IRA BOARD OF DIRECTORS AT TIME OF ADOPTION John J. Pikulski, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, President • Kathryn A. Ransom, Illinois State University, Springfield, Illinois, President-Elect • Carol Minnick Santa, School District #5, Kalispell, Montana, Vice President • Richard L. Allington, University at Albany–SUNY, Albany, New York • Betsy M. Baker, Columbia Public Schools, Columbia, Missouri • James F. Baumann, Department of Reading Education, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia • James V. Hoffman, The University of Texas–Austin, Austin, Texas • Kathleen Stumpf Jongsma, Northside Independent School District, San Antonio, Texas • Adria F. Klein, California State University, San Bernardino, California • Diane L. Larson, Owatonna Public Schools, Owatonna, Minnesota • John W. Logan, Northbrook School District 27, Northbrook, Illinois • Lesley M. Morrow, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey • Alan E. Farstrup, Executive Director

The International Reading Association attempts, through its publications, to provide a forum for a wide spec- trum of opinions on reading. This policy permits divergent viewpoints without implying the endorsement of the Association.

Director of Publications Joan M. Irwin Assistant Director of Publications Jeanette K. Moss Editor-in-Chief, Books Christian A. Kempers Senior Editor Matthew W. Baker Assistant Editor Janet S. Parrack Assistant Editor Mara P. Gorman Publications Coordinator Beth Doughty Association Editor David K. Roberts Production Department Manager Iona Sauscermen Art Director Boni Nash Electronic Publishing Supervisor Wendy A. Mazur Electronic Publishing Specialist Anette Schütz-Ruff Electronic Publishing Specialist Cheryl J. Strum Electronic Publishing Assistant Peggy Mason Copyright 1998 by the International Reading Association and the National Association for the Education of Young Children All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, or any informational storage and retrieval system, without permission from the publisher. LEARNING TO READ AND WRITE: DEVELOPMENTALLY APPROPRIATE PRACTICES FOR YOUNG CHILDREN

he development of this position state- ment was not specific enough on the im- ment began in early 1997, shortly after portant topic of reading. Two subsequent ar- Tpublication of the National Association ticles in Reading Today printed critiques for the Education of Young Children’s revised of the revised DAP statement. These con- edition of Developmentally Appropriate cerns were raised at the same time that vo- Practice in Early Childhood Programs cal arguments about reading instruction (DAP). International Reading Association began appearing regularly in the media. President John J. Pikulski wrote an article in Pikulski initiated a collaboration be- Reading Today, IRA’s bimonthly newspaper, tween IRA and NAEYC by inviting Sue responding favorably to the revised docu- Bredekamp of NAEYC to serve on IRA’s ment and welcoming some of the changes, Reading/Language in Early Childhood Com- while also raising some ongoing concerns mittee, along with Susan Neuman, who had about misrepresentations of developmentally been among the most concerned about the appropriate practice as meaning no teaching need to articulate developmentally appro- about literacy to young children. Pikulski’s priate practices in early literacy. The com- own work with kindergarten teachers led to mittee met for the first time at IRA’s annual his concern that there are many missed op- convention in May 1997 and agreed that portunities for learning in the name of devel- the first agenda item would be to revise the opmentally appropriate practice. 1989 IRA position statement on early liter- IRA’s Reading/Language in Early Child- acy that had been endorsed by NAEYC and hood Committee, along with the Literacy numerous other groups. The committee Development in Young Children Special identified key issues to be addressed in the Interest Group, examined the new docu- revised document. ment carefully. They also expressed con- Over the summer, NAEYC posted the cern that it did not go far enough in statement on its World Wide Web site and clarifying the teacher’s important role in requested feedback from its members. In supporting early literacy development of the fall, IRA set up a listserv so that preschool children, and felt that the docu- NAEYC’s DAP Panel and IRA’s committees,

1 as well as other interested professionals, 7. address appropriate assessment prac- could discuss the issues online. tices; Pikulski, Bredekamp, and Neuman met 8. be responsive to issues of cultural and in the fall and agreed that Bredekamp and linguistic diversity; Neuman would lead the writing task and 9. describe the continuum of reading draw on the expertise of both organizations. and writing development and the range of A highly interactive 2-hour open hearing individual variation; and was conducted at NAEYC’s annual meeting 10. focus on reading and writing rather in Anaheim, California, with Pikulski, than the broadest possible definition of lit- Neuman, Bredekamp, and Kathy Roskos eracy. presenting and receiving feedback from A thorough review of all the relevant re- more than 300 participants. Presenters search was conducted. In addition, every ad- heard comments from teacher trainers, re- ditional study that reviewers suggested for searchers, policy makers, child care staff, citation was read or reread. Bredekamp and and parent advocates interested in chil- Neuman wrote a draft of the position state- dren’s early reading and writing develop- ment and circulated it for review and com- ment. Following the hearing, a panel from ment to the two committees and the Boards NAEYC on developmentally appropriate of Directors of NAEYC and IRA. It also was distributed for review to the members of the National Association of Early Childhood Specialists in state departments of educa- The level of review of this document tion and IRA’s Literacy Development in was unprecedented. Young Children Special Interest Group. Perhaps most unique to this process was the use of the listserv. Although many com- ments were received by fax, most reviews were sent through the listserv. The level of practice, including administrators, re- review of this document was unprecedented searchers, and U.S. Department of Edu- cation consultants, met to discuss the as compared with the many other position suggestions and agree on directions for the statements the NAEYC has developed. In statement. Neuman subsequently held two fact, more than 75 thoughtful and detailed open sessions with research colleagues at critiques were received and reviewed. Early the National Reading Conference in early reviews by some colleagues created a model December 1997 to get their input. for subsequent reviews, leading to more The two groups agreed that the state- thorough and detailed comments than ever ment should do and be the following: received previously. 1. The statement should be research Because the listserv ensured that the en- based; tire review process was made public, it al- 2. be contextualized in response to cur- lowed for issues of controversy to be debated rent issues or concerns about practice; openly, then resolved through a consensus 3. be addressed to a primary audience of process. Every member of the group had an teachers and secondary audiences of par- equal opportunity to comment. Further, the ents, administrators, and policy makers; listserv was used throughout the process to 4. address the full age range of birth summarize key discussions at meetings, through age 8 in terms of general principles, highlight important points, and provide an recommended practices, and policies; occasional update of activities needed to fi- 5. be reasonably brief yet long enough nalize the document. to support its key points; The position statement was revised con- 6. address the importance of teaching, be- siderably in response to the excellent re- cause literacy does not just emerge naturally; views. The revised statement considers all

2 the major concerns of reviewers, which emphasizing the importance of seeing chil- were as follows: dren as individuals within the continuum. 1. The statement needed to be clearer The final draft of the position statement about the role of instruction (no one natu- was presented for approval to the NAEYC rally becomes literate, the original docu- Board of Directors at its meeting in late April ment lapsed into a maturation perspective 1998, and to the IRA Board of Directors in at times); early May. It was approved unanimously by 2. address infants and toddlers; both organizations. Additional endorse- 3. better address bilingualism and sec- ments from other groups are being sought. ond-language learners; The committee also outlined several ad- 4. more thoroughly address cultural di- ditional needs to address in an expanded versity; work plan. Among the first priorities were 5. better address assessment; 1. a shortened version for teachers that 6. better address ongoing professional could be printed in journals and placed on development; Web sites; 7. get to the issues of controversy more 2. a brochure for parents; succinctly; 3. an action plan for policy makers; 8. address administrators; and 4. forums (specific training at various 9. improve formatting and readability. sites) or a videoconference; Some people thought the document was 5. more detailed publications articulat- too long, but most felt that it needed the lev- ing the developmental continuum of reading el of detail provided and that shorter ver- and writing and what teachers and parents sions could be derived from it. can do to support children’s literacy; and The developmental continuum, which 6. articles for related publications such we thought might be controversial, was ac- as those of the Association for Supervision tually the most positively received aspect of and Curriculum Development and the the document. The strong consensus of re- National Association of Elementary School viewers was to keep the grade-connected Principals. The committee representatives markers of goals because they communi- from IRA and NAEYC have been asked to cate to teachers that there is such a thing as suggest implementation strategies to help a developmentally appropriate goal while achieve real change in practice and policy.

3 earning to read and write is critical to a that they can read to learn in all curriculum ar- child’s success in school and later in eas. IRA and NAEYC are committed not only Llife. One of the best predictors of to helping young children learn to read and whether a child will function competently in write but also to fostering and sustaining their school and go on to contribute actively in our interest and disposition to read and write for increasingly literate society is the level to their own enjoyment, information, and com- which the child progresses in reading and writ- munication. ing. Although reading and writing abilities First, the statement summarizes the cur- continue to develop throughout the life span, rent issues that are the impetus for this posi- the early childhood years—from birth through tion; then it reviews what is known from age 8—are the most important period for lit- research on young children’s literacy devel- eracy development. It is for this reason that the opment. This review of research as well as the International Reading Association (IRA) and collective wisdom and experience of IRA and the National Association for the Education of NAEYC members provides the basis for a po- Young Children (NAEYC) joined together to sition statement about what constitutes devel- formulate a position statement regarding early opmentally appropriate practice in early literacy development. The statement consists literacy over the period of birth through age 8. of a set of principles and recommendations for The position concludes with recommendations teaching practices and public policy. for teaching practices and policies. The primary purpose of this position state- ment is to provide guidance to teachers of Statement of the issues young children in schools and early childhood Why take a position on something as obvi- programs (including child care centers, pre- ously important as children’s learning to read schools, and family child care homes) serving and write? The IRA and NAEYC believe that children from birth through age 8. By and this position statement will contribute signifi- large, the principles and practices suggested cantly to an improvement in practice and the here also will be of interest to any adults who development of supportive educational poli- are in a position to influence a young child’s cies. The two associations saw that a clear, learning and development—parents, grandpar- concise position statement was needed at this ents, older siblings, tutors, and other commu- time for several reasons. nity members. • It is essential and urgent to teach children Teachers work in schools or programs reg- to read and write competently, enabling them ulated by administrative policies as well as to achieve today’s high standards of literacy. available resources. Therefore secondary audi- Although the U.S. enjoys the highest lit- ences for this position statement are school eracy rate in its history, society now expects principals and program administrators whose virtually everyone in the population to func- roles are critical in establishing a supportive tion beyond the minimum standards of litera- climate for sound, developmentally appropri- cy. Today the definition of basic proficiency ate teaching practices; and policy makers in literacy calls for a fairly high standard of whose decisions determine whether adequate reading comprehension and analysis. The main resources are available for high-quality early reason is that literacy requirements of most childhood education. jobs have increased significantly and are ex- A great deal is known about how young pected to increase further in the future. children learn to read and write and how they Communications that in the past were verbal can be helped toward literacy during the first (by phone or in person) now demand reading 5 years of life. A great deal is known also and writing—messages sent by electronic about how to help children once compulsory mail, Internet, or facsimile as well as print schooling begins, whether in kindergarten or documents. the primary grades. Based on a thorough re- • With the increasing variation among view of the research, this document reflects the young children in our programs and schools, commitment of two major professional organi- teaching today has become more challenging. zations to the goal of helping children learn to Experienced teachers throughout the U.S. read well enough by the end of third grade so report that the children they teach today are

4 more diverse in their backgrounds, experi- • Recognizing the early beginnings of lit- ences, and abilities than were those they taught eracy acquisition too often has resulted in use in the past. Kindergarten classes now include of inappropriate teaching practices suited to children who have been in group settings for older children or adults but perhaps ineffective 3 or 4 years as well as children who are par- with children in preschool, kindergarten, and ticipating for the first time in an organized ear- the early grades. ly childhood program. Classes include both Teaching practices associated with outdat- children with identified disabilities and chil- ed views of literacy development and/or learn- dren with exceptional abilities, children who ing theories are still prevalent in many are already independent readers and children classrooms. Such practices include extensive who are just beginning to acquire some basic whole-group instruction and intensive drill and literacy knowledge and skills. Children in the practice on isolated skills for groups or indi- group may speak different languages at vary- viduals. These practices, not particularly effec- ing levels of proficiency. Because of these in- tive for primary-grade children, are even less dividual and experiential variations, it is suitable and effective with preschool and common to find within a kindergarten class- kindergarten children. Young children espe- room a 5-year range in children’s literacy-re- cially need to be engaged in experiences that lated skills and functioning (Riley, 1996). make academic content meaningful and build What this means is that some kindergartners on prior learning. It is vital for all children to may have skills characteristic of the typical 3- have literacy experiences in schools and early year-old, while others might be functioning at childhood programs. Such access is even more the level of the typical 8-year-old. Diversity is critical for children with limited home experi- to be expected and embraced, but it can be ences in literacy. However, these school expe- overwhelming when teachers are expected to riences must teach the broad range of language and literacy knowledge and skills to provide produce uniform outcomes for all, with no ac- the solid foundation on which high levels of count taken of the initial range in abilities, ex- reading and writing ultimately depend. periences, interests, and personalities of • Current policies and resources are inad- individual children. equate in ensuring that preschool and primary • Among many early childhood teachers, teachers are qualified to support the literacy a maturationist view of young children’s de- development of all children, a task requiring velopment persists despite much evidence to strong preservice preparation and ongoing pro- the contrary. fessional development. A readiness view of reading development For teachers of children younger than assumes that there is a specific time in the ear- kindergarten age in the United States, no uni- ly childhood years when the teaching of read- form preparation requirements or licensure ing should begin. It also assumes that physical standards exist. In fact, a high-school diploma and neurological maturation alone prepare the is the highest level of education required to be child to take advantage of instruction in read- a child care teacher in most states. Moreover, ing and writing. The readiness perspective im- salaries in child care and preschool programs plies that until children reach a certain stage are too low to attract or retain better qualified of maturity all exposure to reading and writ- staff. Even in the primary grades, for which ing, except perhaps being read stories, is a certified teachers are required, many states do waste of time or even potentially harmful. not offer specialized early childhood certifica- Experiences throughout the early childhood tion, which means many teachers are not ade- years, birth through age 8, affect the develop- quately prepared to teach reading and writing ment of literacy. These experiences constantly to young children. All teachers of young chil- interact with characteristics of individual chil- dren need good, foundational knowledge in dren to determine the level of literacy skills a language acquisition, including second- child ultimately achieves. Failing to give chil- language learning, the processes of reading dren literacy experiences until they are school- and writing, early literacy development, and age can severely limit the reading and writing experiences and teaching practices contribut- levels they ultimately attain. ing to optimal development. Resources also

5 are insufficient to ensure teachers continuing along in games such as peek-a-boo and pat-a- access to professional education so they can cake, and manipulate objects such as board remain current in the field or can prepare to books and alphabet blocks in their play. From teach a different age group if they are reas- these remarkable beginnings children learn to signed. use a variety of symbols. In the midst of gaining facility with these What research reveals: Rationale symbol systems, children acquire through in- for the position statement teractions with others the insights that specif- Children take their first critical steps to- ic kinds of marks—print—also can represent ward learning to read and write very early in meanings. At first children will use the physi- life. Long before they can exhibit reading and cal and visual cues surrounding print to deter- writing production skills, they begin to acquire mine what something says. But as they some basic understandings of the concepts develop an understanding of the alphabetic about literacy and its functions. Children learn principle, children begin to process letters, to use symbols, combining their oral language, translate them into sounds, and connect this in- pictures, print, and play into a coherent mixed formation with a known meaning. Although it medium and creating and communicating may seem as though some children acquire meanings in a variety of ways. From their ini- these understandings magically or on their tial experiences and interactions with adults, own, studies suggest that they are the benefi- children begin to read words, processing letter- ciaries of considerable, though playful and in- sound relations and acquiring substantial formal, adult guidance and instruction (Anbar, knowledge of the alphabetic system. As they 1986; Durkin, 1966). continue to learn, children increasingly con- Considerable diversity in children’s oral and solidate this information into patterns that al- written language experiences occurs in these low for automaticity and fluency in reading years (Hart & Risley, 1995). In home and child and writing. Consequently reading and writing care situations, children encounter many differ- acquisition is conceptualized better as a de- ent resources and types and degrees of support velopmental continuum than as an all-or-noth- for early reading and writing (McGill-Franzen & ing phenomenon (see pp. 8–9 for an Lanford, 1994). Some children may have ready illustration of a developmental continuum). access to a range of writing and reading materi- But the ability to read and write does not als, while others may not; some children will develop naturally, without careful planning and observe their parents writing and reading fre- instruction. Children need regular and active quently, others only occasionally; some children interactions with print. Specific abilities re- receive direct instruction, while others receive quired for reading and writing come from im- much more casual, informal assistance. mediate experiences with oral and written What this means is that no one teaching language. Experiences in these early years be- method or approach is likely to be the most ef- gin to define the assumptions and expectations fective for all children (Strickland, 1994). about becoming literate and give children the Rather, good teachers bring into play a variety motivation to work toward learning to read and of teaching strategies that can encompass the write. From these experiences children learn great diversity of children in schools. that reading and writing are valuable tools that Excellent instruction builds on what children will help them do many things in life. already know and can do, and provides knowl- edge, skills, and dispositions for lifelong learn- The beginning years (birth through preschool) ing. Children need to learn not only the Even in the first few months of life, chil- technical skills of reading and writing but also dren begin to experiment with language. Young how to use these tools to better their thinking babies make sounds that imitate the tones and and reasoning (Neuman, in press). rhythms of adult talk; they “read” gestures and The single most important activity for facial expressions, and they begin to associate building these understandings and skills essen- sound sequences frequently heard—words— tial for reading success appears to be reading with their referents (Berk, 1996). They delight aloud to children (Bus, Van IJzendoorn, & in listening to familiar jingles and rhymes, play Pellegrini, 1995; Wells, 1985). High-quality

6 book reading occurs when children feel emo- tinually updated and may help children devel- tionally secure (Bus & Van IJzendoorn, 1995; op the habit of reading as lifelong learning. In Bus et al., 1997) and are active participants in comfortable library settings children often will reading (Whitehurst et al., 1994). Asking pre- pretend to read, using visual cues to remem- dictive and analytic questions in small-group ber the words of their favorite stories. settings appears to affect children’s vocabulary Although studies have shown that these pre- and comprehension of stories (Karweit & tend readings are just that (Ehri & Sweet, Wasik, 1996). Children may talk about the pic- 1991), such visual readings may demonstrate tures, retell the story, discuss their favorite ac- substantial knowledge about the global fea- tions, and request multiple rereadings. It is the tures of reading and its purposes. talk that surrounds the storybook reading that Storybooks are not the only means of pro- gives it power, helping children to bridge what viding children with exposure to written lan- is in the story and their own lives (Dickinson guage. Children learn a lot about reading from & Smith, 1994; Snow, Tabors, Nicholson, & the labels, signs, and other kinds of print they Kurland, 1995). Snow (1991) has described see around them (McGee, Lomax, & Head, these types of conversations as “decontextual- 1988; Neuman & Roskos, 1993). Highly visi- ized language” in which teachers may induce ble print labels on objects, signs, and bulletin higher level thinking by moving experiences boards in classrooms demonstrate the practical in stories from what the children may see in uses of written language. In environments rich front of them to what they can imagine. with print, children incorporate literacy into A central goal during these preschool their dramatic play (Morrow, 1990; Neuman & years is to enhance children’s exposure to and Roskos, 1997; Vukelich, 1994), using these concepts about print (Clay, 1979, 1991; communication tools to enhance the drama Holdaway, 1979; Stanovich & West, 1989; and realism of the pretend situation. These Teale, 1984). Some teachers use Big Books to everyday, playful experiences by themselves help children distinguish many print features, do not make most children readers. Rather, including the fact that print (rather than pic- they expose children to a variety of print ex- tures) carries the meaning of the story that the periences and the processes of reading for real strings of letters between spaces are words and purposes. in print correspond to an oral version, and that For children whose primary language is reading progresses from left to right and top other than English, studies have shown that a to bottom. In the course of reading stories, strong basis in a first language promotes teachers may demonstrate these features by school achievement in a second language pointing to individual words, directing chil- (Cummins, 1979). Children who are learning dren’s attention to where to begin reading, and English as a second language are more likely helping children to recognize letter shapes and to become readers and writers of English when sounds. Some researchers (Adams, 1990; they are already familiar with the vocabulary Roberts, in press) have suggested that the key and concepts in their primary language. In this to these critical concepts, such as developing respect, oral and written language experiences word awareness, may lie in these demonstra- should be regarded as an additive process, en- tions of how print works. suring that children are able to maintain their Children also need opportunity to practice home language while also learning to speak what they’ve learned about print with their and read English (Wong Fillmore, 1991). peers and on their own. Studies suggest that Including non-English materials and resources the physical arrangement of the classroom can to the extent possible can help to support chil- promote time with books (Morrow & dren’s first language while children acquire Weinstein, 1986; Neuman & Roskos, 1997). oral proficiency in English. A key area is the classroom library—a collec- A fundamental insight developed in chil- tion of attractive stories and informational dren’s early years through instruction is the books—that provides children with immediate alphabetic principle, the understanding that access to books. Regular visits to the school there is a systematic relationship between let- or public library and library card registration ters and sounds (Adams, 1990). The research ensure that children’s collections remain con- of Gibson and Levin (1975) indicates that the

7 Continuum of children’s development in early reading and writing

Note: This list is intended to be illustrative, not exhaustive. Children at any grade level will function at a variety of phases along the reading/writing continuum.

Phase 1: Awareness and exploration What teachers do (goals for preschool) • encourage children to talk about reading and writing Children explore their environment and build the experiences foundations for learning to read and write. • provide many opportunities for children to explore and identify sound-symbol relationships in meaningful Children can contexts • enjoy listening to and discussing storybooks • help children to segment spoken words into individual • understand that print carries a message sounds and blend the sounds into whole words (for • engage in reading and writing attempts example, by slowly writing a word and saying its • identify labels and signs in their environment sound) • participate in rhyming games • frequently read interesting and conceptually rich • identify some letters and make some letter-sound stories to children matches • provide daily opportunities for children to write • use known letters or approximations of letters to rep- • help children build a sight vocabulary resent written language (especially meaningful words • create a literacy-rich environment for children to en- like their name and phrases such as “I love you”) gage independently in reading and writing What teachers do What parents and family members can do • share books with children, including Big Books, and • daily read and reread narrative and informational sto- model reading behaviors ries to children • talk about letters by name and sounds • encourage children’s attempts at reading and writing • establish a literacy-rich environment • allow children to participate in activities that involve • reread favorite stories writing and reading (for example, cooking, making • engage children in language games grocery lists) • promote literacy-related play activities • play games that involve specific directions (such as • encourage children to experiment with writing “Simon Says”) • have conversations with children during mealtimes What parents and family members can do and throughout the day • talk with children, engage them in conversation, give names of things, show interest in what a child says Phase 3: Early reading and writing • read and reread stories with predictable texts to (goals for first grade) children Children begin to read simple stories and can write • encourage children to recount experiences and de- about a topic that is meaningful to them. scribe ideas and events that are important to them First graders can • visit the library regularly • read and retell familiar stories • provide opportunities for children to draw and print, • use strategies (rereading, predicting, questioning, using markers, crayons, and pencils contextualizing) when comprehension breaks down • use reading and writing for various purposes on their Phase 2: Experimental reading and writing own initiative (goals for kindergarten) • orally read with reasonable fluency Children develop basic concepts of print and begin • use letter-sound associations, word parts, and con- to engage in and experiment with reading and writing. text to identify new words Kindergartners can • identify an increasing number of words by sight • enjoy being read to and themselves retell simple nar- • sound out and represent all substantial sounds in rative stories or informational texts spelling a word • use descriptive language to explain and explore • write about topics that are personally meaningful • recognize letters and letter-sound matches • attempt to use some punctuation and capitalization • show familiarity with rhyming and beginning sounds What teachers do • understand left-to-right and top-to-bottom orienta- • support the development of vocabulary by reading tion and familiar concepts of print daily to the children, transcribing their language, and • match spoken words with written ones selecting materials that expand children’s knowledge • begin to write letters of the alphabet and some high- and language development frequency words (continued)

8 Continuum of children’s development in early reading and writing (cont’d.).

• model strategies and provide practice for identifying • become involved in school activities unknown words • show children your interest in their learning by dis- • give children opportunities for independent reading playing their written work and writing practice • visit the library regularly • read, write, and discuss a range of different text types • support your child’s specific hobby or interest with (poems, informational books) reading materials and references • introduce new words and teach strategies for learning to spell new words Phase 5: Independent and productive reading and • demonstrate and model strategies to use when com- writing (goals for third grade) prehension breaks down Children continue to extend and refine their read- • help children build lists of commonly used words from ing and writing to suit varying purposes and audiences. their writing Third graders can What parents and family members can do • read fluently and enjoy reading • talk about favorite storybooks • use a range of strategies when drawing meaning from • read to children and encourage them to read to you the text • suggest that children write to friends and relatives • use word identification strategies appropriately and • bring to a parent-teacher conference evidence of automatically when encountering unknown words what your child can do in writing and reading • recognize and discuss elements of different text • encourage children to share what they have learned structures about their writing and reading • make critical connections between texts • write expressively in many different forms (stories, Phase 4: Transitional reading and writing poems, reports) (goals for second grade) • use a rich variety of vocabulary and sentences appro- Children begin to read more fluently and write various priate to text forms text forms using simple and more complex sentences. • revise and edit their own writing during and after Second graders can composing • read with greater fluency • spell words correctly in final writing drafts • use strategies more efficiently (rereading, question- What teachers do ing, and so on) when comprehension breaks down • provide opportunities daily for children to read, exam- • use word identification strategies with greater facility ine, and critically evaluate narrative and expository to unlock unknown words texts • identify an increasing number of words by sight • continue to create a climate that fosters critical read- • write about a range of topics to suit different audiences ing and personal response • use common letter patterns and critical features to • teach children to examine ideas in texts spell words • encourage children to use writing as a tool for thinking • punctuate simple sentences correctly and proofread and learning their own work • extend children’s knowledge of the correct use of • spend time reading daily and use reading to research writing conventions topics • emphasize the importance of correct spelling in fin- What teachers do ished written products • create a climate that fosters analytic, evaluative, and • create a climate that engages all children as a com- reflective thinking munity of literacy learners • teach children to write in multiple forms (stories, infor- What parents and family members can do mation, poems) • continue to support children’s learning and interest by • ensure that children read a range of texts for a variety visiting the library and bookstores with them of purposes • find ways to highlight children’s progress in reading • teach revising, editing, and proofreading skills and writing • teach strategies for spelling new and difficult words • stay in regular contact with your child’s teachers • model enjoyment of reading about activities and progress in reading and writing What parents and family members can do • encourage children to use and enjoy print for many purposes (such as recipes, directions, games, and • continue to read to children and encourage them to sports) read to you • build a love of language in all its forms and engage • engage children in activities that require reading and children in conversation writing

9 shapes of letters are learned by distinguishing read (Ehri, 1994; Wagner & Torgesen, 1987). one character from another by its type of spa- In the preschool years sensitizing children to tial features. Teachers will often involve chil- sound similarities does not seem to be strongly dren in comparing letter shapes, helping them dependent on formal training but rather from to differentiate a number of letters visually. listening to patterned, predictable texts while Alphabet books and alphabet puzzles in which enjoying the feel of reading and language. children can see and compare letters may be a Children acquire a working knowledge of key to efficient and easy learning. the alphabetic system not only through reading At the same time children learn about the but also through writing. A classic study by Read sounds of language through exposure to lin- (1971) found that even without formal spelling guistic awareness games, nursery rhymes, and instruction, preschoolers use their tacit knowl- rhythmic activities. Some research suggests edge of phonological relations to spell words. that the roots of phonemic awareness, a pow- Invented spelling (or phonic spelling) refers to erful predictor of later reading success, are beginners’ use of the symbols they associate found in traditional rhyming, skipping, and with the sounds they hear in the words they wish word games (Bryant, MacLean, Bradley, & to write. For example, a child may initially write Crossland, 1990). In one study, for example b or bk for the word bike, to be followed by more (MacLean, Bryant, & Bradley, 1987), re- conventionalized forms later on. searchers found that 3-year-old children’s Some educators may wonder whether in- knowledge of nursery rhymes specifically re- vented spelling promotes poor spelling habits. lated to their more abstract phonological To the contrary, studies suggest that temporary knowledge later on. Engaging children in invented spelling may contribute to beginning choral readings of rhymes and rhythms allows reading (Chomsky, 1979; Clarke, 1988). One them to associate the symbols with the sounds study, for example, found that children bene- they hear in these words. fited from using invented spelling compared to Although children’s facility in phonemic having the teacher provide correct spellings in awareness has been shown to be strongly re- writing (Clarke, 1988). Although children’s in- lated to later reading achievement, the precise vented spellings did not comply with correct role it plays in these early years is not fully spellings, the process encouraged them to understood. Phonemic awareness refers to a think actively about letter-sound relations. As child’s understanding and conscious aware- children engage in writing, they are learning to ness that speech is composed of identifiable segment the words they wish to spell into con- units, such as spoken words, syllables, and stituent sounds. sounds. Training studies have demonstrated Classrooms that provide children with reg- that phonemic awareness can be taught to chil- ular opportunities to express themselves on pa- dren as young as age 5 (Bradley & Bryant, per, without feeling too constrained for correct 1983; Bryne & Fielding-Barnsley, 1991; spelling and proper handwriting, also help Cunningham, 1990; Lundberg, Frost, & children understand that writing has real pur- Petersen, 1988). These studies used tiles (box- pose (Dyson, 1988; Graves, 1983; Sulzby, es) (Elkonin, 1973) and linguistic games to en- 1985). Teachers can organize situations that gage children in explicitly manipulating both demonstrate the writing process and get speech segments at the phoneme level. Yet, children actively involved in it. Some teach- whether such training is appropriate for ers serve as scribes and help children write younger children is highly suspect. Other down their ideas, keeping in mind the balance scholars find that children benefit most from between children doing it themselves and ask- such training only after they have learned ing for help. In the beginning these products some letter names, shapes, and sounds and can likely emphasize pictures with few attempts apply what they learn to real reading in mean- at writing letters or words. With encourage- ingful contexts (Cunningham, 1990; Foorman, ment, children begin to label their pictures, tell Novy, Francis, & Liberman, 1991). Even at stories, and attempt to write stories about the this later age, however, many children acquire pictures they have drawn. Such novice writ- phonemic awareness skills without specific ing activity sends the important message that training but as a consequence of learning to writing is not just handwriting practice—

10 children are using their own words to compose Smith (1994), for example, found that asking a message to communicate with others. predictive and analytic questions before and Thus the picture that emerges from re- after the readings produced positive effects on search in these first years of children’s reading vocabulary and comprehension. and writing is one that emphasizes wide expo- Repeated readings appear to further rein- sure to print and to developing concepts about force the language of the text as well as to fa- its forms and functions. Classrooms filled with miliarize children with the way different print, language and literacy play, storybook genres are structured (Eller, Pappas, & Brown, reading, and writing allow children to experi- 1988; Morrow, 1988). Understanding the ence the joy and power associated with read- forms of informational and narrative texts ing and writing while mastering basic concepts seems to distinguish those children who have about print that research has shown are strong been well read to from those who have not predictors of achievement. (Pappas, 1991). In one study, for example, Pappas found that with multiple exposures to a In kindergarten story (three readings), children’s retelling be- Knowledge of the forms and functions of came increasingly rich, integrating what they print serves as a foundation from which chil- knew about the world, the language of the dren become increasingly sensitive to letter book, and the message of the author. Thus, shapes, names, sounds, and words. However, considering the benefits for vocabulary devel- not all children typically come to kindergarten opment and comprehension, the case is strong with similar levels of knowledge about print- for interactive storybook reading (Anderson, ed language. Estimating where each child is 1995). Increasing the volume of children’s developmentally and building on that base, a playful, stimulating experiences with good key feature of all good teaching, is particular- books is associated with accelerated growth ly important for the kindergarten teacher. in reading competence. Instruction will need to be adapted to account Activities that help children clarify the for children’s differences. For those children concept of word are also worthy of time and at- with lots of print experiences, instruction will tention in the kindergarten curriculum (Juel, extend their knowledge as they learn more 1991). Language experience charts that let about the formal features of letters and their teachers demonstrate how talk can be written sound correspondences. For other children down provide a natural medium for children’s with fewer prior experiences, initiating them to developing word awareness in meaningful the alphabetic principle, that the alphabet com- contexts. Transposing children’s spoken words prises a limited set of letters and that these let- into written symbols through dictation pro- ters stand for the sounds that make up spoken vides a concrete demonstration that strings of words, will require more focused and direct in- letters between spaces are words and that not struction. In all cases, however, children need all words are the same length. Studies by Clay to interact with a rich variety of print (Morrow, (1979) and Bissex (1980) confirm the value Strickland, & Woo, 1998). of what many teachers have known and done In this critical year kindergarten teachers for years: Teacher dictations of children’s sto- need to capitalize on every opportunity for en- ries help develop word awareness, spelling, hancing children’s vocabulary development. and the conventions of written language. One approach is through listening to stories Many children enter kindergarten with at (Elley, 1989; Feitelson, Kita, & Goldstein, least some perfunctory knowledge of the al- 1986). Children need to be exposed to vocab- phabet letters. An important goal for the ulary from a wide variety of genres, including kindergarten teacher is to reinforce this skill by informational texts as well as narratives. The ensuring that children can recognize and dis- learning of vocabulary, however, is not neces- criminate these letter shapes with increasing sarily simply a byproduct of reading stories ease and fluency (Mason, 1980; Snow, Burns, (Leung & Pikulski, 1990). Some explanation & Griffin, 1998). Children’s proficiency in let- of vocabulary words prior to listening to a sto- ter naming is a well-established predictor of ry is related significantly to children’s learning their end-of-year achievement (Bond & of new words (Elley, 1989). Dickinson and Dykstra, 1967; Riley, 1996), probably because

11 it mediates the ability to remember sounds. long-term benefits of a carefully developed Generally a good rule according to current kindergarten curriculum that focused on word learning theory (Adams, 1990) is to start with study and decoding skills, along with sets of the more easily visualized uppercase letters, stories so that children would be able to practice to be followed by identifying lowercase letters. these skills in meaningful contexts. High school In each case, introducing just a few letters at a seniors who early on had received this type of time, rather than many, enhances mastery. instruction outperformed their counterparts on At about the time children are readily able reading achievement, attitude toward schooling, to identify letter names, they begin to connect grades, and attendance. the letters with the sounds they hear. A funda- In kindergarten many children will begin mental insight in this phase of learning is that to read some words through recognition or by a letter and letter sequences map onto phono- processing letter-sound relations. Studies by logical forms. Phonemic awareness, however, Domico (1993) and Richgels (1995) suggest is not merely a solitary insight or an instant that children’s ability to read words is tied to ability (Juel, 1991). It takes time and practice. their ability to write words in a somewhat rec- Children who are phonemically aware can iprocal relationship. The more opportunities think about and manipulate sounds in words. children have to write, the greater the likeli- They know when words rhyme or do not; they hood that they will reproduce spellings of know when words begin or end with the same words they have seen and heard. Though not sound; and they know that a word like bat is conventional, these spellings likely show composed of three sounds /b/ /a/ /t/ and that greater letter-sound correspondences and par- these sounds can be blended into a spoken tial encoding of some parts of words, like word. Popular rhyming books, for example, SWM for swim, than do the inventions of may draw children’s attention to rhyming pat- preschoolers (Clay, 1975). terns, serving as a basis for extending vocabu- To provide more intensive and extensive lary (Ehri & Robbins, 1992). Using initial practice, some teachers try to integrate writ- letter cues, children can learn many new words ing in other areas of the curriculum like litera- through analogy, taking the familiar word bake cy-related play (Neuman & Roskos, 1992), as a strategy for figuring out a new word, lake. and other project activities (Katz & Chard, Further, as teachers engage children in 1989). These types of projects engage children shared writing, they can pause before writing a in using reading and writing for multiple pur- word, say it slowly, and stretch out the sounds poses while they are learning about topics as they write it. Such activities in the context meaningful to them. of real reading and writing help children attend Early literacy activities teach children a to the features of print and the alphabetic na- great deal about writing and reading but often ture of English. in ways that do not look much like traditional There is accumulated evidence that in- elementary school instruction. Capitalizing on structing children in phonemic awareness activ- the active and social nature of children’s learn- ities in kindergarten (and first grade) enhances ing, early instruction must provide rich reading achievement (Bryne & Fielding- demonstrations, interactions, and models of Barnsley, 1991, 1993, 1995; Lundberg, Frost, & literacy in the course of activities that make Petersen, 1988; Stanovich, 1986). Although a sense to young children. Children must also large number of children will acquire phone- learn about the relation between oral and writ- mic awareness skills as they learn to read, an es- ten language and the relation between letters, timated 20% will not without additional sounds, and words. In classrooms built around training. A statement by the IRA (1998) indi- a wide variety of print activities, and in talk- cates that “the likelihood of these students be- ing, reading, writing, playing, and listening to coming successful readers is slim…. This figure one another, children will want to read and [20%], however, can be reduced through more write and feel capable that they can do so. systematic attention to engagement with lan- guage early on in the child’s home, preschool The primary grades and kindergarten classes.” A study by Hanson Instruction takes on a more formal nature and Farrell (1995), for example, examined the as children move into the elementary grades.

12 Here it is virtually certain that children will capable of being intentional in their use of receive at least some instruction from a com- metacognitive strategies (Brown & DeLoache, mercially published product, like a basal or lit- 1978; Rowe, 1994). Even in these early erature anthology series. grades, children make predictions about what Although research has clearly established they are to read, self-correct, reread, and ques- that no one method is superior for all children tion if necessary, giving evidence that they are (Bond & Dykstra, 1967; Snow, Burns, & able to adjust their reading when understand- Griffin, 1998), approaches that favor some ing breaks down. Teacher practices, such as type of systematic code instruction along with the Directed Reading-Thinking Activity meaningful connected reading report chil- (DRTA), effectively model these strategies by dren’s superior progress in reading. Instruction helping children set purposes for reading, ask should aim to teach the important letter-sound questions, and summarize ideas through the relationships, which once learned are practiced text (Stauffer, 1970). through having many opportunities to read. But children also need time for indepen- Most likely these research findings are a posi- dent practice. These activities may take on nu- tive result of the Matthew Effect, the rich-get- merous forms. Some research, for example, richer effects that are embedded in such has demonstrated the powerful effects that instruction; that is, children who acquire al- children’s reading to their caregivers has on phabetic coding skills begin to recognize many promoting confidence as well as reading profi- words (Stanovich, 1986). As word recognition ciency (Hannon, 1995). Visiting the library processes become more automatic, children and scheduling independent reading and writ- are likely to allocate more attention to higher ing periods in literacy-rich classrooms also level processes of comprehension. Since these provide children with opportunities to select reading experiences tend to be rewarding for books of their own choosing. They may en- children, they may read more often; thus read- gage in the social activities of reading with ing achievement may be a byproduct of read- their peers, asking questions, and writing sto- ing enjoyment. ries (Morrow & Weinstein, 1986), all of which One of the hallmarks of skilled reading is may nurture interest and appreciation for read- fluent, accurate word identification (Juel, ing and writing. Griffith, & Gough, 1986). Yet instruction in Supportive relationships between these simply word calling with flashcards is not communication processes lead many teachers reading. Real reading is comprehension. to integrate reading and writing in classroom Children need to read a wide variety of inter- instruction (Tierney & Shanahan, 1991). After esting, comprehensible materials, which they all, writing challenges children to actively can read orally with about 90 to 95% accura- think about print. As young authors struggle cy (Durrell & Catterson, 1980). In the begin- to express themselves, they come to grips with ning children are likely to read slowly and different written forms, syntactic patterns, and deliberately as they focus on exactly what’s themes. They use writing for multiple purpos- on the page. In fact they may seem “glued to es: to write descriptions, lists, and stories to print” (Chall, 1983), figuring out the fine communicate with others. It is important for points of form at the word level. However, teachers to expose children to a range of text children’s reading expression, fluency, and forms, including stories, reports, and informa- comprehension generally improve when they tional texts, and to help children select vocab- read familiar texts. Some authorities have ulary and punctuate simple sentences that meet found the practice of repeated rereadings in the demands of audience and purpose. Since which children reread short selections signifi- handwriting instruction helps children com- cantly enhances their confidence, fluency, and municate effectively, it should also be part of comprehension in reading (Moyer, 1982; the writing process (McGee & Richgels, Samuels, 1979). 1996). Short lessons demonstrating certain let- Children not only use their increasing ter formations tied to the publication of writing knowledge of letter-sound patterns to read un- provide an ideal time for instruction. Reading familiar texts. They also use a variety of strate- and writing workshops, in which teachers pro- gies. Studies reveal that early readers are vide small-group and individual instruction,

13 may help children to develop the skills they measured as a set of narrowly defined skills on need for communicating with others. standardized tests. These measures often are Although children’s initial writing drafts not reliable or valid indicators of what children will contain invented spellings, learning about can do in typical practice, nor are they sensi- spelling will take on increasing importance in tive to language variation, culture, or the expe- these years (Henderson & Beers, 1980; riences of young children (Johnston, 1997; Richgels, 1986). Spelling instruction should be Shepard, 1994; Shepard & Smith, 1988). an important component of the reading and Rather, a sound assessment should be an- writing program since it directly affects read- chored in real-life writing and reading tasks ing ability. Some teachers create their own and continuously chronicle a wide range of spelling lists, focusing on words with common children’s literacy activities in different situa- patterns and high-frequency words, as well as tions. Good assessment is essential to help some personally meaningful words from the teachers tailor appropriate instruction to young children’s writing. Research indicates that see- children and to know when and how much in- ing a word in print, imagining how it is tensive instruction on any particular skill or spelled, and copying new words is an effec- strategy might be needed. tive way of acquiring spellings (Barron, 1980). By the end of the third grade, children will Nevertheless, even though the teacher’s goal is still have much to learn about literacy. Clearly to foster more conventionalized forms, it is some will be further along the path to indepen- important to recognize that there is more to dent reading and writing than others. Yet with writing than just spelling and grammatically high-quality instruction, the majority of chil- correct sentences. Rather, writing has been dren will be able to decode words with a fair characterized by Applebee (1977) as “think- degree of facility, use a variety of strategies to ing with a pencil.” It is true that children will adapt to different types of text, and be able to need adult help to master the complexities of communicate effectively for multiple purposes the writing process. But they also will need to using conventionalized spelling and punctua- learn that the power of writing is expressing tion. Most of all they will have come to see one’s own ideas in ways that can be under- themselves as capable readers and writers, stood by others. having mastered the complex set of attitudes, As children’s capabilities develop and be- expectations, behaviors, and skills related to come more fluent, instruction will turn from a central focus on helping children learn to read written language. and write to helping them read and write to learn. Increasingly the emphasis for teachers Statement of position will be on encouraging children to become in- IRA and NAEYC believe that achieving dependent and productive readers, helping high standards of literacy for every child in the them to extend their reasoning and compre- U.S. is a shared responsibility of schools, ear- hension abilities in learning about their world. ly childhood programs, families, and commu- Teachers will need to provide challenging ma- nities. But teachers of young children, whether terials that require children to analyze and employed in preschools, child care programs, think creatively and from different points of or elementary schools, have a unique responsi- view. They also will need to ensure that chil- bility to promote children’s literacy develop- dren have practice in reading and writing (both ment, based on the most current professional in and out of school) and many opportunities knowledge and research. to analyze topics, generate questions, and or- A review of research along with the col- ganize written responses for different purposes lective wisdom and experience of members in meaningful activities. has led IRA and NAEYC to conclude that Throughout these critical years accurate learning to read and write is a complex, multi- assessment of children’s knowledge, skills, faceted process that requires a wide variety of and dispositions in reading and writing will instructional approaches, a conclusion similar help teachers better match instruction with to that reached by an esteemed panel of experts how and what children are learning. However, for the National Academy of Sciences (Snow, early reading and writing cannot simply be Burns, & Griffin, 1998).

14 Similarly, this review of research leads to a first grade (since preschool and even kinder- theoretical model of literacy learning and de- garten attendance is not universal). Other chil- velopment as an interactive process. Research dren who enter school speaking little or no supports the view of the child as an active con- English are likely to need instructional strate- structor of his or her own learning, while at the gies in their home language (Snow, Burns, & same time studies emphasize the critical role Griffin, 1998). of the supportive, interested, engaged adult Given the range within which children (e.g., teacher, parent, or tutor) who provides typically master reading, even with exposure scaffolding for the child’s development of to print-rich environments and good teaching, greater skill and understanding (Mason & a developmentally appropriate expectation is Sinha, 1993; Riley, 1996). The principle of for most children to achieve beginning con- learning is that “children are active learners, ventional reading (also called early reading) by drawing on direct social and physical experi- age 7. For children with disabilities or special ence as well as culturally transmitted knowl- learning needs, achievable but challenging edge to construct their own understandings of goals for their individual reading and writing the world around them” (Bredekamp & development in an inclusive environment are Copple, 1997, p. 13). established by teachers, families, and special- IRA and NAEYC believe that goals and ists working in collaboration (Division for expectations for young children’s achievement Early Childhood Task Force on Recommended in reading and writing should be developmen- Practices, 1993; Division for Early Childhood tally appropriate, that is, challenging but of the Council for Exceptional Children, 1994). achievable, with sufficient adult support. A IRA and NAEYC believe that early child- continuum of reading and writing development hood teachers need to understand the devel- is generally accepted and useful for teachers in opmental continuum of reading and writing understanding the goals of literacy instruction and be skilled in a variety of strategies to as- and in assessing children’s progress toward sess and support individual children’s devel- those goals. (An abbreviated continuum of opment and learning across the continuum. At reading and writing development appears on the same time teachers must set developmen- pp. 8–9; for more detailed examples, see Chall, tally appropriate literacy goals for young chil- 1983; Education Department of Western dren and then adapt instructional strategies for Australia, 1994; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998; children whose learning and development are Whitmore & Goodman, 1995.) Good teachers advanced or lag behind those goals. Good understand that children do not progress along teachers make instructional decisions based on this developmental continuum in rigid se- their knowledge of reading and writing, cur- quence. Rather, each child exhibits a unique rent research, appropriate expectations, and pattern and timing in acquiring skills and un- their knowledge of individual children’s derstanding related to reading and writing. strengths and needs. Like other complex skills, reading and A continuum of reading and writing devel- writing are outcomes that result from the con- opment is useful for identifying challenging tinual interplay of development and learning, but achievable goals or benchmarks for chil- and therefore a range of individual variation dren’s literacy learning, remembering that in- is to be expected in the rate and pace at which dividual variation is to be expected and children gain literacy skills. Given exposure to supported. Using a developmental continuum appropriate literacy experiences and good enables teachers to assess individual children’s teaching during early childhood, most children progress against realistic goals and then adapt learn to read at age 6 or 7, a few learn at 4, instruction to ensure that children continue to some learn at 5, and others need intensive in- progress. During the preschool years most dividualized support to learn to read at 8 or 9. children can be expected to function in phase 1 Some children who do not explore books and of the developmental continuum, Awareness other print during their early years are likely to and Exploration. In kindergarten an appropri- need more focused support for literacy devel- ate expectation is that most children will be at opment when they enter an educational pro- phase 2, Experimental Reading and Writing. gram, whether at preschool, kindergarten, or By the end of first grade, most children will

15 function in phase 3, Early Reading and self-initiating, constructive thinking processes Writing. An appropriate expectation for second should be celebrated and used as rich teaching grade is Transitional Reading and Writing and learning resources for all children. (phase 4), while the goal for third grade is Independent and Productive Reading and Recommended teaching practices Writing (phase 5). Advanced Reading is the During the infant and toddler years. goal for fourth grade and above. Children need relationships with caring adults As fundamental as the principle of indi- who engage in many one-on-one, face-to-face vidual variation is the principle that human de- interactions with them to support their oral velopment and learning occur in and are language development and lay the foundation influenced by social and cultural contexts. for later literacy learning. Important experi- Language, reading, and writing are strongly ences and teaching behaviors include but are shaped by culture. Children enter early child- not limited to hood programs or schools having learned to • talking to babies and toddlers with sim- communicate and make sense of their experi- ple language, frequent eye contact, and re- ences at home and in their communities. When sponsiveness to children’s cues and language the ways of making and communicating mean- attempts; ing are similar at home and in school, chil- • frequently playing with, talking to, dren’s transitions are eased. However, when singing to, and doing fingerplays with very the language and culture of the home and young children; school are not congruent, teachers and parents • sharing cardboard books with babies and must work together to help children strengthen frequently reading to toddlers on the adult’s and preserve their home language and culture lap or together with one or two other children; while acquiring skills needed to participate in and the shared culture of the school (NAEYC, • providing simple art materials such as 1996a). crayons, markers, and large paper for toddlers Most important, teachers must understand to explore and manipulate. how children learn a second language and how During the preschool years. Young chil- this process applies to young children’s litera- dren need developmentally appropriate experi- cy development. Teachers need to respect the ences and teaching to support literacy learning. child’s home language and culture and use it as These include but are not limited to a base on which to build and extend children’s • positive, nurturing relationships with language and literacy experiences. Unfortun- adults who engage in responsive conversations ately teachers too often react negatively to with individual children, model reading and children’s linguistic and cultural diversity, writing behavior, and foster children’s interest equating difference with deficit. Such situa- in and enjoyment of reading and writing; tions hurt children whose abilities within their • print-rich environments that provide op- own cultural context are not recognized be- portunities and tools for children to see and use cause they do not match the cultural expecta- written language for a variety of purposes, tions of the school. Failing to recognize with teachers’ drawing children’s attention to children’s strengths or capabilities, teachers specific letters and words; may underestimate their competence. Com- • adults’ daily reading of high-quality petence is not tied to any particular language, books to individual children or small groups, dialect, or culture. Teachers should never use including books that positively reflect chil- a child’s dialect, language, or culture as a basis dren’s identity, home language, and culture; for making judgments about the child’s intel- • opportunities for children to talk about lect or capability. Linguistically and culturally what is read and to focus on the sounds and diverse children bring multiple perspectives parts of language as well as the meaning; and impressive skills, such as code-switching • teaching strategies and experiences that (the ability to go back and forth between two develop phonemic awareness, such as songs, languages to deepen conceptual understand- fingerplays, games, poems, and stories in ing), to the tasks of learning to speak, read, and which phonemic patterns such as rhyme and write a second language. These self-motivated, alliteration are salient;

16 • opportunities to engage in play that in- child and to never give up even if later inter- corporates literacy tools, such as writing gro- ventions must be more intensive and costly. cery lists in dramatic play, making signs in block building, and using icons and words in Recommended policies essential exploring a computer game; and for achieving developmentally • firsthand experiences that expand chil- appropriate literacy experiences dren’s vocabulary, such as trips in the commu- Early childhood programs and elementary nity and exposure to various tools, objects, and schools in the U.S. operate in widely differing materials. contexts with varying levels of funding and re- In kindergarten and primary grades. sources. Regardless of the resources available, Teachers should continue many of these same professionals have an ethical responsibility to good practices with the goal of continually ad- teach, to the best of their ability, according to vancing children’s learning and development the standards of the profession. Nevertheless (see the continuum of reading and writing de- the kinds of practices advocated here are more velopment on pp. 8–9 for appropriate grade- likely to be implemented within an infrastruc- level expectations). In addition every child is ture of supportive policies and resources. IRA entitled to excellent instruction in reading and and NAEYC strongly recommend that the fol- writing that includes but is not limited to lowing policies be developed and adequately • daily experiences of being read to and in- funded at the appropriate state or local levels: dependently reading meaningful and engag- 1. A comprehensive, consistent system of ing stories and informational texts; early childhood professional preparation and • a balanced instructional program that in- ongoing professional development (see cludes systematic code instruction along with Darling-Hammond, 1997; Kagan & Cohen, meaningful reading and writing activities; 1997). • daily opportunities and teacher support Such a professional preparation system is to write many kinds of texts for different pur- badly needed in every state to ensure that staff poses, including stories, lists, messages to oth- in early childhood programs and teachers in ers, poems, reports, and responses to literature; primary schools obtain specialized, college- • writing experiences that allow the flexi- level education that informs them about devel- opmental patterns in early literacy learning bility to use nonconventional forms of writing and about research-based ways of teaching at first (invented or phonic spelling) and over reading and writing during the early childhood time move to conventional forms; years. Ongoing professional development is • opportunities to work in small groups for essential for teachers to stay current in an ever- focused instruction and collaboration with oth- expanding research base and to continually er children; improve their teaching skills and the learning • an intellectually engaging and challeng- outcomes for children. ing curriculum that expands knowledge of the 2. Sufficient resources to ensure adequate world and vocabulary; and ratios of qualified teachers to children and • adaptation of instructional strategies or small groups for individualizing instruction. more individualized instruction if the child For 4- and 5-year-olds, adult-child ratios fails to make expected progress in reading or should be one adult for no more than 8 to 10 when literacy skills are advanced. children, with a maximum group size of 20 Although experiences during the earliest (Cost, Quality, and Child Outcomes Study years of life can have powerful long-term con- Team, 1995; Howes, Phillips, & Whitebook, sequences, human beings are amazingly re- 1992). Optimum class size in the early grades silient and incredibly capable of learning is 15 to 18 with one teacher (Nye, Boyd- throughout life. We should strengthen our re- Zaharias, & Fulton, 1994; Nye, Boyd- solve to ensure that every child has the benefit Zaharias, Fulton, & Wallenhurst, 1992). Young of positive early childhood experiences that children benefit most from being taught in support literacy development. At the same small groups or as individuals. There will al- time, regardless of children’s prior learning, ways be a wide range of individual differences schools have the responsibility to educate every among children. Small class size increases the

17 likelihood that teachers will be able to accom- 6. Access to regular, ongoing health care modate children’s diverse abilities and inter- for every child. ests, strengths, and needs. Every young child needs to have a regular 3. Sufficient resources to ensure class- health care provider as well as screening for room, school, and public libraries that include early diagnosis and treatment of vision and a wide range of high-quality children’s books, hearing problems. Chronic untreated middle- computer software, and multimedia resources ear infections in the earliest years of life may at various levels of difficulty and reflecting delay language development, which in turn various cultural and family backgrounds. may delay reading development (Vernon- Studies have found that a minimum of five Feagans, Emanuel, & Blood, 1992). Similarly, books per child is necessary to provide even the vision problems should never be allowed to most basic print-rich environment (Neuman, go uncorrected, causing a child difficulty with in press-b). Computers and developmentally reading and writing. appropriate software should also be available to 7. Increased public investment to ensure provide alternative, engaging, enriching litera- access to high-quality preschool and child care cy experiences (NAEYC, 1996b). programs for all children who need them. 4. Policies that promote children’s contin- The National Academy of Sciences (Snow, uous learning progress. Burns, & Griffin, 1998) and decades of longi- When individual children do not make ex- tudinal research (see, for example, Barnett, pected progress in literacy development, re- 1995) demonstrate the benefits of preschool sources should be available to provide more education for literacy learning. Unfortunately, individualized instruction, focused time, tutor- there is no system to ensure accessible, afford- ing by trained and qualified tutors, or other in- able, high-quality early childhood education dividualized intervention strategies. These programs for all families who choose to use instructional strategies are used to accelerate them (Kagan & Cohen, 1997). As a result, children’s learning instead of either grade re- preschool attendance varies considerably by tention or social promotion, neither of which family income; for example, 80% of 4-year- has been proven effective in improving chil- olds whose families earn more than dren’s achievement (Shepard & Smith, 1988). US$50,000 per year attend preschool com- 5. Appropriate assessment strategies that pared to approximately 50% of 4-year-olds at- promote children’s learning and development. tending preschool from families earning less Teachers need to regularly and systemati- than $20,000 (National Center for Education cally use multiple indicators—observation of Statistics, 1996). In addition, due primarily to children’s oral language, evaluation of chil- inadequate funding, the quality of preschool dren’s work, and performance at authentic and child care programs varies considerably, reading and writing tasks—to assess and mon- with studies finding that the majority of pro- itor children’s progress in reading and writing grams provide only mediocre quality and that development, plan and adapt instruction, and only about 15% rate as good quality (Cost, communicate with parents (Shepard, Kagan, & Quality, & Child Outcomes Study Team, 1995; Wurtz, 1998). Group-administered, multiple- Galinsky, Howes, Kontos, & Shinn, 1994; choice standardized achievement tests in read- Layzer, Goodson, & Moss 1993). ing and writing skills should not be used before third grade or preferably even before Conclusion fourth grade. The younger the child, the more Collaboration between IRA and NAEYC difficult it is to obtain valid and reliable in- is symbolic of the coming together of the two dices of his or her development and learning essential bodies of knowledge necessary to using one-time test administrations. Standard- support literacy development of young chil- ized testing has a legitimate function, but on its dren: knowledge about the processes of read- own it tends to lead to standardized teaching— ing and writing and knowledge of child one approach fits all—the opposite of the kind development and learning. Developmentally of individualized diagnosis and teaching that is appropriate practices (Bredekamp & Copple, needed to help young children continue to 1997) in reading and writing are ways of progress in reading and writing. teaching that consider

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Reading Research cultural tools: Effects on children’s literacy behaviors in Quarterly, 24, 402–433. play. Reading Research Quarterly, 27, 202–225. Stauffer, R. (1970). The language experience approach Neuman, S.B., & Roskos, K. (1993). Access to print for to the teaching of reading. New York: Harper & Row. children of poverty: Differential effects of adult media- Strickland, D. (1994). Educating African American learn- tion and literacy-enriched play settings on environ- ers at risk: Finding a better way. Language Arts, 71, mental and functional print tasks. American 328–336. Educational Research Journal, 30, 95–122. Sulzby, E. (1985). Kindergartners as writers and readers. Neuman, S.B., & Roskos, K. (1997). Literacy knowledge in In M. Farr (Ed.), Advances in writing research (pp. practice: Contexts of participation for young writers 127–199). Norwood, NJ: Ablex. and readers. Reading Research Quarterly, 32, 10–32. Teale, W. (1984). Reading to young children: Its signifi- Nye, B.A., Boyd-Zaharias, J., & Fulton, B.D. (1994). The cance for literacy development In H. Goelman, A. lasting benefits study: A continuing analysis of the ef- Oberg, & F. Smith (Eds.), Awakening to literacy (pp. fect of small class size in kindergarten through third 110–121). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. grade on student achievement test scores in subse- Tierney, R., & Shanahan, T. (1991). Research on the read- quent grade levels—seventh grade (1992–93) (Tech. ing-writing relationship: Interactions, transactions, and Rep.). Nashville, TN: Center of Excellence for outcomes. In R. Barr, M. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, & P.D. Research in Basic Skills, Tennessee State University. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook on reading research (Vol. 2, Nye, B.A., Boyd-Zaharias, J., Fulton, B.D., & pp. 246–280). White Plains, NY: Longman. Wallenhorst, M.P. (1992). Smaller classes really are Vernon-Feagans, L., Emanuel, D., & Blood, I. (1992). better. The American School Board Journal, 179(5), About middle ear problems: The effect of otitis media 31–33. and quality of day care on children’s language devel- Pappas, C. (1991). Young children’s strategies in learning opment. Journal of Applied Developmental the “book language” of information books. Discourse Psychology, 18, 395–409. Processes, 14, 203–225. Vukelich, C. (1994). Effects of play interventions on young Read, C. (1971). Pre-school children’s knowledge of children’s reading of environmental print. Early English phonology. Harvard Educational Review, 41, Childhood Research Quarterly, 9, 153–170. 1–34. Wagner, R., & Torgesen, J. (1987). The nature of phono- Richgels, D.J. (1986). Beginning first graders’ “invented logical processing and its causal role in the acquisition spelling” ability and their performance in functional of reading skills. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 192–212. classroom writing activities. Early Childhood Research Wells, G. (1985). The meaning makers. Portsmouth, NH: Quarterly, 1, 85–97. Heinemann. Richgels, D.J. (1995). Invented spelling ability and printed Whitehurst, G., Arnold, D., Epstein, J., Angell, A., Smith, word learning in kindergarten. Reading Research M., & Fischel, J. (1994). A picture book reading inter- Quarterly, 30, 96–109. vention in day care and home for children from low- Riley, J. (1996). The teaching of reading. London: Paul income families. Developmental Psychology, 30, Chapman. 679–689. Roberts, B. (in press). “I No EvrethENGe”: What skills are Whitmore, K., & Goodman, Y. (1995). Transforming cur- essential in early literacy? In S.B. Neuman & K.A. riculum in language and literacy. In S. Bredekamp & Roskos (Eds.), Children achieving: Best practices in T. Rosegrant (Eds.), Reaching potentials: Transforming

21 early childhood curriculum and assessment (Vol. 2). university educators and preschool teachers—present Washington, DC: National Association for the ways to provide for, support, and guide children as they Education of Young Children. gain a greater understanding of reading and writing. Wong Fillmore, L. (1991). When learning a second lan- guage means losing the first. Early Childhood Research [JULY 1998 BOOK CLUB SELECTION] Quarterly, 6, 323–346. ©1998 US$28.95 Order number 187-574

Literacy Instruction in Half- and Whole-Day Related resources from IRA Kindergarten: Research to Practice (Literacy Studies Series) Books Lesley Mandel Morrow, Dorothy S. Strickland, Children Achieving: Best Practices in Early Deborah Gee Woo Literacy What is the best way to begin early literacy instruc- Susan B. Neuman, Kathleen A. Roskos, Editors tion? How much time should be spent on literacy instruc- Addressing a wide range of individual variation tion in kindergarten classrooms? Should kindergarten among young children in our schools today has become meet for a full school day? Based on their extensive ob- increasingly complex. How do we provide instruction servations, the authors discuss frameworks for designing that meets the diverse needs of our children? How can we the literacy curriculum and plans for organizing the class- ensure that children receive the skills they most need? room in whole-day and half-day kindergartens. They in- The contributors to Children Achieving address these im- clude specific details about their methodology and as- portant questions. Each of the 13 chapters frames a criti- sessment results and use these results to suggest plans for cal issue in early literacy, examines what we know about designing the curriculum and organizing the classroom. it, and describes literacy practices suggested from this ex- Readers will find many of their questions about the isting knowledge base. The issues that are addressed in- length of the kindergarten day and best practices in early clude providing inclusive early-literacy instruction for literacy answered in this book. children with disabilities, providing culturally responsive ©1998 US$24.95 Order number 188-574 instruction, fostering children’s early-literacy develop- ment through parent involvement, recognizing the role of Revisiting the First-Grade Studies computer-related technology in early literacy, and assess- John E. Readence, Diane M. Barone, Editors ing young children’s literacy learning. The focus is on is- This reprint of the October/November/December sues of theory and practice appropriate for children ages 1997 issue of Reading Research Quarterly provides a 2 through 8 in classrooms ranging from prekindergarten view of the historical implications of the First-Grade to third grade. [NOVEMBER 1998 BOOK CLUB SE- Studies and how the Studies continue to provide valuable LECTION; available late October] insights for those who seek answers about effective be- ©1998 US$28.95 Order number 193-574 ginning reading instruction. This book will allow literacy educators of today and those of the future to enjoy and Facilitating Preschool Literacy benefit from revisiting this historical reading research. Robin Campbell, Editor ©1998 US$9.95 Order number 9120-574 How can preschool teachers support literacy learn- ing and provide effective instruction for all students who Building a Knowledge Base in Reading enter their classroom? This multiauthored volume, edited Jane Braunger, Jan Patricia Lewis by Robin Campbell from the University of Hertfordshire This book summarizes the available research on in the United Kingdom, addresses three important themes how children learn to read and provides a baseline for in the literacy learning of preschool children: educators and policymakers to consider in helping all 1. Children are active constructors of their own children meet today’s higher literacy standards. The fo- learning. cus is on the learner’s needs, a balance of experiences 2. Families provide invaluable support in the early and approaches, and respect and appreciation for vari- literacy learning of children. ous sources of knowledge about literacy learning. The 3. Preschool settings should reflect the literacy learn- book includes information on language acquisition and ing that occurs in many homes and should provide oppor- factors affecting literacy learning. It also contains an tunities for children to further develop their literacy. extensive bibliography. Published jointly with the Accepting these views has a profound influence on Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory and the the way early-years educators provide learning opportu- National Council of Teachers of English. nities for the children in their care. The contributors to ©1997 US$12.95 Order number 9118-574 this volume—representing Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States, and including both

22 Preventing Reading Difficulties in Young Linking Literacy and Play Book of Readings Children Single copy US$5.25 Order number 241-574 Catherine E. Snow, M. Susan Burns, Peg Griffin, Editors National Research Council This book, written by a committee of prominent Reading and Young Children: A Practical reading experts assembled by the National Research Guide for Childcare Providers Council, is the result of a 2-year effort by that commit- Provides general, practical information for anyone tee to distill the extant research in order to determine who works with young children on the importance of how best to help young children learn to read and fore- making reading a part of every child’s day. Intended for stall reading difficulties use as an introductory training tape for childcare profes- ©1998 US$35.95 Order number 9122-574 sionals and others who work with young children, the video demonstrates techniques for reading aloud, choral reading, using Big Books, and storytelling, and suggests Emerging Literacy: Young Children Learn to inexpensive resources that can help childcare facilities Read and Write become reader friendly. [MARCH 1992 BOOK CLUB Dorothy S. Strickland, Lesley Mandel Morrow, Editors SELECTION] Contributors to this award-winning book share ©1992 US$29.95 Order number 373-574 practical ideas for daycare workers, classroom teachers, and curriculum specialists. The illustrated format fea- Read to Me tures “Ideas You Can Use” in classrooms from This 13-minute video introduces parents to the im- prekindergarten through second grade. [APRIL 1989 portance of reading aloud to their children. Read to Me BOOK CLUB SELECTION] shows parents the value of reading aloud, how to read ©1989 US$19.95 Order number 351-574 to their children, and how to select appropriate books. Excellent for parent-teacher programs. Produced by the Idaho Literacy Project. [DECEMBER 1991 BOOK Beyond Storybooks: Young Children and the CLUB SELECTION] Shared Book Experience ©1991 US$29.95 Order number 655-574 Judith Pollard Slaughter A practical, hands-on book for people working with Becoming a Family of Readers emergent, developing, and at-risk readers in the preschool This 10-minute video features parents and their and early-elementary years. Slaughter’s many teaching children modeling book sharing, advocates reading as a ideas will inspire creative teachers and children to come family-friendly activity, and encourages viewers to be- up with thousands of extensions of their own. An annotat- come involved in family literacy programs. Coproduced ed bibliography of more than 100 children’s books is in- by Reading Is Fundamental, Inc. and Literacy cluded. [JANUARY 1993 BOOK CLUB SELECTION] Volunteers of America, Inc. ©1993 US$19.95 Order number 377-574 ©1995 US$19.95 Order number 9100-574 Videos Parent brochures Linking Literacy and Play Summer Reading Adventure! Tips for Parents Kathleen A. Roskos, Carol Vukelich, James F. Christie, of Young Readers* Billie J. Enz, Susan B. Neuman Order number 1023-574 This 12-minute video package provides early child- hood teachers, parents, and caregivers with ideas about Making the Most of Television: Tips for how to use the natural environment of play to foster lit- Parents of Young Viewers* eracy development. The accompanying facilitator’s Order number 1024-574 guide provides a collection of ideas and insights on how to combine literacy and play. The guide is divided into Get Ready to Read! Tips for Parents of four sections: Exploring Beliefs About Literacy in Play, Young Children* Creating Literacy-Enriched Play Environments, Order number 1017-574 Understanding Adult Roles That Support Literacy, and Promoting Literacy and Preserving Play. Also included Explore the Playground of Books: Tips for are 10 books of readings, featuring five articles about Parents of Beginning Readers* children’s literacy development in play situations. Order number 1019-574 ©1995 US$165.00 Order number 136-574 100 copies US$12.00 *Also available in Spanish

23 Ordering information Box 8139, Newark, DE 19714-8139, USA. Telephone: To order these books, videos, and parent brochures or 302-731-1600. Fax: 302-731-1057. For credit card or- other IRA materials (IRA members deduct 20% before ders, call toll free (US/Canada only) 800-336-READ, adding shipping charges), contact: Order Department, ext. 266. International Reading Association, 800 Barksdale Road,

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