God: Ministry in Guilt, Shame and Fear Cultures metaphor again, it is incredibly diffi cult to drive Orthodox Th inking on Th eosis, Foundation (Timē Press, 2014), 10–11. by looking primarily in the rearview mirror! Series, bk. 5 (Crestwood, NY: St Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 2009), 21]. Th e fi rst person 5 Ibid., 16. 11 Variations of this view “appear in the to use the term was Gregory of Nazianzus 6 Muller uses this idea of the color tradition of the Greek Fathers from Irenaeus in 363 (Oration 4.71; see Russell, 22). palette eff ectively. One can think of the (120–203) to John of Damascus (c. 675–c. 17 Pugh, 33. three types “like the three basic colors from 749).” Recapitulation terms and images occur 18 which artists create thousands of colors. in “Origen (185–254), Athanasius (296–373), Athanasius, On the Incarnation: Th e How much of each color is used determines Basil the Great (329–379), Cyril of Alexandria Treatise – De Incarnatione Verbi Dei by St. the fi nal type of color that emerges” (14). (376–444), Cyril of Jerusalem (c. 315–386), Athanasius, trans. and ed. A Religious of C. S. M. V. with an introduction by C. S. Lewis 7 With this chart we do not want to Gregory of Nazianzus (325–389), Gregory of (New York: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, give the impression that the various atone- Nyssa (?–386), and John Chrysostom (c. 347– 2003, originally published 1944), p. 54. ment approaches are limited to a specifi c time 407).” R. Larry Shelton, Cross & Covenant: 19 dimension. Th is is merely to help us see that Interpreting the Atonement for 21st Century Pugh, 33. certain metaphors are better suited for diff er- Mission (Tyrone, GA: Paternoster, 2006), 165. 20 Athanasius, On the Incarnation, ent contexts (e.g., Recapitulation also suggests 12 Shelton, 162. Orthodox theologian 54. In section 9, Athanasius beautifully that Jesus has redeemed the shame of Adam’s David Bentley Hart defi nes recapitulation as connects honor/shame themes to the way past). Also, we are focusing on “objective” “the restoration of the human image in Christ, Christ deals with the problem of death. presentations of the atonement and we recog- the eternal image of the Father after whom 21 In talking about the story of Adam nize that while the Moral Infl uence approach humanity was created in the beginning . . . the and the Fall, Georges and Baker note,

33:4 Winter 2016 164 From Mozambique to Millennials: Shame, Frontier Peoples, and the Search for Open Atonement Paths

“Death is the ultimate shame; humans re- more on Poverty in Mozambique see, Howell 37 Georges, 58. turn back to the lowly dust they come from.” “Recognizing Poverty Rules: Addressing the 38 Ibid., 59. Jayson Georges and Mark Baker, Minister- Causes and Patterns of Absolute Poverty 39 Boyd, 8. ing in Honor-Shame Cultures: Biblical Foun- Among the Makua-Metto People,” Missio 40 Ibid., 5. dations and Practical Essentials (Downer’s Dei: A Journal of Missional Th eology and Praxis 41 Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2016), 69. One 6, no. 2 (August 2015). According to Georges, Western philosophy has explained “a person’s essence example of the connection between honor/ 26 If a religious group does not bury apart from their relationships or commu- shame and death in Scripture is from the people well, it will suff er the same fate as nity. Consequently, Western civilization story of the Philippian jailor who is stopped its adherents . . . it will not survive. For more dismisses communal dynamics (i.e., honor, by Paul in his attempts to reclaim his honor on the funeral as a powerful time for the shame, and face) in favor of guilt, innocence, and deal with his shame through killing church to be a blessing, see: Howell, “Build- himself (Acts 16). An example from eastern and justice” (19). ing a Better Bridge: Th e Quest for Blessing 42 cultures in more recent times is that of a Jap- in an African Folk Islamic Context,” IJFM Georges and Baker, 15. For scientifi c anese warrior who through a ritual death can 32, no. 1 (Jan–Mar 2015), 50. evidence, see Naomi Eisenberger and Mat- thew Liberman, “Why it Hurts to be Left deal with his shame and reclaim his honor. 27 At Christian funerals, it is often Out: Th e Neurocognitive Overlap Between Jackson Wu uses this type of framework to commented that “the day of death is better Physical Pain and Social Pain,” Trends in argue that we could speak of Christ’s work than the day of birth” (Eccl. 7:1). on the cross as an “honor death,” not an Cognitive Sciences 8, no. 7 (2004): 294–300. 28 As my friend and missionary team- “honor killing” as Jesus sacrifi ced himself for 43 Brian Lickel, Kostadin Kushlev, Victo- mate, Chad Westerholm, has observed: the sake of God’s honor (and ours). Jackson ria Savalei, Shashi Matta, and Toni Schmader “While a Westerner may view a funeral as a Wu, Saving God’s Face: A Chinese Contex- “Shame and the Motivation to Change the mere burial, to an African it is a major event tualization of Salvation through Honor and Self,” Emotion 14, no. 6 (2014): 1050. where roles are radically altered.” Th ey move Shame (Pasadena, CA: WCIU Press, 2012). 44 from one type of status within the commu- Lickel et al., 1049-61. It is worth In personal conversations with Gary Jackson, nity to another. noting that the median age for their study a longtime missionary in Russia and China, was 20 years, and is particularly representa- 29 Both formal and folk religions pro- he noted that while this remains true in tive of millennials. vide answers to death, but the questions are other Eastern societies ( Japan, Taiwan and 45 diff erent. Formal religion addresses where Ibid. the Middle East), Chinese culture actually 46 the dead have gone. Folk religions deal with Examples of external reparations as a seems to be shifting away from honor and questions of death that confront the living. response to feeling guilt include apologizing shame to a greater emphasis on guilt. Paul Hiebert, R. Daniel Shaw and Tite Tié- for, attempting to fi x, or trying to undo the so- 22 In its broadest terms, shame simply nou, Understanding Folk Religion (Grand cial or moral transgression; internal reparations means that others “think lowly of you and Rapids: Baker Books, 1999), 78. as a response to shame may include some- do not want to be with you” (Georges and 30 E.g., “Could it be that the absent how distancing oneself from a situation and Baker, 42). We will unpack the meaning of person was ashamed to come because they hiding from public view, attempting to cover shame for Mozambicans and Millennials in used witchcraft to murder the deceased?” up the transgression, or working to change the following sections. one’s identity. See Lickel, et al., 1050; and 31 Although it may seem strange to 23 While fear and shame play a strong June P. Tangney and Rowland S. Miller, “Are Westerners, our Makua-Metto friends think role, guilt is not a major motivator. Th ere’s not Shame, Guilt, and Embarrassment Distinct it is very appropriate for the funeral sermon a unique word for guilt in the Makua-Metto Emotions?” Journal of Personality and Social at the burial site to be an evangelistic one. language (only derivatives of the word for Psychology 70, no. 6 (1996): 1256–1269. Some Th ere is a captive, quiet audience, (remember sin or lie), so to even talk about that concept, readers may question the validity of the claim the uninitiated are not allowed to be present people end up borrowing the word from Por- that shame can lead to positive change. In his so there are no crying or talking children) tuguese (Mozambique’s national language). exploration of the use of shame and the crimi- and we are standing around a powerful, vis- 24 Georges and Baker, 177. Th is connec- nal justice system, Braithwaite distinguishes ible sermon illustration of our own mortality. tion between shame and death is also found between “disintegrative” shame (which makes 32 For more on “suff ering” language in the throughout Scripture; see 1 Sam. 20:30–32; one into a social outcast) and “reintegrative” Makua-Metto context see Howell, “Turning it Job 11:13–20; Ps. 83:17; 89:45–49; Isa. shame (whose aim is to restore the individual Beautiful: Divination, Discernment and a Th e- 65:13–16; Jer. 9:19–21; 20:18; Ezek. 7:15–18; back into the larger society). See John Braith- ology of Suff ering” 29, no. 3 (Fall 2012). 32:24, 25, 30; Rom. 1:26–32; 6:21; Phil. 1:20; IJFM waite, Crime, Shame and Reintegration (New 33 3:19; 2 Tim. 1:8–12; Heb. 2:9–15; 12:2. Richard Beck, Th e Slavery of Death York: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 4. (Eugene, OR: Cascade Books, 2014), 81. 47 25 Life expectancy in Mozambique is 51 Lickel et al., 1059. 34 years while the USA averages almost 79 years. Th is generation, also known as 48 Ibid., 1058. Lickel et al. theorize two Malaria and diarrhea are everyday realities “Generation Y,” is the demographic cohort reasons for their fi ndings. First, “Guilt’s strong (and people are very familiar with cholera, born between the early 1980’s and the early link to apology and reparation might, in some AIDS, tuberculosis, etc.). Although Mozam- 2000’s. One of the signifi cant aspects of my circumstances, moderate the extent to which bique has seen economic improvement in re- (Logan) ministry is that I am a part of the people feel they need to change”; second, cent years, over 80% of the population still live same generation as those to whom I minister. “Guilt is particularly likely to be evoked by on less than $2 a day. In 2013, Mozambique 35 Danah Boyd, It’s Complicated: Th e behavioral appraisals (‘I did a bad thing’), was #178 out of 187 on the UN’s Human Social Lives of Networked Teens (New Ha- whereas shame is linked to a dispositional Development Index (Haiti and Afghanistan ven, CT: Yale University Press, 2014), 7. appraisal (‘I am a bad person’)” (1058). For ranked #168 and #169 respectively). For 36 Ibid., 7. an exploration of how shifts in the use and

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Alan B. Howell and Logan T. Thompson 165 perception of honor and shame were used to Bonhoeff er, Dietrich Dei: A Journal of Missional Th eol- bring about positive change (examples: duel- 2001 Discipleship. Trans. by Barbara ogy and Praxis 6 (2). ing, Chinese foot binding, the Atlantic slave Green and Reinhard Krauss. Irenaeus trade, and honor killing) see Kwame Anthony Dietrich Bonhoeff er Works, vol. 1975 Against Heresies. Th e AnteNicene Appiah, Th e Honor Code: How Moral Revolu- 4. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. Fathers, vol. 1. Grand Rapids, MI: tions Happen (New York: Norton, 2011). Boyd, Danah Eerdmans. 49 Pugh, 40–1. 2014 It’s Complicated: Th e Social Lives Lickel, Brian, Kostadin Kushlev, Victoria 50 of Networked Teens. New Haven, Savalei, Shashi Matta, and Toni Schmader See Richard N. Longenecker’s CT: Yale University Press. discussion in Introducing Romans: Critical 2014 “Shame and the Motivation to Braithwaite, John Issues in Paul’s Most Famous Letter (Grand Change the Self.” Emotion 14 (6): 1989 Crime, Shame and Reintegration. 1049–61. Rapids: Eerdmans, 2011), 305–7. New York: Cambridge University Longenecker, Richard N. 51 Gorman, 16; 13–34. As Gorman Press. 2011 Introducing Romans: Critical Is- argues, this designation is not anachronistic; Fox, Michael V. sues in Paul’s Most Famous Letter. it is, instead, both “retrospectively appropri- 2000 Proverbs 1–9: A New Translation Grand Rapids: Eerdmans. ate [and] accurate” (18, emphasis his). with Introduction and Commen- Muller, Roland 52 Ibid., 22. tary, Anchor Bible, vol. 18A. New 2001 Honor and Shame: Unlocking the 53 N. T. Wright, referring to Rom. 5–8, York: Doubleday. Door. Philadelphia, PA: Xlibris. in Th e Resurrection of the Son of God, Chris- Georges, Jayson Nida, Eugene tian Origins and the Question of God, vol. 3 2014 Th e 3D Gospel: Ministry in Guilt, 1954 Customs and Cultures: Anthropol- (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2003), 48. Shame and Fear Cultures. Timē Press. ogy for Christian Missions. New 54 One could argue that since Paul Georges, Jayson and Mark Baker York: Harper & Brothers. never writes that believers become like God 2016 Ministering in Honor-Shame Pugh, Ben he is only writing about “Christosis” and Cultures: Biblical Foundations 2014 Atonement Th eories: A Way through and Practical Essentials. Downer’s not theosis. As Gorman notes, however, the Maze. Eugene, OR: Cascade Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press. “Paul avers that God’s eternal plan is to Books. Gorman, Michael J. create a family of siblings who resemble the Russell, Norman 2011 “Romans: Th e First Christian Trea- fi rstborn and defi nitive Son, namely, Jesus. 2009 Fellow Workers with God: Ortho- tise on Th eosis.” Journal of Th eologi- dox Th inking on Th eosis. Founda- What Paul does not state explicitly is the cal Interpretation 5.1: 13–34. obvious: that the Son is like the Father and tion Series, bk. 5. Crestwood, NY: Hart, David Bentley that the siblings will ultimately be like the St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press. 2003 Th e Beauty of the Infi nite: Th e Aes- Father because they are like the Son. Chris- Shelton, R. Larry thetics of Christian Truth. Grand 2006 Cross & Covenant: Interpreting tosis, therefore, is ultimately theosis” (27). Rapids: Eerdmans. 55 the Atonement for 21st Century Michael V. Fox, Proverbs 1–9: A Hendrix, Scott H. Mission. Tyrone, GA: Paternoster. New Translation with Introduction and 2010 Martin Luther: A Very Short Tangney, June P. and Rowland S. Miller Commentary, Anchor Bible, vol. 18A (New Introduction. New York: Oxford 1996 “Are Shame, Guilt, and Embar- York: Doubleday, 2000), 128. University Press. rassment Distinct Emotions?” 56 Ibid., 92; 6–12. See esp. the lecture Hiebert, Paul, R. Daniel Shaw and Tite Journal of Personality and Social in Prov. 2. Tiénou Psychology 70 (6): 1256–1269. 57 Matt. 7:13–14: “Enter by the nar- 1999 Understanding Folk Religion: A Weaver, J. Denny row gate. For the gate is wide and the way Christian Response to Popular Be- 2001 Th e Nonviolent Atonement. Grand is easy that leads to destruction, and those liefs and Practices. Grand Rapids: Rapids: Eerdmans. who enter by it are many. For the gate is Baker Books. Wrede, Wilhelm narrow and the way is hard that leads to life, Hooker, Morna D. 1907 Paul. Trans. by Edward Lummis. and those who fi nd it are few.” 1990 From Adam to Christ: Essays on London: Green. Paul. Cambridge: Cambridge Wright, N. T. References University Press. 2003 Th e Resurrection of the Son of God. Howell, Alan Appiah, Kwame Anthony Christian Origins and the Ques- 2009 “Th rough the Kaleidoscope: Ani- tion of God, vol. 3. Minneapolis: 2011 Th e Honor Code: How Moral Revo- mism, Contextualization and the lutions Happen. New York: Norton. Fortress Press. Atonement.” IJFM 26 (3): 135–142. Wu, Jackson Athanasius 2012 “Turning it Beautiful: Divination, 2003 On the Incarnation: Th e Treatise 2012 Saving God’s Face: A Chinese Con- Discernment and a Th eology of textualization of Salvation through – De Incarnatione Verbi Dei by St. Suff ering” IJFM 29 (3): 129–137. Athanasius. Translated and edited Honor and Shame. Pasadena, CA: 2015 “Building a Better Bridge: Th e WCIU Press. by A Religious of C.S. M.V. with Quest for Blessing in an African an Introduction by C. S. Lewis Folk Islamic Context,” IJFM 32 New York: St. Vladimir’s Seminary (1): 43–51. Press, originally published 1944. 2015 “Recognizing Poverty Rules: Ad- Beck, Richard. dressing the Causes and Patterns 2014 Th e Slavery of Death. Eugene, of Absolute Poverty Among the OR: Cascade Books. Makua-Metto People,” Missio

33:4 Winter 2016 We require the lens of the world in order to better recognize our own cultural blindness.

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William Carey Publishing is a ministry of Frontier Ventures Frontier Theologizing A Refl ection on Insider Movements in Korean Church History

by John Kim

Introduction he missiological term “insider movements” is often used to describe people movements to Christ from within socio-religious communi- T ties. New believers in these movements take initiative to bring their own problems to the word of God to get appropriate solutions. Th e people who live in these distinct socio-religious communities are called insiders. When insider movements occur they can give us a unique glimpse into the Kingdom of God and perhaps a better understanding of how that Kingdom can expand as Jesus movements in a context where a group of people shares space and time in a homogeneous way. It’s within this homogeneous context that the dynamics of group conversion and social transformation can occur.

Th is article reviews the Korean people movements to Christ in Korean church history from an insider’s perspective. Refl ecting on Korean church history is important in order to revive the insider spirit and develop a self-theologizing/ self-missiologizing approach in world missions amongst Korean churches. Th is might also give us some clues as to how to reverse the decline of Korean church growth. Th e underlying purpose of this paper is two-fold: fi rst, the revival of Korean churches resulting in a genuine nationwide social transformation for the sake of the Kingdom; second, to illustrate the decisive role model in world mis- sion of Koreans as the 11th hour workers. Th is understanding is tremendously important as Korea now faces both a critical spiritual and socio-political crisis.

Because Koreans have been insiders themselves for a long period of time, Editor’s Note: Th is article was first this paper is a retrospective evaluation from an insider’s point of view for the presented at the 2016 gathering of the purpose of understanding the status quo and of meaningfully advancing the ISFM (October 14-16, in Dallas, TX). development of the Kingdom. John Kim (PhD, Physics) is serving as the director of INSIDERS and as Insider Movements in the Dawn of the Early Korean Church the coordinator of ASFM (Asia Soci- ety for Frontier Mission). He can be Th e year 1884, when Dr. Allen was sent as an offi cial missionary from the contacted at [email protected]. US, is usually accepted as the fi rst year of Protestant mission to Korea.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology 33:4 Winter 2016•167 168 A Refl ection on Insider Movements in Korean Church History

However, as is commonly known in the expatriates from the beginning. For of Commissioners for Foreign Mission. history of Korean Christianity, Roman example, some Koreans in Uijoo, Py- However, mission thrust within the Catholicism had already been intro- oungando put their lives on the line by mainland of Korea was made by Ko- duced a long time earlier and some of bringing the Christian faith into Korea, reans themselves. . . . This is so peculiar the scripture translation had already even in violation of their country’s laws, because we rarely observe similar phe- in order to introduce their people to been made. Th e gospel was spreading nomena in any other countries. In other life. . . . Korean mission movements had words, even before foreign missionaries throughout the Korean diasporas in already dawned in 1870 when the fi rst came to Korea, the gospel had already Manchuria and in Japan (overseas Kore- Korean Protestant Christians such as been sowed not by an expatriate mis- an students), despite the turmoil on the Lee Eung Chan, Paek Heung Joon, Lee sionary force but by Korean indigenous Korean peninsula due to the competi- Sung Ha, Seo Sang Ryun and Kim Jin Ki believers. At that time, Korea was so tion of world powers. Th ere are parallels crossed the Amnok River (Yalu River) dark and extremely closed towards any- in the book of Acts where in many cases which divides Korea and China in order one and anything coming from outside the initial breakthrough for spreading to bring the good news. . . . In 1882, Lee of the country. And various challenges the gospel was made by bicultural or in- Eung Chan, Seo Sang Ryung and Lee were causing the Korean people to go tercultural indigenous people.1 Th e main Sung Ha took the gospel in Chinese with through serious sufferings. . . . How then thrust of the Protestant mission force them back into Korea and translated was the Christian mission possible under towards Korea began in the late 19th Luke and John into Korean. In this way, such barriers? How then could the Kore- an indigenous Korean mission began to century when colonial powers including an church experience so unprecedented take its own path in 1876 and continued a growth and development as it did in Japan, China, and Russia were aggres- on until 1882. And in the next year, i.e. the history of world Christianity? What- sively competing for political and trade ever the answer is, the truth is startling: advantages. During that time, many of foreign missionaries came to Korea not the Koreans who would later become as the gospel sowers but as harvesters. believers were concerned about the fate of their home country, were living As we have briefl y reviewed, the initial outside of it in multicultural contexts, It was started mission thrust correlated with the and were open to accepting the gospel contemporary situation the Koreans as good news for their own country. at the initiative faced at that time, and it was started at the initiative of Koreans themselves. Now let’s look through some examples of the Koreans relating to what I would call insider movements during the early stages of the themselves. Can Such Rapid Growth be Protestant mission eff ort in Korea. As I Ascribed to the Nevius mentioned earlier, Korea had to struggle Mission Method? with external colonial powers (espe- Th ere were two major mission policies cially Japan) which were not regarded practiced by mainstream American mis- as Western nor Christian. Th is was why 1883, the fi rst two indigenous churches sionaries in Korea: the policy of comity the gospel was seen as very good news by were established by Koreans in Uijoo, (or the division of geographic areas by Koreans. It was natural that the early Ko- Pyoungando and Sorae, Hwanghaedo. denomination) and the Nevius mission reans who would later become believers The timing of the fi rst foreign mission- method. In this section, by looking at had a strong motivation and took initia- ary from the US to come into Korea was the contextual situation of Korea at that tive to fi ght against the unwanted (and ten years after the Koreans’ indigenous time, we will try to see if the Nevius evil) forces outside of their country—in mission initiative had already been es- mission method was detrimental to the large part because of their understanding tablished and three years after a couple rapid growth of Korean churches as we of the good news. I believe this happened of books in the gospel had already been often think it is. Th e Nevius mission translated by Koreans themselves. because Koreans understood what they method is understood as the indigeniza- needed as insiders in the Korean context. A Korean church historian, Jeon Taek tion of the local churches in three ways: David Cho explains the initiative the Bu, deals with Korea’s mission initia- self-support, self-governance, and self- early Korean believers took: 2 tives in a similar manner: 3 propagation. However, in understanding I believe that the Korean mission history It is said that the Protestant mission in the dynamics of rapid Korean church needs to be explained in a distinctive Asia was pioneered by the London Mis- growth, the Nevius mission method is way, different from the general missions sionary Society and the Netherlands not as valid since the growth was not just understanding of Western missions ini- Missionary Society. They approached an indigenization process. Rather, it was tiatives in the other countries where Korea too, but the major initiative the result of the nationwide spreading of the gospel was introduced mostly by was later on by the American Board the self-initiated Bible study movement.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology John Kim 169 Th e Nevius mission policy was intro- he eff ectiveness of the Nevius mission method duced when seven Presbyterian mission- aries invited John Nevius and his wife was really proven in Korea. Th e diff erence (who were serving in China) as the main was the self-initiated Bible study. speakers for a two-week retreat in Seoul, T Korea, on the seventh of June 1890. Th is self-motivation and awareness spread the gospel through their natural After long discussions, they decided to resulted in consecutive Korean-initiated networks and started believers’ gatherings adopt the mission policy that had been movements in the areas of Bible transla- in their homes.9 introduced by Nevius. Th is was a valid tion, Bible study, and Bible distribution. It was November 1884 when Lee Eung and appropriate mission method for an When those movements spread, social Chan and Seo Sang Ryun were baptized initial breakthrough in Korea during transformation naturally followed. by a western missionary, John Ross, from which time there were not yet any com- Christians were motivated to learn Scotland. Th ey helped John Ross to learn prehensive church structures.4 Its essence the Korean alphabet, Hangul, for the the Korean language. John Ross, who is the “three selfs” mentioned earlier. purpose of Bible study. Because of their was involved in Bible translation, recalls However, what happened in Korea strong motivation to learn the Word of his experience of visiting a Korean village through the method was the spreading God, Korean women, who were limited in the West Manchuria area as follows: 10 of what became nationwide self-initiated in their educational opportunities, were Bible study. As a matter of fact, China motivated to improve women’s rights . . . we arrived at the fi rst Korean village was the main country where the Nevius in the male-dominated society. Th us, by sunset. Around thirty Koreans wear- mission method had been intensely the need for fair educational oppor- ing white traditional robes welcomed practiced, but its eff ectiveness was really tunities for women resulted from the us. We stayed at the chief villager’s proven only in Korea. Th e diff erence was self-awareness of Korean women which house. I feel there is no way to express their hospitality. . . . A big change had the self-initiated Bible study.5 Harvie emerged through Bible study move- taken place since something happened M. Conn who served in Korea for many ments.8 I will share an example of an 6 two years ago in this village. The gos- years examined its success as follows: insider movement where the women’s pel was introduced to this village in the The central theme of Nevius’ method role is decisive in the latter part of this valley two years ago. Since then, some is neither self-supporting nor self- paper. Th is example is an active model hundreds of Koreans now enjoy their governing. It is indeed an emphasis that is still alive in Korean communities. lives while following the way of the gospel. We cannot but be surprised on the Bible as the foundation for all Th e early Korean mission was carried out when we think about their motivation, sorts of Christian ministries and train- by ordinary believers. In other words, dur- ing through the Bible study meetings. the growth of their faith in Christ, and ing the period when there were no de- By doing so, the Bible was studied and the results. No missionaries had ever applied to the hearts of the believers. nominational structures or seminaries, the been in the village but just some Ko- early breakthrough in the spreading of rean gospel messages and tracts. It is interesting to know that the Koreans the gospel was accomplished by so-called were culturally self-aware and that they laymen. Th ey must have known what to Gospel Transformation did the Bible studies at their own initia- do as Korean insiders. Here at this point, tive. It was a conviction based on their we can also introduce “oikos movements.” Spreads Through Whole belief that Koreans could become much Th e earliest churches in Korean church Classes of People more complete—more fully Korean— history were established by Koreans According to Jeon Taek Bu, the early than ever before through the Bible study themselves. Th ey were actually just home- Korean Protestant believers were not meetings. Th is principle was applied also based Jesus movements. In 1882, Kim called Christians, but they were called to the education circles as a means to Chung Song started his own “oikos” at Yesu-jaengi or Yesu-kun. Suffi xes like overcome the contemporary challenges a Korean village in the West Manchuria “-jaengi” or “-kun” (attached to Yesu or faced by many Koreans at that time. Lee area. And in 1883, Paek Hong Jun of- Jesus) were commonly used in Korean Man Youl states that this was the goal fered his house as a gathering place with society to identify those who had certain of Korean Christian educators. Accord- Lee Sung Ha and Seo Sang Ryun as expertise in their professional areas. At ing to him, many Christian founders of founders. Th e church that was started at that time, Korea (the actual name of educational institutions claimed the pur- Seo Gyung Jo’s house in the Sorae village the country was Chosun) had a social poses of their establishment was either in 1884 is another example. Th is was or class hierarchy with classes called to “Make Koreans Better Koreans,” or to the result of the indigenous evangelizing Yangban (the scholar-offi cials), Joongin “Make Koreans Proud of Being Kore- eff ort on the part of Seo Sang Ryun. Seo (literally “middle people” or technicians ans,” or to “Make Korea Great Th rough Gyung Jo’s fellowship was one of the fi rst and administrators subordinate to the Christ and His Teachings.” 7 fruits of his work. In this way, Koreans Yangban), Sangmin (farmers, craftsmen,

33:4 Winter 2016 170 A Refl ection on Insider Movements in Korean Church History

and merchants), and Chunmin (literally message and which appeared in the early 20th century (1903–1910).14 While “despised people” or slaves and “unclean newspaper Th e Independent: 12 expatriate workers were really strug- professions” such as leatherworkers, gling in a foreign cultural context and I cannot stress too much his work butchers, shamans, etc.). Th is system is through the Korean and English editions suff ering from serious self-doubt, defeat- not exactly the same as the caste system of The Independent newspaper. . . . ism, frustration, and loss of pride, early in India, but there is a great similarity. He educated Koreans with something Korean believers experienced the special During this time, the gospel was spread- special as follows: “All people are equal work of the Holy Spirit in a Pentecost- ing in Jesus movements among the lower human beings when they are born. This like event while praying collectively. Th is classes such as the Sangmin and Chun- truth didn’t come from Anglo-Saxon or kind of Pentecostal experience was not min. Th ese were grassroots Jesus move- Latin people, but from God to every strange to the early Korean Christian ments. Jeon Taek Bu said that Protestant one. . . . And the personal right and believers as they had already observed Christianity had taken root among the prosperity that foreigners enjoy are not spiritual phenomena such as demonic lower classes and when faith in Jesus en- gained accidently but achieved by long possession in folk beliefs relating to the tered a village it spread like an epidemic. term research, struggle, and even fi ght. practice of shamanism. Th e well-known And those who accepted Jesus began to If Koreans really want to achieve such honored early Korean church leaders right and prosperity, then they should commit their lives to rescue their country like Jeon Gye Eun and Kil Sun Joo do the same thing.” (through the gospel) from the widespread were greatly impressed by the Pente- suff ering and hardship it was undergo- In fact, the leaders representing the Inde- costal experience. It is interesting to ing. Because of the Jesus movements, pendence Club such as Seo Jae Pil, Yoon note that they had all previously been many Christian leaders later became the deeply involved in Korean folk religion, patriots who fought against the Japanese Confucianism, the practice of Taoism, colonial force to achieve independence.11 and animism (the belief in the spirits of mountains, etc.). However, in the crisis While the gospel was taking root and of the downfall of the country, the Pen- spreading among the lower social Transformational tecostal movements spread rapidly. classes in Korea with names like change Yesu-jaengi or Yesu-kun, at the same Kil Sun Joo is known as an early Kore- time there were also many high class began to take place an church leader who ignited the fi re of national leaders who were concerned revival movements in the Pyoung Yang about the fate of the country. Th ey within the Korean area. It is said that he became a man established the Dongnip Hyeophoe social hierarchy. with superpowers at the age of 23, who (Independence Club) in 1896, and mastered a secret form of spiritual con- through this club, Seo Jae Pil (Philip centration called “Charyeok.” But after Jaisohn) fostered the independence becoming a Christian believer at the movements. He proclaimed the age of 28, in 1896 he became a Pente- “Self-Reinforcement Spirit as the Chi Ho, and Lee Sang Jae were all be- costal and started early-morning prayer Sovereignty of People” and “Self- lievers—laymen who could also represent meetings with his fellow elder Park Reinforcement Movements for the Korean church communities at that time. Chi Rok in 1905. Th ese early-morning Sovereignty of People.” In the edito- Th ey were the initiators of grassroots prayer gatherings have become a tradi- rial message of his bulletin dated 26 movements based on the gospel when tion of Korean Christianity. Jan 1897, he outlined his thesis about the fate of Korea was in such a vulnerable the gospel in a very positive manner state. During the independence move- A Brief Analysis of the Early by saying that the leading countries in ments, a transformational change began Breakthroughs of the Gospel the world had all adopted Christianity to take place in Korean social hierarchy. passionately and they were civilized As an example, a butcher who was in Korea Foreign missionaries came to Japan and and enjoying great blessings from from the lowest class called Chunmin, God. When he was forced to leave China much earlier than to Korea. In made an opening address where tens of Korea because of a conspiracy plot by terms of geographical and cultural prox- thousands of Koreans gathered for the the Russian Consular Offi cer Weber, imity, we cannot fi nd a big diff erence. movement event. Th ose were grassroots and pro-Russia Korean politicians, However, a meaningful breakthrough of movements indeed.13 his role was taken over by Yoon Chi the spread of the gospel took place only Ho. Yoon Chi Ho publicly honored Jeon Taek Bu stressed some characteris- in Korea. Jeon Taek Bu analyzed the Seo Jae Pil in “An Honest Confession” tics of the nationwide revival movements diff erence by looking at four factors: 15 which was his response to Pil’s farewell that Korean churches experienced in the 1) a patriotic spirit of self-defense for

International Journal of Frontier Missiology John Kim 171 the motherland arose among Koreans efore offi cial American missionary work began, due to the occurrence of frequent inva- sions by other countries such as China Bible translation and the establishment of church and Japan;16 2) an awareness of the fellowships had already been initiated by Koreans. need for a more progressive civiliza- B tion dating from the 1700s; 3) a unique which would ensure their survival against structures were imported from Western sense about a “Supreme Heavenly God” the backdrop of the diminishing power countries, mostly from the US. In a which existed in Korean traditional folk of the rulers of the country. In fact, revival sense, whenever true contextualization religion; 17 and 4) a consciousness of and movements broke out which clearly has not occurred in the Korean con- a pride in the Korean language which showed their spiritual vitality. Th e early- text, the foreign and Western-initiated was based on Korean ethnicity. morning prayer meetings, their fasting structures and movements have not and overnight prayer practices, and the really successfully penetrated the hearts Agreeing with this analysis, Lee Man unique Pentecostal spiritual gifts are all of Koreans. Th e situation and context Youl goes on to raise the issue of true part of Koreans’ indigenous religious in Korea have been changing. Th e kind independence with Korean churches traditions. Th ese strongly correlated with of motivation and initiative that drove nowadays. It has been a long time since each other and were regarded as the many early Koreans who later became Korean churches celebrated the 100th evidences of God’s special intervention believers is not present any longer. anniversary in 1984 of the introduction of on behalf of all Koreans. Th is is truly an Protestant Christianity in 1884. However, However, here in this section, I will insider’s perspective. since that time, dependency on the West gladly give an example of a current has become very common in almost all It is true to say that Korean Christian- Korean insider movement that is still forms of Korean Christianity including ity experienced amazing growth in a ongoing. Here is the short story of theology, doctrinal faith confessions, wor- relatively short time in mission history. “Yang Sil Hoi.” In fact, under the name ship forms, Christian lifestyles, and even Over time, an organizing process came “Yang Sil Hoi,” the people formed a gospel songs and hymns. Many Korean naturally. However, at the present time, legal entity in 1991. Th e name means Christians are now merely recipients and when we are observing a worrisome a community where people live their consumers of those Western forms of decline in Korean Christianity, I am lives according to their consciences Christianity in a passive way.18 concerned about the loss of the insid- and based on their faith. Th e story goes ers’ perspectives and initiatives because back to the time before the Korean war. Refl ecting on the early spread of the gos- Korean Christianity has become so In (North Korea) before the Korean war, pel in Korea, I have come to believe that dependent on Western forms. In there was a woman called Cha Young a strong awareness of the spirit of being my conclusion, I will try to discuss a Eun. She was just an ordinary wife but a Korean, including a sense that they as in- little bit more about this retrospective woman of prayer. She had been com- siders were spreading a Korean gospel— refl ection and I will attempt to suggest mitted to praying every day for ten years was the main cause for this breakthrough. appropriate corrections for the future. Koreans at that time were facing a real early in the morning for the indepen- political crisis and had to be ready to cope dence of Korea from Japan (which had with rapid change and external challeng- The Yang Sil Community: A occupied Korea since 1905). One day es. Th ey had fi rsthand awareness that the Living Example of an Insider while praying, and in a vision, she heard a gospel was good news. Even before the Movement voice saying that she should leave (North) Korea as there would be serious trouble American missionaries had begun offi cial Although the intrinsically Korean dy- in the near future. She realized it was a missionary work in Korea, Bible transla- namics, central to the spreading of the vision given by God to help women. In tion and the establishment of church gospel among Koreans, seem to be de- 1946, she came down to Seoul, South fellowships or home gatherings had been clining, there has actually been an amaz- Korea, with around 100 people accompa- already initiated by Koreans themselves. ing church growth in Korea since the nying her and settled in a village. It wasn’t And the earliest Christian communities Korean War in the 1950s. Th e growth long before the number of the communi- extended their infl uence to the grassroots has come along with industrial and eco- ty members grew to 300. She emphasized level of Korean lives without any assis- nomic development not only in the mo- the role of wife was that of being a helper tance from Western theological seminar- dality structures—mainstream Christian to her husband. She taught that playing ies or Christian institutions. Th e gospel- denominations—but also in sodality the right role of a wife was the fi rst step spreading movements had an intrinsically structures—student/campus Christian in loving the country. Korean dynamic, as Koreans, who were movements like CCC, Navigators, UBF, insiders, took initiative and recognized ISF, YWAM, etc. However, in almost all Even though there has been some de- the need for social forms and patterns of those cases, the movements and the gree of breakthrough in women’s rights

33:4 Winter 2016 172 A Refl ection on Insider Movements in Korean Church History

since then, at that time, women were an vision from God, many Korean women fi nd ways to resolve their contemporary unreached people group and were iso- experienced restoration of their broken problems through a Korean style of lated from the main society. After set- families and they determined to serve prayer and of Bible study movements. tling down in the village, she continued others in similar trouble. Eventually Lee Th e impact was nationwide and even the the prayer fellowship among women. Tae Young (the woman lawyer) came to barriers from the social class structure Th e leadership mantle was passed on work with them for social transforma- were overcome. Even though there had to a woman called Park Geum Jung. tion through faith in Jesus, and the com- been expatriate workers who had tried Park Geum Jung adopted the passion munity is still actively serving Korean to infl uence the local Koreans, many of and prayer style of the fellowship but society as it faces challenges in a more them were really in great confusion due also started to make her own leader- multicultural context. Th ree generations to the huge cultural gap. ship decisions. After Cha Young Eun of Koreans have been part of this Jesus Parallel to the economic growth, the passed away in 1967, Park Geum Jung movement, have been involved in the modality and sodality structures seemed continued on in the same role community’s life dynamics, and, as Ko- rean insider believers, continue to share to become great Christian movements In 1967, Park Geum Jung started a new the spirit of Jesus with other Koreans. throughout the whole country. How- community where most of the members ever, such movements which were fos- consisted either of women from broken I believe that this is a beautiful example tered in Western organizational forms families or of women who had suff ered of a Korean insider movement that is and Western denominational structures painfully from a male-dominated society. still active. When they continued to take are already stagnating, or even declining. She helped those women through prayer initiative to deal with their problems and Th e problem is most of these move- and faith counseling. Many women were ments still feel very foreign and have moved by her committed service and Western styles. At this point, I strongly began to experience recovery which was feel that Koreans need to fi nd their fully demonstrated by changes in their lives. indigenous identities as Korean insiders As a result, many husbands and children in the Kingdom of God again. joined the women to try to recover their It was a vision As an example of a Korean insider family relationships again and the com- movement that is still ongoing, I in- munity began to grow. Th ese families given by God troduced “Yang Sil Hoi.” As they have in the community took it upon them- to help women. not been connected with any west- selves, according to their faith in Jesus, to ernized denominational structures or help other women in trouble and other mission organizations, when they dealt families in crisis by establishing “Yang with social problems such as women’s Sil Hoi” in 1978. And the fi rst woman rights or the issues of broken families, lawyer in Korean history, Lee Tae Young, they were able to approach the local became involved in the community life refl ected on their faith in Jesus through people without any prejudice. Because and advised opening the Sindang branch prayer, they had the momentum to keep of that, many local people have joined of legal counsel for families in 1983. Th en maintaining their faith traditions and the community and have been willing they established a children’s day care their community life dynamics. Since to serve others in the same way that center and off ered to support careers for they didn’t belong to any one denomi- they themselves have been served. women. Volunteers and supporters joined nation, their impact on women and the community and the community families with problems was much more In conclusion, here are some sugges- continued to move up into the society. In straightforward and positive than that of tions I would like to share for how 1991, “Yang Sil Hoi” became a registered denominational Christian institutions. to possibly overcome the declining legal entity and a community church was situation of Korean Christianity— also established. Th is church and commu- something about which many Chris- nity don’t belong to any denominational Conclusion tian leaders have been concerned. structure; however, their social service and A brief review was presented in this First, Bible study meetings and fellow- community life is very active. Now they short article of how the early break- throughs of the spread of the gospel took ships need to be encouraged to be in an are also actively involved in social service place in Korea . . . We have seen that the “oikos form” of family and community activities including family health and local indigenous people (the Koreans) life. Koreans have an intrinsic spirit multicultural family care programs. were determined as insider believers to of community. Th is is very clear as we Th rough a beautiful commitment of face the crisis together regarding the see how Koreans enjoy holidays and a woman of prayer motivated by a fate of their country. Th ey desired to seasonal festivals with their extended

International Journal of Frontier Missiology John Kim 173 families. Many times, Christian west- hey were able to approach the local people without ernized organizational structures have interrupted or even halted family life any prejudice when dealing with social issues such rhythms and dynamics when husband and wife have not been part of the same as women’s rights or the issues of broken families. T 11 faith in Jesus. An institutional church- Accomplishing world missions might Ibid., pp. 117–118 (in Korean). oriented Christian life may not be the include the issue of the unifi cation of 12 Ibid., p. 136; Lee Gwang Lin (이광 best way to lead families in present-day the two Koreas, but any new growth 린), Research on the Christian Civilization Korea into the Kingdom of God. of Korean Christianity will require the Idea (기독교개화사상연구: 일조각; 1979), p. recovery of Koreanness in our own 139 (in Korean). Secondly, there is another point that 13 Korean context through the Good Ibid., p. 137 (in Korean). continues on from the fi rst one: ex- 14 News once again. IJFM Ibid., pp. 159–160 (in Korean). amples of Korean insider movements 15 Ibid., pp. 163–165 (in Korean). that are not related to existing Western 16 Th is spirit of self-defense is probably structures need to be identifi ed more. Endnotes related to the situational contexts in which “Yang Sil Hoi” is just one example. Th e 1 In this world of globalization, we Korea has found herself throughout her his- institutional church-oriented life which may expect the acceleration of the expan- tory. Around 1300 years ago, Korea defeated does not result in social transformation sion of the Kingdom as we see so many an invasion by China (Su Dynasty) with a can be a great hurdle for the majority people living in multicultural situations. united front led by the general Euljimunduk. of currently unreached Koreans. Many of those in the Korean diasporas who Later on, Korea had to fi ght against Mongolia were scattered throughout Central Asia and during the period of the Korea Dynasty and Th ird, while Korean churches enjoy China during the period when the Commu- then later yet against Japan during the Lee many holidays brought over from nists came to power may become the seeds Dynasty (Chosun). Th roughout all these inva- Western countries and denominations, for a new Korean world missions thrust. sions by other countries over the centuries, the 2 spirit of self-defense has only grown stronger Korean traditional festivals in diff erent David Cho (조동진), People and Reli- gion – An Analysis of Mission History during in the minds of all Koreans. Especially in the seasons are regarded as non-Christian. the Western Colonial Period (민족과종교-서 late 19th and the early 20th centuries, when Th is means Korean faith communities 구식민사에얽힌선교사의해부) (Star Book the ruling power of the Korean leaders was have not really yet gone through a gen- Pub. 도서출판별: 1991), pp. 315–317 (in Ko- declining and the people had to become ready uine contextualization process. In many rean; the given English translation is mine). to fi ght against foreign powers again, the spirit of self-defense was purposefully revived by ways, Korean church communities look 3 Taek Bu Jeon (전택부), History of remembering the historical incidents. Koreans like miniatures of American church Korean Church Development (한국교회발전 got used to reacting collectively to crises cre- 사) (Korea Christian Book Publisher communities. Korean Christians need ated by external causes. In the modern age, 대한기독교출판사: 1987), p. 14 (in Korean). to be encouraged to redeem their own when the foreign monetary crisis threatened 4 Young Jae Kim ( ), Korea Korean traditions themselves. 김영재 the economic stability of Korea, they overcame Church History (한국교회사) (개혁주의신행 the crisis by the nationwide collaborative Fourth, the present political situation 협회: 1992), p. 92 (in Korean). action of collecting gold. Th is ability to pull 5 that Korea faces looks similar to that Yong Gyu Park (박용규), History of together and act collectively for the common which confronted the country during Korean Prosbyterian Philosophy (한국장로교 good seems to be rooted in the spirit of self- the early stages of the spreading of the 사상사) (Chongshin University Press - 총신 defense that has been formed in the minds of gospel in the late 19th century. After 대학출판부: 1992), pp. 110–120 (in Korean). Koreans throughout their long history. 6 the Sino-Japanese and Russo-Japanese Ibid., p. 113 (Th is English translation 17 Yoo Dong Sik asserts that Koreans is mine. You can see the original English wars, colonial Japan started ruling could accept the biblical God who has a sentences given by Conn, Studies in Th eology Korea in 1910. Even though inde- relationship with humans without serious of the Korean Presbyterian Church, 29). diffi culty due to an existing consciousness pendence from Japan was achieved in 7 Man Youl Lee (이만열), Korean about the Heavenly Being found in Koreans’ Korea in 1945 after the Second World Christianity and Historical Perception (한국 folk shamanistic beliefs. (Korea Religion and War, the Korean peninsula was force- 기독교와역사의식) (지식산업사: 1981), p. Christianity [한국종교와기독교] Daehan fully divided into two countries, North 18 (in Korean). Christian Book Publisher [대한기독교서회], and South Korea, by other countries 8 Ibid., p. 21 (in Korean). 1973), p. 93 (in Korean). like the US and the Soviet Union. In 9 Taek Bu Jeon (전택부), History of 18 Lee Man Youl (이만열), Korea these days, Koreans need to be moti- Korean Church Development (한국교회발전 Christianity and Historical Consciousness vated to take the initiative once again, 사) (Korea Christian Book Publisher (한국기독교와역사의식); 지식산업사, 1981), p. 135 (in Korean). to come together through prayer and 대한기독교출판사: 1987), pp. 98–103 (in Korean). indigenous Bible study movements, 10 Ibid., p. 99 (Th e contents are re- and to seek the Lord for the right translated from the Korean in the book into direction for the fate of their country. English by the author of this paper).

33:4 Winter 2016

Frontier Theologizing The Early Church in China: A Case Study of an Insider Movement

by David G. Cashin

he concept of reaching people within their cultural and religious con- texts is a biblical one. Indeed, the incarnation of Jesus provides the pri- T mary example for reaching mankind in his context. What that means for us in Christian mission has been tried and tested throughout history. Th is paper is one more historical case study of contextualization which gives focus to the missional adaptation of the Church of the East in China to the Taoist school at Da Qin beginning in the 7th century. It should off er perspective to the debate regarding one type of adaptation known today as “insider movements” (hereafter abbreviated IM).1 Th ere are now insider movements and their advocates within peoples who identify with Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, African tribal religions, and indeed, probably any religious identity. Th ere are diff erent types of IMs in Christian history,2 and this article will attempt to supplement the broader his- torical record by giving further illustration to adaptive eff orts that tend towards syncretism and an unfaithfulness to God and his revealed Word.

The Church of the East Kenneth Scott Latourette, in his foundational work on the history of Christianity, mentions the arrival of “Nestorian”3 missionaries in China under the leadership of Alopen in 635 ad. Alopen led a mission to China that was positively received in the court of the Chinese Emperor. Latourette notes their spread, the coming of persecution in 835 ad, and that the movement had entirely vanished by 980 ad.4 Over roughly a 200-year period this Christian mission eff ort was able to establish itself in the epicenter of China. Th is article is primarily an analysis of the Jesus Sutras, early Christian documents of this movement and of the commentary and

David G. Cashin is professor of translation provided in the groundbreaking work of Martin Palmer in Th e Jesus Intercultural and Muslim Studies at Sutras: Rediscovering the Lost Scrolls of Taoist Christianity. Columbia International University. After serving in South Asia in church Th ree preliminary observations are in order as we begin to evaluate the stra- planting and international develop- tegic eff orts of this church movement, and particularly the characteristics of ment he obtained a doctor of philosophy in Indology at Stockholm University. these Jesus Sutras.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology 33:4 Winter 2016•175 176 The Early Church in China: A Case Study of an Insider Movement

First, the movement was dependent on Th ey are relevant to the issues of this compassion of Christianity–the Path state support, and one of the rea- Chinese context and eras but, as you will of the Buddha and the Way of Jesus.11 sons for its downfall was when state see in my analysis, are less than faithful to Th is fusion appears to have been a de- 5 support was fi nally withdrawn. Th is the transcendent message of the gospel. liberate strategy by the Church of the approach involved building the central East at the epicenter of Chinese Tao- Christian monastery on the site of The Translation of ism from its earliest Christian sutras Lou Guan Tai, the Taoist monastery (dating between 640–660 ce). where Lao Zi supposedly wrote his the Jesus Sutras classic work, the Tao Te Ching: I would like to focus most of this case Th e earliest sutra is entitled the study on the work of Martin Palmer. Sutra of the Teachings of the World- The signifi cance of the Christian infl u- In his book, Th e Jesus Sutras, he both Honored One (hereafter referred to ence in this Taoist stronghold would translated and revised earlier transla- as STW). It borrows a title from a be comparable to a new religion be- tions of Chinese Christian docu- translation of a text called the Teach- ing allowed to build a temple within ments of that period and examined ings of the Apostles.12 Palmer considers the precincts of Canterbury Cathedral in the Middle Ages, or a new faith be- archeological evidence (which includes this text to be both the most crudely ing given fi nancial aid and support to the famous stone stelae and ruins translated and yet also the most or- build a monastery on the grounds of of the central Christian monastery thodox theologically. Th e second sutra, the White House today.6 in China).9 He suggests that these entitled the Sutra of Cause, Eff ect, documents and archeological evidence and Salvation (hereafter abbreviated Later documents from the 10th and SCES) presents Christian ideas in the 14th centuries seem to indicate that light of Buddhist thought and parallels segments of the Church survived a popular Buddhist text of the time. underground and experienced some- Th e third sutra, entitled the Sutra of thing of a revival in the time of the Origins (hereafter abbreviated SO) 7 Mongols. All the texts we will use in Th is text is is indeed concerned with origins, but this case study were hidden in a cave both the most crudely also utilizes Taoist terminology in around 1005 AD, so clearly Christian- describing the spirit of life (qi) and the ity was still extant at that time. But, as translated and “way” of Christianity (Tao).13 Th e fi nal you will see in this study, its form was book from this early period is entitled so similar to Taoism that Christian the most orthodox the Sutra of Jesus Christ (hereafter travelers to the area during this period theologically. abbreviated SJC), is “Buddhist in (and later) would perhaps not have tone” and borrows ideas from Tibetan recognized followers of this “religion” Christianity and Hinduism.14 as distinctively “Christian.” Secondly, this movement was also de- The World-Honored One indicate that this Christian approach pendent on secondary literature and did Adaptations of a theological nature virtually became a new school of Tao- not have the New Testament in Chinese. are apparent from the beginning in Th e fi rst copies of the New Testament ism. It is this corporate sense of iden- these texts. In the earliest sutra, the reached China perhaps in either 719 or tity that distinguishes this movement Christian writers relate the teachings 742,8 but these texts were in Syriac and as a certain type of insider movement. of Christ in Mt. 6:26 and God’s provi- do not seem to have been translated into With regard to the Christian docu- sion to the birds of the air by adding: Chinese (as were the earlier documents ments discovered from this period, Palmer states: At birth everyone is given a heavenly we will examine here). soul and the Five Attributes and at These scrolls were Christian books Th irdly, another aspect to these early the appropriate time food, drink or written in Chinese, telling a story of 15 documents is that they are essentially clothing is provided. Christianity that is unique and surpris- philosophical treatises. Th ere is no ing . . . The best way to describe these Th ese “Five Attributes” are a clear ref- historical narrative of the coming of Jesus books is collectively, with the term erence to the fi ve Buddhist skhandas or and his teachings as presented in the they themselves use: the Jesus Sutras.10 “aggregates” that lead to consciousness. New Testament. Without a strong his- Montalvo states, “the fi ve aggregates torical record of an authoritative scripture In Palmer’s opinion these early Chris- present a comprehensive typology these teachings are de-contextualized (or tian books of experience,” and this leads to the de-historicized), and they can become united the wisdom and moderation desire for material goods and meet- primarily expressions of any local culture. of Taoism and the humanism and ing physical needs.16 In Buddhism

International Journal of Frontier Missiology David G. Cashin 177 this experience creates the original n a manner quite foreign to Buddhism, the text sin of desire. STW cleverly connects this desire for material goods to Jesus’ is thoroughly ontological with God at the center teaching concerning the birds which neither sow nor reap but are provided as the “World-Honored One.” I 19 for (Matt. 6:26). Th ere is an appeal to things that are wrong for you.” Th ere by this. While his Five Attributes Buddhist conceptions here. is a relational component here that is passed away, he did not die but was absent in Buddhism. released again after his death. Thus it Th is concept of “fi ve qualities” seems is possible for even those who fail to also to be related to the Buddhist idea One may also note the format of these live after death.25 of “conditioned arising.” Th rough these refl ections. Th ey are proverbial adapta- Th us the body that died on the cross fi ve attributes consciousness arises and tions from the teachings of Jesus that with it desire. Another portion of the was not God but merely a manifesta- bear a strong resemblance to the Ana- tion through which the divine nature text also refers to Jesus’ teaching on lects of Confucius. Th e resemblance of taking the log out of your own eye, was revealed. Th is seems to be an Proverbs in the Old Testament to the intentional bridge to Buddhism, but a stating, “Be aware of your own quali- Analects has been noted20 and Jesus ties and how they relate to others.” heretical one. Jesus did not really die; often follows that literary pattern in his resurrection was merely a further Th ese “qualities,” which are a by- his teaching. Th is would actually be product of conditioned arising, seem manifestation. Monophysite Christol- cutting edge missiology in our modern ogy is combined with Buddhist con- to correspond to the concept of “the era with our increasing emphasis on fl esh” in New Testament thinking. ceptions of the unreality of the body. wisdom traditions in the scriptures Th ough this is the most orthodox of the 21 Is this example a legitimate and and their relevance in other cultures. texts according to Palmer, it has a fatal appropriate theological bridge be- Some portions of STW show the infl u- weakness at its core. It goes one step tween Christ and the Buddha, or is ence of monophysite Christology. With- beyond the “use of the analogy of the it syncretism? It’s clear that the text out going into the details, monophysite union of soul and body to explain the does not draw a one-to-one correspon- Christology posited the “single nature” of unity of the Godhead and humanity in 26 dence between Buddhist and Christian Christ, tending to downplay his human Christ.” Th is becomes the doorway to theological concepts as in the ex- nature. After dealing with the story of Buddhist conceptions controlling the ample above. It also displays Christian the crucifi xion of Jesus, the text reads: Christology rather than scripture being discernment, for it rejects Buddhist determinative. Th is is Buddhist con- conceptions like anatma (or “no-self ”) Anybody who says “I am a god” should texualization fl owing into Christianity. by stating “everyone is given a heavenly die. The Messiah is not the honored Th is has relevance to the culture but soul.” In a manner quite foreign to one. Instead, through his body he lacks faithfulness to the scriptures. showed the people the Honored one.22 Buddhism, the text is thoroughly on- STW goes on to say that through this tological with God at the center of the Th is is also referred to as “the one sacred union of soul and body we receive qi text as the “World-Honored One.”17 Spirit took a body.”23 Th e text goes on to (the Taoist “life force”) as the Holy He is also called “the One Sacred explain “what he brought was not being Spirit. Th is is an interesting contex- Spirit,” “Father,” and “the Compas- human, but came directly from the Hon- tualizing bridge, but is “life force” sionate One.” Th e Christian concept of ored One.” Th is clearly denies the concept synonymous with the Holy Spirit and “forgiveness” is primary to the message of the dual nature of Christ which what issues does this connection raise? of this sutra rather than the Buddhist characterizes Catholic, Orthodox, and wheel of samsara and karma. Protestant Christology. Th is hints also The concept of the three treasures– towards the reincarnation of the Buddha, jing, qi and shen (are) an internal al- Th ere is also an implicit critique of who is often spoken of as the “provisional chemy . . . A well-known concept basic the Chinese temple with its gods of to Daoism as well as Chinese culture in manifestation” through an illusory body prosperity, progeny, and longevity. general, the three treasures are differ- or nirmanakaya.24 In this text Christ’s Th e text intones that “people think ently interpreted in various contexts, death on the cross is presented as a release there are two important things under and the specifi c ideas associated with Heaven. Th e fi rst is God and the from “his fi ve attributes,” a statement that each of them shape the views of hu- second is money”18 refl ecting again seems to associate Buddhist nirvana with man nature and immortality in which 27 on the birds of the air from Matthew Christian atonement and salvation. Con- they play a central role. 6. God as “Compassionate” and as sider this statement in its longer context: Two important aspects of this Taoist “Father” sometimes does not give what Out of love he suffered so that what conception come to mind. First, qi is an we ask because “you cannot be given Adam had caused should be changed impersonal force related to the natural

33:4 Winter 2016 178 The Early Church in China: A Case Study of an Insider Movement

origin of the universe. Second, it is some- the point that desire is the original Secondly, heaven is presented as a place thing progressively gained and cultivated sin. Th is actually did fi t quite well into where “nothing will pass and nothing through occult practices. Any association the Buddhist concept of samsara and change.”34 Th e Buddhist worldview, with the gospel message can introduce reincarnation. Desire is not the original to the contrary, posited change as the some signifi cant distortions, for it indi- sin in biblical Christianity, but rather re- essential reality of this world and this cates that human eff ort based on the use bellion. Further, associating deliverance impermanence was their justifi ca- of occult rituals rather than a relationship with the release from “hungry ghost” tion for denying ontological perma- with God can lead to immense personal status takes us far afi eld from biblical nence since the Buddhist believed no power. An example of this kind of think- notions of the soul and judgment. permanent unchanging self could be ing is found in a medieval Chinese text: identifi ed. Th us, Buddhism maintains: Th e remainder of STW tells the story “Th is is the goal of Human beings— . . . (the) Secret Instructions of the Jade of the crucifi xion and resurrection of to have no existence.”35 By contrast, Bedchamber, which explains how the Jesus and concludes with a rendition of STW introduces what is an interesting Spirit Mother of the West, originally the Great Commission. Th e resurrec- and, I think, eff ective apologetic point an ordinary human being like anyone tion itself takes place through the qi or against Buddhism. Th e realm of the else, devoured the life [Qi] force of life force of the “World-Honored One.” spirit in heaven is unchanging and not numerous young boys by copulating Again, this is deeply problematic, for it with them, and thereby transformed subject to samsara, thus it constitutes plays upon impersonal occult concepts herself into a famed goddess.28 a permanent ontological reality. STW of power attained by human eff ort. concludes with a picture of the univer- Th e potential for misunderstanding sal fi res of the “earth prisons” for those when the Holy Spirit is viewed as a who reject the message. Th is vision of life force is immense. hell is also common to Buddhist con- Th e text goes on to state that the ceptions of the afterlife in this period. message of salvation is that “through the holy wonders of the Messiah all Th e resurrection Cause, Effect, and Salvation can escape becoming ghosts.”29 Th e Th e second sutra, entitled the Sutra of concept of the “hungry ghost” was takes place through Cause, Eff ect, and Salvation, is clearly common to both Buddhism and Tao- the life force of the a Christian refl ection upon Buddhist ism in China. Th ose who died having “World-Honored One.” notions of karma and reincarnation.36 lived an unfulfi lled life could return to Palmer states of SCES: haunt the living. Th is was particularly true of children and young men and It uses no classical Christian terminol- women who had died having never ogy or imagery, but weaves a Chris- married and their ghostly nature is tian message through Greek and Buddhist philosophy.37 described as: Some of the STW material is enig- As the sutra describes creation, Taoist Phantom-like creatures with withered matic and possibly refers to the distant limbs, grossly bloated bellies, and ideas of yin and yang are apparent: context of the Near East where a great long, thin necks, the Hungry Ghosts war had just concluded between the Everything under heaven has these in many ways represent a fusion of two qualities created by the Sacred Byzantines and the Persians, a war rage and desire. Tormented by un- Spirit. The one Sacred Spirit made the fulfi lled cravings and insatiably de- that was “throwing everything to the two. Everything under heaven has manding of impossible satisfactions, ground, destroying everything that had two natures, and everything is united 31 the Hungry Ghosts are searching for been gained.” Th is is reinforced at the under heaven. The two natures are gratifi cation for old unfulfi lled needs end of the text where the author states body and sacred spirit. These two re- whose time has passed.30 that “in Bethlehem and in Persia the side in all existence under heaven.38 believers were killed.”32 Th is does help Th is raises some very interesting Th e bodily form is described as result- to establish the time frame of the text. questions about what sort of salvation ing from the “fi ve skhandas,” a Bud- the STW text anticipates or if it even Amidst the creative use of Buddhist dhist concept, but these fi ve skhandas understands what indigenous concepts and Taoist terminology, the STW also “will be perfected” in the heavenly it has related to the Christian mes- evinces a strong exclusivist sentiment kingdom in permanent “complete sage by using this terminology. When when it states that “there is no other happiness.” Th is SCES apologetic is a Buddhism came to China it utilized the true way that people can walk. Any radical departure from the Buddhist Taoist concept of hungry ghost to make other way is judged to be false.”33 concept of nirvana, where the skhandas

International Journal of Frontier Missiology David G. Cashin 179 and all desires are ultimately decon- s the “next life” reincarnation or heaven? Th e structed and extinguished.39 Heaven in the SCES is conceived of as a union of text asserts that “this world is the only place to perfected soul and body that “creates decide your next birth.” happiness,” not suff ering. Th is seems I to turn away not only from Buddhism through being “born again,” this posi- SCES off ers a remarkable apologetic but from the Manichaean/gnostic tive experience (salvation) is attained opposing certain Buddhist ideas of dualism of pure spirit/evil body which “by living properly in this world.” Here karma and nirvana and uses a termi- Palmer posits as a primary infl uence the text departs radically from the gos- nology very familiar to Taoists. How- (monophysite) within the Church of pel message. “All creatures should know ever, rebirth through reincarnation is the East.40 SCES denies this Buddhist that the karmic consequences of what assumed to be true, rather than fi nal dualism and seems fully in keeping is done in this life will shape the next judgment. Contrast this with Paul’s with a Hebrew doctrine of both body life.”45 Th e section concludes, “do good message to the Stoics in Acts 17. Th e and soul as creations of “the Sacred in this world to enter the next. It can- Stoics were cyclic pantheists who be- Spirit.”41 Th is is essential to the biblical not be done elsewhere.”46 Is this “next lieved in a form of reincarnation. Paul’s view of the surpassing value of the suf- life” reincarnation or heaven? Th e text message of good news to them was fering of Christ. “Th at the world is full simply asserts that “Th is world is the that reincarnation would not occur but of suff ering is recognized everywhere, only place to decide your next birth.”47 rather the fi nal judgment that Christ but Buddhism denies that suff ering has would accomplish (Acts 17:31). Fur- any relevant role.”42 Th e biblical posi- Th e SCES text falls short of a biblical ther, the message of the cross of Christ tion affi rms the value of suff ering as a viewpoint on three counts: fi rst, it seems is muted, spoken of solely as “suff er- means of redemption, and the actual to affi rm reincarnation; second, it affi rms ings” of the “visitor” and conceived as physical body of Christ as a means of a thoroughly works-based salvation. Th i- a means primarily to sanctify good redemption is affi rmed in this text. rumalai, in his study of Buddhism and deeds. Th e “suff erings” do not seem Christianity, affi rms one great diff erence to be the means of deliverance from Th e text conceives of Jesus as “the Vis- in the latter, that “doing good works does the “evil spirits.” Th e message, aside itor” who “brought the fi ve skhandas not lead to salvation; neither does it ensure from a strong works theology, lacks 43 and the soul together.” Th e Soul is a better life in the future.” 48 Th ird, the text the kind of clarity on the salvation seen as the “sculptor” refi ning the fi ve affi rms the improvement of the body message which is available in the New skhandas of the body like modeling which is not an important aspect of the Testament. It is clearer on Buddhist clay, and human life can be “enhanced Christian message. thought than it is on Christian. if the soul is rich with karma.” Th e text affi rms that “whatever you do in life Th e next section of SCES expounds on will have its karmic impact upon your works salvation and then introduces the Origins soul.” Karma here seems to refl ect the story of the suff erings of Christ. But the Th e third work, the Sutra of Origins contrast within a humankind made in “suff erings” become a means to com- (SO), follows a similar pattern, though the image of God that is both capable plete the good deed: “A benevolent act it is much shorter. Th e text follows of refi nement yet aff ected by the evil done in the knowledge of this suff ering a Romans 1 style argument that the karma of sin. But, on this matter of is the only truly benevolent act.”49 Th e universe indicates the reality of an karma we must pay attention to the reader is encouraged to “be grateful for unchanging God behind it. It seems to historical context. Early Buddhism in the grace you have received.” But exactly attack the Buddhist idea that the tran- China sought to popularize its own what that grace is or how it is received is sitoriness of the world is an indication viewpoint by connecting the idea of not clear other than that one must strive of the unreality of the world. Th e world karma with a more positive impact on to do what is right.50 is because of the unchanging nature “of 52 the physical body: the ‘One Sacred Spirit’ who made it.” Th e fi nal section notes the yin/yang Th is phrase, “Great Holy Intelligence The motivations for being involved balance of sacred time and calls people is as the Void” is synonymous with in the accumulation of karmic merit to worship God. People are led astray the Buddhist concept of śūnya (Void), in early medieval China were diverse, from the true path by “evil spirits” or which is “emptiness and thus invisible.” but one frequently mentioned goal “ghosts” which “oppose their good “Th e view that everything is empty was the health of the physical body.44 nature.” Th ose who are led astray by (śūnya) is a central metaphysical plank While the perfected karma is declared the evil spirits will be “trapped in the of Buddhism.”53 Priest argues that there to be “eternal,” and the transformation 10,000 kalpas from which there is no is a potential ontological value to this of karma to something positive occurs escape from rebirth.”51 Buddhist conception.54 In this text the

33:4 Winter 2016 180 The Early Church in China: A Case Study of an Insider Movement

nature of this omnipresent unchanging Th e SO text fi ts the missionary strate- born” he begins to teach.58 People “call “being” turns the void concept back to gy of working within the Taoist move- upon the Buddha’s name” and “it is in ontology, which despite Priest’s argu- ment, native to China, and rejecting the Buddha’s nature to bestow grace.”59 ment, seems a clear denial of Buddhist Buddhist ideas that were not native to Th us, “all existence is an act of grace.” teachings. “Heaven and earth are stable China. Taoist monism is thoroughly Th e sacred Boddhisattva of Chinese and nothing changes.” But associating ontological, whereas Buddhism denies Buddhism was Guanshiyin who the reality of a thoroughly ontologi- the reality of ontology. SO affi rms cal God (who brings stability to the Taoist monism maintaining a strongly illuminates the Dharma Realm, where world) with this Buddhist philosophy unitary view of God. Further, it raises she sees all beings; she protects them of “emptiness” is problematic. “Creation the issue of whether the God of the and brings them to resolve upon is like this also—no beginning and no Bible is truly an ideal of actionless Awakening, she teaches them to keep in mind the perfect spiritual mantra.60 end.” Th is is really a major departure action. Th is state is really an expression from biblical notions of creation and of a monistic reality where “actions” Christ is presented in a very similar bends the text towards monism—a are ultimately absurd. Quiescence is way as one who teaches to bring about thoroughly unitary view of the universe. the pathway to salvation. All of this “awakening” which is the nature of his Th e text associates this monism with is very sophisticated philosophy and compassion. It should be noted that Wuwei (non-action) and this ultimately clearly these early Christian writ- Guanshiyin is female, so the imagery negates the possibility of relationship. ers were deeply acquainted with the is confused. Th e imagery is Buddhist For instance, it asserts that there is no philosophical viewpoints of their but the content is Christian. “Only the diff erentiation between the fi rst and virtuous can enter into the presence of second spirit (the latter I take to mean God.”61 From here the text begins to Christ). “Th e other spirit came but with refl ect on the nature of sin. nothing to diff erentiate it from the One Th e “disobedience of the fruitful gar- 55 Sacred Spirit—like hands and feet.” It creates den” has led to the result that “all that Th e constant emphasis on “One” Spirit a Unitarianism lives is aff ected by the karma of previ- and “not two or three” in the text, ous lives.”62 But “God suff ered terrible actually creates a Unitarianism that that ultimately denies woes so that all should be freed from ultimately denies the incarnation of karma, for nobody is beyond the reach the incarnation 63 Christ. Th is would fi t monophysite of this Buddha principle.” Th is text conceptions of the “Spirit” putting on of Christ. seems much more in dialogue with a body in Jesus. It also fi ts the Taoist Buddhism than the previous three and view of the void. Th e text seems to ndfi seems to be contextualizing the gospel its framework primarily in Taoism, and for a Buddhist audience. is reacting against Buddhism. In the Th e concept of karma is pervasive and interlocutors. But almost every line of SO text the Taoist concept of Wuwei is closely connected to salvation; “some- what they write raises issues concern- is specifi cally mentioned as the nature one who fears punishment does what is ing their grounding and faithfulness to of the Sacred Spirit: “the One Sacred right.” Fear of God is essential to this the biblical revelation. Spirit is the embodiment of Wuwei, salvation: “If you do not fear God, even originless origin and unsubstantial if you live by the law of the Buddha, substance.”56 Th e concept of Wuwei is Jesus Christ you will not be saved.”64 Th e name normally translated “non-action” but Th e fi nal document, the Sutra of Jesus Buddha seems to be a cipher for either it could also mean unchanging. Moon Christ (SJC), is a catechism dealing God or Christ. Th is attitude is then explains, “a sage leader should take and with various aspects of Christian faith illustrated through the story of the Ten explicate the paradox of non-action: By and living. It is borrowed fragmen- Commandments. Th e text concludes not doing, everything is done.”57 Th e tarily from various sources so I will with the story of the conception, birth, unchanging nature of Wuwei is in dis- focus mostly on its points of contact ministry, execution, and resurrection of tinct contrast to the Buddhist concept with Buddhism and Taoism as well as Jesus. He is referred to as Messiah and of “Void.” Th e appeal to Taoism and its theological innovations. Th e book it is unclear in SJC what the relation- fi nding fault with Buddhism is clearly opens with Christ in the heavenlies ship of Messiah to Buddha is. Having stated: Th e Sacred Spirit which is “ex- “orbited by the Buddhas and Arahats” described Jesus’ early teaching and isting in Wuwei” is “never extinguished and looking down on earth. Moved miracles the text opines, “those who into non-being.” by the suff erings of “all that have been do evil and do not recognize the true

International Journal of Frontier Missiology David G. Cashin 181 way . . . can never be truly saved.” Th is hese texts take a conciliatory attitude towards leads into an extensive description of the judgment of Jesus, Pilate washing Taoism, using its terminology to illustrate his hands and killing the Messiah. “Th e Messiah gave up his body to the wicked Christian concepts and deny Bud dhist concepts. 65 T ones for the sake of all living beings.” Taoist framework. Lost in that frame- religious persecution. An example He was hung “upon a wooden scaff old work was a clear biblical conception of of this would be the survival of the . . . on the sixth cleansing vegetarian what salvation is and how one receives Catholic Church as secret believers 66 day.” Th is fi nal phrase is obscure and it. Why does Messiah die? Is salvation under Shinto domination in Japan during the 17th–19th centuries to seems to combine concepts of cleansing merely deliverance from ghosthood? from sin and vegetarianism with non- escape annihilation. Th is movement What does it mean that he dies for “all did re-emerge to a modifi ed identity violence (ahimsa). Th e text concludes creatures”? If humankind is essentially when persecution came to an end. abruptly shortly after this. good and salvation is a product of good 3. Developing secret believers in contexts karma, how is this message any diff er- where immediate persecution/execution Conclusions ent than the Buddhist eight-fold path is assumed. An example would be F. A.’s approach to reaching Saudis in Saudi Th ese documents refl ect an age of of ethical behavior or the Taoist quiet- ist lifestyle? What is the relationship of Arabia in the 1970s and 80s, sometimes pluralism in China where the Chris- referred to as C6 evangelism. Messiah and the Buddha? Is the great tian faith sought to make a place for 4. Christianity adapting sociologically cloud of witnesses a group of Arahats itself in an environment of Taoism to become an accepted social sub- and Buddhism. Th e Church of the (enlightened beings) in the heavenlies? group in the culture. Th e Mar Th oma East had already dealt extensively with Why would anyone cling to this ethical Church in India became in essence a Buddhist thought, and this is pervasive message of living a good life in the face new caste within the overall Hindu in the texts. One may say that these of persecution? Th is Christianity seems structure. Th is seems to be a pragmatic texts seek to contextualize the gospel to be preaching religious perspectives reaction to Christian “caste identity.” through Buddhist concepts while at that already existed in China with 5. Churchless Christianity, a term coined by Herbert Hoefer, describing the same time correcting the non- slight modifi cations. Is there a distinc- tive Christian identity in these docu- Hindus who follow an individual- ontological viewpoint of Buddhism. ized or very small group adherence ments? Th e impression these docu- Th ese texts take a very conciliatory to Christ while remaining culturally attitude towards Taoism, using its ments give is of a Christianity with a Hindus in a pragmatic reaction to terminology in a way that illustrates very weak sense of separate identity, Christian “caste identity.” Christian concepts and denies Bud- more comfortable in the context of 6. C5 Muslim evangelism which is the dhist concepts. Th at orientation, Taoism than with the distinctives of archetypical “IM” where missionaries coupled with the centering of Chris- the Christian faith. IJFM call themselves Muslims or Isa Mus- tianity’s most important monastery in lims and encourage Muslims to stay within the Muslim religious structure. the very heart of the resurgent Taoism Endnotes In contrast C4 Muslim evangelism of the time, would seem to indicate a 1 Dr. Don McCurry defi nes IM within seeks to stay within the confi nes of deliberate strategy. Later sutras, in the the Muslim context as “you can still call Muslim cultural structures but main- form of Christian liturgy from the 8th yourself a Muslim . . . even though you tains a more overt Christian identity. century, would continue these adapta- believe in Jesus as Lord and Savior.” Th e 7. Conversion movements into a reli- tions, moving away from concepts phenomenon, however, is broader than just gion that seek to introduce elements of original sin and adopting a more Muslims believing in Jesus; it is consistently of the Christian faith into the reli- understood as an issue of religious identity. thoroughgoing trinitarianism.67 Th e gion, very similar to point 1 and 2 but 2 I note seven diff erent types of Insider later texts reinterpret the salvation of with the diff erence that these move- Movements in Christian History (I focus ments sought to both mollify the Christ as the product of the karma of entirely on the fi rst type in this article). dominant religion and also purchase a previous lives, Jesus as the Tao, and 1. Th e missional adaptation of the greater measure of tolerance towards similar conceptions. Church of the East in China to the an on-going existing Christian move- Taoist school where they built their ment. I fi nd this primarily in the Th ese contextualizing eff orts would world of Islam. seem to me to represent a particular central monastery at Da Qin within the central monastery of the Taoist kind of insider movement. Th is is a Movements 2, 4, 5, and 7 are not the result of faith. One might call this Christian- a direct missionary strategy but are based on Christianity which adopted the garb, ity seeking to make itself one of the pragmatics; the experience of persecution and language, and philosophical terminol- schools/sects of the local religion. adaptation or rejection of a sociological identity. ogy of both Taoism and Buddhism but 2. Christian movements subsumed Movements 1, 3, and 6 are specifi c strategic in a way that put Christianity in the under dominating religions due to attempts to plant the gospel in new contexts.

33:4 Winter 2016 182 The Early Church in China: A Case Study of an Insider Movement

3 “Nestorian” according to Palmer is a 24 http://www.chinabuddhismencyclo- 55 Palmer, p. 148. pejorative term and throughout this docu- pedia.com/en/index.php?title=Nirma%E1%B 56 Palmer, p. 149. ment we will use the term “Church of the 9%87ak%C4%81ya. Accessed July 23, 2014. 57 Moon, Seungho. “Wuwei (non- East.” Based on an online lecture of Palmer 25 Palmer, p. 63. action) Philosophy and Actions: Rethinking on the Church of the East, http://www.you- 26 Chestnut, Roberta C., Th ree Mono- Actions in School Reform,” Educational tube.com/watch?v=tifK5SUdSq0, accessed physite Christologies: Severus of Antioch, Philosophy & Th eory, May 2015, Vol. 47 Is- July 21, 2014. Philoxenus of Mabbug, and Jacob of Sarug, sue 5, p. 456. 4 Latourette, Kenneth Scott, A History New York: Oxford University Press, 1976, 58 Palmer, p. 159. of Christianity, New York: Harpers, 1953, cited by R. A. Norris, Jr., in American His- 59 Palmer, p. 160. pp. 324–5. torical Review, Vol. 83, Issue 2, 1978, p. 411. 60 Buddhist Liturgy, “Th e Great Com- 5 27 Palmer, Martin, Th e Jesus Sutras: Re- Van Enckevort, Paul. “Th e Th ree passion Repentance,” Religion East & West. discovering the Lost Scrolls of Toaist Christian- Treasure: An Enquiry into the Writings of Jan 2014, Issue 12, pp. 33–34. ity, New York: Ballentine, 2001, pp. 234–6. Wu Shouyang,” Journal of Daoist Studies. 61 Palmer, p. 161. 6 Palmer, p. 49. 2014, Vol. 7, pp. 117–145. 62 Palmer, p. 161. 7 Palmer, p. 241. 28 Goldin, Paul R. “Th e Cultural and 63 Palmer, pp. 161–2. 8 Palmer, p. 215. Religious Background of Sexual Vampirism 64 Palmer, p. 163. 9 Th e documents come from a cave in in Ancient China.” Th eology & Sexuality: 65 Palmer, p. 167. Dunhuang, China, sealed around 1005 , Th e Journal of the Institute for the Study of ad 66 Palmer, p. 1. Christianity & Sexuality. May 2006, Vol. 12 Palmer, p. 168. 67 10 Palmer, p. 2. Issue 3, pp. 285–307. Palmer, pp. 175–180. 29 11 Palmer, p. 5. Palmer, p. 63. 30 12 Palmer, pp. 51–2. Palmer notes that Epstein, M. Th oughts without a this document, written by Tatian in the second thinker: Psychotherapy from a Buddhist Perspec- New York: Basic Books, 1995, p. 28. century, was very popular in the eastern tive. 31 churches. It is generally referred to in the West Palmer, p. 65. as the Diatessaron, a work that harmonized the 32 Palmer, p. 67. four Gospels into a single narrative text. Only 33 Palmer, p. 68. fragments of it remain in its original Syriac 34 Palmer, p. 66. version. 35 Th irumalai, Madasamy, Sharing 13 Palmer, p. 55. Your Faith with a Buddhist, Bethany House 14 Palmer, p. 56. Publishers, 2003, p. 30. 15 Palmer, pp. 61–2. 36 Palmer, pp. 137–8. 16 Montalvo, David, “Th e Buddhist 37 Palmer, p. 138. Empiricism Th esis: An Extensive Critique,” 38 Palmer, p. 140. Asian Philosophy, Vol. 9, No. 1, 1999, p. 61. 39 Th irumalai, p. 145. 17 Th ere are those who argue that 40 Palmer, pp. 92–3. Buddhism’s concept of “no-self ” is “more 41 Palmer, p. 141. of a practical strategy than a metaphysical 42 Th irumalai, p. 145. doctrine.” Cf. Albahari, Miri, “Against No- 43 Atman Th eories of Anatta,” Asian Philoso- Palmer, p. 141. phy, Vol. 12, No. 1, 2002, p. 5. 44 Salguero, C. Pierce, “Fields of Merit, 18 Palmer, p. 60. Harvests of Health: Some Notes on the Role of Medical Karma in the Popular- 19 Palmer, p. 62. ization of Buddhism in Early Medieval 20 Nyrose, Eric, “Pursuing Wisdom: China,” Asian Philosophy. Nov 2013, Vol. 23 An Investigation of the Relationship Issue 4, pp. 341–349. Between Some Ancient Religious Concepts 45 Palmer, p. 142. of Wisdom and Current Notions of Critical 46 Th inking Within Information Literacy,” Palmer, p. 143. Journal of Religious & Th eological Informa- 47 Palmer, p. 143. tion, 2009, Vol. 8, Issue 3/4, p. 132. 48 Th irumalai, p. 28. 21 An example would be a recent 49 Palmer, p. 143. doctoral dissertation approved at Columbia 50 Palmer, p. 144. International University by Dr. Bonnie Aebi 51 Palmer, p. 146. entitled “A Comparison of Biblical and 52 Palmer, p. 148. Tamajaq Wisdom Traditions: Insights for 53 Priest, Graham, “Th e Structure of Christian Communications.” 22 Emptiness,” Philosophy East & West. Oct Palmer, p. 63. 2009, Vol. 59 Issue 4, p. 467. 23 Palmer, p. 68. 54 Priest, p. 477.

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to handle. In a similar way, Dyrness begins Insider Jesus in chapter 1 by acknowledging that contextualization has been a helpful framework in some ways, but falls short of being Reviews able to explain or analyze Christ movements among other religious communities. Th e main fault, he claims, is that Insider Jesus: Theological Refl ections on New Christian contextualization “does not adequately capture the herme- Movements, by William A. Dyrness (Downers Grove, IL: neutical and dialogical character of mission whereby various accounts of God’s presence (or that of the gods or spirits) IVP Academic, 2016, pp. 165 + ix) are exchanged and evaluated” (4). It is this principle ques- —Reviewed by Darren Duerksen tion—how God works in culture and its religions—that he seeks to answer. nsider movements have sometimes Western Protestants and Evangelicals have often been open to been used as examples of what the idea of God at work in other cultures. Don Richardson’s missionaries and missiologists call I “redemptive analogies,” for example, helped some Christians “contextualization.” However, there have also been those who, in looking at these entertain the possibility that God was at work in other movements and other new realities of cultures. However, these have often viewed cultures (though mission have sounded the need to move not usually their religions) as simply conduits for the gospel. “beyond contextualization” in our think- Dyrness continues his argument in chapter 2 by challenging ing.1 Dyrness’ book Insider Jesus is a welcome addition this way of viewing God’s work in culture and religions. He seeking to advance the conversation regarding contextual does this fi rst by theologically defi ning culture and religion. understandings of the gospel, particularly as it relates to Culture he says, is “all that we humans make of God’s good insider movements. creation” (36). Similarly, religions are peoples’ response (how- ever imperfect or misguided) to the call of the biblical God. As a brief background, many readers will be familiar with Th ough each of these are primarily human activity, at the same Dyrness’ contributions to contextual theology. Two of his time God is everywhere active and present in these activities early works on the topic, Learning about Th eology from “calling by the Spirit those who will worship him” (36). the Th ird World (1990) and Invitation to Cross-Cultural Th eology (1992), continue to appear on seminary recom- Dyrness also sketches a theological view of God’s intent mended reading lists. Th ey also established Dyrness as for cultures and religions. Th e grand sweep of the biblical a sympathetic and attentive theological interpreter of narrative is often characterized, as many of us know, by the Christianity in various cultural settings. In subsequent progression of creation-fall-redemption. Dyrness reana- work Dyrness has off ered important critiques of missions lyzes parts of the narrative and contends that such a view (Changing the Mind of Missions) and developed a theol- obscures a key part of God’s work: re-creation. In light of ogy of aesthetics (Poetic Th eology), as well as a theology of this he proposes the progression of creation-disobedience- religious aesthetics (Senses of Devotion). With Insider Jesus re-creation. And, of course, it is the work of re-creation Dyrness again turns his focus to global theology with the that holds the keys for our understanding of cultures and added insights provided by his ongoing work in theological religions. For this would mean that God’s project is not hermeneutics, religion, culture, and missiology. to replace (or even “redeem”) a culture or religion, but to re-create or renew them. Th is means that the whole created Contextualization as a concept has been defi ned and order was and is being brought to a new place “where the critiqued in numerous ways. In my estimation perhaps one goods of culture (and religion) are given fresh valuation” of its strengths was to provide missiologists with some con- (34). Th us, to come back to the concept of “contextualiza- ceptual frameworks with which to critique colonial mission tion,” if God is already at work in re-creating and renewing, postures towards culture. Some of this critique is still sorely then perhaps contextualization is asking the wrong ques- needed, but for others this is no longer the crucial debate. tion. Rather than seeking to understand how to place the Because the questions and debates have necessarily shifted gospel in a culture, we should ask what our response should over time, an understanding of “contextualization” as a con- be, in the light of Scripture, to what God is already doing. cept has had to shift as well. Th ere is a sense among some, myself included, that perhaps “contextualization” is now But, as we’ve mentioned, Christians have normally been being asked to do conceptual work it is no longer adequate more willing to see God at work in culture than in religion.

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Book Reviews 185 ontextualization has been a helpful framework in some ways, but falls short of being able to explain or analyze Christ movements among C other religious com munities. Because of this Dyrness makes a special focus on religion presence there” (104). If this is the case, perhaps the goal of in the biblical narrative (chapter 3). In this chapter, Dyrness mission is not to displace other religions, but to help people analyzes ways in which God used and renewed existing incorporate the stories and practices of their longings, spir- religious practices and understandings throughout the bibli- its, traditions, values, etc. into that of the Christian gospel. cal narrative. Select examples from Israel, Jesus, and Paul However, though mission should, even must, value peoples’ demonstrate that, at least in the initial stages, God’s renewal religions and what the existing work of the Holy Spirit is always “accommodated itself to the religious realities on the within them, religions are not a privileged space. Religions ground” while also challenging aspects of those realities that do not save people, and the gospel certainly counters certain were contrary to his purposes (62). But this is not to glorify religious beliefs and practices. In the end, as Dyrness says, religion, for it cannot off er salvation, and can even be an “the goal of God’s work is not a perfect religion, nor merely obstacle to embracing God’s salvation. a functioning church, but a new heaven and earth where However, the larger point is that religions can also be a righteousness reigns” (130). witness to God’s work, point people towards his salva- All of this has implications for the project of mission, tion, and help them understand the gospel in the logics and values of their own religious traditions. It is this latter particularly amongst other religions. But it should also point that could be the most troubling for some Christians. help Western Christians better understand our own lived But Dyrness’ discussion of scriptural examples shows that Christian faith. As Dyrness observes in his fi nal chapter, a people’s cultural context, including their religious beliefs the idea of “hermeneutical spaces” in the Bible and insider and practices, always provided for them the means by which movements should prompt Western Christians to see more they understood God. Dyrness refers to this as “hermeneu- clearly how our own faith has been profoundly shaped by tical spaces.” Religions and cultures are “spaces” by which our own prior cultural, philosophical, and religious interac- people have always, even in the biblical narrative, inter- tions. Th is, as Dyrness notes periodically throughout the preted and made sense of God’s work amongst them. book, does not mean that Western Christianity has the With this theological framework established, Dyrness in Christian faith completely wrong; only that we don’t have chapter 4 briefl y examines several case studies of insider it completely. Our Christian faith is a particularized faith. movements in Latin America, Africa, India, Philippines, It has been shaped by and interpreted through past and and among southeast Asian Buddhist communities. Th ough present hermeneutical lenses, and because of this it speaks diverse in location, religion, culture, and time, each of these to many of our past and current realities. And, just as Plato, share some common characteristics, including a focus on Aristotle, the Enlightenment, and many other infl uences Christ, the centrality of the Bible, and a desire to diff er- have helped Western Christians interpret Christ and his entiate themselves from other Christians and Christian work in ways relevant to our contexts, could not and should churches. Th e reasons for the latter vary by location, but not the traditions of other religions also help Christ- often revolve around a desire to make Christ-following less followers in those places interpret and shape a Christian “foreign” and more authentic to them and their context. faith that is relevant to theirs? Dyrness’ book provides a All of these movements also share the use of “local herme- compelling argument that such should be the case. neutical tools” (quoting E. Acoba, 97), or aspects of their religious heritage, to understand Christ, and the Bible. Endnotes 1 See, for example, R. Daniel Shaw, “Beyond Contextualiza- But what are the implications of this for our understand- tion: Toward a Twenty-First-Century Model for Enabling Mission,” ing of mission and the Christian faith? It is here (chapters International Bulletin of Missionary Research 34, no. 4 (2010). 5 and 6) that Dyrness makes some of the more important contributions of the book. In terms of mission, Dyrness References Shaw, R. Daniel again argues that Christians (particularly Western, 2010 “Beyond Contextualization: Toward a Twenty-First-Cen- Protestant Christians) should see religions as “places where tury Model for Enabling Mission.” International Bulletin people are working out the possible meaning of God’s of Missionary Research 34, no. 4 (2010): 208–15

33:4 Winter 2016 186 Book Reviews lthough Islam and the Qur’an are said to reject human atonement, the hadith do not. . . . Th e hadith affi rm the sinlessness of Christ, the concepts A of ransom and sacrifi ce, and other pictures of Christ’s salvation. Engaging Islamic Traditions: Using the Hadith in Christian attributes (omniscience, emotion/anthropomorphism, desire Ministry to Muslims, by Bernie Power (Pasadena, CA: for human repentance); (2) prayers for worship and sub- William Carey Library, 2016, pp. 267 + xxi) mission, forgiveness, guidance, and thanksgiving; and (3) eschatology (providing a chart with parallel teaching on the —Reviewed by Harley Talman end times, heaven, and hell). Chapter 7 charts some parallel moral instruction. hy bother with the hadith? Th e collections are massive, Part 3 goes beyond the points of agreement in Part 2 to W their authenticity dubious, “springboards” to the person and work of Christ. God’s and reported accounts often contradic- character and actions (chap. 8) include his benefi cence, tory. Having spent a score of years living holiness, initiative, nearness, and hints of theophany: and serving among Muslims in the “Allah created His creation, and when He had fi nished it, Middle East and Asia, Bernie Power the womb got up and caught hold of Allah . . .” (116). Not wrote a doctoral dissertation to answer surprisingly the hadith mention both positive and nega- this question which he shares in his lectures at Melbourne tive attributes of humans, but also that the consequences School of Th eology and in this volume. of Adam’s sin fell upon his off spring: “You are the one who made people miserable and turned them out of Paradise Bernie Power notes that the hadith (reported stories about (Buhkari 6.260).” Human identity is comprised of both the words and acts of the prophet Muhammad and some of individual and corporate aspects: just as individual Muslims his companions) are widely utilized in mosque preaching and are “in the Muslim Umma” so they are “in Adam” (132). play a major role in Islamic law and everyday life of Muslims, but he observes the neglect of this body of literature in Good works and sin (chap. 10) are accounted as credits or debits. Power asserts that the hadith reckon other sins beside Christian outreach. While certainly true, his bibliography shirk (polytheism) as unforgiveable (i.e., they exclude one from fails to include Edward Hoskins’ A Muslim’s Mind (Dawson Paradise). While faithfulness in prayers will result in forgiveness Media, 2011). Th e aim of Engaging Islamic Traditions is to of all sins, only 1 in 1,000 persons will be plucked from the fi re, seek out constructive avenues of approach to Muslims. He and assurance of salvation is quite uncertain even for ‘Umar and lists the various collections of the hadith, but due to the Uthman. Some hadith indicate the inadequacy of works: “Your immense amount of material, his focus is on al-Bukhari’s col- deeds will not make you enter Paradise” (B. 8.471), yet neither lection, one of the two most authoritative for Sunni Muslims. is there certainty even for Muhammad (153). Th is volume has four parts totaling eighteen chapters. Interestingly, although Islam and the Qur’an are said to reject Part 1 introduces us to the hadith, their classifi cations and human atonement, the hadith do not (chap. 12). Chapter 13 potential use. Part 2, “Finding Concord,” seeks out points of outlines six principles in the hadith that point to biblical truth. agreement of the hadith with biblical teaching as a prepara- Th e hadith affi rm the sinlessness of Christ, the concepts of tory step toward enabling Muslims to better apprehend the ransom and sacrifi ce, and other pictures of Christ’s salvation. gospel. Power affi rms positive features of Muhammad’s life (chapter 4), comparing him favorably to Moses in brav- Th e task of intercession is much wider in the hadith than ery and zeal in obeying and applying the law. Also traced in the Qur’an (where it is restricted to angels, God, and are Muhammad’s generosity, care for others, humanness, Muhammad—and the latter is quite limited). Several humility, forgiveness, and tolerance. He also notes paral- hadith also assert the supremacy of faith and love over good lels in his experiences of inspiration (e.g., dreams) and works but that faith should result in a changed life (198– charges of demonic possession (like John the Baptist and 200). Yet the lack of assurance of salvation in the hadith is Jesus). Chapter 5 highlights those hadith which positively one of the greatest diff erences from biblical teaching. depict and deal with women (negative depictions appear in Part 4 discusses practical implications for using the hadith another volume). Th eological and devotional material that in ministry in opening doors to dialogue. Power outlines is common with Christian teaching includes: (1) God’s three types of dialogue: (1) discursive dialogue aimed at

International Journal of Frontier Missiology Book Reviews 187 hile he acknowledges that some hadith are quite contrary to Christian beliefs, Power encourages appropriating those which are W compatible with—or could be launch pads to—biblical truth. convincing of beliefs, (2) sharing religious experience for living. Secondly, the hadith can provide some tools to the goal of understanding, and (3) secular dialogue for the engage in conversation and stepping stones to biblical truth. purpose of cooperating in action. Th e author off ers advice Th is volume is accessible to a general audience, yet scholarly about what promotes proper dialogue. While exploitative documentation of sources is provided in endnotes following or coercive “proselytization” are to be rejected, proclaim- each of the short chapters. A number of diagrams, charts, ing one’s faith in respect and gentleness must be a given. and pictures protect the work from appearing as a heavy- Appropriate use of the hadith and other Islamic sources text tome. A disadvantage of using the hadith is that many can convey respect and acceptance of Muslims. Th e hadith of them do not point to or parallel biblical teaching. For can also help Muslims to understand biblical inspiration. this reason, many like myself prefer to use Qur’anic mate- In contrasting Christian and Muslim views, (1) the pri- mary revelation is Christ vs. the Qur’an, (2) witnesses to rial where there is more common ground than with the the revelation are the apostles vs. Muhammad, and (3) the hadith. However, Power does address problematic hadith record/explanation of the revelation is the Bible vs. hadith with a more confrontative approach in his second volume. (213). Power affi rms some validity to a functional compari- son of Jesus to the Qur’an (not Muhammad), but he notes Challenging Islamic Traditions: Searching Questions about diff erences: the apostles were not merely witnesses, but also the Hadith from a Christian Perspective, by Bernie Power recipients, and even writers, of revelation. Also, the textual (Pasadena, CA: William Carey Library, 2016, pp. 278 + xviii) history of the Bible is vastly superior to that of the hadith. As far as a dialogue of religious experience, Power is cautiously —Reviewed by Harley Talman open to interfaith dialogue and possibly interfaith worship, n contrast to the fi rst volume, based on Samuel and Sugden’s understanding of dialogue: Bernie Power purposes to convey “being open to other religions, to recognize God’s activity in the widespread diff erences between them, and to see how they are related to God’s unique revela- I the hadith (al-Bukhari’s hadith collec- tion in Christ” (217). Power endorses secular dialogue and tion) and the Bible. He also thinks that cooperation on issues of social justice and morality. the hadith can “help Christians and “Discussion with Muslims” (chap. 18) outlines key topics in others comprehend some of the rea- which the hadith can engage with scripture. Power responds sons behind Islamic violence, its lack of to the criticism that his approach imposes meanings which progress, and the so-called ‘clash of civilizations’ with the are not in these texts: “every text is subject to interpretation, West and other countries” (xvii). and each interpretation draws a diff erent trajectory from the others, resulting in diverse conclusions,” as is evidenced by Again, Power structures his work into four divisions. Part 1 feminists, jihadis, and Sufi s (232). Power then presents vari- is entitled “Critical Issues.” Th e earliest extant anthologies ous ways to use the concepts and connections in his material of hadith date no earlier than mid to late 2nd century ah. (academic or public forums, journal articles, seminar papers to Early hadith collections lacked complete chains of trans- cross-cultural conversations to oral forms.) While he acknowl- mission (isnads) and with later ones it became easy to fab- edges that some hadith are quite contrary to Christian beliefs, ricate complete chains. Fictitious accounts multiplied (one Power encourages appropriating those which are compatible apostate confessed to fabricating 4,000 of them). Biased with—or could be launch pads to—biblical truth. political patronage was involved in the collection and even fabrication of collections, and the six collections accepted as Engaging Islamic Traditions is an important resource for authoritative by Sunnis today were not viewed as the only any Christian in outreach to Muslims, fi rst of all, in the authorized ones by early Muslims. cause of understanding Muslims. While the Qur’an is their sacred scripture, the hadith function as the authoritative Chapter 2 sketches the wide range of scholarly attitudes interpreter of the Qur’an; but probably more signifi cantly, toward the hadith: non-Muslims typically being more criti- they provide the basis for Islamic orthopraxy in everyday cal. Some Muslims reject their authority as denigrating the

33:4 Winter 2016 188 Book Reviews kepticism over the reliability of the transmitters is not limited to non-Muslims: “All the Islamic authorities agree that an enormous amount of forgery was S committed in the Hadith literature.” (Siddiqui) suffi ciency of the Qur’an, their historical unreliability, their Jesus (e.g., vengeance and violence), women, history, heaven, doubts that the Prophet’s life was to be normative (e.g., the and hell. Many readers may already be acquainted with this rarity of the term sunnah in Muhammad’s earliest biography). material which has often been utilized by Christian apolo- Th e relationship between the Qur’an and the hadith (chap. gists and polemicists. Th e author’s emphasis on contrasting 3) is convoluted and inconsistent, in some measure refl ecting Muhammad and Jesus seems to weaken the point of his the later widespread aphorism “the Sunnah decides upon the fi rst volume where the Qur’an (not Muhammad) functions Qur’an, the Qur’an does not decide upon the Sunnah” (42). as the revelatory equivalent to Jesus in Islam. Chapter 4 reveals some of the many contradictions between Part 3 provides negative evaluations of the hadith from hadith, indicating that either Muhammad was inconsistent modern perspectives: numerous scientifi c problems (chap. 14), in his actions and/or the sources were contradictory. Some departures from political, social, fi nancial, and legal notions in hadith belie Muslim claims to the infallibility of the Prophet: the Bible (chap. 15), and human rights concerns (chap. 16). I am a human being, so when I command you about a thing Power concludes in Part 4 with practical implications of his pertaining to religion, do accept it, and when I command you study. He advocates challenging and confronting Muslims about a thing out of my personal opinion, keep it in mind that about the problems with the hadith which his book lays I am a human being. (58) out, but with an irenic approach that balances truth and Sometimes he told them to do as he did, other times gave love. Power insists that regardless of one’s view of the them the option, and at others forbade them to do so. Th e hadith as largely compatible/incompatible with the Bible, results of these inconsistencies (chap. 6) are uncertainty, a discussion about its content must take place. However, this culture of randomness, fear of questioning, beatings, frus- assertion needs to be qualifi ed. Since even some Muslims tration, division, reluctance to innovate or experiment, and are “Qur’an only,” then Christians may take the same posi- disregard of his advice. Th e leadership in the generations tion and engage in dialogue that is limited to their respec- that followed often departed from Muhammad’s practice tive sacred scriptures. Nevertheless, in seeking to better so that Power concludes, “no single standard way of being a understand the majority of the world’s Muslims whose lives Muslim has ever existed, even from the earliest days” (88). are infl uenced by the hadith, Christians will fi nd this book to be a great resource. IJFM Chapter 7 details the debate over whether the hadith should even have been recorded, given that in one instance Note: Th ere are some diffi culties in the Arabic script used. A couple Muhammad commanded it and in another forbade it. But of words (zaita and raiba in note 42, p. 102) were not properly writ- “people of the hadith” generally triumphed over “people of ten and should have employed connecting forms of the letters used the Qur’an (e.g., Caliph ‘Umar) and “people of the opinion” in Arabic script. (rationalists). However, their commitment to emulating the life of the Prophet was not really a cornerstone for living until the late 2nd century. Th at then led to sanitization of hadith, as refl ected in Ibn Hishām’s admission that he removed from Ibn Ishāq’s biography “things which it is disgraceful to discuss [and] matters which would distress certain people” (95). Chapter 8 excellently outlines transmission issues. Discussion of the origin, types, and classifi cation of the isnads is valuable. Skepticism over the reliability of the transmitters is not limited to non-Muslims: “All the Islamic authorities agree that an enormous amount of forgery was committed in the Hadith literature (Siddiqui).” Part 2 contrasts the teaching of the hadith with that of the Bible in their views of God, the lives of Muhammad versus

International Journal of Frontier Missiology William Carey Library

Engaging Islamic Traditions Challenging Islamic Traditions Wealth, Women, & God Using the Hadith in Christian Ministry Searching Questions about the Hadith How to Flourish Spiritually and to Muslims from a Christian Perspective Economically in Tough Places Bernie Power, Author Bernie Power, Author Miriam Adeney | Sadiri Joy Tira, Authors

The Hadith have long been neglected by The Hadith are Islam’s most influential texts The Arabian Gulf—the wealthiest country in the Christians, yet they may hold the key to after the Qur’an. They outline in detail what world is located here, as is the world’s busiest reaching Muslims with the good news of the Qur’an often leaves unsaid. The Hadith airport. Not many citizens are Christians. Jesus Christ. In this ground-breaking book, are a foundation for Islamic law and theology Not much religious conversion is allowed. Yet the earliest traditions of Islam are assessed and a key to understanding the worldview of through migrant women, some of the most from a biblical perspective. Insights into the Islam and why many Muslims do the things powerless people in the great sweep of human Islamic worldview and potential springboards they do. This book subjects the Hadith to a labor exchanges today, God’s grace is at work. to Christian truth are uncovered along the way. critical analysis from a biblical perspective. In this book you will find: For those contextualizing the gospel to Muslim In a scholarly and respectful way, it exposes • Primary research not available anywhere friends and colleagues, this book seeks for significant inconsistencies within these ancient else, narrated in a highly readable style concord and connection with Muslim thinking, documents and highlights potential problems • Globalization, diasporas, and massive while maintaining a clear commitment to with the Muslim-Christian interface. culture change Jesus Christ and his gospel. • Jesus women—maids, nurses, pastors— experiencing rape, jail, and the opportunity to mentor hundreds • A guide for group Bible study and reflection at the end of each chapter

These Gulf women’s stories, like those in the Bible, teach lessons that apply to us in many countries.

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ISBN: 978-0-87808-491-3 ISBN: 978-0-87808-489-0 ISBN: 978-0-87808-623-8 Bernie Power (Author) Bernie Power (Author) Miriam Adeney, Sadiri Joy Tira (Authors) WCL | Pages 298 | Paperback 2016 WCL | Pages 296 | Paperback 2016 WCL | Pages 214 | Paperback 2013

MISSIONBOOKS.ORG | 1-800-MISSION 190 In Others’ Words

by 1 foot engraved stone found in 1623 near Xi’an at what In Others’ Words was known as the Da Qin pagoda. The Chinese officials who found this enormous stone took rubbings of it and sent them off to the Jesuit priests in Beijing (almost certainly Jesuits who Editor’s Note: In this department, we highlight resources outside had worked with Mateo Ricci.) As she goes through these of the IJFM: other journals, print resources, DVDs, web sites, sutras one-by-one, extensively quoting from the newly trans- blogs, videos, etc. Standard disclaimers on content apply. Due to the length of many web addresses, we sometimes give just the title of the lated documents themselves, she attempts to explain how these resource, the main web address, or a suggested search phrase. Finally, sutras teach Christian theology garbed in Chinese worldviews please note that this October–December 2016 issue is partly (whether Buddhist or Taoist). For example, she quotes from composed of material created later in 2016 and 2017. We apologize First Sutra on the death and crucifixion of Jesus: in advance for any inconvenience caused by such anachronisms. As a lamb goes silently to be slaughtered so he was silent, not proclaiming what he had done, for he had to bear in his body Warrick Farah on Insider Jesus the punishment of the Law. Out of love he suffered so that what Adam had caused should be changed by this. (4:18-19) In our last issue, we mentioned Warrick Farah’s blog posts reviewing chapters 1-3 of William Dyrness’ Insider Jesus (see For exact quotations from the most theologically orthodox Darren Duerksen’s review of this book in this issue, p. 184). sutras, see “Orthodoxy Established” (search terms: Since then, Farah has blogged about the last three chapters “thejesusquestion orthodoxy established”). Does the http://muslimministry.blogspot.com/. In his Insider Jesus 5 incarnation make more sense to a Chinese—Buddhist post, Farah takes up what he calls Dyrness’ “meatiest” chap- or Taoist—mind if it incorporates the five skandhas (or ter on the subject of religion. Quoting Dyrness: attributes) as part of Jesus’ humanity? See The Jesus Sutras’ what if we thought of religion, or religions, including Christi- account of the incarnation in Jones’ Part V (search terms: anity, not as fixed entities with clearly defined borders but as “thejesusquestion five skandhas”). fluid spaces that reflect particular cultural situations, where 69% of Yemenis Don’t Know Where Their Next Meal is people have developed various ways of responding to God Coming From (or gods or the spirits)? Further, what if we understood those spaces as places where people are working out the possible Yemen is facing a colossal humanitarian disaster (New meaning of God’s presence there, “so that they would search York Times, Aug 23, 2017). More than ten million people for God and perhaps grope for him and find him” (Acts 17: “urgently require immediate life-saving assistance.” Failing 27), as Paul puts it—that is, as hermeneutical spaces where sewage systems and lack of clean water mean people are not only open to God’s voice but also prepared (by the world’s worst cholera outbreak in the midst of the world’s the Spirit) for that word? (Kindle 1955–1959) largest humanitarian crisis. . . . [Yemen] is on the brink of fam- ine, with over 60 per cent of the population not knowing Farah concludes: where their next meal will come from. (From a joint state- I agree that the gospel must be incarnated into local contexts ment by the World Food Programme, UNICEF, and the WHO.) so that it feels like home, at least [with] both the pilgrim and Advice from a Chinese Christian indigenous principles (Walls) in play[;] (there must be some discontinuity as Dyrness also states). But religion is really con- On China Source, there is a useful column that routinely flated with cultural practices in Dyrness’ framework. Or per- translates Chinese Christian blogs and articles into Eng- haps in my framework they are too easily separated? These lish. A recent article translated from the Gospel Times came assumptions/presuppositions on the difference between reli- from a Chinese Christian in Fujian province after the dev- gion and culture are probably [at] the heart of evangelical astating 7.0 earthquake on August 8 in Jiuzhaigou, Sichuan disagreements on insider movements. province. He brings a timely piece of advice to Western- Victoria Emily Jones on Martin Palmer’s The Jesus Sutras ers about how to pray and what not to say when disaster strikes: http://www.chinasource.org/blog/posts/what-not- Jones’ ten posts on “The Jesus Question” blog both review to-say-when-disaster-strikes. and illustrate (with beautiful photographs and Chinese art) EMQ to Continue Publication the main theses of Martin Palmer’s The Jesus Sutras: Re- discovering the Lost Scrolls of Taoist Christianity. Her posts Justin Long, in his free Weekly Roundup Newsletter (Aug nicely supplement David Cashin’s article (pp. 175-182, this 25, 2017), under New Data and Resources, mentions some issue), which looks at early Nestorian Christianity in China wonderful news for all of us in the missions world: EMQ as a prototype of (in his opinion) what eventually became a will not cease publication after 2017, but will now be pub- IJFM syncretistic insider movement. lished by MissioNexus. Jones is clearly intrigued by these truly remarkable sutras. She begins by introducing the Stone Stela, a 12-foot by 3 1/2 foot International Journal of FrontierZ Missiology IJFM & Perspectives 191

& Related Perspectives Lesson and Section Whether you’re a Perspectives instructor, student, or coordinator, you can continue to explore issues raised in the course reader and study guide in greater depth in IJFM. For ease of reference, each IJFM article in the table below is tied thematically to one or more of the 15 Perspectives lessons, divideded iintonto fofourur sectisections:on Biblical (B), Historical (H), Cultural (C) and Strategic (S). DiDisclaimer:scs laimer: The table below showshowss where the content of a given article might fi t; it does not

implyiimmplp y endorsementenndorsement of a particular articlea by the editors of the Perspectives materials. For sake Shall They Hear? (C) of space,space, the tabletable only includes lessonsless related to the articles in a given IJFM issue. To learn more aboutabout thethee PerspectivesPerspectives course, includingi a list of classes, visit www.perspectives.org.

Articles in IJFM 33:4 Lesson 6: The Expansion of the World Christian Movement (H) Lesson 7: Eras of Mission History (H) Lesson 10: How Lesson 1 3: The Spontaneous Multiplica- tion of Churches (S) Lesson 14: Pioneer Church Planting (S)

Prospects for Indigenous People Movements in the Buddhist World: A Call for Collaborative Local and Global Theologizing Todd Pokrifka XX (pp. 149–56)

From Mozambique to Millennials: Shame, Frontier Peoples, and the Search for Open Atonement Paths Alan B. Howell and Logan T. Th ompson XX (pp. 157–65)

A Refl ection on Insider Movements in Korean Church History John Kim XXX (pp. 167–73)

The Early Church in China: A Case Study of an Insider Movement XXX David G. Cashin (pp. 175–82)

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33:4 Winter 2016 in conjunction with

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Nine ISFM speakers, including: 2017William Dyrness, Professor of Systematic Th eology, Fuller Seminary, and author of Insider Jesus Henk Prenger, author of Muslim Insider Christ Followers, a theological analysis of insider movements Paul Pennington and Darren Duerksen, interpreting emerging voices and theological issues in the Hindu world EMS 2017 conference theme: Engaging theology, theologians, theological education in (or from) majority world contexts.

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