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The Politics of Drugs and Conflict: the Challenges of Insurgency and State-Building in Afghanistan

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The Politics of Drugs and Conflict: the Challenges of Insurgency and State-Building in Afghanistan WestminsterResearch http://www.westminster.ac.uk/research/westminsterresearch The politics of drugs and conflict: the challenges of insurgency and state-building in Afghanistan Dawood Azami Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities This is an electronic version of a PhD thesis awarded by the University of Westminster. © The Author, 2015. This is an exact reproduction of the paper copy held by the University of Westminster library. The WestminsterResearch online digital archive at the University of Westminster aims to make the research output of the University available to a wider audience. Copyright and Moral Rights remain with the authors and/or copyright owners. Users are permitted to download and/or print one copy for non-commercial private study or research. Further distribution and any use of material from within this archive for profit-making enterprises or for commercial gain is strictly forbidden. Whilst further distribution of specific materials from within this archive is forbidden, you may freely distribute the URL of WestminsterResearch: (http://westminsterresearch.wmin.ac.uk/). In case of abuse or copyright appearing without permission e-mail [email protected] THE POLITICS OF DRUGS AND CONFLICT: THE CHALLENGES OF INSURGENCY AND STATE-BUILDING IN AFGHANISTAN DAWOOD AZAMI A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WESTMINSTER (LONDON) FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 2015 Statement of Authorship I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis, and that the material contained in the thesis is my own work. All sources used are referenced. I further declare that the material contained in this thesis have not been previously submitted for a degree in this o any other university. Dawood Azami March 2015 ii Acknowledgments A number of people in various countries including Afghanistan, Pakistan, United Kingdom and the United States encouraged and supported me throughout this study. All of them deserve huge thanks. I am particularly grateful to those who took part in the study: farmers, traders, villagers, journalists, government officials, soldiers, tribal elders, politicians, experts and practitioners. They gave their valuable time, responded to my questions and shared their views and information with me. Without their willingness, the study would have been incomplete. Needless to say, I am hugely thankful to my Directors of Studies -- Dr Dibyesh Anand (Head of Department of Politics and International Relations) and Professor Roland Dannreuther (Dean, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities) -- for their constant support, feedback and encouragement. Special thanks here go to Dr Anand for his reminders and making sure that I met all the deadlines throughout this study despite my numerous other commitments. My friends also deserve thanks for their unconditional support and encouragement. Also, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to a number of my former teachers who believed in my potential and foresaw this even when I was at school. Finally, I am profoundly grateful to my family, whose loving support and belief in me during this study and throughout my life enabled me to realise my dreams. My greatest debt is to my parents, who made me a literate person and taught me the differences between good and bad. iii Dedication I dedicate this thesis to all peace loving people of this conflict-stricken world as well as those who are trying to make the world a better place. کله جنګ وته هوس کا، چي آشتي مومي نذير که په صلح کي روزګارشي، څه حاجت د تېغ اوتير Why seek war when harmony is at hand. When life could be lived in peace, what is the need of swords & arrows? [From a poem of Khushhal Khan Khattak (1613-1689), a legendary Pashto warrior poet, tribal chief and scholar. (English translation by the author of this thesis.)] iv Thesis Abstract This thesis explores the dynamics of conflict by focusing on two aspects of the problem – (a), links between illicit drugs and conflict and (b), the mechanism and extent to which illicit drug production and trade weaken the state. The research question I have set out for this project is: “what is the impact of illicit drugs on conflict and how does access to drugs affect the strength and ideology of insurgent groups and hampers state-building?” Although Afghanistan is the main case study, in order to understand the phenomenon in a wider context, the study also explores the relationship between drugs economy and conflict through examples of insurgencies in other parts of the world – mainly the FARC in Colombia, PKK in Turkey and LTTE in Sri Lanka. In addition, the thesis offers a unique empirical contribution. Based on first-hand knowledge from the field, this study is unusual in many ways as it critically analyses the impact of illicit drugs on conflict and governance and explores how the patron-client relations in the drug trade create and cement structural corruption. In order to produce a uniquely detailed picture of the conflict in Afghanistan and the overall impact of drugs, this study draws on an extensive field work and more than a hundred original interviews with several actors including insurgents, drug traders/smugglers, poppy farmers, local elders and politicians, government officials as well as experts. It explores, arguably, for the first time, the detailed mechanism and extent to which drug production and trafficking inhibit state-building and facilitate insurgency in Afghanistan. The study argues that the conflict in Afghanistan didn’t start because of drugs; it was the war that created a suitable environment for drug production which now plays a significant role in perpetuating and prolonging the violence. The study examines the Taliban’s evolving involvement in the drugs economy and discusses the insurgent group’s multiple sources of income. It also provides a comprehensive picture of the Taliban’s governance and organisational structure. This research offers a multidisciplinary framework drawing together data from a number of areas of knowledge and sources and examines the nexus between drugs, insurgency and state-building by offering detailed and fresh information on the current state of overlapping fields such as International Relations, Political Economy, Political Anthropology and Development and State-Building. While focusing on the decades-long war in Afghanistan, the thesis attempts to provide an integrated and comprehensive framework for understanding the conflict in general. While discussing the conflicts’ causes and motivations, the existing literature is mostly focused on a few factors including greed, grievance, ethnic and social deprivation. Although these are all valuable and important contributions, the thesis argues that the conflict itself is a complex phenomenon and its understanding and analysis needs a comprehensive approach. Therefore, the thesis also examines other overlooked and overlapping factors including the role of foreign actors, nationalism, criminality and ideology in initiating and perpetuating the conflict. This study fills a conceptual lacuna in the field of conflict studies and devotes considerable attention to the problems of drugs and conflicts, the challenges of state-building and the complexities of insurgency by bringing together various dimensions and factors into one whole. The thesis argues that in an increasingly perplexing and globalising world, conflicts are becoming more complicated involving a variety of actors at local, regional and international levels as well as a combination of a wide range of causes and motivations. While discussing the motivations and causes of conflicts including civil wars, this study suggests the “Hybrid Framework” of conflict to understand the nature of intra-state conflicts. The “Hybrid Framework” takes into account a variety of overlapping causes and motivations as well as the complex web of actors at different levels. v Table of Contents Statement of Authorship ............................................................................................. ii Acknowledgments ........................................................................................................ iii Dedication ..................................................................................................................... iv Thesis Abstract ............................................................................................................. v Table of Contents ......................................................................................................... vi Acronyms and Abbreviations ..................................................................................... ix List of Tables, Figures, Maps and Images ................................................................. xii Glossary ......................................................................................................................... xii INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 1 Significance of the Study .......................................................................................... 6 Research Methodology.............................................................................................. 12 Chapter Outline ......................................................................................................... 19 CHAPTER ONE .......................................................................................................... 24 Civil War and
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