Frontier Theologizing The Early Church in China: A Case Study of an Insider Movement

by David G. Cashin

he concept of reaching people within their cultural and religious con- texts is a biblical one. Indeed, the incarnation of Jesus provides the pri- T mary example for reaching mankind in his context. What that means for us in Christian mission has been tried and tested throughout history. Th is paper is one more historical case study of contextualization which gives focus to the missional adaptation of the in China to the Taoist school at Da Qin beginning in the 7th century. It should off er perspective to the debate regarding one type of adaptation known today as “insider movements” (hereafter abbreviated IM).1 Th ere are now insider movements and their advocates within peoples who identify with Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, African tribal religions, and indeed, probably any religious identity. Th ere are diff erent types of IMs in Christian history,2 and this article will attempt to supplement the broader his- torical record by giving further illustration to adaptive eff orts that tend towards syncretism and an unfaithfulness to and his revealed Word.

The Church of the East Kenneth Scott Latourette, in his foundational work on the history of Christianity, mentions the arrival of “Nestorian”3 missionaries in China under the leadership of in 635 ad. Alopen led a mission to China that was positively received in the court of the Chinese Emperor. Latourette notes their spread, the coming of persecution in 835 ad, and that the movement had entirely vanished by 980 ad.4 Over roughly a 200-year period this Christian mission eff ort was able to establish itself in the epicenter of China. Th is article is primarily an analysis of the Jesus Sutras, early Christian documents of this movement and of the commentary and

David G. Cashin is professor of translation provided in the groundbreaking work of Martin Palmer in Th e Jesus Intercultural and Muslim Studies at Sutras: Rediscovering the Lost Scrolls of Taoist Christianity. Columbia International University. After serving in South Asia in church Th ree preliminary observations are in order as we begin to evaluate the stra- planting and international develop- tegic eff orts of this church movement, and particularly the characteristics of ment he obtained a doctor of philosophy in Indology at Stockholm University. these Jesus Sutras.

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First, the movement was dependent on Th ey are relevant to the issues of this compassion of Christianity–the Path state support, and one of the rea- Chinese context and eras but, as you will of the Buddha and the Way of Jesus.11 sons for its downfall was when state see in my analysis, are less than faithful to Th is fusion appears to have been a de- 5 support was fi nally withdrawn. Th is the transcendent message of the . liberate strategy by the Church of the approach involved building the central East at the epicenter of Chinese Tao- Christian monastery on the site of The Translation of ism from its earliest Christian sutras Lou Guan Tai, the Taoist monastery (dating between 640–660 ce). where Lao Zi supposedly wrote his the Jesus Sutras classic work, the Tao Te Ching: I would like to focus most of this case Th e earliest sutra is entitled the study on the work of Martin Palmer. Sutra of the Teachings of the World- The signifi cance of the Christian infl u- In his book, Th e Jesus Sutras, he both Honored One (hereafter referred to ence in this Taoist stronghold would translated and revised earlier transla- as STW). It borrows a title from a be comparable to a new religion be- tions of Chinese Christian docu- translation of a text called the Teach- ing allowed to build a temple within ments of that period and examined ings of the Apostles.12 Palmer considers the precincts of Canterbury Cathedral in the Middle Ages, or a new faith be- archeological evidence (which includes this text to be both the most crudely ing given fi nancial aid and support to the famous stone stelae and ruins translated and yet also the most or- build a monastery on the grounds of of the central Christian monastery thodox theologically. Th e second sutra, the White House today.6 in China).9 He suggests that these entitled the Sutra of Cause, Eff ect, documents and archeological evidence and Salvation (hereafter abbreviated Later documents from the 10th and SCES) presents Christian ideas in the 14th centuries seem to indicate that light of Buddhist thought and parallels segments of the Church survived a popular Buddhist text of the time. underground and experienced some- Th e third sutra, entitled the Sutra of thing of a revival in the time of the Origins (hereafter abbreviated SO) 7 Mongols. All the texts we will use in Th is text is is indeed concerned with origins, but this case study were hidden in a cave both the most crudely also utilizes Taoist terminology in around 1005 AD, so clearly Christian- describing the spirit of life (qi) and the ity was still extant at that time. But, as translated and “way” of Christianity (Tao).13 Th e fi nal you will see in this study, its form was book from this early period is entitled so similar to Taoism that Christian the most orthodox the Sutra of Jesus Christ (hereafter travelers to the area during this period theologically. abbreviated SJC), is “Buddhist in (and later) would perhaps not have tone” and borrows ideas from Tibetan recognized followers of this “religion” Christianity and Hinduism.14 as distinctively “Christian.” Secondly, this movement was also de- The World-Honored One indicate that this Christian approach pendent on secondary literature and did Adaptations of a theological nature virtually became a new school of Tao- not have the in Chinese. are apparent from the beginning in Th e fi rst copies of the New Testament ism. It is this corporate sense of iden- these texts. In the earliest sutra, the reached China perhaps in either 719 or tity that distinguishes this movement Christian writers relate the teachings 742,8 but these texts were in Syriac and as a certain type of insider movement. of Christ in Mt. 6:26 and God’s provi- do not seem to have been translated into With regard to the Christian docu- sion to the birds of the air by adding: Chinese (as were the earlier documents ments discovered from this period, Palmer states: At birth everyone is given a heavenly we will examine here). soul and the Five Attributes and at These scrolls were Christian books Th irdly, another aspect to these early the appropriate time food, drink or written in Chinese, telling a story of 15 documents is that they are essentially clothing is provided. Christianity that is unique and surpris- philosophical treatises. Th ere is no ing . . . The best way to describe these Th ese “Five Attributes” are a clear ref- historical narrative of the coming of Jesus books is collectively, with the term erence to the fi ve Buddhist skhandas or and his teachings as presented in the they themselves use: the Jesus Sutras.10 “aggregates” that lead to consciousness. New Testament. Without a strong his- Montalvo states, “the fi ve aggregates torical record of an authoritative scripture In Palmer’s opinion these early Chris- present a comprehensive typology these teachings are de-contextualized (or tian books of experience,” and this leads to the de-historicized), and they can become united the wisdom and moderation desire for material goods and meet- primarily expressions of any local culture. of Taoism and the humanism and ing physical needs.16 In Buddhism

International Journal of Frontier Missiology David G. Cashin 177 this experience creates the original n a manner quite foreign to Buddhism, the text sin of desire. STW cleverly connects this desire for material goods to Jesus’ is thoroughly ontological with God at the center teaching concerning the birds which neither sow nor reap but are provided as the “World-Honored One.” I 19 for (Matt. 6:26). Th ere is an appeal to things that are wrong for you.” Th ere by this. While his Five Attributes Buddhist conceptions here. is a relational component here that is passed away, he did not die but was absent in Buddhism. released again after his death. Thus it Th is concept of “fi ve qualities” seems is possible for even those who fail to also to be related to the Buddhist idea One may also note the format of these live after death.25 of “conditioned arising.” Th rough these refl ections. Th ey are proverbial adapta- Th us the body that died on the cross fi ve attributes consciousness arises and tions from the teachings of Jesus that with it desire. Another portion of the was not God but merely a manifesta- bear a strong resemblance to the Ana- tion through which the divine nature text also refers to Jesus’ teaching on lects of Confucius. Th e resemblance of taking the log out of your own eye, was revealed. Th is seems to be an Proverbs in the to the intentional bridge to Buddhism, but a stating, “Be aware of your own quali- Analects has been noted20 and Jesus ties and how they relate to others.” heretical one. Jesus did not really die; often follows that literary pattern in his resurrection was merely a further Th ese “qualities,” which are a by- his teaching. Th is would actually be product of conditioned arising, seem manifestation. Monophysite Christol- cutting edge missiology in our modern ogy is combined with Buddhist con- to correspond to the concept of “the era with our increasing emphasis on fl esh” in New Testament thinking. ceptions of the unreality of the body. wisdom traditions in the scriptures Th ough this is the most orthodox of the 21 Is this example a legitimate and and their relevance in other cultures. texts according to Palmer, it has a fatal appropriate theological bridge be- Some portions of STW show the infl u- weakness at its core. It goes one step tween Christ and the Buddha, or is ence of monophysite Christology. With- beyond the “use of the analogy of the it syncretism? It’s clear that the text out going into the details, monophysite union of soul and body to explain the does not draw a one-to-one correspon- Christology posited the “single nature” of unity of the Godhead and humanity in 26 dence between Buddhist and Christian Christ, tending to downplay his human Christ.” Th is becomes the doorway to theological concepts as in the ex- nature. After dealing with the story of Buddhist conceptions controlling the ample above. It also displays Christian the crucifi xion of Jesus, the text reads: Christology rather than scripture being discernment, for it rejects Buddhist determinative. Th is is Buddhist con- conceptions like anatma (or “no-self ”) Anybody who says “I am a god” should texualization fl owing into Christianity. by stating “everyone is given a heavenly die. The Messiah is not the honored Th is has relevance to the culture but soul.” In a manner quite foreign to one. Instead, through his body he lacks faithfulness to the scriptures. showed the people the Honored one.22 Buddhism, the text is thoroughly on- STW goes on to say that through this tological with God at the center of the Th is is also referred to as “the one sacred union of soul and body we receive qi text as the “World-Honored One.”17 Spirit took a body.”23 Th e text goes on to (the Taoist “life force”) as the Holy He is also called “the One Sacred explain “what he brought was not being Spirit. Th is is an interesting contex- Spirit,” “Father,” and “the Compas- human, but came directly from the Hon- tualizing bridge, but is “life force” sionate One.” Th e Christian concept of ored One.” Th is clearly denies the concept synonymous with the Holy Spirit and “forgiveness” is primary to the message of the dual nature of Christ which what issues does this connection raise? of this sutra rather than the Buddhist characterizes Catholic, Orthodox, and wheel of samsara and karma. Protestant Christology. Th is hints also The concept of the three treasures– towards the reincarnation of the Buddha, jing, qi and shen (are) an internal al- Th ere is also an implicit critique of who is often spoken of as the “provisional chemy . . . A well-known concept basic the Chinese temple with its of to Daoism as well as Chinese culture in manifestation” through an illusory body prosperity, progeny, and longevity. general, the three treasures are differ- or nirmanakaya.24 In this text Christ’s Th e text intones that “people think ently interpreted in various contexts, death on the cross is presented as a release there are two important things under and the specifi c ideas associated with Heaven. Th e fi rst is God and the from “his fi ve attributes,” a statement that each of them shape the views of hu- second is money”18 refl ecting again seems to associate Buddhist nirvana with man nature and immortality in which 27 on the birds of the air from Matthew Christian atonement and salvation. Con- they play a central role. 6. God as “Compassionate” and as sider this statement in its longer context: Two important aspects of this Taoist “Father” sometimes does not give what Out of love he suffered so that what conception come to mind. First, qi is an we ask because “you cannot be given Adam had caused should be changed impersonal force related to the natural

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origin of the universe. Second, it is some- the point that desire is the original Secondly, heaven is presented as a place thing progressively gained and cultivated sin. Th is actually did fi t quite well into where “nothing will pass and nothing through occult practices. Any association the Buddhist concept of samsara and change.”34 Th e Buddhist worldview, with the gospel message can introduce reincarnation. Desire is not the original to the contrary, posited change as the some signifi cant distortions, for it indi- sin in biblical Christianity, but rather re- essential reality of this world and this cates that human eff ort based on the use bellion. Further, associating deliverance impermanence was their justifi ca- of occult rituals rather than a relationship with the release from “hungry ghost” tion for denying ontological perma- with God can lead to immense personal status takes us far afi eld from biblical nence since the Buddhist believed no power. An example of this kind of think- notions of the soul and judgment. permanent unchanging self could be ing is found in a medieval Chinese text: identifi ed. Th us, Buddhism maintains: Th e remainder of STW tells the story “Th is is the goal of Human beings— . . . (the) Secret Instructions of the Jade of the crucifi xion and resurrection of to have no existence.”35 By contrast, Bedchamber, which explains how the Jesus and concludes with a rendition of STW introduces what is an interesting Spirit Mother of the West, originally the Great Commission. Th e resurrec- and, I think, eff ective apologetic point an ordinary human being like anyone tion itself takes place through the qi or against Buddhism. Th e realm of the else, devoured the life [Qi] force of life force of the “World-Honored One.” spirit in heaven is unchanging and not numerous young boys by copulating Again, this is deeply problematic, for it with them, and thereby transformed subject to samsara, thus it constitutes plays upon impersonal occult concepts herself into a famed goddess.28 a permanent ontological reality. STW of power attained by human eff ort. concludes with a picture of the univer- Th e potential for misunderstanding sal fi res of the “earth prisons” for those when the Holy Spirit is viewed as a who reject the message. Th is vision of life force is immense. hell is also common to Buddhist con- Th e text goes on to state that the ceptions of the afterlife in this period. message of salvation is that “through the holy wonders of the Messiah all Th e resurrection Cause, Effect, and Salvation can escape becoming ghosts.”29 Th e Th e second sutra, entitled the Sutra of concept of the “hungry ghost” was takes place through Cause, Eff ect, and Salvation, is clearly common to both Buddhism and Tao- the life force of the a Christian refl ection upon Buddhist ism in China. Th ose who died having “World-Honored One.” notions of karma and reincarnation.36 lived an unfulfi lled life could return to Palmer states of SCES: haunt the living. Th is was particularly true of children and young men and It uses no classical Christian terminol- women who had died having never ogy or imagery, but weaves a Chris- married and their ghostly nature is tian message through Greek and Buddhist philosophy.37 described as: Some of the STW material is enig- As the sutra describes creation, Taoist Phantom-like creatures with withered matic and possibly refers to the distant limbs, grossly bloated bellies, and ideas of yin and yang are apparent: context of the Near East where a great long, thin necks, the Hungry Ghosts war had just concluded between the Everything under heaven has these in many ways represent a fusion of two qualities created by the Sacred Byzantines and the Persians, a war rage and desire. Tormented by un- Spirit. The one Sacred Spirit made the fulfi lled cravings and insatiably de- that was “throwing everything to the two. Everything under heaven has manding of impossible satisfactions, ground, destroying everything that had two natures, and everything is united 31 the Hungry Ghosts are searching for been gained.” Th is is reinforced at the under heaven. The two natures are gratifi cation for old unfulfi lled needs end of the text where the author states body and sacred spirit. These two re- whose time has passed.30 that “in Bethlehem and in Persia the side in all existence under heaven.38 believers were killed.”32 Th is does help Th is raises some very interesting Th e bodily form is described as result- to establish the time frame of the text. questions about what sort of salvation ing from the “fi ve skhandas,” a Bud- the STW text anticipates or if it even Amidst the creative use of Buddhist dhist concept, but these fi ve skhandas understands what indigenous concepts and Taoist terminology, the STW also “will be perfected” in the heavenly it has related to the Christian mes- evinces a strong exclusivist sentiment kingdom in permanent “complete sage by using this terminology. When when it states that “there is no other happiness.” Th is SCES apologetic is a Buddhism came to China it utilized the true way that people can walk. Any radical departure from the Buddhist Taoist concept of hungry ghost to make other way is judged to be false.”33 concept of nirvana, where the skhandas

International Journal of Frontier Missiology David G. Cashin 179 and all desires are ultimately decon- s the “next life” reincarnation or heaven? Th e structed and extinguished.39 Heaven in the SCES is conceived of as a union of text asserts that “this world is the only place to perfected soul and body that “creates decide your next birth.” happiness,” not suff ering. Th is seems I to turn away not only from Buddhism through being “born again,” this posi- SCES off ers a remarkable apologetic but from the Manichaean/gnostic tive experience (salvation) is attained opposing certain Buddhist ideas of dualism of pure spirit/evil body which “by living properly in this world.” Here karma and nirvana and uses a termi- Palmer posits as a primary infl uence the text departs radically from the gos- nology very familiar to Taoists. How- (monophysite) within the Church of pel message. “All creatures should know ever, rebirth through reincarnation is the East.40 SCES denies this Buddhist that the karmic consequences of what assumed to be true, rather than fi nal dualism and seems fully in keeping is done in this life will shape the next judgment. Contrast this with Paul’s with a Hebrew doctrine of both body life.”45 Th e section concludes, “do good message to the Stoics in Acts 17. Th e and soul as creations of “the Sacred in this world to enter the next. It can- Stoics were cyclic pantheists who be- Spirit.”41 Th is is essential to the biblical not be done elsewhere.”46 Is this “next lieved in a form of reincarnation. Paul’s view of the surpassing value of the suf- life” reincarnation or heaven? Th e text message of good news to them was fering of Christ. “Th at the world is full simply asserts that “Th is world is the that reincarnation would not occur but of suff ering is recognized everywhere, only place to decide your next birth.”47 rather the fi nal judgment that Christ but Buddhism denies that suff ering has would accomplish (Acts 17:31). Fur- any relevant role.”42 Th e biblical posi- Th e SCES text falls short of a biblical ther, the message of the cross of Christ tion affi rms the value of suff ering as a viewpoint on three counts: fi rst, it seems is muted, spoken of solely as “suff er- means of redemption, and the actual to affi rm reincarnation; second, it affi rms ings” of the “visitor” and conceived as physical body of Christ as a means of a thoroughly works-based salvation. Th i- a means primarily to sanctify good redemption is affi rmed in this text. rumalai, in his study of Buddhism and deeds. Th e “suff erings” do not seem Christianity, affi rms one great diff erence to be the means of deliverance from Th e text conceives of Jesus as “the Vis- in the latter, that “doing good works does the “evil spirits.” Th e message, aside itor” who “brought the fi ve skhandas not lead to salvation; neither does it ensure from a strong works theology, lacks 43 and the soul together.” Th e Soul is a better life in the future.” 48 Th ird, the text the kind of clarity on the salvation seen as the “sculptor” refi ning the fi ve affi rms the improvement of the body message which is available in the New skhandas of the body like modeling which is not an important aspect of the Testament. It is clearer on Buddhist clay, and human life can be “enhanced Christian message. thought than it is on Christian. if the soul is rich with karma.” Th e text affi rms that “whatever you do in life Th e next section of SCES expounds on will have its karmic impact upon your works salvation and then introduces the Origins soul.” Karma here seems to refl ect the story of the suff erings of Christ. But the Th e third work, the Sutra of Origins contrast within a humankind made in “suff erings” become a means to com- (SO), follows a similar pattern, though the image of God that is both capable plete the good deed: “A benevolent act it is much shorter. Th e text follows of refi nement yet aff ected by the evil done in the knowledge of this suff ering a Romans 1 style argument that the karma of sin. But, on this matter of is the only truly benevolent act.”49 Th e universe indicates the reality of an karma we must pay attention to the reader is encouraged to “be grateful for unchanging God behind it. It seems to historical context. Early Buddhism in the grace you have received.” But exactly attack the Buddhist idea that the tran- China sought to popularize its own what that grace is or how it is received is sitoriness of the world is an indication viewpoint by connecting the idea of not clear other than that one must strive of the unreality of the world. Th e world karma with a more positive impact on to do what is right.50 is because of the unchanging nature “of 52 the physical body: the ‘One Sacred Spirit’ who made it.” Th e fi nal section notes the yin/yang Th is phrase, “Great Holy Intelligence The motivations for being involved balance of sacred time and calls people is as the Void” is synonymous with in the accumulation of karmic merit to worship God. People are led astray the Buddhist concept of śūnya (Void), in early medieval China were diverse, from the true path by “evil spirits” or which is “emptiness and thus invisible.” but one frequently mentioned goal “ghosts” which “oppose their good “Th e view that everything is empty was the health of the physical body.44 nature.” Th ose who are led astray by (śūnya) is a central metaphysical plank While the perfected karma is declared the evil spirits will be “trapped in the of Buddhism.”53 Priest argues that there to be “eternal,” and the transformation 10,000 kalpas from which there is no is a potential ontological value to this of karma to something positive occurs escape from rebirth.”51 Buddhist conception.54 In this text the

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nature of this omnipresent unchanging Th e SO text fi ts the missionary strate- born” he begins to teach.58 People “call “being” turns the void concept back to gy of working within the Taoist move- upon the Buddha’s name” and “it is in ontology, which despite Priest’s argu- ment, native to China, and rejecting the Buddha’s nature to bestow grace.”59 ment, seems a clear denial of Buddhist Buddhist ideas that were not native to Th us, “all existence is an act of grace.” teachings. “Heaven and earth are stable China. Taoist monism is thoroughly Th e sacred Boddhisattva of Chinese and nothing changes.” But associating ontological, whereas Buddhism denies Buddhism was Guanshiyin who the reality of a thoroughly ontologi- the reality of ontology. SO affi rms cal God (who brings stability to the Taoist monism maintaining a strongly illuminates the Dharma Realm, where world) with this Buddhist philosophy unitary view of God. Further, it raises she sees all beings; she protects them of “emptiness” is problematic. “Creation the issue of whether the God of the and brings them to resolve upon is like this also—no beginning and no Bible is truly an ideal of actionless Awakening, she teaches them to keep in mind the perfect spiritual mantra.60 end.” Th is is really a major departure action. Th is state is really an expression from biblical notions of creation and of a monistic reality where “actions” Christ is presented in a very similar bends the text towards monism—a are ultimately absurd. Quiescence is way as one who teaches to bring about thoroughly unitary view of the universe. the pathway to salvation. All of this “awakening” which is the nature of his Th e text associates this monism with is very sophisticated philosophy and compassion. It should be noted that Wuwei (non-action) and this ultimately clearly these early Christian writ- Guanshiyin is female, so the imagery negates the possibility of relationship. ers were deeply acquainted with the is confused. Th e imagery is Buddhist For instance, it asserts that there is no philosophical viewpoints of their but the content is Christian. “Only the diff erentiation between the fi rst and virtuous can enter into the presence of second spirit (the latter I take to mean God.”61 From here the text begins to Christ). “Th e other spirit came but with refl ect on the nature of sin. nothing to diff erentiate it from the One Th e “disobedience of the fruitful gar- 55 Sacred Spirit—like hands and feet.” It creates den” has led to the result that “all that Th e constant emphasis on “One” Spirit a Unitarianism lives is aff ected by the karma of previ- and “not two or three” in the text, ous lives.”62 But “God suff ered terrible actually creates a Unitarianism that that ultimately denies woes so that all should be freed from ultimately denies the incarnation of karma, for nobody is beyond the reach the incarnation 63 Christ. Th is would fi t monophysite of this Buddha principle.” Th is text conceptions of the “Spirit” putting on of Christ. seems much more in dialogue with a body in Jesus. It also fi ts the Taoist Buddhism than the previous three and view of the void. Th e text seems to ndfi seems to be contextualizing the gospel its framework primarily in Taoism, and for a Buddhist audience. is reacting against Buddhism. In the Th e concept of karma is pervasive and interlocutors. But almost every line of SO text the Taoist concept of Wuwei is closely connected to salvation; “some- what they write raises issues concern- is specifi cally mentioned as the nature one who fears punishment does what is ing their grounding and faithfulness to of the Sacred Spirit: “the One Sacred right.” Fear of God is essential to this the biblical revelation. Spirit is the embodiment of Wuwei, salvation: “If you do not fear God, even originless origin and unsubstantial if you live by the law of the Buddha, substance.”56 Th e concept of Wuwei is Jesus Christ you will not be saved.”64 Th e name normally translated “non-action” but Th e fi nal document, the Sutra of Jesus Buddha seems to be a cipher for either it could also mean unchanging. Moon Christ (SJC), is a catechism dealing God or Christ. Th is attitude is then explains, “a sage leader should take and with various aspects of Christian faith illustrated through the story of the Ten explicate the paradox of non-action: By and living. It is borrowed fragmen- Commandments. Th e text concludes not doing, everything is done.”57 Th e tarily from various sources so I will with the story of the conception, birth, unchanging nature of Wuwei is in dis- focus mostly on its points of contact ministry, execution, and resurrection of tinct contrast to the Buddhist concept with Buddhism and Taoism as well as Jesus. He is referred to as Messiah and of “Void.” Th e appeal to Taoism and its theological innovations. Th e book it is unclear in SJC what the relation- fi nding fault with Buddhism is clearly opens with Christ in the heavenlies ship of Messiah to Buddha is. Having stated: Th e Sacred Spirit which is “ex- “orbited by the Buddhas and Arahats” described Jesus’ early teaching and isting in Wuwei” is “never extinguished and looking down on earth. Moved miracles the text opines, “those who into non-being.” by the suff erings of “all that have been do evil and do not recognize the true

International Journal of Frontier Missiology David G. Cashin 181 way . . . can never be truly saved.” Th is hese texts take a conciliatory attitude towards leads into an extensive description of the judgment of Jesus, Pilate washing Taoism, using its terminology to illustrate his hands and killing the Messiah. “Th e Messiah gave up his body to the wicked Christian concepts and deny Bud dhist concepts. 65 T ones for the sake of all living beings.” Taoist framework. Lost in that frame- religious persecution. An example He was hung “upon a wooden scaff old work was a clear biblical conception of of this would be the survival of the . . . on the sixth cleansing vegetarian what salvation is and how one receives Catholic Church as secret believers 66 day.” Th is fi nal phrase is obscure and it. Why does Messiah die? Is salvation under Shinto domination in Japan during the 17th–19th centuries to seems to combine concepts of cleansing merely deliverance from ghosthood? from sin and vegetarianism with non- escape annihilation. Th is movement What does it mean that he dies for “all did re-emerge to a modifi ed identity violence (ahimsa). Th e text concludes creatures”? If humankind is essentially when persecution came to an end. abruptly shortly after this. good and salvation is a product of good 3. Developing secret believers in contexts karma, how is this message any diff er- where immediate persecution/execution Conclusions ent than the Buddhist eight-fold path is assumed. An example would be F. A.’s approach to reaching Saudis in Saudi Th ese documents refl ect an age of of ethical behavior or the Taoist quiet- ist lifestyle? What is the relationship of Arabia in the 1970s and 80s, sometimes pluralism in China where the Chris- referred to as C6 evangelism. Messiah and the Buddha? Is the great tian faith sought to make a place for 4. Christianity adapting sociologically cloud of witnesses a group of Arahats itself in an environment of Taoism to become an accepted social sub- and Buddhism. Th e Church of the (enlightened beings) in the heavenlies? group in the culture. Th e Mar Th oma East had already dealt extensively with Why would anyone cling to this ethical Church in became in essence a Buddhist thought, and this is pervasive message of living a good life in the face new caste within the overall Hindu in the texts. One may say that these of persecution? Th is Christianity seems structure. Th is seems to be a pragmatic texts seek to contextualize the gospel to be preaching religious perspectives reaction to Christian “caste identity.” through Buddhist concepts while at that already existed in China with 5. Churchless Christianity, a term coined by Herbert Hoefer, describing the same time correcting the non- slight modifi cations. Is there a distinc- tive Christian identity in these docu- Hindus who follow an individual- ontological viewpoint of Buddhism. ized or very small group adherence ments? Th e impression these docu- Th ese texts take a very conciliatory to Christ while remaining culturally attitude towards Taoism, using its ments give is of a Christianity with a Hindus in a pragmatic reaction to terminology in a way that illustrates very weak sense of separate identity, Christian “caste identity.” Christian concepts and denies Bud- more comfortable in the context of 6. C5 Muslim evangelism which is the dhist concepts. Th at orientation, Taoism than with the distinctives of archetypical “IM” where missionaries coupled with the centering of Chris- the Christian faith. IJFM call themselves Muslims or Isa Mus- tianity’s most important monastery in lims and encourage Muslims to stay within the Muslim religious structure. the very heart of the resurgent Taoism Endnotes In contrast C4 Muslim evangelism of the time, would seem to indicate a 1 Dr. Don McCurry defi nes IM within seeks to stay within the confi nes of deliberate strategy. Later sutras, in the the Muslim context as “you can still call Muslim cultural structures but main- form of from the 8th yourself a Muslim . . . even though you tains a more overt Christian identity. century, would continue these adapta- believe in Jesus as Lord and Savior.” Th e 7. Conversion movements into a reli- tions, moving away from concepts phenomenon, however, is broader than just gion that seek to introduce elements of original sin and adopting a more Muslims believing in Jesus; it is consistently of the Christian faith into the reli- understood as an issue of religious identity. thoroughgoing trinitarianism.67 Th e gion, very similar to point 1 and 2 but 2 I note seven diff erent types of Insider later texts reinterpret the salvation of with the diff erence that these move- Movements in Christian History (I focus ments sought to both mollify the Christ as the product of the karma of entirely on the fi rst type in this article). dominant religion and also purchase a previous lives, Jesus as the Tao, and 1. Th e missional adaptation of the greater measure of tolerance towards similar conceptions. Church of the East in China to the an on-going existing Christian move- Taoist school where they built their ment. I fi nd this primarily in the Th ese contextualizing eff orts would world of Islam. seem to me to represent a particular central monastery at Da Qin within the central monastery of the Taoist kind of insider movement. Th is is a Movements 2, 4, 5, and 7 are not the result of faith. One might call this Christian- a direct missionary strategy but are based on Christianity which adopted the garb, ity seeking to make itself one of the pragmatics; the experience of persecution and language, and philosophical terminol- schools/sects of the local religion. adaptation or rejection of a sociological identity. ogy of both Taoism and Buddhism but 2. Christian movements subsumed Movements 1, 3, and 6 are specifi c strategic in a way that put Christianity in the under dominating religions due to attempts to plant the gospel in new contexts.

33:4 Winter 2016 182 The Early Church in China: A Case Study of an Insider Movement

3 “Nestorian” according to Palmer is a 24 http://www.chinabuddhismencyclo- 55 Palmer, p. 148. pejorative term and throughout this docu- pedia.com/en/index.php?title=Nirma%E1%B 56 Palmer, p. 149. ment we will use the term “Church of the 9%87ak%C4%81ya. Accessed July 23, 2014. 57 Moon, Seungho. “Wuwei (non- East.” Based on an online lecture of Palmer 25 Palmer, p. 63. action) Philosophy and Actions: Rethinking on the Church of the East, http://www.you- 26 Chestnut, Roberta C., Th ree Mono- Actions in School Reform,” Educational tube.com/watch?v=tifK5SUdSq0, accessed physite Christologies: , Philosophy & Th eory, May 2015, Vol. 47 Is- July 21, 2014. Philoxenus of Mabbug, and Jacob of Sarug, sue 5, p. 456. 4 Latourette, Kenneth Scott, A History New York: Oxford University Press, 1976, 58 Palmer, p. 159. of Christianity, New York: Harpers, 1953, cited by R. A. Norris, Jr., in American His- 59 Palmer, p. 160. pp. 324–5. torical Review, Vol. 83, Issue 2, 1978, p. 411. 60 Buddhist Liturgy, “Th e Great Com- 5 27 Palmer, Martin, Th e Jesus Sutras: Re- Van Enckevort, Paul. “Th e Th ree passion Repentance,” Religion East & West. discovering the Lost Scrolls of Toaist Christian- Treasure: An Enquiry into the Writings of Jan 2014, Issue 12, pp. 33–34. ity, New York: Ballentine, 2001, pp. 234–6. Wu Shouyang,” Journal of Daoist Studies. 61 Palmer, p. 161. 6 Palmer, p. 49. 2014, Vol. 7, pp. 117–145. 62 Palmer, p. 161. 7 Palmer, p. 241. 28 Goldin, Paul R. “Th e Cultural and 63 Palmer, pp. 161–2. 8 Palmer, p. 215. Religious Background of Sexual Vampirism 64 Palmer, p. 163. 9 Th e documents come from a cave in in Ancient China.” Th eology & Sexuality: 65 Palmer, p. 167. Dunhuang, China, sealed around 1005 , Th e Journal of the Institute for the Study of ad 66 Palmer, p. 1. Christianity & Sexuality. May 2006, Vol. 12 Palmer, p. 168. 67 10 Palmer, p. 2. Issue 3, pp. 285–307. Palmer, pp. 175–180. 29 11 Palmer, p. 5. Palmer, p. 63. 30 12 Palmer, pp. 51–2. Palmer notes that Epstein, M. Th oughts without a this document, written by Tatian in the second thinker: Psychotherapy from a Buddhist Perspec- New York: Basic Books, 1995, p. 28. century, was very popular in the eastern tive. 31 churches. It is generally referred to in the West Palmer, p. 65. as the Diatessaron, a work that harmonized the 32 Palmer, p. 67. four into a single narrative text. Only 33 Palmer, p. 68. fragments of it remain in its original Syriac 34 Palmer, p. 66. version. 35 Th irumalai, Madasamy, Sharing 13 Palmer, p. 55. Your Faith with a Buddhist, Bethany House 14 Palmer, p. 56. Publishers, 2003, p. 30. 15 Palmer, pp. 61–2. 36 Palmer, pp. 137–8. 16 Montalvo, David, “Th e Buddhist 37 Palmer, p. 138. Empiricism Th esis: An Extensive Critique,” 38 Palmer, p. 140. Asian Philosophy, Vol. 9, No. 1, 1999, p. 61. 39 Th irumalai, p. 145. 17 Th ere are those who argue that 40 Palmer, pp. 92–3. Buddhism’s concept of “no-self ” is “more 41 Palmer, p. 141. of a practical strategy than a metaphysical 42 Th irumalai, p. 145. doctrine.” Cf. Albahari, Miri, “Against No- 43 Atman Th eories of Anatta,” Asian Philoso- Palmer, p. 141. phy, Vol. 12, No. 1, 2002, p. 5. 44 Salguero, C. Pierce, “Fields of Merit, 18 Palmer, p. 60. Harvests of Health: Some Notes on the Role of Medical Karma in the Popular- 19 Palmer, p. 62. ization of Buddhism in Early Medieval 20 Nyrose, Eric, “Pursuing Wisdom: China,” Asian Philosophy. Nov 2013, Vol. 23 An Investigation of the Relationship Issue 4, pp. 341–349. Between Some Ancient Religious Concepts 45 Palmer, p. 142. of Wisdom and Current Notions of Critical 46 Th inking Within Information Literacy,” Palmer, p. 143. Journal of Religious & Th eological Informa- 47 Palmer, p. 143. tion, 2009, Vol. 8, Issue 3/4, p. 132. 48 Th irumalai, p. 28. 21 An example would be a recent 49 Palmer, p. 143. doctoral dissertation approved at Columbia 50 Palmer, p. 144. International University by Dr. Bonnie Aebi 51 Palmer, p. 146. entitled “A Comparison of Biblical and 52 Palmer, p. 148. Tamajaq Wisdom Traditions: Insights for 53 Priest, Graham, “Th e Structure of Christian Communications.” 22 Emptiness,” Philosophy East & West. Oct Palmer, p. 63. 2009, Vol. 59 Issue 4, p. 467. 23 Palmer, p. 68. 54 Priest, p. 477.

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