Table of Contents

Introduction ··································································································································· 6

Chapter 1 How Does ESL Diff er from EFL? ······································································ 7

- What Are the Important Features of ESL? ············································································· 8

Chapter 2 Needs Analysis and Environment Analysis and One-to-One Tutoring with Adult ESL Learners ································································· 12

- Needs Analysis ······························································································································· 13 - Environment Analysis ·················································································································· 13 - Needs and Environment Analysis in One-to-One Tutoring ············································ 15 - What Should You Learn from This Chapter? ········································································· 21

Chapter 3 Needs and Environment Analysis When Teaching Small Classes for Adults ···················································································································· 23

- Needs Analysis for Small Classes ····························································································· 23 - Environment Analysis for Small Classes ················································································ 29 - What Should You Learn from This Chapter? ········································································· 29

Chapter 4 Needs and Environment Analysis for Learners Going to School 31

- Opportunities for Learning for Young ESL Learners ·························································· 31 - The Vocabulary Knowledge of Young Native Speakers ··················································· 34 - What Kind of Vocabulary Do Learners Need to Cope with in Their Secondary School Texts? ····························································································································· 35 - Testing Vocabulary Size ·············································································································· 37 - The Language Needs of L2 Learners at School ··································································· 38 - Environment Analysis ·················································································································· 41 - What Should You Learn from This Chapter? ········································································· 42

Chapter 5 Needs and Environment Analysis for Job Seekers in an ESL Setting ························································································································· 44

- Job Seeking Needs Analysis ······································································································ 44 - Communication Skills Needs Analysis ··················································································· 45 - Language Profi ciency Related Needs Analysis ···································································· 46 - Environment Analysis for a Course for Job Seekers ··························································· 47 - What Should You Learn from This Chapter? ········································································· 48 Chapter 6 Needs and Environment Analysis for ESL Learners in Pre-University Courses ······················································································· 49

- Academic and Technical Vocabulary ······················································································ 50 - Needs Analysis and Study Skills ······························································································· 55 - Needs Analysis and Language Profi ciency ··········································································· 58 - Language Wants in an English for Academic Purposes Program ·································· 59 - Profi ciency Test Preparation ······································································································ 60 - What Should You Learn from This Chapter? ········································································· 61

Chapter 7 Beginning to Read in a First and Second Language ··························· 63

- Phonemic Awareness ·················································································································· 64 - The Alphabetic Principle ············································································································ 65 - Learning Letter Shapes ··············································································································· 65 - Learning about Books and Print ······························································································ 65 - An Experience Approach to Reading ····················································································· 66 - Learning to Read though Phonics ··························································································· 67 - A Whole-Language Approach to Reading ············································································ 68 - How Diffi cult is it to Learn to Read English as a Second Language? ···························· 68 - What Should You Learn from This Chapter? ········································································· 69

Chapter 8 One-to-One Tutoring with Adult ESL Learners ······································ 70

- Planning a Well-Balanced Course ···························································································· 70 - Listening and Speaking Activities ··························································································· 72 - Reading Activities ························································································································· 74 - Writing Activities ··························································································································· 77 - A One-to-One Tutoring Session ······························································································· 78 - What Should You Learn from This Chapter? ········································································· 80

Chapter 9 Teaching Small Classes of Adult ESL Learners ······································· 81

- Activities for Small ESL Classes for Adults ············································································· 82 - Listening Activities for Small Classes ······················································································ 83 - Speaking Activities for Small Classes ····················································································· 83 - Reading Activities for Small Classes ······················································································· 86 - Writing Activities for Small Classes ························································································· 88 - Planning a Course for a Small ESL Class ················································································ 90 - What Should You Learn from This Chapter? ········································································· 91 Chapter 10 English as a Second Language at School ·············································· 92

- Content-Based Learning in Secondary Schools ·································································· 93 - Listening Activities for ESL School Students ········································································ 95 - Speaking Activities for ESL School Students ······································································· 96 - Reading Activities for ESL School Students ········································································· 98 - Writing Activities for ESL School Students ··········································································· 103 - How Do You Teach Subject-Related Vocabulary? ······························································ 104 - What Should You Learn from This Chapter? ········································································ 107

Chapter 11 Helping ESL Learners Develop Communication Skills ··················· 108

- What Kinds of Learning Need to Be Included in a Communication Skills Course? 109 - Observation and Analysis of Interaction ··············································································· 110 - Understanding the Factors that Aff ect the Nature of Interaction ································· 111 - Learning Useful Phrases and Sentences ················································································ 112 - Training and Practice in Communication Skills ··································································· 114 - Observing, Refl ecting, and Comparing ················································································· 117 - A Communication Skills Lesson ······························································································· 118 - What Should You Learn from This Chapter? ········································································· 120

Chapter 12 English for Academic Purposes Courses in an ESL Situation ······ 121

- An Overview of the Focuses and Activities in an EAP Course for ESL Learners ········ 121 - Listening Activities in an EAP Course ····················································································· 124 - Speaking Activities in an EAP Course ····················································································· 125 - Reading Activities in an EAP Course ······················································································· 126 - Writing Activities in an EAP Course ························································································· 129 - Language Learning Activities in an EAP Course ································································· 133 - University Requirements ············································································································ 134 - Test Preparation Activities in an EAP Course ······································································· 134 - What Should You Learn from This Chapter? ········································································· 135 Chapter 13 Understanding Cultural Diff erences ························································ 137

- An Approach to Developing Intercultural Competence ·················································· 138 - Culturally Focused Observation ······························································································· 138 - Learning From Experience ········································································································· 142 - Direct Learning and Discussion with a Cultural Focus ····················································· 142 - Practice and Culturally Focused Role Play ············································································ 142 - Refl ection and Cultural Comparison ······················································································ 143 - What Should You Learn from This Chapter? ········································································· 143

Chapter 14 Simulation and Role Play Activities ························································· 145

- Designing Simulation Activities ······························································································· 146 - Learning From Role Play and Simulations ············································································ 151 - Designing Role Plays ··················································································································· 155 - What Should You Learn from This Chapter? ········································································· 160

Chapter 15 Linked Skills Activities ····················································································· 161

- Designing Linked Skills Activities ···························································································· 162 - Evaluating Linked Skills Activities ··························································································· 163 - Linked Skills Activities and Conditions for Vocabulary Learning ·································· 164 - Monitoring Linked Skills Activities ·························································································· 165 - Further Examples of Linked Skills Activities ········································································· 166 - Applying Linked Skills to Gapminder Data ·········································································· 168 - What Should You Learn from This Chapter? ········································································· 170

Chapter 16 Refl ections on Teaching English as a Second Language ··············· 171

- ESL and EFL ····································································································································· 171 - What is Missing from the ESL Book? ······················································································· 173 - Roles of the Teacher ····················································································································· 174 - Moving Forward ···························································································································· 175

Appendix 1 Why Do Some Learners Have Problems with Reading? ······························· 176 Appendix 2 Maximising Vocabulary Learning from Message-Focused Input and Output ························································································································· 179 Appendix 3 A Culture Test ············································································································· 180 Appendix 4 EFL Table of Contents ······························································································ 187 Index ······················································································································································ 190 ). www.compasspub.com/EFLTK

The companion book to this one is called What Should Every EFL Teacher Know? Teacher What Should Every EFL this one is called book to companion The Publishing( Compass from and is available The book is written in a clear direct style avoiding jargon and technical and technical jargon in a clear direct style book is written avoiding The they can best go about It about how teachers speaks directly to vocabulary. language. of English as a second the teaching The idea that runs through the whole book is that well designed language designed the whole book is that well idea that runs through The so several language use needs and at learners’ look carefully need to courses analysis. and environment on needs analysis focus chapters This very the most importantThis practical teacher that a book covers information It on practical focuses issues know. language should as a second of English various kinds teach to classes including one-to-one of such as how teaching, on English for and teaching in schools, teaching small groups, teaching course. academic purposes Introduction I have decided that I will make this book freely available on the web to all teachers on the web available this book freely decided that I will make I have copy in hard for the book to be made available I am happy and teacher-trainees. form as long as this is not done for copy and distributed in electronic or hard acknowledged. t, and it is properly profi Acknowledgements Sonia Millett, Meredith Coxhead, Averil to NickyI am very Riddiford, grateful Margaret Andy Angela Biemiller, Joe, Denise Sue Gray, Worthington, Marra, the manuscript at an early stage and Hees for reading Gleeson, and Jannie van on it. commenting The writer, Paul Nation, has been training teachers of English for over forty over of English for Nation, has been training teachers Paul writer, The Finland, States, the United Thailand, in Indonesia, and he has taught years, books and articles numerous and Japan. He has written about the teaching and curriculum methodology, language teaching and learning of vocabulary, New Wellington, of University Victoria emeritus at He is professor design. teachers. for resources free many contains His website Zealand. Introduction 006 Chapter 1 How Does ESL Differ from EFL? 007 What er from each er from er erence erence between ectlearned on what is . How Does ESL Diff ESL Does How from EFL? from

diff idea in this chapter is that the major e main English as a Second Language and English as a Foreign Language is that Language is as a Foreign and English Language as a Second English and a strong clear immediate language needs have ESL learners usually should take account of these Teachers meet these needs. to motivation ESL program. language needs when planning their

Main Idea Main Th 1 Chapter ESL stands for English as a Second Language. EFL stands for English as a EFL stands for English as a Second Language. ESL stands for ESL situation when they learn English in an are Learners Language. Foreign them, such as when learners go in a country English is used around where learn to or New Zealand Australia, England, Canada, States, the United to learn English in a country in an EFL situation when they are English. Learners such as when learners learn English used, English is not commonly where situations can diff two These Venezuela. or in China, Germany, other in very eff a strong important which have ways Language. on English as a Second will focus we Here it is learned. and how book see my Language, in English as a Foreign interested If are you Know? Should Every EFL Teacher It situations. can be used a wide range of teaching for book is intended This who typically learners at a time often just one or two home tutors teach by It immigrants. It for running classes teachers in their homes. can be used by learners of English as a second preparing who are teachers can be used by It can be used by in an English-speaking study language for university. ESL learners in their primary have who teachers or secondary school classes. and particular situations has its own Each of these teaching requirements, them all however to What is common will trywe look at these in this book. to situations have and ESL teaching situations, all ESL teaching is that they are some very important features. common erences erences t in, but support.t from ned, immediate needs. That That needs. immediate ned, , and we will look at this closely in , and we nding a job, making getting their friends, nding a job, ts from their study of the language. Working Working their study of the language. ts from needs analysis nding a place to live, fi live, to nding a place cult to see what these reasons are. Secondly, motivation to learn is to motivation Secondly, are. reasons see what these cult to ect on motivation and success in language learning. Let us now look at us now Let ectlanguage learning. in and success on motivation most learners see how important the second language is to their daily life. importantmost learners see how their daily life. language is to the second (2) Motivation to learn the second language is very strong to learn the second Motivation (2) learn the language is needs mean that motivation to immediate strong These very learn the most ESL learners are to highly motivated is, That not an issue. fi learners in particular to a very desire feel strong Young language. this book. Adult learners have immediate survival immediate learners have things like needs which can include Adult fi shopping, What Are the Important Features of ESL? of Important the Are Features What in EFL. Firstly, important ESL from that distinguish four are features There defi readily have most learners an ESL situation, speakers of English but who not native are parents learner whose young Any was born in an English-speaking country age has it at a young to or came a vocabulary speaker of English from a native of becoming a good chance diff be large may there Like native-speakersperspective. however, in children of young Teachers in their vocabulary such learners between size. making to a lot of attention these learners feel give an ESL situation need to language support. suitable second as providing as well and welcome happy need Teachers education, and dealing with legal requirements. into children needs as quickly these and address as possible so that such investigate to benefi learners get immediate them is a part address to how and deciding of out what these needs are called curriculum design (1) Learners have clear and immediate needs immediate clear and have Learners (1) the language is being used living in an ESL situation where When learners are to them, they typicallyof the language in order make use need to around learners is veryThis with young obvious with aspectscope of their daily life. and with their study cope use English to school and need to going to who are the pressure these learners, For with their schoolmates. in their relationships that they typically very and deeply felt strong learn English is so quicklyto of the type of language supportpick up the language regardless that the learners will benefi many them. However, for school provides is, there are usually very clear reasons for using English and it is typically using English very usually for are clear reasons there is, not diffi opportunities many observe,learn, are to there Thirdly, usually very strong. an ESL situation has language learning in Fourthly, and use the language. a marked aspects, and these can have very and integrational cultural strong eff veryeach of these four important in turn. features

How Does ESL Differ from EFL? Chapter 1 008 Chapter 1 How Does ESL Differ from EFL? 009 to ESL learners is face culties that nd plenty of such opportunities in an ESL Sources of language learning Sources cult, it does not provide helpful opportunities for learning. Learners Learners helpful opportunities learning. not provide cult, it does for language Figure 1.1 Figure

 In an EFL situation, the classroom is often the only source of English language In is often the only source an EFL situation, the classroom should only be one of many In an ESL situation, the classroom learning. important sources. get language input which is at the right level for them. There may be plenty may There them. for which is at the right level get language input is and reading but if this listening of opportunities reading, and listening for diffi too a foreign just like learners of English as language of English as a second A skilful them. for the right level input which is at have language need to and a skilfulteacher learner can fi situation. What better way could there be to learn a language than to live in a country in live language than to learn a be to there could way What better but it is true, belief is generally common This is spoken? the language where in an English-speaking when learners live country, However, true. not always plenty of opportunities are and there observe, learn and use the language, to an important skill make use of these help learners is to of the ESL teacher opportunities. A very important in which ways suggest this book is to goal of diffi One of the major can do this. teachers (3) There are out of class opportunities out of class learn, and use the are to observe, There (3) This motivation is not guaranteed or unchanging, but it is typically but it strong. or unchanging, guaranteed is not motivation This ned ciency ect all aspects erent erent from the ect on their language ectwhen it is learnt, be learnt, needs to what lled without such learning. It also be because they lled without such learning. may nding out what learners need to know. special importance in Most of the early chapters know. need to nd out what their learners really period of time to study, to work, or to accompany a family member. The The a family member. accompany work, or to to study, period of time to and take up the opportunities they create which participate to to in degree eff country of the a strong the normal daily life will have aff They of curriculum design. This plan. most important is to The teacher of any job it is learnt. and how making that learners get the best range of sure planning should involve a part As of this opportunities know. need to really learn what they to one of the most important planning, can do is to things that an ESL teacher fi fi this book involve English is where situations teaching common on several In focus this book we include one-to-oneThey of adult home tutoring language. taught as a second language learners second teaching small classes of adults, teaching learners, on an English for job-seekers, and teaching teaching in the school system, situations, all ESL teaching do not cover These academic purposes program. usually the same or but the principles and activities other situations are for be changes that need to The very described in this book. the ones similar to what makes the situation diff address made simply need to take ESL classes needs to large teaching example, For ones described here. and the inevitably wide range of profi class size of the large account These four features of learning English as a second language aff of learning English as a second features four These Part of learning to take part in daily life involves learning the customs and learning the customs take part to of learning Part involves in daily life most basic, its At speakers of the language. typical of the native behaviour various For and behaviour. of such customs an awareness this involves but it and behaviour, these customs follow not wish to may learners reasons of English as a second teacher The is important them. that they understand of such information. language can be a very useful source When learners learn English as a second language, there is a wide variety is of there language, as a second learn English When learners in the country be living happen to they English is spoken. why where reasons their of the rest spend to likely who are or refugees be immigrants may They the country to a defi only come for have may They in this country. life years many for lived plenty of people who have of stories are There learning. learn very to managed of little in another country successfully and who have immediate be because their largely may This country. the language of that be fulfi needs could the opportunity the need or have take partdid not feel to of in the daily life not only has the job language of English as a second teacher The the country. parthas the job of helping learners take English, but also of teaching in the opportunities of the country are beyond learning daily life so that there for the classroom. (4) Cultural and integrational aspects on a take learning of language integrational and Cultural (4)

How Does ESL Differ from EFL? Chapter 1 010 Chapter 1 How Does ESL Differ from EFL? 011 , for , for Seoul: rst is that ect their language Researching and AnalyzingResearching What Should Every EFL Teacher Know? What Every Should EFL Teacher uency development. This theme is largely theme is largely This uency development. What Should Every EFL Teacher Know? What Should Every EFL Teacher situations. ESL teaching erent ve diff ve Boston: Heinle Cengage Learning, for a system of technique of technique system a for Learning, Heinle Cengage Boston: Further Reading Further (2012). 1 of Nation, I.S.P. Chapter levels in the class (see my book,(see my class in the levels suggestions). Doing one-to-onesuggestions). take needs to learners of young tutoring aff because this will age of the learners of the account of activities is an equal balance that there make sure need to teachers output, input, meaning-focused strands of meaning-focused the four across and fl language-focused learning, must theme is that ESL courses second The 7 on. Chapter dealt with from 6 look at needs and 2 to Chapters of their learners. of the needs take account in fi analysis environment The teacher’s most important job is to plan a relevant well-balanced course. course. most important well-balanced plan a relevant job is to teacher’s The fi The this book. major themes in two are there reason, this For Each teacher has their favourite activitiesan activity and because has their favourite Each teacher is not However, does not mean that it is not a worthwhile activity. mentioned here of the activities be critical An activity do need to teachers they use. is only as the learning look at In this book we it sets up. conditions good as the learning use and creative retrieval, attention, deliberate of repetition, conditions examine very could which are and teachers important language learning, for the activities well they use make use of these conditions. how This book draws on a rather small number of teaching activities, around activities, around number of teaching on a rather small draws book This suggest experience teaching and my that research ones are These twenty. discussion, pair and group reading, like extensive Some, most useful. are Others writing and like 10 minute researched. well are and speed reading they can set up of the conditions but analysis research, need more play role useful activities. are suggests that they needs and opportunitiesneeds and of the one-to-one learning outside for lessons. See Chapter 1 of Nation, I.S.P. & Webb, S. (2011). Webb, & See 1 of Nation, I.S.P. Chapter activities. teaching evaluate to analysis Compass Publishing contains a description of the nature of EFL teaching. a description of the nature contains Publishing Compass Vocabulary. (4), nding t into the larger picture of the larger t into English Teaching Forum, 38 Forum, English Teaching the major advantages nd out what are Needs Analysis and Analysis Needs and Analysis Environment One-to-One Tutoring Learners ESL with Adult

use of a chapter is that teachers should make e main idea in this negotiated syllabus when doing one-to-one tutoring with adult learners. negotiated syllabus when doing one-to-one out what the learner to work talking with A negotiated syllabus involves it. An important they can best learn focus of they need to learn and how to continue learning outside one-to-one teaching is helping the learner the classroom. Main Idea Main Th 2 Chapter Needs analysis is an importantNeeds analysis part fi It of curriculum design. involves out what the learners already know, what they need to know, and what they know, what they need to know, out what the learners already is sometimes included as a part analysis of needs Environment know. want to looking at the situation in carefully involves analysis Environment analysis. fi to in order which learning will occur of be taken account which need to and disadvantages of the situation It includes important a course. when designing factors like the amount of of the class, the size the skill of the teacher, course, the for time available see To and the motivation of the learner. available, which are the resources fi analysis and environment needs analysis how curriculum design, you can read the following short the following article read can you curriculum design, which is available (2000) P. Nation, website. Nation’s on Paul under the heading Publications a language course. improving and Designing Needs analysis and environment analysis are very are important analysis and environment partsNeeds analysis of the for is relevant that a course because they make sure curriculum design of factors be successful that can help the course learners and takes account of it being successful. or stand in the way 2-11.

Needs Analysis and Environment Analysis and One-to-One Tutoring with Adult ESL Learners Chapter 2 012 Chapter 2 Needs Analysis and Environment Analysis and One-to-One Tutoring with Adult ESL Learners 013 nd out what the learner already the learner already nd out what know. learner needs to nd out what the analysis. y again at environment What the learner needs to know What the learner wants to know What the learner knows now What the learner knows    nding out what the learner wants to learn. Sometimes learn. out what the learner wants to nding The simplest way to do environment analysis is to ask what are the two or the two ask what are is to analysis do environment to simplest way The factors which will be most should take advantage of that the teacher three or the teacher, the learner, factors can involve These this course. helpful for This be highly motivated. learners may example, situation. For the teaching Environment Analysis Environment Before doing this, let us look briefl doing this, Before Needs Analysis Needs fi to need we needs analysis, When doing knows. What is their vocabulary size? How good are they at reading? Do they at reading? they is their vocabularyWhat good are How size? knows. is their good How of the language? of the grammar control a good have fi need to also We spoken language? academic go on to they planning to Are travel? learn English to to Do they want What language knowledge what subject study? study? If to do they want so, and language skills carry need to do they out this kind of study successfully? looking partThis the amount and at typicallyanalysis of needs involves aspect third of needs The kind perform of language needed to certain tasks. fi involves analysis in almost are learn learn and what they want to to what the learner needs needs teacher not, and so the they are Often agreement. however complete what is necessary deal with this gap between Oftento and what is wanted. a very idea of what informed learners do not have the gap exists because Sometimes in knowing the gap exists and learning a language. is involved see as an importantbecause what the teachers the learner learning need for a learner wishing example, For learn. wants to is not what the learner really that a very feel important do academic study may to language learning goal be could This friends. make to chat with other students and be able to is to and supportive helpful a very goal because having friends who are realistic When we studying the same subject can make that study much easier. as you a variety of situations in this book, across will give look at needs analysis we aspects three these of needs analysis; to attention nd the factors spoken who can provide nd people prepare to ciency designed programs nd graded readers which are specially written for for written specially are which readers nd graded extranding the use of homework, independent study, time through In many cases lack of time is a very important limiting factor. This factorThis can cases lack of time is a veryIn many important limiting factor. be an independent the learner to on training focusing by be partly overcome priority the most important giving to be learnt, things that need to learner, fi and by be a lack of learning resources. limiting factor Another may or study groups. but language, English is taught as a second is often not the case where This which is at the right a lack of material example through for it can still occur English is taught as a second In where some places the learner. for level fi not easy to it is language, means that the teacher can give them plenty of homework to do, and can set can set and do, to plenty them of homework give can teacher that the means be that the learner may Another advantage tasks. do independent them to the to such as access or has plenty of resources study, has plenty for of time also analysis environment to approach A simple library. or a good internet for in order looking factors be overcome that need to or three at two involves be successful. to the course language learners. It fi language learners. is also not easy to In this chapter and the following chapters we will look at a wide range will look we chapters In and the following this chapter can carrywe see how and to situations out needs analysis of teaching situations include one-to-oneThese teaching tutoring, analysis. environment language learners second teaching or refugees, of immigrants small groups looking language learners who are second teaching in the school system, on English profi work, and teaching for input at the right level for elementary for learners of English. input at the right level and intermediate fi it is not enough just to analysis, When doing environment the next take to which involves step have We helping and limiting the course. them. making the best use of these factors or overcoming academic study. learners for

Needs Analysis and Environment Analysis and One-to-One Tutoring with Adult ESL Learners Chapter 2 014 Chapter 2 Needs Analysis and Environment Analysis and One-to-One Tutoring with Adult ESL Learners 015 One-to-one teaching what was worked into the course and making the course into furtherwhat was worked suggestions for the syllabus. The learners suggest what they would like to learn during the course. like to learners suggest what they would The they reach the learners and together discusses this with teacher The or not be included in the course a decision about whether it would that this involves Note it. to be given much time would and how This of what the learners suggest. negotiation, not just acceptance on the usefulness commenting the teacher negotiation can involve and practicality reaching of what the learners suggest, and together about it. a consensus the negotiation is carried out again, evaluating or two, a week After the course. into worked suggestions are The

Figure 2.1 Figure

When doing one-to-one it is a very at least negotiate good idea to teaching, that the course feels that the learner really makes sure This part of the syllabus. a very Most good awareness learners have on useful material. is focusing Step 4 Step 3 Step 2 Step 1 One approach to needs analysis involves the use of a negotiated syllabus. A syllabus. the use of a negotiated involves needs analysis to One approach working and learners to the teacher together syllabus involves negotiated will be learnt. One-to-one it decide what will be taught and how tutoring A negotiated syllabus. a negotiated having for ideal conditions provides steps. the following syllabus involves  Needs and Environment Analysis in One-to-One Analysis Tutoring Environment and Needs uent? Can you think of anything that has happened in the last two days Can you to be able to enough English did not know felt that you you where deal with it? What do you most need to use English for? Do you want to talk you for? Do to use English most need What do you to go shopping? need English you Do with friends and neighbours? Do with schoolwork? children to help your need English you Do of daily a list of areas 2.1 contains Table need it to do study? you analysis. be drawn on when doing needs language use that could make mistakes or would when you you me to correct want you Do rather concentrate on becoming fl you Here are some useful questions to ask when carrying ask questions to some useful are in a analysis out needs Here one-to-one situation. of what they want to know and what they do not know well. Note that the that know Note want to they of what know do not what they and well. what they want be may syllabus a negotiated to main contribution learner’s about part information provide negotiation is to in the teacher’s The learn. to it. best learn they could learn and how they need to thinks teacher what the

Needs Analysis and Environment Analysis and One-to-One Tutoring with Adult ESL Learners Chapter 2 016 Chapter 2 Needs Analysis and Environment Analysis and One-to-One Tutoring with Adult ESL Learners 017

at ering food ering nding a toilet Describing your home, town, and country town, home, your Describing and asking similar information others for house\fl furniture of the town features country of your features job and askingDescribing your others about their job job place conditions work to travelling get a job to out how Finding kind of job look to where do what to and drink food Finding getting attention using a menu a meal ordering off praising the food fi part in sport and entertainmentTaking free are when you saying buying tickets like doing like and do not what you saying a computer Using and writing email reading menus and labels the computer reading language input Controlling slowly, asking more speak repeat, to people means, explain what a word spell a word, clarify while listening feedback giving Special needs Topics

nding out learners’ language needs language learners’ nding out Topics for fi for Topics

ce nding goods nding Table 2.1 Table Taking care of your health of your care Taking contacting a doctor reporting illness illness and medical describing previous conditions calling emergency services Asking how to get to places and telling places get to Asking to how others directions directions and time distance using public transport bank public telephone police garage Using importantUsing services post offi Going shopping fi asking a quantity for understanding prices the checkout going through Meeting people greetings talking about the weather a meal etc for inviting the time and day telling like what you saying asking help for sorry are you saying joining a club thanking Giving information about yourself and yourself about Giving information and asking similar for others family, your information your signing name, spelling your full name, name from are you where phone number address, age, partner family and length of residence job using the telephone ere are are ere ey want ey erence between the languages, between erence already the learner what a lot about nd out (2), 29-44). The slanting lines (/) show the slanting lines (/) show The (2), 29-44). a land snow, in a land of ice and ey live Th can understand each other. places erent arriving there in these countries, rst people to live erent vocabulary level (for more information about the information more vocabulary (for erent level RELC Journal, 31 Journal, RELC and the north of America. in Canada, Greenland live e Inuit the fi ey were A reading test A reading Th Th about 5,000 years ago. Th ago. about 5,000 years it is cold, dark nine long months of the year For without trees. many Today, short months. while summer is only three winter, ago and cities, but not so long in towns modern lives live Inuit parents and their parents’ the way their parents the people lived the people all over Like many for thousands of years. had lived Th do not want to lose their languages. world, the Inuit languages and about 90,000 people who speak Eskimo-Aleut is not much diff because there diff people from the old ways. and teach their children their culture to remember rst 1,000 and 2nd 1,000 words). It get the learner to idea to is also a good words). rst 1,000 and 2nd 1,000 test look at the following article on Paul Nation’s website under the heading website Nation’s article look at the following on Paul test R.L. (2000). A vocabulary-based graded & Fountain, (Nation, I.S.P. Publications dictation test. write the learners to for pauses the teacher phrases where divisions between what they just heard. It a passage to is also worth read you doing a simple dictation where test The said. have what you down phrase and they write the learner phrase by their writing skill some insight into their dictation and into will give test be useful because each paragraph dictation may test following The listening. at a diff is written knows informally by talking to them and by getting them to read to us. It us. is to read talking to getting them by them and by knowsto informally they know. see what to testing formal also do some more to useful however sit next a good idea to it is learner and to the to such testing, When doing This and support with encouragement them provide sit the tests. while they their best performance seeing Such tests are on the test. we that makes sure the for website Nation’s of vocabulary (see Paul a measure include size could and look in in bilingual versions, which is also available Test Size Vocabulary of the bilingual tests Booklet for Resource on that website Vocabulary the fi with you. read have discuss the ideas of what they and to you aloud to read and so in a vocabulary text is written 1,000 words of less than following The within this high see if learners can read with to begin one to be a good may frequency vocabulary. limited In one-to-one can fi we teaching,

Needs Analysis and Environment Analysis and One-to-One Tutoring with Adult ESL Learners Chapter 2 018 Chapter 2 Needs Analysis and Environment Analysis and One-to-One Tutoring with Adult ESL Learners 019 ciency to this to ciency uency, they do not bring enough they uency, nding out what the learner wants to know, and know, nding out what the learner wants to nancial considerations, another factor / is that the nancial considerations, another food, / enough money / to provide / to obtain cult problem ective runningective a family of these proportions of / makes / man has ten sons. e poor A graded dictation test A graded / /of a large family. / who is the father has a friend husband My Th experience / it would be a pleasant man he imagined As a single / it is a realizes now / He of children. / to bring up this number diffi / / for a household of this size. clothes and shelter frequently and parents / mount recently tended to Costs have / measures / that unless they take special economic discover this occurs / If their incomes. to exceed their expenses threaten in their living them / to make a reduction their debts compel / standards. fi Besides eff acquaintance is fortunatemanagement ability essential. / Our her marriage, / she was employed wife. / Before a capable to have her effi attributes in business administration. / She previous training. / previous to maintain so many dependent relatives his responsibility With to /is continually striving to attain adequate / the man I refer are / his slender resources his quest for promotion / In security. his obligations an unfortunate / and furthermore disadvantage, hinder his prospects. what the learner already knows. We still need to look at what they need to look at what they need to still need to We knows. what the learner already Table in provided information The know perform to various language tasks. speaking, the performance to speaker listening, of typical native 2.2 relates and reading, tasks of listening the receptive For and writing tasks. reading So far, we have looked at fi have we So far, background knowledge to what they read, or they have eyesight problems. problems. eyesight or they have knowledge what they read, to background when that can be followed procedure a diagnostic Appendix 1 contains problems. reading analysing If the learner has problems with reading and writing, it is worth looking and writing, with reading If in the learner has problems reading trouble Do they have see the causes of these problems. detail to they do not know of words, forms the written because they cannot recognise fl they lack reading enough vocabulary, nd their vocabulary t from the sessions. Here are are Here the sessions. t from Around 3,000 to 5,000 word families. 5,000 word to 3,000 Around and speakingA listening speed of per minute. 150 words around families. 9,000 word 6,000 to Around 8,000 around require Newspapers around teenagers for novels words, 9,000 words. other novels 6,000 words, 250 words speed of 200 to A reading per minute. 3,000 words. A minimum of 2,000 to some of this school tasks, For be academic vocabulary to need would vocabulary. ciency to or the task is adapted adapt the task if they ection, Most observation, of these and research. experience The language and skills performThe needed to certain common language tasks uncontrolled

Language use Language needs gures assume a learner needs somewhere near 98% coverage of the of coverage 98% near needs somewhere a learner assume gures Table 2.2 Table Listening and speakingListening TV and movies Watching part in friendly conversation Taking Reading Reading the newspaper Reading a novel Reading a junior high school textbook Writing a letter Writing a high school assignment Writing The one-to-oneThe analysis doing environment situation is also ideal for tutoring benefi so that the learner can get the greatest size. If they are unsure about items on the test they should guess, but not they should guess, test on the about items If unsure they are size. make wild guesses. or tutor, the teacher the learner, around some useful questions organised from the questions will come to answers The situation. and the teaching refl questioning, but the teacher learner, the to not be directly addressed questions would the answers. look for would The Vocabulary Size Test is a useful way of measuring how much written much written of measuring how is a useful way Test Size Vocabulary The learners. young vocabulary but is not suitable for a learner knows, receptive the learner make sure site, web Nation’s Paul from If test item using the 140 fi 100 to by multiply their score and sits the whole test them through providing plenty of background knowledgeplenty tasks or choosing of background providing them through controlling knowledge, plenty has of background already the learner where controlling and level, suit their language the vocabulary to and grammar Table in information The of supportthe speed and amount the task. during know perform what learners need to to 2.2 indicates such tasks without any special support. the fi perform ESL learners can in the input. such tasks with many running words profi less language

Needs Analysis and Environment Analysis and One-to-One Tutoring with Adult ESL Learners Chapter 2 020 Chapter 2 Needs Analysis and Environment Analysis and One-to-One Tutoring with Adult ESL Learners 021 ciency? lessons? The teaching situation teaching The syllabus? The teacher The increasing in language profi increasing extensive reading, observing doing writing use on television, language reading, extensive talk? a prepared aloud or delivering their reading recording tasks, The learner The ectively.

Environment analysis is also a part of language curriculum design and involves is also a part analysis and involves curriculum design of language Environment and the the teacher, looking the learners, to at a range of factors related Needs analysis is an importantNeeds analysis part It design. of language curriculum involves in their knowledge now the language, of looking the learners are where at the purposes they use the language for to in order get to they need to where learn. A very they want to of useful way and what they feel aiming for, are use a negotiated is to needs in a language course taking of learners’ account negotiating with and the learners regularly the teacher involves This syllabus. it will be taught. decide what will be taught and how each other to What Should You Learn from This Chapter? This from Learn You Should What These questions and the answers to these questions should help the teacher these questions should help the teacher to questions and the answers These possibilities so that the lesson time is used a wide range of relevant consider eff the lesson? What is the best seating arrangement for and uninterrupted? situation quiet Is the teaching and writing resources? enough reading there Are scheduled? the lessons regularly Are each other? to the lessons clearly related Are be enough likely to there each lesson and are enough time for Is there be needed sometimes? a translator Will  a cup of tea? over or informal be formal Should the lessons lessons? between be done to work set regular need to Does the teacher rough a design each lesson and for prepare to need teacher Does the  during the lesson? be around others to prefer Does the learner with the learner? content the lesson negotiate Is it possible to learner is that the show to of progress Is it important visible signs have to  in a certain learn to way? prefer Does the learner as learning such of doing independent and capable Is the learner willing New ciency

www.lextutor.ca. (4), 2-11. There is also a more is also a more There (4), 2-11. Language Curriculum Design.Language Curriculum for an online version of the Vocabulary Vocabulary of the an online version for English Teaching Forum, 38 Forum, English Teaching http://my.vocabularysize.com this article read about curriculum design, which is available nd out more Size Test. See also The Compleat Lexical Tutor at Tutor Lexical Compleat The See also Test. Size detailed book available on the same topic using the same model of curriculum using the same model of curriculum on the same topic detailed book available (2009). J. & Macalister, Nation, I.S.P. design: Look at Look Web Resources Resources Web from Paul Nation’s website. Nation, P. (2000). Designing and improving a and improving (2000). Designing Nation, P. website. Nation’s Paul from language course. To fi syllabuses. It negotiated on a chapter Routledge. contains York: Further Reading Further teaching situation. These factors can include the learners' level of motivation, motivation, of factorsThese level the learners' can include situation. teaching the skill of the experience and the course, for of time available the amount is a range of profi whether there and of texts, the availability teacher, To take part in listening and speaking including watching TVtake part and speaking in listening and movies, including watching To and a families 5,000 word a vocabulary of around size have to learners need A much larger per minute. and speakinglistening 150 words speed of around texts. unadapted reading for is needed 9,000 words vocabulary of around size levels of the classroom. of the classroom. levels

Needs Analysis and Environment Analysis and One-to-One Tutoring with Adult ESL Learners Chapter 2 022 Chapter 3 Needs and Environment Analysis When Teaching Small Classes for Adults 023 is can is Needs and Environment Environment and Needs Teaching When Analysis Adults for Small Classes

in this chapter is that it is important e main idea the learners to keep be done by using a negotiated syllabus and by clearly signalling the clearly signalling negotiated syllabus and by using a be done by conditions for ideal classes provide important be learnt. Small things to work. the use of pair and group informed about the language learning goals for their program. Th language learning goals for their program. informed about the Main Idea Main Th 3 Chapter Needs Analysis for Small Classes for Needs Analysis syllabus A negotiated (1) with one-to-oneAs an opportunity providing negotiated a for tutoring, be carried out in a it could syllabus is a very is how worthwhile idea. Here meetings, or four three for the class has been running After class setting. been doing in have make a list of the things that we "Let’s says the teacher the various class activities and homework help, learners’ the With class so far." this in an organised do If wants to the teacher on the board. activities listed are discussion, the activities under the skills help the later be listed to could way or on a timetable. writing, and speaking, reading, of listening, This chapter looks at needs analysis and environment analysis in classes as analysis and environment looks at needs analysis chapter This Such classes as 15 or 20 learners. learners and as large or four small as three who or refugees immigrants run for courses example intensive include for who those scheduled classes for regularly in the country, just arrived have for classes and less regular months, been in the country at least a few have for learn English. socialise and to both to get together who want to small groups erent erent Negotiating a syllabus Negotiating Monday Friday Wednesday Figure 3.1 3.1 Figure

Homework Then the teacher draws the class timetable on the board. If the class meets the class timetable on the board. draws the teacher Then If the learners do a week, then this will simply be a single box. only once a diff the class meetings and for should be a box homework, then there Then the teacher says, "Are there other things that you want to do in class want to other things that you there "Are says, the teacher Then make could teacher The not done so far?" have that we homework or for let the learners be useful just to it may some suggestions at this point, but up with their own come to or four of three or groups in pairs talk together then the teacher of discussion in groups, minutes a few After suggestions. with them on the board their suggestions and notes asks the learners for should this point, the teacher At the list of activities classes. done in previous consider. learners might like to make some other suggestions that the one for homework. If the class is an intensive one or meets several times a times one or meets several homework. Ifone for the class is an intensive the a blank timetable representing should draw week, then the teacher three a class meeting for is an example meeting times and homework. Here times a week. 

Needs and Environment Analysis When Teaching Small Classes for Adults Chapter 3 024 Chapter 3 Needs and Environment Analysis When Teaching Small Classes for Adults 025 ts t their ciency from If timetable. nal ciency develops, as their experience with the language increases, with the language increases, as their experience ciency develops, A negotiated syllabus requires a certain of language profi level syllabus requires A negotiated The teacher then asks the learners to work in small groups to fi to groups in small work to learners asks the then teacher The the negotiation classes, a few running for the new timetable has been After evaluating the changes and making again can begin further changes and adjustments. an opportunity syllabus is that it provides of a negotiated major value The the throughout occur needs to Needs analysis on-goingfor needs analysis. needs change as is because learners’ This not just near the beginning. course their profi of needs data Other sources (2) the learners as from getting feedback through can occur Needs analysis looking and tasks, of tests through at the results syllabus, in a negotiated observation own In and evaluation of the course. the teacher’s and through about such needs keep the learners informed idea to it is a good most cases, makes the This satisfy their needs. is doing to and what the teacher analysis doing certain they are activities of why and the benefi aware learners more suggestions into the timetable. This of course will mean that they must leave they must leave will mean that of course This the timetable. into suggestions cover time to enough isn’t because there of their suggestions out some can turn this activity teacher The into in class. the time available them in looks at the each learner In procedure, the pyramid procedure. a pyramid must reach pairs and form they Then decision. makes an individual task and groups next form is to The step in their pairs. about the decision agreement Finally, must be reached. agreement again an once pairs where made of two on the fi agreement reach to together must work the groups from can be done with one representative then this large, the class is quite discuss representatives The the others in the group. representing each group members quietly the other group a decision while reach the timetable and observe the negotiation. learners are Many negotiate. to a willingness and also requires the learners, but in such cases it the decision-making the teacher, to leave to happy quite worthwhile on either doing at least a small amount of negotiation is probably aspectsa partThese can on a certain of the timetable or aspect of the classes. include the amount of homework, or the kind activity of reading which is or uses in the class, or the kinds which the teacher being done, of groupings special aspects that the learners need but which have any of language use the teacher. by not been covered be done in a class. of what could awareness and as they gain more learners typically doing such activities. Informed work from that will come For learners. than uninformed motivation and involvement with greater , the is is sound of English rst 2,000 words sound. Th th is is quite an easy sound to make sound correctly ch “While speaking, I have you listening to a little need to do of you several noticed that on the work bit more quite importantthe most because it occurs in language, in the English word frequent and this word occurs in almost every occurs in sentence. and this word is this say this sound well, don’t if you So, will notice in your something that others speech. Th it and will do is practice making and what we also suggest some feedback. I will you give I’ll to say yourself can remind ways in which you speak.” when you this sound correctly focus that the goals can Note and new ones can be added. Know at least three or four ways of starting ways a friendly conversation or four Know at least three Make the Reach a reading speed of 200 words per minute speed of 200 words Reach a reading the fi from each week 25 new words Learn Be able to do all my supermarket shopping in English do all my Be able to Write without making errors subject-verbWrite agreement writing of free pages a week at least two Write Skills Goals Listening Listening and Speaking Reading Writing The form should have plenty of space so that goals which have been achieved been achieved plenty so that goals which have of space should have form The can be ticked off and learning on particular on the amount of work and can also focus errors be done. that needs to Name: In Chapter 2 we looked at some tests that could be used to work out learners’ out learners’ work be used to that could at some tests looked In 2 we Chapter it learners within a class, personalise this for to In order language needs. a list of short-term individual goals have each learner to be useful for would under the organised be usefully goals could These working on. that they are worked goals are These and writing. speaking, reading, skillsfour of listening, and their spoken from on feedback results, test out based on each learner’s observation. that could is a form Here the teachers’ and from tasks, written be used and adapted. example, the teacher might say, say, might teacher the example,

Needs and Environment Analysis When Teaching Small Classes for Adults Chapter 3 026 Chapter 3 Needs and Environment Analysis When Teaching Small Classes for Adults 027 the the bus at the right stop . Table 3.1 can be a starting 3.1 point for Table . nding a place What do I do if …? What do I say if …? What do I say What I do if …? do and Situations requiring cultural knowledge and language cultural requiring Situations knowledge

nd a toilet a bus trip for pay to nd out how something for pay to nd out where Table 3.1 Table someone gives me a small gift someone gives helping me someone a gift for give I want to supermarket and then I meet them again someone in the just said hello to I have in the next aisle often I pass the same person while out walkingquite neighbours my to myself introduce I want to in next be friendly me and I want to door to just moved some people have them toward I want to fi I want to I want to fi I want to me when I should get off tell I want someone to me hello to someone says someone knocks door asking a donation on my for end a phone call I want to I get invited for morning tea for I get invited attention attractI want to the shopkeeper’s help fi for ask someone I want to knowI want to if it is okay a certain go inside to building something costs much ask how I want to fi I want to these lists. Such a table can actthese lists. as a checklist ticking with the learners off comfortable with. in dealing feel now situations that they Such a list can be a very useful source of role play activities, which we will activities, which we play of role Such a list can be a very useful source 14, and can also be a very of observationlook at in Chapter source useful what native to attention the learners paying Observationtasks. tasks involve observationThis life in real can occur in certainspeakers say situations. show. activities or television a movie and when watching It also very is of under the headings up a list of situations build useful to What I say if …? do Table 2.1 in Chapter 2 listed a range of situations that newcomers to a country to that newcomers of situations a range 2 listed Chapter 2.1 in Table to be useful part with. As deal it may to syllabus, negotiated of a might have that they have new situations adding on this table, work to get the learners listed. already the situations adding detail to deal with, and had to ll the (3), 191-201, System, 19 System,

ndings of their observation. Often rst say when they pick up the telephone? telephone? the up pick they when say rst are the most common forms, in some forms, common the most are Thank you

and

What do adults say when they begin talking to a young child? young a to talking begin they when say adults do What

What does the shopkeeper say when beginning to serve a customer? customer? a serve to beginning when say shopkeeper the does What

What do native speakers say when they want end a phone call? call? phone a end want they when say speakers native do What

What do native speakers fi speakers native do What

What do native speakers say to the driver when they get on the bus? bus? the on get they when driver the to say speakers native do What Here are some examples; examples; some are Here Thanks is also very frequently used. Learners may not want to use this want to not may Learners is also very used. frequently actually but if they can them to hear what is being said, cult for Cheers it may be diffi it may get part fi be able to may of it and describe the situation, the teacher example has shown thanks for of giving on ways them. Research gaps for that although places (4) Long-term goals goals of the long-term take account also needs to analysis needs Classroom do some kind to learners plan of academic example, for If, of the learners. and starting newspapers some academic texts then reading read to study, of the vocabulary such of getting on top way needed for can be an excellent and the within the country, go on holidays to also wish may Learners study. (1991). A D. & Crabbe, (see Nation, P., survival travel vocabulary foreign for travel. survival foreign syllabus for language learning be a useful may under Publications) site web Nation’s Paul from available goal of getting the starting have may elementary point for Learners learners. start to then want and so they may working on the language that a job, the goal of have may 5). Learners they need in the workplace (see Chapter taking such as kindergarten, part their children in activities which involve out these long- Finding and playgroups. school support groups, centre, play classroom relevant planning a for useful information goals can provide term program. (3) Observation tasks It is analysis. needs own do their learners to Observation for ways tasks are activity classroom a particular set the learners to an interesting observation reportthem to task and then get on the fi It thanks. giving of form but they should know that it is an acceptable form, than once—“Thanksthanks more give to common veryis also reasonably observing Deliberately very useful these things can provide Thanks.” much. learning. input for

Needs and Environment Analysis When Teaching Small Classes for Adults Chapter 3 028 Chapter 3 Needs and Environment Analysis When Teaching Small Classes for Adults 029 extrand setting time by rst step in dealing with this in dealing rst step and what activities materials, erent aint in ESL classes is a wide range of aint in ESL classes is a wide range of namely that the learners ects on the course, ciency. perhaps on diff levels erent erent needs. The most importantThe fi needs. erent ciency amongst the learners. This is often also accompanied by a wide by is often also accompanied This ciency amongst the learners. can be done Some exercises activities and recall like strip stories ciency. A negotiated syllabus is particularly A negotiated learners in small classes. to suited in themselves In addition, learners should also set individual goals for What Should You Learn from This Chapter? This from Learn You Should What Another important constr environment homework activities and by helping learners organise pair or small group pair or small group activities helping learners organise homework and by meetings outside of class time. profi range of diff out what activities learners work in the class can be done by is to constraint working at diff are given training in managing their own learning, and that a few verythat a few and learning, their own in managing training given are of dealing with ways two are There the course. for set achievable goals are within it, or try constraint—accept it and work overcome to an environment fi of time is to the constraint overcome to it. One way Typically, the most pressing environment constraint is usually time. In such is usually time. constraint environment pressing the most Typically, short is quite cases either the course very do not occur or the meetings often. useful eff several can have This Environment Analysis for Small Classes Classes Small for Analysis Environment environment challenges and some brings its own in classrooms Learning be successful. likely to help in making can analysis the classes are that sure the attendance, lookingof classroom at the nature can involve This do homework, and of class time the amount of the learners to willingness together work to willingness learners’ time, within that be achieved what can support to available classroom activities, and the resources work in group activities. and homework can be done by everybody working together on the same material. For For everybodycan be done by working the same material. on together and individual work and writing activities most reading involve example, a just requires This level. and writing at their own learners can be reading the arranging for responsibility some of the and giving bit of organisation Some speaking the learners. activities to listening and work be done in can on the basis of organised or pairs are the groups or pairs where small groups profi profi of mixed in groups small classes it is importantWhen teaching the individual needs of that has been to and one of the goals of this chapter overlooked, not learners are so to attended that individual needs are can make sure a teacher how show them. to the most relevant that is a course that learners follow Seoul: Compass Seoul: Compass New York: Routledge. York: New What Should Every EFL Teacher Know? What Should Every EFL Teacher Case Studies in Language Curriculum Design. in Language Curriculum Studies Case Publishing, for a range of teaching activities small classes. a range of teaching for for Publishing, See Nation, I.S.P. (2012). See Nation, I.S.P. See Boon, A. on negotiated syllabuses in Macalister, J. & Nation, I.S.P. (eds) & Nation, I.S.P. J. See in Macalister, syllabuses A. on negotiated Boon, (2011). Further Reading Further Probably the most severe environmental constraint on ESL classes is the on ESL classes constraint environmental the most severe Probably and usually be learned is so much that needs to There time. of constraint class time. limited consultation with the teacher. Teachers should also draw on other sources sources on other draw also should Teachers the teacher. with consultation including observationanalysis of needs interviews and It with the learners. is the language the goals of about very well-informed keep learners to useful these the various activities working how class and toward the class are in goals.

Needs and Environment Analysis When Teaching Small Classes for Adults Chapter 3 030 Chapter 4 Needs and Environment Analysis for Learners Going to School 031 are in are

ects on ects Needs and Environment Environment and Needs Learners for Analysis School Going to

erent situation, because they have little choice but to participate but to little choice situation, because they have erent

the language supporte main idea in this chapter is that to given learners at school should largely have a close relationship to what they a close relationship should largely have learners at school that second support may be needed to make sure studying. Special are classmates. native-speaking language learners keep up with their Main Idea Main Th 4 Chapter Opportunities for Learning for Young ESL Learners Young Opportunities for Learning for child living in a country the main language has the English is A young where opportunities language. a second learning English as following for their language learning. Learners within the school system, however, the school system, within Learners their language learning. diff a quite the then extend beyond which may actively in the school environment In language learners in the school second the vast majorityschool. of cases, a language and have learn the second very motivation to strong have system of opportunities wide range learning. do such to So far we have looked at needs analysis for learners in one-to-one learners for looked at needs analysis have So far we tutoring in these situations may Learners adults. and in small language classes for opportunities limited a part truly become sometimes have to and motivation very eff strong and this can have living, of the society in which they are ect of their rst language or fi become their ectively rst language, even if they are bilingual. if they are rst language, even Learning from friends from Learning eff without any obvious e child will soon speak English like a fi L1 on their pronunciation L1 on their pronunciation vocabulary will soon be within the range of that of native size vocabulary may have gaps children speakers of the same age. Some teaching or reading dealt with through that may need to be directly and listening in certain topic areas For many children, their rate of vocabulary growth and their their rate of vocabulary many children, growth For is highly likely to eff English Th    community. Figure 4.1 4.1 Figure

1 in English. and sisters brothers child speaks to The 2 in English. parents their to child speaks The 3 with others in English. child plays The 4 TV in English. and movies child watches The 5 of instruction. English is the medium a school where child goes to The 6 in day-to-day in English in the communication child is involved The the child came to and the apply, six conditions If of the above at least three expectEnglish speaking would that the age of 7, we country before 

Needs and Environment Analysis for Learners Going to School Chapter 4 032 Chapter 4 Needs and Environment Analysis for Learners Going to School 033 ected is aff uence ciency It in their L1. is ciency develops. It ciency is very develops. ortsinclude making could t in using the L1 at home. However, maintenance maintenance However, t in using the L1 at home. cult as learners’ L2 profi cult as learners’ cient in English. This issue is more complex than described complex issue is more This in English. cient orts their profi maintain to be needed would native to special language supportt from that normally given beyond If at least three of the above six conditions apply, and the child came to the to came the child and apply, six conditions If the above of at least three English speaking country the probability ages of 7 and 11, the between less of speaking is still highly likely, but it becomes an accent English without native- and of achieving speakers, a similar vocabularyof having as native size possibility. a real still like mastery are these achievements of English, but Special eff common for brothers and sisters to quickly with each to communicating and sisters begin brothers for common several are there Where other at home in the L2 as their language of choice. highly desirable to maintain the L1, and it is important maintain highly desirable to in particular that parents useful provides Such maintenance of the values of L1 maintenance. aware are supportthe advantages of being able their learning of English and brings for through do not achieve a goal that many one language, than speak more to special eff These study in their lifetime. deliberate here because the likelihood of the L1 remaining a strong infl a strong because the likelihood of the L1 remaining here If English speaking the they came to country after the age of 11, they are lag behind and may an L1 accent, speak English with to continue likely to The same age in their vocabulary speakers of English of the native size. their L1, although they can remain to is likely language of their parents verybecome profi frequent extended family in the country visits to frequent spoken, their L1 is where speaking of their family in their L1, attending and members their parents to in engaging and regularly L1 literacy classes, and language maintenance speaking in the English groups country. church such as L1-medium groups There is no special need for the parents of young children within the school children of young the parents is no special need for There that amount of exposure The home. language at use the second to system at school and with their English-speaking language the second they will get to is no harm There speedy L2 language growth. friends is easily enough for is certainlyand there benefi diffi of the L1 will become Young ESL learners, certainly or eight, can the age of seven ESL learners, those below Young benefi other is that like however, main requirement, Their speakers of the language. and the opportunity caring and capable teachers, learners they should have supportThe they get should with their classmates. make good friends to of what they are language and subject-matter on both the content focus supportThis has the major goal of making they keep up with sure studying. Some education their native-speaking and study. in reading classmates olds in New Zealand) 6 year (for recovery like reading schemes have systems behind. that learners do not slip which make sure by a wide range of factors including the learner’s attitudes toward the L1 and attitudes toward of factors a wide range by including the learner’s opportunities, the L1, L1 maintenance and L2 learning to attitudes L2, others’ opportunities. young for Books written ecting or study. reading their or six-year-old 4,000- has a vocabularyve of around size The Vocabulary Knowledge of Young Native Speakers Native Young of Knowledge Vocabulary The 1,000 word speakers of English learn vocabulary of around Native at the rate rule of rough The early 20s. until their and this continues families a year, vocabulary take about is to size speaker’s thumb when estimating a native 1,000. by the result their age and multiply from away years or three two a fi means that This 5,000 words. An average 13-year-old junior high school has a beginning An average 5,000 words. senior high school student A vocabulary 10 and 11,000 words. between size any At 14,000 words. 17 has a vocabulary of around at the age of around size variation in vocabulary is considerable size, there level and grade age level speakers at the lower native but even thousand words, as much as several by end of the range know enough vocabulary vocabulary for knowledge not to aff be a major problem children beginning reading require a vocabulary knowledge 2,000 require of around reading beginning children Such with this. speakers can easily cope native and young 3,000 words to lots very are supportivebooks of course of language learning as they involve They built-in repetition. pictures and often have of helpful accompanying very and learners are also typically books, and engaging veryare interesting than them more read again, and to and over over hear such stories willing to once. It seems that young children’s motivation is to be like the other children children be like the other is to motivation It children’s young seems that speaking them and this particularly the same language that around involves L2 is remarkable, learn the children speed at which young The they speak. in which they learnt their same way be carried out in much the and seems to L1. children in the family, it seems that the eldest child is the one most likely likely the one most child is eldest that the it seems the family, in children may and sisters brothers and younger some degree, L1 to maintain the to at will not look We the L1. or speak understand be unlikely to eventually are learners special measures in this book, young L1 maintenance but for often that it is mistakenly think Parents maintain the L1. to usually needed help to should use the L2 home and that they use the L1 at idea to not a good using idea and they should keep is a mistaken This L2. learn the their children the L1 with their children.

Needs and Environment Analysis for Learners Going to School Chapter 4 034 Chapter 4 Needs and Environment Analysis for Learners Going to School 035 erent erent 1000 to the 1000 to st

5.63% 81.52% secondaryrst year text. science school The vocabulary levels in a secondary vocabulary text levels school science The lists using the BNC/COCA

Frequency levelFrequency Coverage Cumulative Families Cumulative 1000. Total 100.00% 24,000 Not in the lists 0.35% 100.00% Proper nouns, letters, letters, nouns, Proper etc. Low-frequency 1.55% 99.65% 15,000 24,000 High-frequency 75.89% 75.89%Mid-frequency 2,000 2,000 16.58% 98.10% 7,000 9,000 th Table 4.1 Table In total, the Science book analysed in Table 4.1 is 62,445 tokens long, and long, 4.1 is 62,445 tokens Table in Science book analysed the In total, the 1 every from from level families with words uses 2,400 word Books written for secondary school students require a knowledge of around a knowledge secondaryaround of for require school students Books written most secondary and vocabulary students have school words, 8,000 7,000 to amount and kinds the 4.1 shows of vocabulary Table that. beyond well sizes in a fi that occur What Kind of Vocabulary Do Learners Need to Cope with with to Cope Need Learners Do Vocabulary of Kind What Texts? SecondaryTheir School in 25 Figure 4.2 contains an example section 4.2 contains text with diff of the science Figure levels of vocabularylevels marked up. .

nitions Canis . , and {19} Auckland: New House jackals able to but they are erent, Familiaris {!} are put into a family. Similar Similar a family. put into are protista (8 times), monera (5), (8 times), monera protista Canis possible. creatures c study of living genera startsrst name always with a capital and which {8}genus you rst name of a species tells {3}infertile. {6}mules are but spring called {6}mules, nitions in the texts of the skills and one that diff look quite may breeds erent species, genes, genus, protein, fertile, class, organisms, fertile, organisms, protein, class, genus, genes, species, nally {4}biologists have discovered over two million species two over discovered have nally {4}biologists the dog species is {19} c name for , and fi Year 9 Science. New Zealand Pathfi nder Series compact course books. nder compact Series Pathfi New Zealand 9 Science. Year {4} = 4th 1,000 and so on. {!} = not in 1,000, {3} = 3rd not marked. rst 2,000 are A secondary school text marked to show word frequency levels word A secondary show to marked school text Dogs of diff spring. phylum is the name of the wolf species. The fi The species. is the name of the wolf ning a Species includes closely related species such as dogs, wolves and {12} wolves species such as dogs, includes closely related lupus Words in the fi Words {3}-{9} = mid-frequency, in bold. the lists are outside and words frequency words Low the lists. nouns. {31} = proper frequency, {10-24 }= low Hook, G. (1997) The most basic group is the species. A species is a group of {4}organisms which share which share of {4}organisms A species is a group species. is the group most basic The {3}structure), tooth include {3}structure (e.g. features These in common. features many activities attract which mates) (e.g. {3}behaviour blood {3}proteins), (e.g. {7}physiology in common, features many as having But, as well information). and {3}genes ({3}inherited {3} produce members to with other must be capable of breeding members of a species fertile {5}off {4}Biologists have {3}estimated that there are many {7}trillions of living {4}organisms of living {4}organisms {7}trillions many are that there {3}estimated have {4}Biologists (sort) {4}classify need to {3}vast number of {4} this We on the surface of this planet. make the scientifi to in order groups into organisms {3}Defi Publishers Ltd. Publishers families are put into an order. Similar orders are put into a class. Similar classes are put Similar classes are a class. put into are Similar orders an order. into put families are a {12} into mate and produce {3}fertile puppies. All dogs belong to the same species. Horses and {6} Horses the same species. {3}fertile All dogs belong to puppies. and produce mate {5}off produce to can mate donkeys species. separate So belong to horses and {6}donkeys Kingdoms Five The similar {10} a {8}genus. put into species are Related {13} fi The letter. name with a small the second {8}genus {19} The species. related of closely A {8}genus is a group the species belongs to. Canis so far. Each species must have a {3}unique species name to avoid confusion. A species confusion. avoid a {3}unique species name to species must have Each so far. {31} ({31}Latin was the language of {3}Ancient {31}Latin name. - word a two is given The Rome.) scientifi Figure 4.2 4.2 Figure

This vocabulary does require attention from teachers and can be a barrier teachers from attention vocabularyThis does require Most subject explain the meaning of texts deliberately matter reading. for defi through words technical technical to attention give can usefully Teachers them. and learning from also are of the high and mid-frequency words that several Note vocabulary. vocabulary—technical native speaking readers need to develop is recognising these defi these is recognising speaking develop need to native readers Much of this vocabulary will already be familiar to the learners. There is There the learners. Much of this vocabulary be familiar to will already vocabulary speakers as native in school texts that will be new to however vocabulary and most of this is the technical speakers, much as non-native and geography. of particular history, mathematics, subjects science, such as are 4.1 which Table in text analysed in the science words most frequent The speakers are be known native unlikely to by thigmotropism (5), Brownian (4), C6H1206 (4), limewater (3), monerans (3), NH3 (3) (3), monerans (4), limewater (4), C6H1206 (5), Brownian thigmotropism 

Needs and Environment Analysis for Learners Going to School Chapter 4 036 Chapter 4 Needs and Environment Analysis for Learners Going to School 037 school did not ort when sitting such lack of a from culty come is likely to , for example, has a precise meaning in science and a very meaning in science has a precise example, , for . These may not require a lot of extra learning, but there will be will but there of extra a lot learning, require not may These . Species cult content-matter subjects. This diffi This subjects. content-matter cult culties such as the pronunciation of words that they faced in the test. in the test. that they faced of words as the pronunciation culties such general meaning in general use. in general meaning general It is important within primary language learners of second that teachers and secondary schools knowneeds of native and about the vocabulary growth very because some L2 learners can speakers, quickly like native become Native keep up. struggle to while others may speakers of the language, in the primaryspeakers of the language and secondary have school system a clear idea of what these needs have need to teachers language needs and deal with vocabulary to needs include being able These while reading are. as the vocabulary deal with more as learners demands of texts increase diffi Testing Vocabulary Vocabulary Size Testing physiology some. tests. As a result the scores on group-administered tests were often much were tests on group-administered the scores a result As tests. sitting next each learner as they been, and by to have than they should lower sometimes could on task we and and keeping them motivated sat the test measure want to means that if teachers This on the test. double their score such tests give to advised be well they would the vocabulary of learners, size individually and sit next them while they the learners and encourage to is This be very could If misleading. do the test. scores this is not done the a very impractical accurate between suggestion, but it is basically a choice of the 4.3 lists the features Table measurement. and inaccurate measurement administration. test This individual testing was very time consuming, but it was essential because but was very testing individual This time consuming, off switched us that learners who were had shown experience The information presented in this chapter about the vocabulary in this chapter of sizes presented information The using vocabulary within testing tests speakers was obtained by size native It out that these vocabulary point the school system. to is important however individually given but were of learners, groups to not given were tests size sitting next administrator the learner and each learner with the test to to and helping them with any the test, to attention pay them to encouraging diffi familiarity with content matter with its accompanying vocabulary demands. with its accompanying matter familiarity with content best treated and is probably lack of familiarity attention This needs deliberate Topic-related simply a vocabulary issue rather than matter issue. as a content vocabulary is usually best learned as the subject is being grappled matter with. their best eff seriously and did not give take such tests ciency is ects Vocabulary Size Test Size Test Vocabulary school. Make learners consider all choices all choices Make learners consider taking(test strategy) taking test Consider strategy Gather supporting data for an online version). This kindThis of testing an online version). for ects ciency in English. Younger learners have an easier but have learners Younger ciency in English. culties. Poorly administered and poorly sat tests are worse worse are and poorly sat tests administered Poorly culties. Features involved in administering the the administering in involved Features eff and their

Features of testingFeatures Eff http://my.vocabularysize.com cient users of the language. Secondly, the amount of learning that they Secondly, cient users of the language. Table 4.3 Table Occasionally discuss itemsOccasionally with interviewing up testing Break fatigue Reduce the test Evaluate Get learners to read the items aloud the items read Get learners to skill reading for Control Give immediate feedback on each item feedback immediate Give Maintain motivation Explain the purpose of the testExplain the Maintain motivation Individual (one-to-one) testing Maintain attention not so great. Thirdly, the assessment requirements in the junior school are are in the junior school the assessment requirements Thirdly, not so great. be need to Teachers than those in secondary school. forgiving much more and look for gaps in their language experience have that learners may aware still challenging task for several reasons. Firstly, their motivation to be like their motivation to Firstly, reasons. several task for still challenging likely to more speaking and they are their native is very classmates strong, native-speaking with friendships and alliances form than older classmates their opportunities increase language for and this will greatly learners are, opportunitiesThese will be especially helpful if their friends are learning. profi language profi their classmates’ get close to do initially to need to The Language Needs of L2 Learners at School at Language Needs of L2 Learners The studying in the school language who are of English as a second Learners their language knowledge goal of bringing a long term have need to system is an ambitious goal This same age. speakers of the that of native close to if they have teenagers, when they are the school system those entering for very profi little previous The Vocabulary Size Test on Paul Nation’s website is suitable for such testing such testing for is suitable website Nation’s on Paul Test Size Vocabulary The (see takes considerable time and for this reason should largely involve learners involve should largely reason this and for time takes considerable in diffi who are off switched learners who are at all for than no tests

Needs and Environment Analysis for Learners Going to School Chapter 4 038 Chapter 4 Needs and Environment Analysis for Learners Going to School 039 rst 7,000 words of English. There are are There of English. rst 7,000 words nitions in some dictionaries. It encourage is useful to nd out how many words they already know they already and this can words many out how nd (1) Vocabulary (1) Vocabulary goals short-term are up language if met can speed needs which language There Insecondary the learning. vocabulary academic an system, school plays which families word 570 List contains Word Academic The important role. These newspapers. veryacademic texts and reading are useful when reading the fi across spread families are word these particularly in relation to classroom tasks and reading. tasks particularlythese classroom to relation in It need particular language learners may Second is help with reading. important fi to tests available to measure how much of this academic vocabulary much of this academic how is known. measure to available tests the is probably Test Levels Vocabulary List section the of Word Academic The It format. takes only a in a matching of 30 items consists This most useful. Size Vocabulary with the above but as mentioned sit this test, to minutes few possible while sitting next individually if this test administer it is best to Test, The is taking the learner who to keeping the learner on task. and the test website Nation’s Booklet Resource on Paul Vocabulary in the is available test proportional List. Learners’ Word the Academic in of words along with the list families that are the proportion 570 word of the represents on the test score (50%) means that about half of 15 out of 30 on the test a score known. So, 285 left around known, are families are meaning that there of the 570 word 10 sub-lists divided into List are Word in the Academic words The learn. to ranked in importance, with sub-listthat are Second 1 being the most useful. in the learn the words deliberately to language learners should set out support they can to whatever should do List, and teachers Word Academic and books that help the learning of websites various are There this learning. speakers do not need help with List. Native Word in the Academic the words includes these words. this list because their vocabulary already size If their vocabulary is less size Test. Size Vocabulary be done using the at an readers of graded they should do some reading than 3,000 words, support to level learning of the high frequency their words. appropriate some have chosen should readers the titles of the graded possible, Where a vocabulary their schoolwork. greater If to size have the learners relevance free (available mid-frequency readers they should read than 3,000 words, school texts the help with read also and could website), Nation’s Paul from their to appropriate material should also read They of a bilingual dictionary. Bilingual dictionaryage level. including the use use should be encouraged of electronic the bilingual dictionaries, because such dictionaries provide some very are high quality There of the words. the meanings to easiest access To electronic bilingual dictionaries in a wide range of languages. available dictionary learners need a vocabulary size well, use a monolingual learners’ needed that is the number of words because 3,000 words, of at least 2,000 to understand the defi to dence. dence. c questions, confi ects on learners’ rstly involves the teacher in carefully analysing the format of the format analysing in carefully the teacher rstly involves and verbs. subjects between must be agreement ere and nouns. pronouns between must be agreement ere Th Th must be correct. Spelling must contain a verb. sentence Every veryects eff positive and can also have     (3) Test preparation (3) Test sit high stakes If language learners in the secondary to second school have should be it is worth whether there and examinations, considering tests By focusing such learners. sessions for examination preparation focused of the examination, on the format on the examination requirements, strongly specifi to in writing answers and on practice and preparation Work that is submitted which contains more than one minimum requirement than one minimum requirement more which contains that is submitted Work Having it is marked. checking the learner for before to can be returned error on written feedback that the teacher’s sure makes minimum requirements than these very common features content-related on more can focus work features. grammatical learners can perform language as a second than they would much better aspect, negative has its Such a focus general preparation. of more result namely that the examination is seen as the goal rather than the learning can have focus such a strong However, encourage. which it is supposed to striking eff fi Such a focus much time how answer, to are questions there many the examination (how (2) Minimum requirements their written to attention need special may learners Second language such work.work. Minimum It for is worth setting minimum requirements expected that are of a short consist features list of grammatical requirements how need training in work. Learners of submitted piece in any be correct to insist that needs to and the teacher these features, for check their work to list following The is submitted. work written any such checking before occurs writing. for of minimum requirements make up a suitable set of items learners to look up words working in pairs. Before they look up, they work work they up, they look Before workingpairs. in look up words to learners the when choosing helps This mean. might word guess what the to together sense in the dictionary. appropriate

Needs and Environment Analysis for Learners Going to School Chapter 4 040 needs to be spent on each question, the order in which the questions should be answered, and what questions are likely to be asked). Secondly, it involves the learners preparing answers to predicted or past questions, and getting feedback on these answers. Thirdly, once the answers are satisfactory, the learners should practice writing the answers within the time limit allowed by the examination. If the answer cannot be written within that time, it needs to then be revised so that it can be fi tted within the time. Such timed writing practice should occur at least three times for each answer to an examination question. Fourthly, learners should get plenty of practice in reading the examination instructions and making a simple time allocation plan for answering the whole examination. Fifthly, if time permits, learners should practice writing answers to variations of the questions that they have already practised before. Such examination practice can be highly motivating for many learners, and it is very likely to help learners achieve respectable results in the actual examination. This focused examination work needs to be explicitly discussed with the learners so that it becomes more than practice and develops examination taking strategies, such as time allocation to each of 041 the questions, double-checking of examination instructions, deciding on the Chapter 4 order of answering the questions, preparing brief outlines of answers during the exam to make sure no points are over-looked in the heat of writing, and Needs and Environment Analysis for Learners Going to School making written notes of all these features that are ticked off as they are done.

Environment Analysis A key factor to success at school is being happy in the school surroundings. Most second language learners will come to school wanting to make friends and be accepted. Teachers should do whatever they can to support this. This can include setting up a buddy system between second language learners and native speakers, arranging for cross-age peer tutoring between second language learners who speak the same fi rst language, having some activities which involve learners working together in groups where each group member is valued, and where it is not embarrassing for the second language learner, drawing on their knowledge and experience from their home culture and fi rst language in class work.

Second language learners at secondary school often feel it is much easier to get on with other second language learners who speak the same language or who come from a somewhat similar culture to theirs. This feeling of comfort is worth supporting and may be a consideration when forming groups for group work.

The parents of second language learners may have very high educational expectations for their children, and it is worth seeing if there are useful ways ciency nd teacher trainees nd teacher t from exam focused instruction if they have to sit to instruction exam focused if they have t from t from classes focused on their language profi classes focused t from and retired teachers who are willing to give support. give to willing Setting up homework who are teachers and retired of work a lot involves This be useful. among the learners is likely to groups supported and the school. be well parents and needs to by and planning, Chapter? This from Learn You Should What of quickly ESL learners speakers in terms young like native become Many of the language used in their home setting. their vocabulary regardless size learners in primaryOthers need support may For and encouragement. included and feel the learners are make sure needs to the teacher school, supported and well happy in their valued in the school activities,are and not born in an English- ESL learners at secondarylearning. school who were speaking in their primary late country there school live and who came to study will benefi Some second language learners have less than ideal conditions at home for at home for less than ideal conditions have language learners Somesecond it is whether consider wish to the school may and done, getting homework help after to school centre up a homework with setting parents help useful to supportwith the and supervision draw could of homework. Such a centre fi be possible to and it may and parents, on volunteers of enlisting the parents’ help in getting homework done, and in providing in providing and done, homework help in getting parents’ the of enlisting resources. national exams while in secondary school. development. Secondarydevelopment. a vocabulary texts school knowledge require of at using vocabulary can be measured size Learners’ families. least 9,000 word on a one-to-one and this is best administered basis. Test, Size Vocabulary the ESL learners will benefi

Needs and Environment Analysis for Learners Going to School Chapter 4 042 Chapter 4 Needs and Environment Analysis for Learners Going to School 043 (3), 498-520 (3), 498-520 rst 2,000 words of English, rst 2,000 words Journal of Educational Psychology, 93 Psychology, Educational Journal of rst 1,000. rst under the heading children young picture vocabulary for test ell’s on the vocabulary size of young native-speaking children. Five year olds olds year native-speakingon the vocabulary of young size Five children. and 12 4,000-5,000 words, olds around 6-7 year words, know 3,000 around words. 8,000-9,000 around olds year Web Resources Resources Web See Sue Ruff Resources on Paul Nation’s website. The test was designed for six year olds year six for was designed test The website. Nation’s on Paul Resources Zealand. in New recovery in reading of books used a corpus and was based on Almost all of the vocabulary is in the fi in the test with most in the fi See Biemiller, A., & Slonim, N. (2001). Estimating root word vocabulary growth vocabulary growth word root N. (2001). Estimating A., & Slonim, See Biemiller, sequence a common for Evidence advantaged populations: and in normative of vocabulary acquisition. Further Reading Further ciency so that One reason nding a job. nd a job. These include a lack These nd a job. culty in fi in culty ciency be dealt with need to may in English and this Needs and Environment Environment and Needs Job Seekers for Analysis Settingin an ESL fi non-English speakers to cult for nd a job, a job seeker typically needs to have a well presented presented a well seeker typically a job have needs to nd a job,

to a country immigrants is that recent e main idea in this chapter may 5 Th the workplace. to relevant skills that are need training in communication profi analyse their language to carefully is also valuable It Main Idea Main of weakness. on areas they can work Chapter Job Seeking Needs Analysis fi In to order curriculum vitae. While it is possible to simply follow a model to prepare such prepare a model to simply follow While it is possible to curriculum vitae. principles which if the learner understands the a document, it is much better Immigrants to a countryImmigrants to diffi experience may Among the language skills the ability engage to needed in the workplace are making interactionThis can involve interactin small talk and to with others. making suggestions, refusals, to responding and requests refusing requests, making making and with suggestions, compliments, apologies. disagreeing for this could be low profi be low this could for a lack of networks, professional to a lack of access experience, of local work might not that a foreigner employers by and fear contact with local people, do the or workmates or might not be able to customers by be understood job. through one-to-onethrough course. part-time regular or an intensive classes, classes, the lack of namely another reason, on will focus we however, In this chapter, stylescommunication and interactionskills typical of the English- that are reasons other of course, are, There speaking country live. they now where making it diffi

Needs and Environment Analysis for Job Seekers in an ESL Setting Chapter 5 044 Chapter 5 Needs and Environment Analysis for Job Seekers in an ESL Setting 045 ect than their actual but it their worries needs,

A family member of one of your close friends has died and you want to close friends has died and you A family member of one of your job for about in your only been working have You attend the funeral. that it is a very However know busy time at work. two months and you attend the funeral. Ask didn’t friend would be rather upset if you your the funeral. to go to leave supervisoryour for half a day’s When using such a task as a part of needs analysis, it is good to give the When using such a task as a part give it is good to of needs analysis, based play doing the role think about the task before learners some time to it is important the well (1) how see to When observing play, the role on it. status of the relative take account to of politeness learner used the right level directly (2) how they knew well and how the supervisor, of the supervisor, that the of the inconvenience take account to the learner made the request through the request the learner led up to and (3) how cause, would request

may be a useful starting point. A much more informative way is to use role use role is to way be a useful startingmay informative point. A much more to the learners actually relevant see how to handle situations that are plays can be what is called a Discourse starting plays The such role point for them. is an example. Here form. which is usually done in a written Task, Completion Communication Skills Needs Analysis Communication skills A simple communication a variety can be assessed in of ways. Learners’ a checklist provide that learners can respond is to and straightforward way refl likely to is more This to. The second major step is dealing with a job interview is dealing with a activity major step play second The and a role job interview learners’ of data gathering about the can be used as a means skills. If carryis not possible to it activities, a valuable play role out such observe recorded get learners to be to or three two would choice second they that features and negative job interviews positive list the and then to It performance useful to is also in each interview. in the job seeker’s saw the interview and analyse list get the learners to questions so that their the questions can be checked. understanding of lie behind it. This is because the curriculum vitae may be used as a basis for basis for used as a be may vitae the curriculum because is This it. lie behind of the preparation that apply to of the principles and most a job interview, an in the kinds covered apply to vitae will also the curriculum of information a critical curriculum vitae, prepared has a If already the job seeker interview. the needs analysis. as the basis of of this can be used assessment er ciency rst year ciency across across ciency nd suitable employment nd suitable employment ectiveness of the interaction, the ectiveness, noting how directly or noting how ectiveness, For rst job in an English-speaking country. ciency measures such as TOEFL and IELTS IELTS and TOEFL ciency such as measures nd a job require a high level of language profi of a high level nd a job require cations, although this time requirement is not always is not always although this time requirement cations, nding their fi ciency Analysis Needs Related ectiveness or lack of eff of fi cult problem prior to admission to the course. Such courses are typically for learners who typically for are Such courses the course. admission to prior to the often very solve and need to skilled well in a profession already are diffi Language Profi do various jobs can diff to amount of language knowledgeThe required reasons for its eff for reasons of directness indirectly the interaction out, whether this degree was carried in the interaction of politeness the degree or not, noting was appropriate used in humour was or not, noting if any and whether this was appropriate of familiaritythe interaction, used in the language and whether the degree involved. the people was suitable for small amount only a Some jobs require the kind to of job. according greatly high profi of rather predictable interaction, while others require to Some courses writing. and speaking, reading, skillsthe four of listening, help skilled fi migrants When doing needs analysis of communication skills, see of communication it is also useful to analysis When doing needs A useful way communication. of good of the features are learners aware how or a video recorded observe play get learners to of doing this is to a role of the interaction. on the features comment interaction to get them and to include noting the eff can comment This Discourse completion tasks can also be responded to in writing and although to also be responded tasks can completion Discourse as rich be a time-savingthis may not provide of gathering data, it does way play. role data as an interactive Having a good range of discourse completion tasks is a very completion of discourse a good range importantHaving 14, in Chapter listed are Several such needs assessment. for preparation a large provide (2010) and Newton and Riddiford (2007) Riddiford and both tasks. examples of such number of explaining the background or through the use of small talk if this was suitable. if this was small talk the use of or through background the explaining such learners, international profi international such learners, skilled in the School for migrants of course The can be suitable measures. Wellington of University Victoria at Linguistics and Applied Language Studies fi for which is that required of 6 or higher, level an IELTS requires a vocabulary of at least size have likely to Such learners are study. university They and writing skills. reading reasonable have and to 5,000 or 6,000 words years with at least two professionals be trained experienced also need to fi not been able to who have overseas experience their qualifi to related entry demanding that the course These ensure standards strictly followed.

Needs and Environment Analysis for Job Seekers in an ESL Setting Chapter 5 046 Chapter 5 Needs and Environment Analysis for Job Seekers in an ESL Setting 047 ciency and ation skills? ation opriate communic opriate e in appropriate communication skills communication e in appropriate much time should be given to appr to much time should be given hould a workplace experience component be included in the course? in the course? be included component experience hould a workplace rstly that it is worth taking such skill development seriously, and secondly and secondly rstly that it is worth taking such skill seriously, development (3) S important, is obviously inclusion of such a component The and is a major gaining in eventually of the course graduates of the success to contributor the learner, for not only experience provides Such placement employment. that can be included in a curriculum experience local work but also provides and seems organise, is not easy to experience such work for Placement vitae. with the approach a coordinated done through most successfully be to support of contracting agencies and making job placement use of voluntary (2) How important How is motivation? (2) skills is a very that motivation Studies of communications show development adapt to to include a willingness motivation needs to This important factor. learners exists, this willingness Where of the workplace. the requirements skills amounts in communication with limited even can make good progress of language knowledge. Just under 50% of the class time in the program reported on by Riddiford reported Riddiford on by the program Just under 50% of the class time in (2007) was spent on training and practic and interaction. spent in a It were is worth weeks that six of the twelve noting spent six weeks during those with only one afternoon a week job placement indicates of the program and the success time commitment This back in class. fi amount of time in the program. that it is important it a reasonable give to (1) How (1) How Environment Analysis for a Course for Job Seekers for a Course for Analysis Environment members have what is traditionally seen as high language profi language seen as high is traditionally what have members seeking be assessed demanding can less language Learners jobs which are Booklet Resource on Vocabulary using bilingual vocabulary (see the tests and dictation (see the article graded tests Fountain website), by Nation’s Paul and a website), Nation’s Paul on Publications under Nation (2000) available possible, Where measure. comprehension or some other reading test cloze of assessing spoken be a useful means an interview task would play or a role and a short writing skills. assess be used to language, could composition have enough overseas professional knowledge and experience to do the do the knowledge to experience and professional enough overseas have them back is more what is holding assumption is that The seek.jobs they out sets what the course and this is environment, the local to closely related deal with. to TESOL , 88-102, and Riddiford, , 88-102, and Riddiford, Case Studies in Language Curriculum Studies in Language Curriculum Case Wellington: LALS, Victoria University of University Victoria LALS, Wellington: TESOLANZ Journal, 18 TESOLANZ Journal, ciency across the four skills of listening, speaking, skillsciency the four of listening, across ciency? ciency in the language may need to work on their ciency work need to in the language may (1), 195-205. Workplace Talk in Action. Talk Workplace New York, Routledge, 72-81. See also Riddiford, N. (2007). Making N. 72-81. See Riddiford, also Routledge, York, New N. & Joe, A. (2010). Tracking the development of sociopragmatic skills. of sociopragmatic the development Tracking A. (2010). N. & Joe, Quarterly, 44 Quarterly, Nicky Riddiford and Jonathan Newton’s excellent book is available from from book is available excellent Nicky and Jonathan Newton’s Riddiford N. and Newton, Riddiford, Wellington. of University Victoria Books at Victoria (2010). J. Further Reading Further the from on research drawing It research-based is strongly Wellington. project started by Workplace in the Language renowned internationally a across It of examples of conversations Janet Holmes. a wealth contains analysing for useful frameworks wide range of speech acts and provides tasks that can be used them. It completion discourse also has numerous “Helping skilled chapter, See also Nicky plays. Riddiford’s role as a basis for in program”, workplace communication The employment: into migrants (2011). & Nation, I. S. P. J. Macalister, Design. language: Does instruction in a second help to appropriately requests profi pragmatic develop What Should You Learn from This Chapter? This from Learn You Should What who already and force a countryImmigrants to the work enter who wish to profi reasonable have communication skills, focusing on the use of English in the workplace. It on the use of English in the workplace. is skills, focusing communication profi also useful if their of on areas so that they can work assessed is carefully and writing reading, weakness. organisations such as the Rotary as the such the organisations In placements, these Lions. Club or on as a kind taken are not paid but of temporarylearners are apprentice.

Needs and Environment Analysis for Job Seekers in an ESL Setting Chapter 5 048 Chapter 6 Needs and Environment Analysis for ESL Learners in Pre-University Courses 049 ciency measure, the ciency measure, ciency of their English in order measure ciency be an internationally may measure on the pre-university course. Whatever measure it measure Whatever on the pre-university course. Needs and Environment Environment and Needs Learners ESL for Analysis in Pre-UniversityCourses

for academic is that courses in English e main idea in this chapter purposes need to focus both on the language that learners will need to both on the language that learners purposes need to focus that they need to pass and on the language skills study, use in their future an important component of skills are Study the entry test to university. preparation. university Main Idea Main Th 6 Chapter IELTS (International English Language Testing System) which uses a nine which uses a nine System) Testing (International English Language IELTS course, intensive week in a twelve that has shown scheme, band grading of half a band. an average by on the test their score learners can increase reading). (see Further increase Some learners can make a much larger Skilled on pre-university teachers can often experienced and work courses struggle the to of classes which learners will have or two out after a week re-think need to meet the entrymost to or who may their requirement, entry the required reach enough time to goals because they do not have on a widely used language profi Research standard. Learners who come to do tertiary to who come Learners study in an English-speaking country academic in pre-university study English for often enrol to English courses that is, than this, immediate be more often to likely needs are Their purposes. kind pass some they need to of profi profi This gain entryto university. to be an in-house measure it may or or IELTS, TOEFL like test recognised the staff by administered if they do because passing it is a major goal of the learners on the course, is, they will not be eligible in this measure, high enough grade a not achieve the curriculum on a a result, As degree. their university study for to begin to working the learners that they are pre-university to indicate must course as learning the English the English entry passing as well toward requirement, study. academic successful for and study skills required ciency, ciency, the ciency like test ciency in English is an all be very students. university would successful ciency, (1) Academic (1) Academic vocabulary useful shortcuts a satisfactory are reaching to There vocabulary deal to size List. Word most well-known one is the Academic The with academic study. in a wide range of academic frequent families that are is a list of 570 word This of the General list assumes knowledgeThis of the 2,000 words subject areas. Service see this assumption as a List and builds on that. Some researchers in is little doubt that the words there List, but Word weakness in the Academic Academic and Technical Vocabulary Technical and Academic of the vocabulary language at an of learners of English as a second size Tests is a wide range of vocabularyEnglish-speaking that there show university giving Without families. 6,000-7,000 word around with an average sizes of academic texts analyses vocabulary, technical to special consideration gain 98% learners to for needed families are 8,000 word that around indicate do university means that to This in the texts. of the running words coverage know learners need to study without vocabulary a major burden, becoming It of the language. is likely the high frequency and mid-frequency words that knowledge vocabulary of the technical of the subject that they area families that the number of word reduce some degree to studying may are In be known, some be only a small one. need to but the reduction is likely to vocabulary of the the technical subject can be substantial with many areas, speakers. most native unfamiliar to words The relationship between performance between profi an English on relationship The IELTS and TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language) and grade point point and grade Language) as a Foreign of English (Test TOEFL and IELTS Typically relationship. is not a strong study university in subsequent average of of the order are point average and grade score TOEFL between correlations 9% of around measures test TOEFL speaking,.3. Roughly means that the this of the other 91% The study. university successful to the factors that contribute a weakness is not necessarily This test. TOEFL the by not measured factors are point highly with grade correlated test TOEFL the on Ifof the test. score a on highly who should score expect speakers, would that native we average, of English profi a test not only depends on at university success because not so, is clearly This know also on a wide variety you the language but of other factors well how knowledge previous of the hard, work to willingness including motivation, good study and accommodation and subject, study skills, social relationships, profi adequate at least an having However conditions. English profi important a learner’s and the higher requirement, their study. of the content to attention can give they more

Needs and Environment Analysis for ESL Learners in Pre-University Courses Chapter 6 050 Chapter 6 Needs and Environment Analysis for ESL Learners in Pre-University Courses 051 should be e materials uency development. Working through through Working uency development. be speaking and writing about things ey should Meaning-focused Output Meaning-focused Meaning-focused Input Meaning-focused

speaking learning through of meaning-focused output involves e strand listening learning through e strand of meaning-focused input involves and writing. Learners’ attention should be focused on communicating and writing. Learners’ messages to others. Th  Th their language knowledge. a lot about but which stretches that they know A good example of an activity in the meaning-focused output strand or about something that telling another learner about yourself involves and reading. Learners’ attention should be focused on the message of the attention should be focused Learners’ and reading. Th listening to or reading. material that they are Th for them in that it contains a few newat the right level language items and knowledge background easily understandable through but these are activity in the meaning-focused context clues. A good example of an which is at the right vocabulary a graded reader input strand is reading in the text two out of every words so that only around one hundred level quarter One of the course time unfamiliar to the reader. previously were input. should be spent on meaning-focused The four strands  the Academic Word List are a very useful learning goal for learners intending very a intending learners are List goal for learning useful Word the Academic is a there in subject medicine where like areas Even study. do academic to very vocabulary subject the technical unique to area large is largely which Word in the Academic the words health disciplines, and related of medicine worth well learning. and are of text coverage a good degree List provide from full of activitiesthe words teach are books which to many are There List, but it is importantof that the learning remember to Word the Academic input of meaning-focused strands the four across occur needs to such words (speaking output meaning-focused and writing), and reading), (listening and fl language-focused learning, vocabulary exercise books and being directly taught academic vocabularyvocabulary exercise only partshould make up of the language-focused and learning strand, thus while vocabulary not make up a major they should activities useful, are section a contains on Test Levels Vocabulary The part activity. the course of a reliable give section enough to item 30 is large This academic vocabulary. List. If gets a learner Word knowledge of the Academic of a learner’s measure List section they it means of the test, Word Academic 15 out of 30 on the proportionThe family list. in the 570 word know half of the words roughly the proportionknown indicates on the test of the list that is known. ective ective nor is should be uency. A good uency. e language-focused e of the four strands ree Th uency development. the use ciently carried out through uency, and writing fl uency, listening is strand includes developing at is, it involves the deliberate learning of the at is, it involves ciency. uency, reading fl reading uency, uency development involves learning to make the best involves uency development of teaching, result is learning does not occur as the direct Fluency Development Fluency Language-focused Learning Language-focused

cient. fl e strand of attention deliberate involves learning e strand of language-focused uency, speaking fl uency, true of profi at all levels use of what is already known. Th known. use of what is already fl example of an activity in this strand is speed reading. Speed reading reading Speed is speed reading. example of an activity in this strand faster using very training in reading material which is easy involves is that faster reading questions to make sure comprehension by followed quarter One in of the time good comprehension. also accompanied by course is spent on fl the well-balanced Th  effi learning strand is typically where most teaching occurs. But teaching is teaching is most teaching occurs. But learning strand is typically where also learning. Learners are only one of the means of language-focused learning of for language-focused learning, and the deliberate responsible vocabulary effi example is much more teachers than through themselves by learners working by cards of word studies of vocabulary Experimental teaching teaching vocabulary. taught, only about that are that out of every words typically show ten teaching is neither eff actually learnt. Most or four are three you are very interested in. One quarter very in. One spent should be time of the course are interested you output. on meaning-focused  Th Th to language features. also It structure. and discourse grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, A good of language learning strategies. the deliberate learning involves strand is learning in the language-focused learning example of an activity quarter One of new cards. vocabulary and phrases using bilingual word learning. Many be spent on language-focused the course time should and one of the far too much time on this strand courses tend to spend can be a range of activities that this book is to show major purposes of course. An important strands of the message in this used in the other three tend to teach too much. Th book is that teachers involve message-focused learning through listening, speaking, reading, listening, speaking, reading, message-focused learning through involve and writing. Th having to use the language. Th but occurs through

Needs and Environment Analysis for ESL Learners in Pre-University Courses Chapter 6 052 Chapter 6 Needs and Environment Analysis for ESL Learners in Pre-University Courses 053 eld of medicine— er is in the kinds of words . Here are some technical some technical are . Here negotiation, language, implicit, negotiation, language, . er in three major ways. Firstly, there is the size the size is there Firstly, ways. major er in three c names of all plants and creatures, then these would be then these would c names of all plants and creatures, eld of applied linguistics— Negotiating meaning Negotiating , for example, refers to the interaction to language users between refers example, , for erent from negotiation between parties in a dispute, it still shares parties negotiation between it still shares from erent in a dispute, erent subject diff erent areas Figure 6.1 Figure

many important common features. Around 80% of the technical vocabulary 80% of the technical Around importantmany features. common Medicine, outside of that specialist area. of applied linguistics is common not be known which would a very contains number of words large however, to work out the meaning of a piece of communication. While this is a little of communication. out the meaning of a piece work to bit diff Even someone who has not studied applied linguistics already has substantial someone who has not studied applied linguistics already Even vocabulary. in its technical of the words knowledge of the meaning of many Negotiation  that they contain. Here are some technical words from the fi from words some technical are Here that they contain. the fi from words (2) Technical vocabulary (2) Technical vocabularies technical The vocabulary. technical Each subject own has its area of diff diff vocabularies in which technical way second The of the technical vocabulary. Although quantitative research on technical on technical research quantitative Although vocabulary. of the technical technical seems that the it vocabulary stages, is still in its beginning 2,000 word to 1,000 be around to vocabulary subject tends areas of many and some subjects zoology, like medicine, however, are, There families. technical The a very vocabulary. technical large which each have botany If we families. 10,000 word vocabulary approaching is probably of medicine include the common and zoology the subject that of botany consider areas names and scientifi indeed. very vocabularies technical large lymphoma, syndrome, receptor, antibody, tumors, systemic, pulmonary, infarction brosis, fi venous, urinary, chemotherapy, interaction, word, acquisition, learning acquisition, word, interaction, erent erent nition pattern uency with this . ned in the text. Because er from each other is in each other is in from er ning feature(s)] ning erent from learning the subject matter. In learning the subject from matter. erent so a very of in the learning strategy useful xes, nitions make use of the classic defi nitions make use of ectively. This may involve some study of word parts. It some study of word may involve may This ectively. with this technical in which learners can deal nd out ways and suffi xes psycho-, -ectomy, -otomy, -oscopy, cardio-, cranio- cardio-, -oscopy, -otomy, psycho-, -ectomy, which … [a description of its defi y is a x Here are some examples. are Here A and reduced forms of it, it is useful to introduce learners to this pattern. this learners to introduce of it, it is useful to forms and reduced The third way in which technical vocabularies diff vocabularies technical in which way third The of its and a lot the Greeks from us came to Medicine largely their history. which is a language Greek. vocabulary Like Latin, Greek technical from comes of prefi makes use most of these in-text defi by native speakers who have not studied medicine. not studied who have speakers native by medicine is to learn the meanings of important word parts. Here are some some of important learn the meanings parts. is to medicine are Here word examples: vocabulary most eff The principle of the four strands applies to technical vocabulary technical applies to strands same in the of the four principle The vocabulary academic it applies to that way and other aspects of language It diff learning. is important the four between maintain a balance to vocabulary be learned in the context of study in the needs to Technical substantial lists of develop to It teachers area. is not a good idea for content vocabularytechnical that they then try It teach. use of the to is a much better fi time to teacher’s Gaining vocabulary knowledge technical is a very of the relevant important the technical learning simplistically, Viewed part of academic study. vocabularymuch diff is not and learners of explanation of vocabulary, deal is a great academic texts there take to this explanation is happening and when recognise be able to need to advantage of it. vocabulary meet technical learners need to The opportunities learning. for subject within the reading and area. listening meaning-focused through the opportunity have use of this technical need to make productive They to They vocabulary the subject in the speaking to area. and writing related vocabulary study of the technical speed up do some deliberate to need to vocabulary meet this technical need to They its learning. and strengthen fl their increase times in easily manageable tasks to many vocabulary. the note texts to technical with some reading intensive doing also involve vocabulary the technical defi is being where places

Needs and Environment Analysis for ESL Learners in Pre-University Courses Chapter 6 054 Chapter 6 Needs and Environment Analysis for ESL Learners in Pre-University Courses 055 nd out nd eld, it may it may eld, (and reason) nition of the Non-examples Examples om examples that do not. Where Where om examples that do not. ning features Defi spring. ning features and some examples and non examples ning features General category (e.g. physiology (e.g. tooth structure), structure include features ese word A species is a group of organisms which share many features in common. in common. features many which share of organisms is a group A species Th attract mates) and activities which behaviour (e.g. blood proteins), in features as having many as well But, information). genes (inherited with other of a species must be capable of breeding common, members fertilemembers to produce off cell) (made up of just one single may be unicellular Organisms A genus is a group of closely related species. of closely related A genus is a group Technical Technical Learning the language features needed for study in a second language is study in a second needed for the language features Learning do academic study is another to how an important Learning learning goal. Needs Analysis and Study Skills Needs Analysis Each subject area has its own technical vocabulary technical Each subject has its own and an essential part area of fi is to academic purposes course English for in any the needs analysis an item of technical vocabulary of technical an item is especially important in the fi defi comprehensible a clear, write the learners to be useful for listing its defi concept The the non examples do not meet. with an explanation of what criteria be used. table could following of some be aware to study in, and to the subjectthat the learners intend areas still learners are so that while academic texts in those subjectrelevant areas, an opportunity they have to academic purposes course, in the English for meet the kind study. of language that they need in their academic Learning technical vocabulary may also include new concept learning. When learning. vocabulary technical also include new concept may Learning to examples of the concept, see several it is useful to learning new concepts distinguish to and all the examples, by shared features out the common work fr the concept examples which represent kindser in the of c goals. These of course can be changed to suit the can be changed to of course These c goals. spreadsheets, library and journal searches, referencing referencing library and journal searches, spreadsheets, programs) requirements ∙ Taking part in discussions Taking ∙ discussions ∙ Following reading ∙ Discussing academic ∙ Reading academic texts library∙ Using resources resources internet ∙ Using article research Understanding and applying the classic format ∙ conventions ∙ Understanding referencing exams ∙ Dealing with written plagiarism ∙ Avoiding processing, skill use (word Developing in computer ∙ ∙ Writing emails vocabulary with technical ∙ Coping vocabulary∙ Increasing size work,and assessment Understanding attendance, ∙ Focuses for study skills for in an EAP course Focuses

ciency of the learners. level Skill focus Study skill Table 6.1 Table Speaking talk a prepared ∙ Presenting Reading taking ∙ Note Writing assignments with written ∙ Coping Language learning University requirements Listening taking ∙ Note profi The study skills listed in Table 6.1 need to be a part 6.1 need to early in of needs analysis Table study skillsThe in listed use a deal with this is to to One way academic purposes course. an English for class teacher The 6.2). checklistTable as part of on-going (see needs analysis keep updating the checklist. to how together Note and the learners work the checklist sets specifi language use that they require and in their assessment requirements, there there assessment requirements, and in their use that they require language what out work to helps the learners that focus investigative be an needs to do in a particularthey need to subject area. equally important goal. Table 6.1 provides an overview of the focuses that overview an focuses of the provides 6.1 Table importantequally goal. can be part purposes academic of a study skills English for of an component wide a study skills these being useful across seen as are Typically, course. because subject diff areas However, subjectrange of areas.

Needs and Environment Analysis for ESL Learners in Pre-University Courses Chapter 6 056 Chapter 6 Needs and Environment Analysis for ESL Learners in Pre-University Courses 057 nd of nd the meanings partsnd the word that help about nd information subject your nd old exams for characteristicsnd out the of a nd the books and articles need? that you minute? the same text again? read need to to fi information or references that you need? that you or references information assignment? university prepared well literature? good assignment in your subject in your area? good assignment assignment? university minute? minute? cards? words? contain? words that of the university and assessment requirements in? study going to are you study? during your with study? area? ∙ Can you take part take you discussion? ∙ Can in a tutorial do not so that you reading from take notes you Can ∙ library use the university you Can system computing ∙ fi to on the internet engines use search you Can ∙ ∙ Do you know how to write a good review of the a good review write know to how Do you ∙ fi know to how Do you ∙ ∙ Can you write a well organised and well prepared prepared well and organised a well write you Can ∙ examples of plagiarism? recognise you ∙ Can plagiarism? avoid know to how ∙ Do you per 15 words at a speed of around write you Can ∙ per type touch at a speed of at least 35 words you Can ∙ like Excel? program use a spreadsheet you ∙ Can like Endnote? program use a referencing you ∙ Can learn vocabulary know to how using word Do you ∙ use a dictionary you Can fi to ∙ ∙ Can you use a dictionary you Can fi to ∙ familiar with the typical work, you attendance, Are ∙ get help with study go to to know where Do you ∙ fi to know where Do you ∙ ∙ Do you know where to fi to know where Do you ∙ A needs analysis checklist for English for academic purposes academic checklist for English analysis A needs for

Skill focus Study skill Yes/No Table 6.2 Table ListeningSpeaking satisfactory take you ∙ Can a lecture? from lecture notes notes? talk using brief a prepared present you ∙ Can Reading per at a speed of at least 200 words read you Can ∙ Writing know the major partsDo you and organised of a well ∙ Language learning University University requirements uency (reading uency(reading ciency increase ciency erent classes within the program. classes within the program. erent ciency academic skills, so that their own and their section can be checked by giving learners several several learners section giving be checked by can Language learning Language Such tests are a form of needs analysis. Assigning learners to classes is largely classes is largely learners to Assigning of needs analysis. a form are Such tests are tests most useful placement The their language needs. to a response that can be used with each learner to information those that also provide like them. Measures on the learning which is most useful for help them focus These placement tests typically cover several of the four skills of listening, skills of the four of listening, several typically tests cover placement These of some kind test a listening involve They and writing. speaking, reading, questions), (perhaps a dictation passage with comprehension or a listening or passages with questions of some kind test test a reading (perhaps a cloze tasks), a vocabulary(perhaps measuring transfer measure or information knowledge academic vocabulary of and a or a vocabulary measure), size or topic short a given to page response (perhaps a one or two writing test kind some of speaking involve tests placement Not many of topics). choice and the number of students because of the shortmeasure time involved it is often some kind is such a test but if there of oral be tested, needing to interview. Many learners entering English for academic purposes programs may have have may academic purposes programs English for learners entering Many Nevertheless, tests. TOEFL or such as the IELTS sitting tests from their results placement has its own usually purposes program academic each English for diff learners to at least assigning for test Needs Analysis and Language Profi and Language Needs Analysis Most of the items in the checklist in Table 6.2 can be directly tested by setting setting by be directly 6.2 can tested Table checklist in the Most items of the in of as a piece the checklist is why regarded is best This do. to learners tasks on-going simply teachers that learners or rather than a list analysis needs dictionary the questions on example, in use For one brief session. check in the English for academic purposes courses typically last around 10 to 12 weeks 12 weeks 10 to typically courses academic purposes last around English for profi amount of language reasonable and although a small dictionary consultation tasks to do. The questions on fl questions The small dictionary do. tasks to consultation timed tasks. by touch-typing speed) can all be tested writing speed, speed, the checked through be need to writing on assignment questions The tasks. writing assessment of assignment the this reason, is still a rather short it such a time, in For can occur time. knowledge study skills of not only on developing development which focus use needed but also on the language and its requirements, of the university academic purposes English for of any should be a major focus at university, major goal of the study skillsThe for of an English component program. independent in help learners become is to academic purposes program profi their own developing learning continues after the course ends. after the course learning continues

Needs and Environment Analysis for ESL Learners in Pre-University Courses Chapter 6 058 Chapter 6 Needs and Environment Analysis for ESL Learners in Pre-University Courses 059 ed nd eld to fi eld to erent disciplines, learners disciplines, erent , is one way of doing this analysis, of doing this analysis, , is one way Reading like a writer Reading like kinds reading). erent do (see Further to of writing that they need Language Wants in an English for Academic Purposes Program Purposes Academic English for in an Wants Language that learners make in an English for complaints One of the most common will have read to is that the texts that they have academic purposes program major The study. to do with the subject in which they intend nothing to area of a mixture of learners from consists this is that each class usually for reason on the same a wide range of disciplines and so when all of the learners work justify the use of teachers The to. be a texttext, that all can relate this needs to pointing out that the kind texts by such general-purpose of vocabulary used subject learners whatever the of the texts will be of value to and the grammar the opportunity that learners have in It is important,they study. however, Most subject area university teachers do not get too concerned about the concerned Most too do not get subject teachers university area them, What most concerns language. written quality of learners’ grammatical the kind the writing that learners do matches well of writing is how however, is partlyThis an issue of which is expected within their discipline of study. the use of requiring be impersonal, to as academic writing tends grammar, modifi the use of heavily and phrases involving constructions, passive Language needs for academic study for Language needs study along academic at the vocabulary looked needed for size have We vocabulary academic with the special kinds and technical of vocabulary, on the also some research is There know. to that learners need vocabulary, of the analyses are There kinds do. to students need that university of tasks as as well answer, kinds that they need to questions and test of assignment the diff dictation tests, cloze tests, and vocabulary size tests usually contain enough enough vocabulary and contain usually tests size tests, cloze dictation tests, that information provide to and measures be reliable assessment to points of and that years, previous of students from the results with can be compared far the particular of how some indication to go can give learner needs to requirement entrance the university meeting for suitable a standard reach study. with university and coping noun groups. Mostly, however, it is an issue of discourse and an awareness and an awareness it is an issue of discourse however, Mostly, noun groups. needs to A geographer of writing. of the piece of the audience of the nature While like a physicist. write needs to and a physicist like a geographer, write a range of diff across features common are there at reports look carefully and articlesneed to published in their fi out what the expectations are. In Table 6.1, this is called analysing research research 6.1, this is called analysing Table Inout what the expectations are. reports. The activity, and we will look at this activity 12. and we detail in Chapter in more c erent erent exible cult for for cult c training program on Tom Tom on program diffi be too ed texts may Read with resources involves each learner choosing a topic which is very which topic each learner choosing a involves issue logs If in an the text is available when necessary. teacher the cation from ciency test is waiting for the learners at the end of their course, it is the learners at the end of their course, ciency is waiting for test ciency Test Preparation Test ciency relevant to them and over a period of several weeks each learner gathers weeks a period of several them and over to relevant discussing the data regularly a variety of sources, from data on the topic reporting and eventually with others in a small group, found that they have may teacher The the whole class. and then to their group on the data to a specifi answering assignment a written prepare them to also require academic assignment normal university following question, research requirements. together learners work where reading can be done as paired such reading it. If a text,they read discussing it as the timetable is a fl read to the same kindone, of activity diff be done with learners from could classes making up the pairs. Cobb’s website, the Compleat Lexical Tutor, can be used to support can be used to the Tutor, Lexical the Compleat website, Cobb’s some kind provide and reading of such learners keep a record The reading. evidence This is being done. that the reading the teacher for of evidence or brief summaries, the reading, from taken of notes can be in the form texts. annotated clarifi based then the web electronic form, 3 the same academic subject, learners within the class who share If are there as a major learning spoken language see informal to also tend Learners want, as is a realistic This academic purposes program. goal in an English for you with others work and to working with others, academic study involves with them. establish good relationships be able to need to 2 The activity The 2 Profi If a profi the particularworth to attention giving It test. is likely that specifi the instructions time when sitting in allocating of the test, in following such a course to work on the texts that they will need to read in their subject in their read the texts on to will need that they work to a course such these unsimplifi learners many For disciplines. 1 The learners do independent intensive reading of such texts, seeking1 texts, of such reading learners do independent intensive The them, given that a vocabulary size of around 8,000-9,000 words is needed to to is needed words 8,000-9,000 that a vocabulary around of size them, given course of any external essence the support. without any them read However as address that it tries to purposes is special with English for which deals learners on such The learners. needs of the possible the language closely as several are There their subject texts. should be reading thus matter courses complementary of dealing with this problem. ways

Needs and Environment Analysis for ESL Learners in Pre-University Courses Chapter 6 060 Chapter 6 Needs and Environment Analysis for ESL Learners in Pre-University Courses 061 ect c question ciency as test ciency test. “I can’t “I can’t ciency test. cials, cials, youth leaders, ective and probably can aff can ective and probably and passing the language ciency, ect on learners’ results in the test. If in the test. learners results ect on learners’ rst. Test preparation is eff preparation Test rst. nal mark. This may be enough to gain the mark required the mark required gain enough to be may This nal mark. Learners in English for academic purposes courses often have the two goals the two often have academic purposes courses in English for Learners academic language profi their of improving on both of these focus need to Such courses university. entry for requirement of tertiary the development for study also involves Preparation level goals. study skills. It is important that learners see the connection in such courses study. and their future academic purposes course the English for between getting the learners working on texts can be helped by and tasks that This These subjects the university study. to to that they intend directly related are in the issue logs reading, on in independent intensive texts can be worked made up of learners with are the groupings where work group and in activity, the same major subjects. What Should You Learn from This Chapter? This from Learn You Should What English for academic purposes courses can have a wide range of forms and of forms a wide range can have academic purposes courses English for offi government can include training for They focuses. up to 10% of the fi up to entry. for It students. and university is worth including the opportunity the learners for part at least negotiate academic purposes to of the syllabus in an English for after the course this negotiation can occur 3, described in Chapter As course. so that such negotiation can of weeks at least a couple has been running for of that part experience the course. of the learners’ by be informed various partsvarious practising and in the specifi test, of the answering preparation. on test a weekly class focusing have of doing this is to One way more become time can this preparation gets nearer, sit the test the time to As activities or previous include sitting mock tests could Typical substantial. wiseness with particularmultiple such as test developing formats test tests, and discussing and practising test-taking deliberate choice, strategies check, to including time carefully time and managing such as allocating every to dealing with the question, and an answer provide to attempting easiest questions fi formats will have a positive eff a positive will have formats all of their can devote then they very of the test, are with the format familiar do not courses academic purposes for English Where its content. to attention on the particular focus clearly scheduled a English profi have skip learners to days part several for it is not unusual program, of the course the English profi for they can prepare of classes so that challenge The TOEFL”. for preparing because I’m course the English to come test obvious provide purposes is to academic of English for the teacher to practice while makingpreparation useful learning is taking that sure place. ) / ELT ELT (3), 445-462. IELTS Research Report. Research IELTS http://www.ets.org/toefl TESOL Quarterly, 20 TESOL Quarterly, Educational and Psychological and Psychological Educational ) and TOEFL ( TOEFL ) and (2), 103-116, for information about technical about technical information (2), 103-116, for 5(3), 707-726. http://www.ielts.org/ (4), 407-410, and Horowitz, D.M. (1986). What professors actually What professors (1986). D.M. and Horowitz, (4), 407-410, : 62-87. There is a lot of information on test wiseness on the web. wiseness on the web. on test is a lot of information There have websites with very useful information. websites have Web Resources Resources Web ( Both IELTS For the classic article on test wiseness, see Millman, J., Bishop, C.H., Ebel, C.H., Ebel, the classic article see Millman, Bishop, wiseness, J., on test For of test-wiseness. R. (1965). An analysis 2 Measurement, C. & K. gains (2003). Score O’Loughlin see Elder, gains, a report on IELTS For English study. of intensive after 10-12 weeks on IELTS 4 Volume vocabulary. See Chung, T. M., & Nation, P. (2003). Technical vocabulary in specialised texts. Technical (2003). M., & Nation, P. T. See Chung, 15 Language, Reading in a Foreign For the most common types of writing tasks at university level see Friederichs, see Friederichs, types most common the level writing tasks at university of For Science students expected write? to are What (1981). H.D. and Pierson, J. Further Reading Further Journal, 35 Journal, the ESL classroom. academic tasks for require:

Needs and Environment Analysis for ESL Learners in Pre-University Courses Chapter 6 062 Chapter 7 Beginning to Read in a First and Second Language 063 ese erent erent kinds rst time requires a child to make some major make a child to rst time requires Beginning to Read Read to Beginning Second and First in a Language

is a range of diff is that there e main idea in this chapter Main Idea Main Th Th to read. in order need to develop that children of knowledge

include developing phonemic awareness, understanding the alphabetic understanding awareness, phonemic include developing and developing of books and reading, principle, experiencing the nature the skills of turning print into sound. 7 Chapter Learning to read for the fi for read to Learning This chapter describes how children can be helped to get ready for reading. reading. for get ready can be helped to children describes how chapter This of native what parents largely are of the things mentioned here Many when read learn to to their child is ready so that do, speakers of English could work most of the activities would described here However, school. they go to learners of English as a second with young language, very any with well with some adjustments particularly the actual to being material language or, with older learners. read, of language that the spoken form include realising These leaps. conceptual can words and that in various ways combined of sounds which are consists sounds can go and component sounds, their component up into be broken made are Words is called phonemic awareness. This make words. to together Another important sounds. of separable of learning is what is called the piece that individual sounds and that is gaining an awareness alphabetic principle, of the alphabet of the alphabet, and that letters letters by can be represented very two as these certain well can signal important As sounds. there ideas, of and the nature of reading be gained about the nature ideas to many are one. look at each of these ideas one by us now Let books. cult ve, parents can play these kinds play can of parents ve, Practising phonemic awareness Practising Figure 7.1 Figure

skill. It is quite easy to test if the learners have phonemic awareness. You simply You phonemic awareness. if the learners have It test easy to is quite /t/?”. “/k/ /a/ “Which is this – /p/ /e/ /n/?”, word ask them questions like these If not the names of the letters. the sounds, saying that this involves Note then sounds, hearing the separate by identify the word able to learners are A further can see if they is to test phonemic awareness. have they already diffi more but this is a slightly sounds, their separate up into words break  games with them. The parent says “What word is this? /k/, /a/, /t/. That is, the is, That “What /k/, /a/, /t/. is this? word says parent The them. games with that the it. Note recognise child tries to and the sounds out the word parent up sounds that make is splitting up the but word, is not spelling the parent walking along car, in the when travelling game can be played This the word. It like a lesson, but should not be treated sitting around. or just the street, good When the child gets really game. like a challenging should be played up the sounds of the one splitting can become then the child at doing this, because is often highly amusing, This recognise. to the parent for the words veryThis simple is very creative. the child splits the words sometimes the way a very game has but enjoyable importantgaining phonemic namely goal, or Arabic, in an alphabetic language like English reading For awareness. is very important.phonemic awareness Phonemic Awareness Phonemic are is actually children young fun and when Gaining phonemic awareness or fi four the age of about around ready,

Beginning to Read in a First and Second Language Chapter 7 064 Chapter 7 Beginning to Read in a First and Second Language 065 ash nd any nd any rst language, , should not be learned at the g , or whose language rst language, b , d , p ective to teach learners how to write the letters the letters write to learners how teach ective to rst language uses the same alphabet as English, then little if any as English, then little if any rst language uses the same alphabet learn to need to may or Japanese, like Arabic writing system erent nd the pairs); and letter dictation. Productive use can help receptive use can help receptive dictation. letter nd the pairs); and Productive The most important way that parents can prepare their children for reading reading for children their most importantThe can prepare that parents way then can read, is fun, and that if you that reading realise is helping them to and at bedtime children to Reading stories that fun yourself. can access you to read When parents this. of showing way at other times is an excellent Learning about Books and Print Learning rather than just rely on looking rather than just rely at them. Activities can include tracing over where copying of the alphabet; delayed of letters copying repeated letters; memory; from and write of fl matching letter the learners look, look away, recognition. Letters of similar shapes Letters recognition. and their fi who can speaker of Spanish A native will be needed. shape learning letter The English. reading shapes needed for knows the letter Spanish already read not a are not exactly forms spelling-sound rules are the same but the written in their fi read who cannot Learners problem. uses a diff skills that are Because of the detailed recognition shapes. the letter recognise most eff be it may needed, (fi cards Learning Letter Shapes Letter Learning in their fi read able to If language learner is already a second The Alphabetic Principle Alphabetic The understanding the then awareness, gained phonemic learners have Once the alphabetic Understanding principle is the nextalphabetic take. to big step sounds sounds and that can represent that letters means realising principle practice looking to is by this A useful way for letters. by can be represented fi you “Can of text, the newspaper. such as in a piece letter the same say the alphabet, that is to their children think that teaching parents Many the Learning read. to helping them begin of a good way is C, D E, etc, A, B, recognise to Learning has veryalphabet in this way reading. do with little to names is not as useful as learning but learning their shapes is useful, the letter represent. the sounds that they words which begin with t?” Note here, that the parent does not say “tee” for for “tee” does not say that the parent here, Note with t?” which begin words represents. that the letter the sound actually t, but the letter says same time as they are likely to interfere with each other. likely to same time as they are rst written about rst written rst line is at the top of the page and the next of the page and is at the top rst line line at”, that is what the teacher writes underneath the picture. The teacher teacher The underneath the picture. writes is what the teacher that at”, This is called an experience approach to reading because the child brings because reading to approach is called an experience This the ideas in the story task. knowledge the reading First, a lot of previous to them has experienced the child because the child familiar to completely are the language in the story familiar to them. Second, and drawn is completely and organisation the discourse Third, words. the child because it is the child’s should not correct the child’s language but writes what the child says. This This the child says. what language but writes the child’s should not correct it and the child can read the day, text for reading the child’s then becomes them the story. them the picture and reading showing others in the class to and a new story a new picture is drawn and Each day underneath, is written book. reading the child’s become to together gathered are these stories by a very inspiring teacher called Sylvia Ashton-Warner. It works in this way. It in this way. works a very Ashton-Warner. by called Sylvia teacher inspiring happened to a picture of something that recently each draw children The one the teacher the picture they bring it up to drawn they have them. After exactly writes teacher The them what the picture one who asks about. is by “Yesterday So if the child says underneath the picture. what the child says the dog and squashed ran over the truck out of the drive, daddy drove my it fl There is a very useful activityThere schools. that is very in New Zealand common and was fi reading It to approach is called an experience An Experience Approach to Reading Approach Experience An It is also good if children see that their parents read and enjoy reading and reading and enjoy read It see that their parents is also good if children it. from pleasure gain obvious When they have been listening to stories and looking a stories to books for at the been listening When they have big letters are that there also recognise may they of time, amount reasonable are and that there spaces, by separated are that words and small letters, also learn They marks. and exclamation commas, full stops, question marks, partly again and them of books, read take care because they will want to to them. read to other people will want follows under that. They also learn that books contain pictures as well as pictures as well learn that books contain also They under that. follows each other. to relate and that the pictures and the words words, children, the children should see this not as a lesson but as a very but as as a lesson this not see should children the pleasant children, stories, to listen While they activity and enjoyable parent. with the shared be taught to have don’t They books. things about can learn many children For but can observe story. the to these things, while they listen them happen you with English books and that pages, books have they learn that example, on these words are that there learn They left. right to pages from turn the English. left right when reading from to the words read pages and that you that the fi also learn They

Beginning to Read in a First and Second Language Chapter 7 066 Chapter 7 Beginning to Read in a First and Second Language 067 Teaching ESL/ Teaching rst very important toward steps conceptual to nd a list of these in the appendix that the easiest time for shows Research ect occurs. (Nation, 2009) which is mentioned at the end of this Learning to Read through Phonics through to Read Learning in an alphabetic using the sound-spelling correspondences read to Learning applying Reading using phonics involves language is called using phonics. principle and understand the alphabetic In to order the alphabetic principle. what know can represent learners need to what letters reading, apply it to c = see b = bee, (a = ay, Unfortunately in English the names of letters sounds. the say learning to is why This the sounds of the letters. do not represent etc) using words recognise To reading. alphabet is not very for good preparation of each of the sounds learn the most common need to learners phonics, not as highly of English are Although the sound-spelling relationships letters. deal of regularity is still a great there in some languages, as they are regular sound-spelling regular many are and there in the English spelling system, can fi You correspondences. Some reading teachers are not very about using phonics because they are happy teachers Some reading EFL Reading and Writing chapter. reading. Reading is one of the most important Reading is one learned skillsreading. that a child will this skill spent. is time well toward useful help along the way learn and any We have looked at several useful things that parents can do to get their child can do to things that parents useful looked at several have We they serious purposes, Although these activities all have reading. for ready If parents do. to and wants as things that the child enjoys be treated need to child away turn the they may these things, and serious about formal get too that nothing was done rather In be better would such cases it reading. from eff than that this negative get help children to in order teacher be a trained reading to have don’t You take the fi and to reading for ready Parents can also help their children to learn through the experience approach approach the experience learn through to also help their children can Parents to their pictures parents and get their at home can draw Children reading. to not be treated again, this should them. Once underneath say what they write do. a fun thing to as a lesson but as the age of six years around is when they are read learn to learners to young phonemic awareness develop to easily able they are then because by old, of the alphabetic principle. gain an understanding and to of the story is completely familiar because it is the child’s story, spoken by by spoken story, storyof the is the child’s it because familiar completely is experience outside the child’s needed which is only learning The the child. the by provided form the written to spoken forms is connecting the child’s goal of the activity. is the learning This teacher. cult if: cult rst language. rst rst language. rst uency A whole language development. similarities with English. rst language has few cult is it to Learn to Read English as a Second to Read English as a Second cult is it to Learn rst language uses an alphabetic system of writing, for example for of writing, system rst language uses an alphabetic English. as rst language uses the same letters rst language pronunciation of these letters is close to the English is close to of these letters rst language pronunciation Samoan, Korean, Thai, Arabic, Russian. Arabic, Thai, Samoan, Korean, pronunciation. 1 learner knows almost no English. The 2 in their fi learner cannot read The 3 of their fi writing system The 4 in English. read in learning to learner is not interested The 4 The fi The 4 language is diffi as a second English read to Beginning 3 Their fi 3 Their 5 read. to learner is highly motivated The 6 a lot of English. speak quite learner can already The 1 in their fi read learner can already The Beginning to learn to read English as a second language is easier if: as a second English read learn to to Beginning fi Their 2 How Diffi How Language? use of phonics involves developing word analysis skills analysis in context and using word developing use of phonics involves attack skills. word of phonics as one of a range A Whole-Language to Reading Approach A phonics as to attention wisely sees reading to approach A whole language given being with most attention being only a part approach of an integrated decode of cues to on a range and drawing reading from enjoyment gaining to context. in Sometimes phonics and between an opposition is set up words where except unreal, degree a large opposition is to but this whole language, reading practitioners to or only approach of phonics see phonics as the major with most time being spent on language-focused learning (phonics), rather input and fl than meaning-focused feel that it takes the learners’ attention away from the enjoyment of reading. reading. of enjoyment the from away attention the learners’ that it takes feel is only a part phonics-based approach long as a As of the language-focused learners have and if the course, reading strand of a balanced learning Such teaching worthit is well then doing. awareness, phonemic developed course. part only be a small should reading a well-balanced of however

Beginning to Read in a First and Second Language Chapter 7 068 Chapter 7 Beginning to Read in a First and Second Language 069 rst Auckland: ve and six ve Teaching ESL/ Teaching cult so that the How Children Learn to Read. Learn Children How an importantrst language can play role New York: Routledge is about beginning to read in read to Routledge is about beginning York: New poor hearing, letter confusions, that stand in the way of learning to read. read. of learning to that stand in the way confusions, letter poor hearing, checking for with out learners procedure diagnostic Appendix 1 has a problems. reading learner can complete them successfully. learner can complete needs. year olds, the usual books for beginning reading will be suitable because be suitable because will reading beginning usual books for the olds, year quicklythey will them. learn the vocabulary read to needed older learners this will require the use of graded readers. For fi For readers. of graded the use this will require older learners For an excellent introduction to how reading is taught to young native native young is taught to reading how introduction to an excellent For (1997). W. & Elley, speakers see Smith, J. Further Reading Further 4 reading. do repeated a lot and to read to learner is encouraged The 5 such as poor eyesight, no problems, are checks that there teacher The particularly in their fi read read, if the learners can already to in beginning language. What Should You Learn from This Chapter? This from Learn You Should What knowledge of the phonemic awareness, develop need to readers Young also need They and a familiarity shapes. with letter alphabetic principle, An experience to. being read through of reading the nature experience to that is closely material the learners reading involves reading to approach Phonics can be a very useful part with their daily experience. associated within a much wider be a component but it needs to course, of a reading fi learner’s The reading. to approach 3 diffi be too not to activities designed reading are The 2 The reading material is interesting and very relevant to the learner’s the learner’s and very to relevant is interesting material reading The 2 1 For known that they contain chosen so language. are books reading The Learning to read English as a second language can be made easier if:made easier can be language a second English as read to Learning Addison Wesley Wesley Longman. Addison (2009). 2 of Nation, I.S.P. 1 and Chapter end of Chapter The EFL Reading and Writing. another language and learning to spell. another language and learning to erent erent is the principle of the four strands. strands. is the principle of the four erent strands–the strand of meaning-focused strands–the strand of meaning-focused erent uency development strand. So, the principle of the four the principle of the four So, uency strand. development One-to-One Tutoring One-to-One Tutoring ESL Learners Adult with

What Should Every EFL Teacher Know? What Should Every EFL Teacher involves is that good one-to-one tutoring e main idea in this chapter Th goals learner’s course and taking account of the planning a well-balanced the teacher of one-to-one tutoring is that advantage and needs. A major suit the needs of the learner. can easily adapt the learning focus to Main Idea Main 8 Chapter kinds of learning. The general principle followed in this book and also in the general principle followed The kinds of learning. book equal time should course, that in a well-balanced principle simply says This diff each of four to be given output, the strand of language-focusedinput, the strand of meaning-focused and the fl learning, done outside of the and the work in a course the time strands suggests how major value of this principle is that it makes The should be divided up. course kinds no one and that that each of the four gets attention, of learning sure at the expense of the others. much attention kind too of learning is given EFL as it does for ESL teaching for principle does not apply as strongly This but it is still a useful principle. teaching, The most important job of the language teacher is to plan. This means This most importantThe plan. is to job of the language teacher of opportunities is a good balance diff there for where planning a course Planning a Well-Balanced Course Well-Balanced Planning a In Chapter 2 we looked at needs analysis and environment analysis in one- analysis and environment looked at needs analysis In 2 we Chapter planned such lessons can be at how to-one look In we this chapter tutoring. English, is the language used in language, the target and carried out where looking from at needs and move on, we this chapter From the community. looking to and learning. analysis at teaching environment

One-to-One Tutoring with Adult ESL Learners Chapter 8 070 Chapter 8 One-to-One Tutoring with Adult ESL Learners 071 ∙ Listening to stories to ∙ Listening listening ∙ Extensive ∙ Linked skills activities ∙ Writing tasks ∙ Linked skills activities practice ∙ Pronunciation ∙ Spelling practice reading ∙ Paired speaking∙ Repeated reading ∙ Repeated ∙ Speed reading ∙ Speed writing ∙ Linked skills activities y, but they will be looked at in much more detail in later detail in later will be looked at in much more but they y, Strand Activities The four strands and their related activities one-to-one for related and their strands four The tutoring

Meaning-focused inputMeaning-focused outputMeaning-focused reading ∙ Extensive Language-focused learning activities ∙ Role play Fluency development reading ∙ Intensive recordings to ∙ Listening Table 8.1 Table Let us now look at each of these activities they can be used in us now seeing how Let When lookingone-to-one will not divide them at the activities, we tutoring. 8.1, but will divide them up according Table in the categories to up according will look at some We and writing. speaking, reading, the skillsto of listening, activities only briefl All of the activities listed in Table 8.1 are suitable for one-to-one suitable for 8.1 are In tutoring. Table All of the activities in listed taking the tutor an active partsome of the activities, this will involve in the take on one will need to activities, the tutor play in role example, For activity. the activity. in of the roles of this book.chapters Let us now look at the most importantthe most look at now us Let activities in each strand. can occur that 8.1 lists these activities. Table . In this The record of role plays of role record The Going to the corner shop Going to the corner Figure 8.1 Figure

 culty dealing with. dealing culty rst nd some diffi this fi Once culty doing this. activity, the tutor takes on the role of the shopkeeper, and the learner simply of the shopkeeper, takes on the role the tutor activity, is a list there 2.1, Table In 2 in Chapter of the buyer. role takes on their usual such activities. In one-to-one for of possible topics needs the tutor tutoring, that they normally suggest situations and topics learner to the encourage to deal with and fi to have (1) Role play activities play Role (1) detail in and simulation activities more looked at in much Role play are the learner in not taking on a new 14. Simulation activitiesChapter involve perform. to For but simply performing normally have role as they would a useful simulation activityexample, be may Listening and Speaking and Listening Activities speaking and activities listening several because role like together group We activities to play having the learner in both and linked skills activities involve speak. and to listen So, in order to do role play activities, the tutor with the help of the learner activities, the tutor play do role to in order So, and done slowly is play role The play. role choose a useful situation to needs to providing with the tutor carefully and phrases the necessary words if the learner has or sentences diffi It is worthwhile designing a set procedure for such activities to make sure such activities make sure for to It a set procedure is worthwhile designing features major learning two The them. from does occur that learning really and retrieval. repetition are be included in the procedure that need to Repetition simply means performing a similar task several the same task or apart. or weeks days Retrieval several with some of the repetitions times, means performing script, but with the a full written without the repetitions their memory. from what was practiced before retrieve to learner having it is important In is patient and gives the early repetitions, teacher that the Retrieval is a very powerful learning condition retrieve. the learner time to has trouble what the learner quickly in too rushes provide and if the tutor to then the opportunityrecalling, use this powerful to is lost. condition role play has been successfully has been successfully play role done it is immediately completed, additional two again (preferably times) with the learner being quicklysupported notes, by the or cues from diagrams, drawn makes a brief note tutor The tutor. with the date play about the role that it was practised, and then

One-to-One Tutoring with Adult ESL Learners Chapter 8 072 Chapter 8 One-to-One Tutoring with Adult ESL Learners 073 ve uency ective if in their daily life the learner ective life if in their daily erent. The basic idea is to make small changes to the role the role small changes to make basic idea is to The erent. erent conditions. erent (3) Extensive (3) Extensive listening amounts of spoken language large to listening involves listening Extensive can be done as an independent This the learner. for which is at the right level There tape recorder. or a digital activity the use of a CD player but will require of the a recording by accompanied which are readers very graded are many within a few days time makes sure that the role play is practised again. The The practised is play again. the role that sure makes time days a few within at least fi of the practicesdate the goal of having with the writes tutor powerful a third learning can introduce the teacher In repetitions, later the slightly meeting or using in use involves Creative use. condition—creative later means that in the This partly what is already new ways known. in their example, for slightly, play changes the role teacher the repetitions the shopkeeper has that the responses changing by as the shopkeeper role to pretend to the learner requiring by or plays, role made in the previous buy something diff stories to Listening (2) while being read the learner listening activity stories to listening involves The a part to and listening minutes of the story a few for it involves Typically, to. with the story in the some other activity, being continued then going on to next English, then this activity lesson. If the learner can read include may and tutor The it is not essential that it does. However, while reading. listening when the tutor indicate to of signals out a simple set the learner should work should explain a word the tutor or where a phrase or sentence, should repeat activityThis study activity can also be done as an independent or phrase. graded published (most recently readers of graded either using recordings made of the text), or a recording a CD of the spoken form also include readers function and a speed control include recorders Modern digital the tutor. by If the or speeding it up. this can be perfect the listening down slowing for then the listening in the program, listening has also included extensive tutor the reading with the tutor activity stories to interactive, more can be made story as the story and discussing it with the learner continues. practices in total for that particular role play over a period of several weeks. weeks. a period of several that particular over practices for play in total role this particular activity play In repetitions, fl a role later the becomes activity perform.development and easy to so familiar because it is now and phrases under slightly useful words so that the learner meets the play diff activities most eff play are Such role observes what they say. deliberately such situations and notes others in certainsaid in certain why is also value in understanding things are There 14. detail in Chapter this in more will look at We ways. rst rst language. ective for vocabularyective for learning rst language before taking on rst language before Extensive listening Extensive Figure 8.2 Figure

Usually, it is better to learn to read in the fi read learn to to it is better Usually, a lack be impossible through to If this proves language. in a second reading learn to motivation, and the learner wishes to or even resources of teachers, very useful help in these fi can provide a tutor language, the second read Reading Activities be language may as a second learners of English a variety of reasons, For in their fi also not be literate English and may read unable to (4) Linked skillsactivities Linked (4) basic idea The Linked skills 15. activities dealt with in detail in Chapter are on exactlybehind such activities is that learners focus the same material So, or writing. speaking, reading, skills of the four of listening, three across then talk about that in the newspaper, about an event read the learner may is focused the same event Thus about it. and then write with the tutor, event Linked skills speaking, and writing. activities very are easy to on in reading, ideal opportunities repetition, through learning make and they provide for use. and creative retrieval,  than listening by itself, but listening by itself, especially when the listening is when the listening especially itself, by but listening itself, by than listening is a valuable activity. repeated, text, and the learner’s goal should be to listen to as many of these as possible, possible, of these as as many to listen to be goal should text, learner’s and the challenging. or the most enjoyable that were those again to and listening eff more is generally while listening Reading

One-to-One Tutoring with Adult ESL Learners Chapter 8 074 Chapter 8 One-to-One Tutoring with Adult ESL Learners 075 cation and cation reading of improving ective way , there are suggestions about how the suggestions about how are , there On read. speakers to non-native cult for uency, of expanding vocabulary knowledge, uency, Further reading Further uency development. Where English is learned as a second English is learned as a second Where uency development. It is very reading. and extensive readers about graded nd out more the other hand, the lowest levels of graded readers assume only a vocabulary readers of graded levels the lowest the other hand, publisher has its own Every major ELT 100 words. knowledge just over of the end of this chapter, At readers. of graded series, and usually several series, under the heading of (1) Extensive (1) Extensive reading it is very then skillsIf reading learner has basic the language, second in the Where reading. of extensive amounts do large learner to get the useful to one quarter almost language, course of the learned as a foreign English is meaning-focused for reading usefully spent doing extensive be time could input and fl expect at least to be reading that a learner should it is reasonable language, means This them. for at the right level which are a week readers graded two vocabulary present outside their which are of words with only a small number Itknowledge. is very important know that tutors reading extensive about If was trained as a primary the tutor readers. or secondaryand graded school readers graded prepared not be familiar with the specially they may teacher, language. or second when English is taught as a foreign used which are very strict stricter much have than vocabulary readers graded control, These for written Reading texts which are schemes. reading that used in levelled assume a vocabulary speakers of the language native knowledge of several be diffi to tend They thousand words. steps. See Chapter 7 in this book on teaching beginning reading. beginning on teaching this book 7 in SeeChapter steps. which is at the right material learners read program, In reading an extensive on the reading not tested are They amounts of it. large them and read for level them and hopefully which for which is interesting material and they read the learner choose books at the right can help tutor The reading. they enjoy doing paired by reading extensive should help the learner begin and level, the learner is Once sessions. with the learner during the early tutoring reading an independent can become reading then extensive do, familiar with what to is a very reading Extensive eff study activity. tutor can fi tutor of the important aware language are of English as a second that teachers of the importance and available of simplifi that are readers graded very With language. of English as a second learners for vocabulary control be not or eight, it may seven the age of about learners of English, up to young reading beginning and the usual books for necessary readers, use graded to be used. speakers can native for fl reading skills, of increasing vocabulary knowledgeof strengthening of increasing of knowledge, of reading. a love and of developing patterns, and grammatical collocations thought out well of any is the cornerstone program reading An extensive language course. nally be able to read the text with a read nally be able to lled out. Items which have appeared through the through appeared lled out. Items have which uency. The texts used in repeated reading are usually are reading texts used in repeated The uency. cult text. The texts which are used in intensive reading are are reading used in intensive texts which are The cult text. cult than those used in extensive reading and repeated reading. reading. repeated and reading cult than those used in extensive nd an answer without the tutor rushing in to provide it. This skillThis is so it. provide rushing in to tutor without the answer nd an mail can include community notices and community newspapers, bills, and bills, and community mail can include community newspapers, notices more diffi more and they could the tutor these texts for the learner should provide Ideally, sent home notes the mail, through appeared which have include items deal with, and to have children school texts that the learner’s school, from be fi to that need forms (4) Intensive (4) Intensive reading and learner working to the tutor together involves reading Intensive understand a diffi reasonable degree of fl degree reasonable be shorter not longer than a page and may reading than that. Repeated skill vocabulary reading also develops but knowledge. not only improves mentioned courses reading the speed or from readers graded from Passages reading. repeated can be used as texts for below (3) Repeated (3) Repeated reading each time times, the same text three reading involves reading Repeated reading of paired as a form can be treated This after the other. immediately fi the learner to the goal is for where Silent paired reading is also possible where the learner reads quietly and asks the learner reads is also possible where reading Silent paired help when it is required. for the tutor One of the most importantin one-to- skills develop needs to the tutor that or of language a piece produce time to the learner give is to one tutoring to fi important a slogan, such as put into in helping learning that it is sometimes the learner with the it is providing In learning terms, Praise. Prompt, Pause, need others may but Some do this naturally, opportunity tutors retrieve. to it. In doing that they are paired make sure observe to carefully themselves to sound out or struggle to to the learner a chance this means giving reading, help. providing before the word pronounce (2) Paired (2) Paired reading a text aloud together. reading and learner the tutor involves reading Paired sit next and the learner tutor each other looking of the to The at the same copy but when the learner book. the learner, by will be done Most of the reading It it. best not to is probably can provide tutor the with the reading, needs help quite provides the teacher where reading intensive into reading turn paired reading in the text. Paired about the language features a bit of information through steadily of helping a learner move seen as a way should simply be paired during correction pronunciation welcome may learners The the text. do. thing to an appropriate be and this could reading

One-to-One Tutoring with Adult ESL Learners Chapter 8 076 Chapter 8 One-to-One Tutoring with Adult ESL Learners 077 ects on other aspects of cial eff cial writing short others to notes lling in forms, not only Speed reading vocabulary erent level. script, fi erent benefi but also has uency, (1) Writing (1) Writing tasks In one-to-one writing tasks should be based on the kind of writing tutoring, advantage of one-to-one great The is tutoring do. that the learner needs to the to relevant which is immediately on material that the classes can focus possible. that they do this wherever should make sure learner and tutors name in English if your be as simple as making your signing may lists, Writing language uses a diff Writing Activities Writing school), and writing e-mails. from explaining absence It(such as notes may (5) Speed reading very that the learner should be reading suggests reading name speed The at a speed fast. In read the learner to get fact, is to the aim of speed reading speakers typically Native language. speakers of the native which is normal for depends but this of course per minute, words 250 at speeds of around read learners it. Once reading they are and why reading are they on the material doing speed reading they can begin 1,000 words, a vocabulary of over have a text, read of the time that it takes to keeping a record involves This practice. questions about the comprehension and then answering noting that time, key and using an answer learner marks the questions themselves The text. Each speed on graphs. score speed and comprehension their reading records reading speed A free session usually takes less than 10 minutes. reading the course introduction to The website. Nation’s Paul from is available course also are There carry to detail about how more out speed reading. contains website. Sonia Millett’s from available courses speed reading free several is at a diff Each of these courses advertising material. This activity is done in a similar way to paired reading reading activityThis paired to way a similar is done in advertising material. time on each amount of a reasonable can spend teacher that the except what is already to it relates how showing explaining it, item, unfamiliar of it. other uses showing and parts stems), known word or word (through an opportunity can also be reading practice, Intensive pronunciation for knowledge, grammar developing vocabulary, explaining spelling practice, and lookingIt of texts. also be an opportunity at the organisation may for time and can eat up a lot of reading Intensive cross-cultural understanding. strands is it is important the four between that the balance make sure to should only be one part reading Intensive quarter of one maintained. of the course. improves reading fl reading improves language knowledge. rst ect of discouraging t it all in. Several of the activities in Table 7.1 are 7.1 are Table of the activitiest it all in. Several in rst sentence? rst ects for the learner who feels their particular who feels the learner ects problems for applications. or job assignments as writing cult Who are you writing to? you Who are writing to them? you Why are piece of writing? need to do your all the ideas you have you Do writing in a particular to organise your way? have you Do fi What is your      A One-to-One Tutoring Session A One-to-OneTutoring A good one-to-one elements of a friendly will contain session tutoring take a personal Good tutors serious work, and counselling. conversation, and their learning in their learners and thus can see their learning interest very can have This can. in a much wider context class teacher than a problems good motivation eff Like most lessons, once the course is going, the problem is not what to do is not what to the problem is going, the course once Like most lessons, fi to in each lesson but how are being listened to and attended to. and attended to being listened are can include These time. do individually in their own the learner to suitable for writing recorder, a CD or digital from stories to listening reading, extensive activitiesThese be fi need to and speed reading. reading, intensive tasks, In speaking activities, it is not always a good idea to interrupt the learner to In the learner to interrupt speaking a good idea to activities, it is not always the eff have may This speaking. are them while they correct while the learner feedback giving however, speaking. Inthem from writing, be useful. is writing may with the learner. can be negotiated in class and a plan of work introduced as a kind plan can be something that is treated of contract negotiated This and doing the work, or it can keep the learner motivated and is checked on to Initially, writing should be done like paired reading, with the tutor and learner and learner with the tutor reading, like paired should be done writing Initially, allowing patience exercise needs to the tutor again, Once working together. questions may following The help. providing a go before have the learner to writing session. a paired help when beginning also be as diffi also will be, of who the reader understanding be done with a clear should Writing It of writing. done when the learner should also be of the piece and the goal the writing. for that is needed of the information has most

One-to-One Tutoring with Adult ESL Learners Chapter 8 078 Chapter 8 One-to-One Tutoring with Adult ESL Learners 079 cult piece piece cult rming the plan for the for rming the plan practised as they are and marking again as they them y noted. This can also contain reminders of work that needs to be that needs to of work reminders can also contain This y noted. A session can typicallyA session be a mixture chat which can with a of social begin meeting the previous since that occurred problems of any chat, a discussion and confi in this session, be dealt with that could Because lives. One-to-one people’s can make substantial changes to tutoring in them, learners can make a degree take an interest to someone is prepared can Tutoring not make in an ordinary would that they class. of improvement also be a very important starting ambitious study. more point for simply be advice to the learner. to be advice simply most important deal with the lesson it is a good idea to In any or diffi taking see that each lesson is learner should be able to The in them forward this. of signalling ways several are There their knowledge of the language. book in which what happened in each lesson a small have is to One way is briefl of the next lesson can end with some planning The lesson and of things that a rough that lesson. It have idea to is a good do before the learner needs to that things get done and that makes sure This a lesson. predictable plan for organised. seen as being well is the tutor current lesson. When planning a lesson it is a good idea to have several shifts several have to it is a good idea planning a lesson When lesson. current on are of the lesson focuses means that some This during the lesson. in focus some of the lesson and the learner, the tutor between shared work interactive on the learner quietly tackling are observes, task while the tutor a focuses or the learner taking on the tutor are the lesson focuses and some of the opportunity an provides and another a focus one between Moving for lead. at the end and the learner do not arrive so that the tutor change and a rest, exhausted. of the lesson feeling as something involving so that the lesson is seen as early as possible, of work Depending on that is takinggenuine learning forward. the learner a step activity play be a role or the this could what the learner has suggested, then is in reading, interest If of linked skillsbeginning the learner’s activity. be a good starting may reading point. some intensive or progress use of graphs the involves Another way lessons. done in future speed and for scores their speed reading learners record example, For sheets. It is of improvement. and this is a very on graphs useful record comprehension or conversation topics play of role do something similar with a list possible to them off skills, crossing It also be may reading. be done with extensive same can The revised. are particularly kind build some possible to the tutoring, in the into of assessment pronunciation For improvement. the need for the learner feels where areas of the assessment some semi-formal involve this could improvement, of certain and contextualiseddecontextualised pronunciation sounds. uency Each of these development. nd out more about graded readers and extensive reading, go to the go to reading, and extensive readers about graded nd out more To fi On the website. Waring’s Rob and to website Reading Foundation Extensive booklet is a free reading about extensive there website, reading extensive It is also worthwhich can be downloaded. looking of major at the websites Press, University Cambridge Press, University such as Oxford publishers ELT two are There Longman. Macmillan, and Pearson Learning, Heinle Cengage and on the same website, Nation’s on Paul available readers graded free who learners for available freely mid-frequency readers are there website, or larger. vocabulary of 4,000 words sizes have Further Reading Further strands has its own typical activities, and the teacher needs to use these typical to needs its own strands has activities, teacher and the needs learning and long-term immediate that meet the activitiesways in a clear idea have need to learner and the teacher Both the of the learner. of the classes and they should oftenof the learning goals talk about these, particularly study without the learner can do independent how considering the teacher. What Should You Learn from This Chapter? This from Learn You Should What one-to-one in a are and a teacher When a learner see it is useful to situation, learning opportunities of balance is getting a that the learner the four across a language course—meaning-focusedstrands of meaning-focused input, and fl learning, focused output, language

One-to-One Tutoring with Adult ESL Learners Chapter 8 080 Chapter 9 Teaching Small Classes of Adult ESL Learners 081 c nding out nding meaning- we about how exible uency development. These These development. uency ed tasks. Watching television requires a vocabulary of requires television Watching ed tasks. four skills of listening, speaking, the uency training across Teaching Small Classes Classes Small Teaching Learners ESL of Adult

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opportunities need to have main idea in this chapter is that learners e reading and writing. reading to learn across the four strands of a course, and this involves using of a course, and this involves the four strands to learn across linked skills activities, pair and group reading, activities like extensive talks, writing tasks, observation tasks intensive activities, prepared and fl reading, Main Idea Main Th 9 Chapter uency development could be limited, if the learners do not have a lot of if the learners do not have uency be limited, could development four strands also apply to teaching small classes, but in an English for second second but in an English for small classes, teaching strands also apply to four fl bit more be a need to language learning situation, we In Chapter 8, we looked at the four strands of meaning-focused input, meaning- strands of meaning-focused looked at the four In 8, we Chapter output, language-focused and fl focused learning, In this chapter, we look at a range of activities look at a range we that can be used in teaching In this chapter, learn. and what learners need to small classes, with unsimplifi cope to In Chapter 3, we looked at needs and environment analysis with small classes, with small classes, analysis environment looked at needs and In 3, we Chapter the value of takingstressing fi advantage of the ESL situation by out also pointed We syllabus. a negotiated what the learners need through specifi given observation the learners are the value of having where tasks, speakers carry observethings to native that about the way out particular goals clear long-term also looked at the value of having We conversations. and value. that the learners clearly understand opportunities learning many are for because there largely apply the strands, take a very view need to teachers realistic However outside the classroom. fi trouble of these opportunities. have Older learners may them, and the opportunity which is suitable for input at a level for focused fl these opportunities,When considering it is speakers. contact with native refl useful to ∙ Classroom management ∙ Classroom activities and group ∙ Pair ∙ Linked skills activities talks ∙ Prepared ∙ Writing tasks ∙ Linked skills activities ∙ Observation tasks reading ∙ Intensive on writing ∙ Feedback training ∙ Strategy ∙ 4/3/2 reading ∙ Easy extensive ∙ Speed reading reading ∙ Repeated writing ∙ 10 minute ∙ Linked skills activities ned and limited situations with a smaller vocabulary, vocabulary, with a smaller situations limited ned and Strand Activities Activities across the four strands for small ESL classes for strands the four Activities across

Meaning-focused input Meaning-focused outputMeaning-focused reading ∙ Extensive Language-focused learning activities and group ∙ Pair practice ∙ Pronunciation Fluency development recordings to ∙ Listening Table 9.1 Table Activities for Small ESL Classes for Adults Small ESL Classes for Activities for looked at a range of activities one-to-oneIn 8, we for Chapter tutoring Most same of the and writing. speaking, reading, the skillsacross of listening, the and because the learners have small classes, activities suitable for are activities, further work are there group opportunity with each other, work to a list of useful activities 9.1 provides Table like 4/3/2, which can be used. strands. the four across at least 3,000 words and preferably 5,000-6,000 words if the learner wants to to wants if the learner words 5,000-6,000 and preferably words 3,000 at least learners can Fortunately, said. of what is being understanding gain a good defi with more cope especially if these situations have been practised and prepared for. Tasks Tasks for. been practised and prepared have if these situations especially a vocabulary to 8,000 of around require and novels newspapers like reading the help of dictionaries be done without to other or if they are 9,000 words, support. with some support again, Once task, limited such and with a more can be done. reading

Teaching Small Classes of Adult ESL Learners Chapter 9 082 Chapter 9 Teaching Small Classes of Adult ESL Learners 083 , What Should http://www.simplyscripts.com/movie.html , rst language, and through linked skillsand through rst language, ), and learners can read these, looking these, up read ), and learners can erent erent fi Seoul: Compass Publishing. 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Such tasks involve for usually as a preparation what people say to attention deliberate giving being an eavesdropper, in certain Reporting situations. back on observation a provide tasks can useful opportunity cross-cultural discussion. learning and for deliberate for Observation 11. 5 and Chapter discussed in Chapter tasks are words and underlining particular and to attention pay words phrases that they want to the DVD. watching before Every EFL Teacher Know? Every EFL Teacher the opportunity small classes often have who attend speak with Learners to from that they desire but they do not get the correction speakers, native (1) Pair and group activities and group Pair (1) learn the language but to classes not only evening to often come Learners them. Because to in a similar learning situation meet others who are also to In 14, Chapter activities popular. often quite work are pair and group of this, of these activities content The simulation activities. and play look at role we a For the needs of the learners. to should as much as possible be related (2012). wider collection of speaking activities, see Nation, I.S.P. Speaking Small Classes Activities for http://www.script-o-rama.com/ Listening Activities for Small Classes Small ActivitiesListening for meaning- providing of as a way listening looked at extensive In 8, we Chapter be used it could 9.1, although Table in is not included This input. focused from can come focus listening the In small classes, activity. work as a home with in small groups work from run the class, use of English to the teacher’s who speak a diff learners activities. The learners who want to work intensively on their listening can do their listening on intensively work who want to learners The activities. practice listening that provide using the various websites this as homework (type in made from the news for television, watching DVDs with English subtitles, and DVDs with English subtitles, watching television, for the news made from available are movies many scripts of The script. DVDs with a written watching ( on the web t uence uence ) and will be projects nding a topic of interest in of interest nding a topic rst language has a major infl cult to get constructive feedback on feedback get constructive cult to (they could also be called also be (they could nd it diffi issue logs (2) Prepared (2) Prepared talks do some kind or to at work of If make presentations learners also need to can These be a useful class activity. extended talks could talk, then prepared activity, a group activity As be done as a group or as an individual activity. part the third they can become with the previous skills of a linked sequence, a small-scale individual As and writing. or reading parts listening involving a learner fi talks can involve prepared activity, it and preparing about reading some other source, or from the newspaper a short and then delivering based on time, presentation it in their own the scale activity A larger class. or the whole can involve their group it to makingand eventually extended data gathering, for learner choosing a topic This assignment. along with a written on this topic a spoken presentation activity is called them. 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B just listens Learner a new partner. to everyone and who is learner B moves stop, says teacher exactly the and learner A then gives begin, the learners to tells teacher The new partner the same talk again to do to but this time has only 3 minutes a new to B move who are all the learners stop, says When the teacher it. time the third their talk for give A and then all the learners who are partner, activityThis in speaking not only in changes results fl 2 minutes. for Linked skills some kind activities of spoken interaction. typically involve a detailed description of linked skills activities. 15 provides Chapter on the pronunciation of the second language. of the second on the pronunciation a useful fi kindspend doing this of study, sounds in example the beginning for most learners, sounds for these sounds are on how information and then gather a small amount of they can be taught. 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The idea is that they should read as much as possible read idea is that they should The ciency. language growth. to cant contribution cult text which contains a lot of unknown words is not extensive is not extensive a lot of unknowncult text which contains words Reading Activities for Small Classes Small ActivitiesReading for fl and growth language for reading Extensive (1) of some the pronunciation on include spelling, kindsThe focus of things to the the way aspects phrases, of grammar, word vocabulary, of the words, of the text. Intensive and the content in the text is organised, information (2) Intensive (2) Intensive reading and the learners working the teacher together involves reading Intensive It is best language features. some unfamiliar a text which contains through expressed if the text is an example of the kind that learners have of material a recipe a newspaper, be a text from it may example, For read. the need to job teacher’s The department.book, or a government a popular magazine, aim at a good understanding the textwhen working is not just to through importantly on language and textualof the text, features but more focus to today’s goal of The read. other texts that the learners may to relevant that are text easier. make tomorrow’s text easier but to make today’s is not to reading and with a reasonable speed. It speed. is importantand with a reasonable fi that teachers An extensive reading program is a very program important reading An extensive part language of any input, meaning-focused for reading When extensive program. development fl for reading and extensive fl for reading input and extensive meaning-focused the words input a small number of meaning-focused for that when reading than 2% should not be more This the learners. to met should be unfamiliar at the per page words or four only three and preferably of the running words fl for When reading most. very no unknown which contains vocabulary easy material or grammatical or before, read already that they have readers graded read can They features. their present below is way which level a from readers graded they can read of profi level particularly their classes, if their for readers getting a good supply of graded learners For or less. vocabulary of 2,000 or 3,000 words sizes learners have mid- free are there or above, 4,000 words with vocabulary of around sizes reading Extensive website. 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Teaching Small Classes of Adult ESL Learners Chapter 9 086 Chapter 9 Teaching Small Classes of Adult ESL Learners 087 cient cient means cient cult material. cult uency development nd them in Chapter 8. them in Chapter nd diffi reading uent by (3) Reading faster most effi The reading. of intensive the opposite is almost Reading faster Teachers might ask learners to bring texts for intensive reading to class, and class, to reading intensive bring texts for learners to might ask Teachers they the text a brief introduction explaining why to give ask them to may it. it is important read be able to them to why and class, for it to brought long, short,Such texts be reasonably should 200 or 300 words only probably but on learning about time will not be spent on reading because most of the a good opportunity also provides reading text.the language in the Intensive in language that can help them strategies the learners develop help to can include strategies These with unfamiliar texts. learning and in coping to dictionary part choosing words context, word analysis, guessing from use, parsing. and sentence cards, word go onto reading is included under language-focused under is included reading although because learning deliberate giving is on of the text, aims is understanding one of its the focus features. language to attention way of increasing reading speed is by using a speed reading course. We We course. using a speed reading speed is by reading of increasing way fi to and where courses looked at speed reading a very that they are effi show courses on speed reading Research speakers. that of native which is close to at a speed of helping learners read unknown any which does not contain material require courses Speed reading fl become don’t You language features. (4) Repeated reading the same short reading times text aloud three involves reading Repeated with the is noted, each reading time taken for The while a partner listens. repeated for Texts one. than the previous being faster aim of each reading within long so that they can be read 200 words should only be around reading is a fl reading Because repeated minutes. or three two and should no unfamiliar language features the text should contain activity, a as reading use repeated could teacher The familiar topics. be on largely and so the repeated on their pronunciation, learners feedback of giving way activity of reading while the rest be one that is done with the teacher could other kind doing some are of class work. the learners are c writing goals it is also worth focusing on them. For also worthc writing goals it is them. For on focusing is will be a rather formal letter but it should be clearly and simply expressed. A teacher at your son’s school was particularly helpful in explaining to son’s A teacher at your can you and how son has to follow that your program the reading you were You at home. helping him through the program help him follow this help and kindness of the teacher who spent time very by impressed to write a letter to the head of the school praising want You with you. Th the teacher. Writing provides excellent opportunities for feedback on grammar, vocabulary, vocabulary, on grammar, opportunities feedback excellent for provides Writing this can provide Teachers and cross-culturalorganisation, expectations. and if some learners the learners in a small class, individually for feedback their particularly on an willing, of writing can be shown good pieces are learn from. the whole class to on for and commented projector overhead Note in the example, that the reader of the piece of writing is clear, and the and of writing is clear, of the piece reader that the in the example, Note writing is also clear. of goal of the piece When describing a writing task for the learners to do, it is worth making do, the learners to clear When describing a writing task for If can visualise who the writer of writing will be. of that piece who the reader the right amount of then contain the writing should writing for, they are It include the is also useful to of formality. degree the proper detail and have of writing in the writing task,goal of the piece because this helps with the is an example. Here in the writing. of the information organisation example, they may wish to be able to write letters to the school, explaining the school, to letters write be able to wish to they may example, or to job applications, write wish to or they may absence, their children’s e-mail friends in English. If learners have specifi If learners have Writing Activities for Small Classes Small Activities for Writing on writing feedback tasks and Writing (1) kind the to be suited want to that learners of writing to tasks need Writing It writing e-mails be that may do. or text an important messages is writing at the parts 12 looks 12.3 in Chapter of the writing Table the learners. goal for goal, a writing having of the reader, a model include having These process. into information turning information, organising gathering information, and editing. and revising has been written, what text, reviewing written of these parts awareness can help bring about conscious Giving learners a and if writing is an important in their writing, goal for learning improvement worth on these partsthem it is well focusing of the process.

Teaching Small Classes of Adult ESL Learners Chapter 9 088 Chapter 9 Teaching Small Classes of Adult ESL Learners 089 uency activity – a Ifciency of the learners. level uency development, however, occurs when learners when occurs uency however, development, uency the aim should be on quantity section of the course, Doing ten minute writing minute Doing ten uency can be developed by getting learners to do large quantities large do uencygetting learners to by developed can be Figure 9.1 Figure

The teacher should regularly look at learners’ graphs and see if they are and see if they are graphs look at learners’ should regularly teacher The in the same that they produce in the number of words making progress writing, writing or 12 minute writing can be 7 minute 10 minute time period. profi and the depending on the time available and speed. the much easier for each session, it becomes the same time period is kept for The teacher does not correct the pieces of writing but occasionally looks at of writing but occasionally the pieces does not correct teacher The me “Tell things like saying of the writing, on the content them and comments me what happened tell you “That Can was interesting. and about that”, more is because errors the grammar does not correct the teacher reason The next?”. more write to in order down slow want the learners to does not the teacher is opportunity in other parts and feedback There correction of for correctly. In the fl the course.  of writing. The best fl The of writing. is there very them and where which are to familiar on topics writing are The normally write. would than they faster write them to for some pressure a good fl of writing activity10 minute has all the features (2) 10 minute writing writing 10 minute (2) fl Writing message focus, an easy task, pressure to go faster than normal, and quantity than normal, go faster to an easy task, pressure message focus, that chooses a topic writing each learner minute When doing 10 of practice. says When the teacher for. prepared well them or that they are is easy for them cross they simply learners startThe If they make errors, writing. “Go!”, possible as words as many write goal is to Their writing. out and continue says the teacher 10 minutes, the end of At period. within the 10 minute that the number of words count writing and the learners stop And “Stop!”, aim is Their this number on their writing graph. write They written. they have each time. words more write to uency development. uency Extensive reading Extensive talks Prepared tasks Writing Observation tasks recordings to Listening reading Easy extensive Small schedule. a class into tted exible timetable which could incorporate incorporate exible timetable which could es them in this way. The division of responsibility for the activities for division of responsibility in a small ESL The class

Class activities Independent study and homework Classroom management Classroom activities and group Pair Linked skills activities practice Pronunciation reading Intensive on writing Feedback training Strategy 4/3/2 Speed reading reading Repeated writing 10 minute Table 9.2 Table The activities listed in Table 9.1 need to be fi 9.1 need to Table activities in The listed Planning a Course for a Small ESL Class a Small for a Course Planning or there in the evening, twice or a week meet only once ESL classes sometimes also be intensive may There per week. morning sessions be one or two may Each day. hours each meeting several weeks a few run for ESL classes which principles which particular are its own but there timetable, will have course the timetable needs Firstly, of the timetable. the design should lie behind the opportunities that will be done in class and of work take account for to as the opportunities class as well learning outside of doing homework. for If of the learners. of the needs take account to the timetable needs Secondly, get language-focused class is to and to guidance coming for their main reason needs many Ifthe learners have should satisfy this need. feedback, the teacher then a fl of these, aware and are be a balance needs to there Thirdly, be desirable. syllabus would a negotiated and writing, speaking, reading, skillsof activities the four of listening, across input, meaning- the strands of meaning-focused across as a balance as well output, language-focused and fl focused learning, factor with small classes— Because time is usually a critical environment is not much class time—itthere make a division of activities is useful to which will take and those which the learners, independent study by will be largely 9.2 takes the activities Table of the teacher. in class under the guidance place and classifi 9.1 Table from learners to see their progress. see to learners

Teaching Small Classes of Adult ESL Learners Chapter 9 090 Chapter 9 Teaching Small Classes of Adult ESL Learners 091 uency in uency er greatly er greatly Modern English Teacher, Modern English Teacher, get outside of class. cult to the following uency read program, , 30 35. nd this diffi uency programme. programme. uency uency activities, read the following articleuency the following activities, read uency activities, read the following articleuency the following is which activities, read , 21-37. KIFL Academic Journal, 6 Journal, KIFL Academic Pasaa, 36 Pasaa, (2), 21-128. To learn more about reading fl about reading learn more To (2005). Reading Nation, I.S.P. website. Nation’s on Paul which is available faster. language use. language use. available on Paul Nation’s website. Nation, I.S.P. (1997) Developing fl (1997) Developing Nation, I.S.P. website. Nation’s on Paul available Further Reading Further about fl learn more To from those of other types of classes and need to provide coverage of the coverage those of other types provide classes and need to of from divide it is useful to Because of the time constraint, strands of a course. four the activities done in class and those which are those which are between classes value in small Learners particularly independent learning. for suited of their correctness on the the teacher from direct language feedback fi speaking they may as and writing, Small classes have the advantage that learners have the opportunity the advantage that learners have to Small classes have do not diff range of activitiesThe involved each other. learn from What Should You Learn from This Chapter? This from Learn You Should What Needs analysis plays a very plays important Needs analysis small ESL classes. in running role language very of English as a foreign learners suitable for Activitieswere which really language English as a second what learners of be not turn out to may it is essential syllabus, a negotiated have want. Ifto decides not the teacher their reactions the learners about to consults regularly that the teacher was it meets their expectations. As well in class and how what is going on obvious situation typically 1, learners in an ESL Chapter out in have pointed meets and it is important needs, program immediate that the classroom needs. be meeting these seen to these needs and is The activities which are done as independent study or homework need to be need to activities or homework study as independent done The are which these activities underway but once are in class, they need only for prepared monitoring. occasional 17 To learn more about setting up a regular fl about setting up a regular learn more To article. Millett, S. (2008). A daily fl in any erentiated classes and routines t into the normal school ort should be made to make them feel that they are just just ort that they are make them feel should be made to English as a Second Second as a English School at Language

at speakers of English non-native e main idea in this chapter is that Th to fi school should be helped lots of opportunities language for are Although there as early as possible. outside school, at school the main focus should be on development needed for study. the language, skills and subject knowledge developing Main Idea Main 10 Chapter In Chapter 4 we looked at needs analysis and environment analysis with ESL analysis and environment looked at needs analysis In 4 we Chapter below learners, young many looked at how We learners in the school system. quickly speakers when they likely to like native are become the age of seven, provide need to a part may become although teachers of the school system, some extra support the normal caring support them beyond for that they need particular Some learners may attention learner. any to provide would supportive on their particular opportunitiesthat focuses provides needs, close the and helps speed up their learning to classmates, from learning for them and their native-speakinggap that exists between Older classmates. learners in the primary also quickly may like native become school system support need more as they tryspeakers but they may and tolerance to them and their native between language gap which exists bridge the large this support primary much as possible, As speaking for classmates. school a good idea and it is not within the usual classes, be provided should children these for a special program to amounts of withdrawal substantial have to Every eff learners. diff not specially like the other learners in the school and are Second language learners who enter the secondarySecond language learners who enter with very school system speaking native Their special attention. will need some little English, however, of secondary vocabulary at the beginning of classmates sizes school have to years several language learners will require and second 10,000 words over way. This means that withdrawal programs should not be a preferred choice. should not be a preferred programs means that withdrawal This way.

English as a Second Language at School Chapter 10 092 Chapter 10 English as a Second Language at School 093 cient to focus precisely precisely focus cient to ect content-based learning, which is also called learning through the the which is also called learning through ect learning, content-based Content-Based Learning in Secondary Learning Schools Content-Based speaking, reading, skills the four of listening, around 10.1 is organised Table than one language more of the activities will involve and many and writing, of all the activities focus in content The skill while reading. as in listening the subjects studying in school. to learners are that should relate 10.1 Table curriculum. Content-based learning involves learning the language while also learning involves curriculum. Content-based learning Content-based of what is being studied. learning the ideas content within because staying language learning, for ideal conditions provides the vocabulary that learners load of the material reduces area one content learning and of previous make use to learners with, and allows work to have working with. they are knowledge deal with the material to background language to attention learning should also include deliberate Content-based attention this deliberate strands, using the guideline of the four and features, than 25% of the content-based should not make up more language to can be carried out at secondary such a focus us look at how Let learning time. schools. This approach to choosing the content of the English teaching material is material of the English teaching choosing the content to approach This in eff on what needs to be learnt, and that the English support be learnt, and that the English on what needs to does not become student, but helps them reduce struggling already an an extra for burden also is on subject content matter Focusing study. of their regular the burden motivation. learners’ good for An important language supportprinciple guiding secondary for school much as possible the supportlearners is that as with should be provided the subjects studying at school and to to that they are direct relevance if the learners are sit. Even examinations that they need to and the tests being or are within the school, in preparatory programs English-language language for hours a week several classes for regular from withdrawn support, working that they are the material of the subject-matter content The studies. their to direct relevance should have their English improve on to effi more that it is much this are for major reasons learn this many words. To cope with secondary with cope a vocabulary study school size To words. this many learn high learners learn these help need to and teachers is needed, of 8,000 words context in the school subjects. of their frequency and mid-frequency words language second Gaining a vocabulary such goal for basic long-term is a size secondarylearners at school. nding textsnding at

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English as a Second Language at School Chapter 10 096 Chapter 10 English as a Second Language at School 097 ciency. This kind of grouping is more likely kind is more This of grouping ciency. of ideas e literal understanding Th the implications of ideas Seeing the ideas to a situation or problem Applying the ideas or evaluating Critiquing     choice decision minuses of your ranking your Suggest a list of solutions to a given problem given a list of solutions to a Suggest to justify your being ready options, given a list of Choose from should be taken, giving the pluses and action if a given Decide to justify list of solutions or choices, being ready Rank a given the most suitable order Arrange of set of steps or objects into arrangement your Justify       Usually task-based discussion activities work best where the learners in the discussion activities best where task-based work Usually equal profi of roughly are group to result in a roughly equal spread of speaking In equal spread secondary time. in a roughly result schools, to Another useful framework relates to the kinds of ideas involved in Bloom’s in Bloom’s the kinds to of ideas involved relates Another useful framework can involve: discussion the task-based is, That taxonomy. See Chapter 14 for examples of these outcomes used in role plays. used in role examples of these outcomes See 14 for Chapter Task-based discussion activities subject on that the should focus matter Task-based subject will suggest a suitable itself The matter studying. are learners can that a teacher some frameworks are there However topic. discussion looks at the frameworks One of these discussions. task-based design use to what kind the learners trying is, of goal are That of the discussion. outcome include: outcomes Useful in the discussion? reach to providing a critical analysis of a solution to a problem. to solution of a critical analysis a providing ed nder Series compact course books compact nder Series New Zealand Pathfi Zealand New plant and animal cells is the between erence Year 9 Science. Year e main diff presence or absence of the cell wall. presence plant and animal cells. plant and animal cells. a) eye. big enough to be visible to the unaided Cells are shaped. box All cells are b) c) of at least one cell. made All organisms are found inside cells. are Organelles d) designed to carry form is out a particulare) function. A cell’s Th f) single fertilised egg cell. Decide whether the following statements are true false. or statements are following whether the Decide Copy and complete the labelling of the diagrams of simplifi Copy and complete Explain how a complex multi-cellular organism can come from a a complex multi-cellular organism can come from how Explain (from Hook, G. (1997). Hook, (from Ltd.) Publishers House New Auckland:    ciency as with native speakers. The opportunitiesThe can be learn to ciency speakers. native as with secondaryrst year school students in New Zealand. Reading Activities for ESL School Students Reading Activities for Reading is such an important activity school students that careful for with the reading coping that learners are make sure is needed to monitoring for skillsa suitable level at and that their reading are demands of their courses, With a few changes, these tasks are very suitable for group discussion. The The discussion. very group these tasks are for suitable changes, a few With discussion, but easy enough require enough to tasks should be challenging 2 has suggestions for Appendix answer. in a correct result eventually to language learning. such tasks for improving Here are some examples of task-based discussion topics from a science text a science from discussion topics task-based some examples of are Here fi for increased by involving a procedure that makes sure that the non-native non-native that the that makes sure a procedure involving by increased an active part. and plays the group in truly involved speaker is gender groupings may also be appropriate, as there is a strong tendency is a strong there as be appropriate, also may groupings gender language second However weight. opinions much girls’ give not to boys for of unequal support input and get better in groups learners may they are if profi

English as a Second Language at School Chapter 10 098 Chapter 10 English as a Second Language at School 099 rst nd. by Paul Paul by cult to fi to cult Teaching ESL/EFL Reading and Writing Teaching ciency. For learners who should be reading well well be reading should who learners For ciency. ler program. Fortunately, in most English speaking Fortunately, ler program. culties that they face with reading. For ESL learners at school, ESL learners at school, For with reading. that they face culties ective way of doing intensive reading. Where English is taught as a Where reading. of doing intensive ective way The major factor leading to improvement in reading will be the quantity will of in reading major factor improvement The to leading to learners need reading, quantities of do large To do. that learners reading 2% of than no more them, so that for level is at the right which material have of knowledge. level their present beyond page are any on the running words this with vocabulary ESL learners or 6,000 words, of less than 5,000 sizes For If reading be provided. will need to material adapted means that specially straightforward, is relatively this adaptation electronically, available texts are using the AntWordProfi but who are not reading well, Appendix 1 of this book provides a procedure a procedure book provides Appendix 1 of this well, reading not are but who problems. reading of trying the source for diagnose to diffi not too subject-based texts are school systems easy read English is taught as Where reading. of doing intensive ways several are There fi is often using the learners’ done reading intensive language, a foreign their overall language profi language overall their of study. areas their content on texts from should focus reading intensive valuable goals—helping two will thus have learners reading intensive The and helping understand a text which is important them in their study, for them understand new vocabulary constructions which will and grammatical instruction advantage of content-based with great The in other texts. occur vocabulary technical which occurs is that the topic-related reading intensive the learners as they continue be met again by in the texts is highly likely to their study. (1) Intensive (1) Intensive reading diagnose useful opportunities to teachers provides for reading Intensive and information gain feedback learners to and for language problems learners’ on the diffi can This method. and is sometimes called the grammar-translation language, be an eff Routledge). York: Nation (2009, New second language, intensive reading will typically be done through English. will typically through be done reading intensive language, second the text is simply going through reading of doing such intensive One way worth which are giving learners picking and with the teacher out features 10.2 Table and spending some time discussing these features. to attention 3 of Chapter from is adapted , ab- , and sub- , xes xes like anti- , post- , culty (clause culty mid- Predicting reading Standardised procedures Spelling rules vowels Free/checked Guessing on cards Noting and learning parts Word Dictionary use Dealing with sources of diffi insertion, what does what?, cohesion) coordination, writing Generalise to , pro- , mis- , ex- , en- , bi- , fore- correspondences of Underlying meanings words vocabulary Technical High frequency grammatical features grammatical Complex constructions type constituentsTopic type Topic of text Question forms , un- , Useful focuses in intensive reading in intensive focuses Useful

dis- , Focus Items Strategies com- , into sentences up complex break to a strategy developing culty involves Genre that typify this type Features Sound-spelling Regular sound-spelling sound-spelling Sound-spelling Regular Vocabulary High frequency vocabulary Grammar and cohesion Information content Comprehension Question types Table 10.2 Table Another way of doing intensive reading is to follow a standardised procedure. procedure. a standardised follow is to reading of doing intensive Another way described set of steps a well have reading, like reciprocal Some procedures, can adopt one ESL teacher The of research. been the focus have and may a Such their own. usefully develop or perhaps more of these procedures, The questions used in intensive reading need to gradually stretch the stretch gradually need to reading questions used in intensive The of the text, and it is a very skill useful teacher comprehension to learners’ develop a variety to of question types through and forms move be able to comprehension. using these to help remember the meanings of words that contain them. that contain of words the meanings help remember using these to of of dealing with sources the strategy focus, and cohesion In the grammar diffi their simpler parts easily understood. so that they can be more Column 1 of Table 10.2 shows what aspect 10.2 shows of language is being focused Table 1 of Column 2 looks at the particular on. Column and language use features language 3 suggests generalisable strategies Column attention. be given that could in the example, For be practisedwhich could as a part reading. of intensive parts the word which to strategy be given could attention vocabulary focus, 15 very the learners memorising around useful prefi involves ad-

English as a Second Language at School Chapter 10 100 Chapter 10 English as a Second Language at School 101 fth nal step could could nal step ective learning rst step, for example, example, for step, rst cient and eff ectively. The guidelines for doing word card learning which card doing word guidelines for The ectively. (3) Deliberate vocabulary learning Deliberate (3) typical of learning is more cards learning vocabulary word Deliberately from language. language than learning English as a second English as a foreign be perfectly some learners in an ESL situation may do willing to However this kind Because it is such an effi of learning. (2) Paired (2) Paired reading 5, can be seen as a simple looked at in Chapter which we reading, Paired two working Instead of the teacher the class, with reading. of intensive form access can have They understand the text. with each other to learners work reading, Like intensive dictionaries when necessary. to the teacher and to or on problems, L1, can focus make use of the learners’ can reading paired out which of work need to Teachers procedure. a standardised can follow reading paired a simple Having their learners. best for these options works of looking steps three at the topic involve could This useful. be guide may the text and making one or accompanying and the picturesand diagrams the involve could step second The predictionstwo about what it is about. involve could step third The learners talking aloud. turns quietly reading the learners summarising the main ideas in by on comprehension focusing words. their own procedure simply involves following a set of predictable steps that both the both that of predictable a set steps following simply involves procedure fi The know and the learners teacher and understand. on keep an eye needs to always the teacher reading, When doing intensive intensive ESL learners at school, For of the activity. value the longer term text. It has the short-termreading understand today’s goal of helping learners goal of helping them understand tomorrow’s the long-term should also have independent in their reading. text and become could be focusing on the pictures, tables and diagrams that accompany the accompany that diagrams tables and on the pictures, be focusing could on the vocabulary focusing of the text. involve could step second The text. any are be looking see if there could to step paragraph at each third The fourth The step particularly be analysed. need to that sentences complex fi The be looking main idea of the text. message and could at the overall working it out what in detail, be dealing with each paragraph could step sixthThe fi and the main idea. to it relates means and how some kind the text the message of of and perhaps providing restating involve knowledge. or of reading other pieces it to or relating on it, critical comment deals with the most important and remember is easy to A good procedure a text. when reading faced problems making for very it is worth in vocabulary steps the big procedure growth, so that the learners procedure, learners some training in this giving teacher can do it most eff A word card A word rst meeting. meeting. rst Figure 10.1 Figure

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English as a Second Language at School Chapter 10 102 Chapter 10 English as a Second Language at School 103 cient cient than the ash card programs. Many of these of these Many programs. ash card textsare which However cient reading. persist in doing this to they must be encouraged cult texts, ective. It is possible to do such learning on cell phones, It phones, ective. cell such learning on do is possible to such reading. not suitable for cult are In Chapter 12 on English for academic purposes courses, we will look at the we academic purposes courses, In 12 on English for Chapter the very be aware should At parts least, ESL teachers of the writing process. of these parts, and ideally learners should also know so that they about them writing. their own can apply them independently to Writing Activities for ESL School Students Activities for Writing writing tasks Content-based (1) to at the writing that students need look carefully needs to ESL teacher The that the learners get practice and make sure do as a part study, of their regular then sit timed exams, to in doing these kinds If the learners have of writing. such exams and for plenty for of practicethey should be given in preparing sitting them under time pressure. (5) Speed reading a vocabulary who have 8. Learners in Chapter looked at speed reading We aim of The course. should do a speed reading or more of 1,000 words size per 250 words 200 to around speed to get their reading is to such a course no unknown which contains language material when they read minute less is small, course in a speed reading time investment total The features. speed reading Free usually impressive. are but the results hours, than two Sonia Millett’s and from website Nation’s Paul from available are courses with the material. Instructions come run the courses to on how website. Learning vocabulary using word cards is much more effi more is much cards vocabularyLearning word using texts content adapted Reading (4) of their content reading amounts of independent should do large Learners then this should be done as long If adapt these texts, texts. it is possible to small a struggle to to the learners have if Even copyright. as it does not break diffi read to degree teacher teaching vocabulary. If word card learning is well organised, every organised, well learning is card If word vocabulary. teaching teacher vocabulary is usually Teaching will be learned. the cards which is on word 50% eff less than fl using or on the web tablets, computer free. available are programs improvement Reading the support with success. they have read to provided do suffi unless learners will not come diffi simply far too culty achieving these achieving culty and most of the 570 rst 2,000 words culty If with them. use oral means teachers Minimum goal yearly per subject per week Words Reading and writing goals for L1 learners Reading and writing goals for

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English as a Second Language at School Chapter 10 104 Chapter 10 English as a Second Language at School 105 ), . cation task,cation a troughs–coughs uency. Here we will focus will focus we Here uency. nitions in their subject-matter a bit beyond, and words rst 2,000 epi/derm/al, bio/sphere, long/itude bio/sphere, epi/derm/al, ect completion. ect y connecting the unknown the known. to nition and then check the understanding of your check the understanding of your nition and then nitions (an X is a Y which …), and reduced forms of this format. forms Y which …), and reduced nitions (an X is a dictionary look-up by the teacher. dictionary teacher. the by look-up texts. It of classic texts. on the format spending a small amount of time is useful defi but only as a way of briefl but only as a way be done by writing the word on the board and drawing attention to the to attention and drawing on the board writing the word be done by spelt words other known irregularly are If part there irregular of the word. them ( to attention draw which use the same spelling, explanation. Check using true/false statements, a classifi statements, explanation. Check using true/false search for examples, or a cause-eff examples, for search given attention to and want to come back to again. Once every again. Once or back to week come and want to to attention given can use the following You of these words. do a quick revision weeks two activities. 2 through preparation require may This parts. on word possible focus Where 1 with the defi coping that learners are Check The following guidelines can be followed by subject-matter when by teachers can be followed guidelines following The speakers. both ESL learners and native teaching on deliberate learning with the idea that subject-matter with the idea that learning rather than teachers on deliberate this vocabulary teaching in the for will take responsibility the ESL teachers context of subject-matter study. Graded readers can help with learning the fi learning help with can readers Graded the from strands of learning learn vocabulary the four need to across Learners (speaking output from learning and writing), reading), and input (listening fl and developing vocabulary, learning deliberately but once these words are known, graded readers will not be of much help. will not be of much readers known, graded are these words but once 3 can This the spelling. to attention If draw the spelling is not predictable, 4 Give a brief defi Give 4 5 have that you of each word a student make a note Make or have a note tting into into tting It of time. deserves be a waste it may rst meeting that was given some attention over the past week or two. the past week over some attention that was given dictate. as you the whiteboard the whiteboard. on the words word. collocations for each of the parts,explaining the meaning the getting assistance from possible. learners wherever of the words all one minute to remember tell them that they have on the whiteboard. have in exactly the same arrangement as they they can see where (so that you Lightly rub out all of the words and ask the learners to write all of the can’t) but the learners were on a piece of paper. in exactly the same arrangement words Give the learners some hints and ask them to recall the vocabulary the them to recall some hints and ask the learners Give write them on student can One to the students. the words Dictate of any one each learner to pronounce the class getting around Go contexts or to recall pairs or small groups in learners to work Get into parts, can be broken then do this some of the words If and whiteboard written on the at the words the learners to look Get       vocabulary. That is, get the learners to recall what they have read through through read what they have recall to get the learners is, That vocabulary. and writing, through heard what they have recall speaking, or get them to so on. regular classes as soon as possible. Young learners have a great capacity for capacity for a great learners have Young classes as soon as possible. regular with the right opportunities, they can and if provided language learning, as their in their learning of the language as well make enormous progress of an awareness helped if learners develop is greatly This academic study. fascinated learners can become young learn them. Even to and how words The goal of teaching ESL learners at school should be to get them fi ESL learners at school should be to goal of teaching The Giving attention to new words is only part of the learning process, and it is is only part new words the learning process, of to Giving attention weeks. several times over met again several important are that these words is most important which is the old material lesson, it In any rather than any be reaching may the old material is because This material. newly presented a very for long the point at which extra will help it be remembered attention too and so devoting will be quickly material forgotten, Newly presented time. when fi it to much attention meetings. in later the most attention 6 Where possible arrange linked skills possible Where activities the target recycle to 6

English as a Second Language at School Chapter 10 106 Chapter 10 English as a Second Language at School 107 . The . The site . New York: York: . New (2), 6-10, about avoiding interference between between interference (2), 6-10, about avoiding Teaching ESL/EFL Reading and Writing Teaching TESOL Journal, 9 TESOL Journal, nd the names of texts that teach the words in the Academic Word List, go Word in the Academic the words nd the names of texts that teach http://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/resources/academicwordlist/links Nation, I.S.P. (2009). (2009). Nation, I.S.P. To fi to related words. related Resources Web See Nation, I. S. P. (2000). Learning vocabulary (2000). Learning in lexical sets: dangers and See Nation, I. S. P. guidelines. Further Reading Further reading, extensive reading, on intensive chapters contains Routledge, It types. and topic writing, to responding the writing process, faster, reading sound-spelling correspondences. an appendix on also contains Intensive reading is a particularly reading may Intensive useful activity Learners schools. in In content cards. vocabulary do deliberate to word using also be encouraged vocabulary, on subject-related can usefully focus teachers classes, matter this vocabulary revise periodically. to being careful Second language learners who enter the school system with very the school system little learners who enter Second language a very vocabulary large have gap They special attention. English will need language supportThe possible that they get should as much as bridge. to One the subjects to study in school. need to that they be closely related instruction use content-based (which is also known this is to to as approach study the learners learning), where CLIL—content and language integrated same time. and the language at the matter both the content What Should You Learn from This Chapter? This from Learn You Should What by words and the ways they behave, and this encourages learning. this encourages and they behave, ways and the words by also contains links to programs using the AWL. programs links to also contains uency development, development, uency ecting interactions, ecting but ed in their profession is focus should include ection on this practice. fth of a taught course. Ideally, such a course such a course Ideally, fth course. of a taught nd a job. In this chapter, we focus on developing spoken on developing focus we In this chapter, nd a job. Helping ESL Learners Learners ESL Helping Communication Develop Skills

and should be a deliberate idea in this chapter is that there e main observation about factors aff of interactions, learning of useful sentences and phrases, deliberate learning and memorization refl practice in communication skills, and Th communication skills for non-native developing planned focus on well Th force. enter the work speakers wishing to Main Idea Main 11 Chapter The other partsThe of the taught section a workplace-focused of such course include the kinds language would of learning which goes on in an intensive discourse, grammar, vocabulary, on pronunciation, with focuses course skills, and listening speakingreading skills, and writing and deliberate only on focus going to are we In however, this chapter language learning. skills spoken communication emphasis on discourse. developing with a strong important at speaking will look which has both task goals (conveying We relationships and people goals (building and strengthening information) and its name of linguistics is called pragmatics, area This people). between along with language-focused learning through deliberate observation.along with language-focused deliberate learning through who could not fi who could will partly skills.communication our focus Although be on English in the widely applicable. is much more in this chapter the material workplace, only be a part ESL job skill would communication for This focus of a course about one fi probably seekers, Victoria In a very include component. the workplace experience would large makes component this experience skilledUniversity course, migrants ample opportunities and provides for time, up almost half of the course output and fl input, meaning-focused meaning-focused In Chapter 5, we looked at needs analysis and environment analysis for a for analysis and environment analysis looked at needs In 5, we Chapter qualifi well aimed at ESL speakers who were course

Helping ESL Learners Develop Communication Skills Chapter 11 108 Chapter 11 Helping ESL Learners Develop Communication Skills 109 uency. uency. cient user of of level erence, uency development ective communication. culty of the goal of the interaction (for example, is culty example, of the goal of the interaction (for familiarity of imposition, the people in an interaction, between and the level or diffi seriousness, ection on this observation, so that they can understand others’ behaviour behaviour ection on this observation, others’ they can understand so that ended. The phrase “In future” is used as a very direct and demanding way “In future” phrase The ended. strands of the course need to involve observing others communicating, involve need to strands of the course In a course possible learning on the job. taking and where part plays, in role skills,on communication it is important is the opportunity that there to examples of interaction. It and real seeing good models learn through is also very important apply what is observed a variety to experience of and to It a conscious situations. develop is also valuable if learners communication of eff understanding of the factors and the features and understanding, conscious this do not have speakers Most native language learner’s a second interpret speakers may native because of this, rather than skillspoor communication or inappropriateness as impoliteness a profi witnessing I recall example, For an issue of correctness. 2 of the factors of status diff of awareness development The 1 Observation of examples of interaction. and analysis The language-focusedThe a communication learning) of learning strand (deliberate skills should include the following. course The learning from input, learning from output, and fl input, learning from learning from The when asking an “In future” language using the phrase English as a second speaker was clearly native The do something. speaker not to older native off in and it was clearly inappropriate of asking do something, someone not to speaking speaker was a person who was used to native The that conversation. as was not interpreted error but the communication speakers, non-native to was intended. no impoliteness although but as impoliteness, an error The principle of the four strands needs to apply to appropriate communication communication appropriate apply to strands needs to principle of the four The is, That skills aspects other just as it applies to language curriculum design. of learning to equal time given should be roughly there course in a well-balanced fl and developing learning, output, deliberate learning from input, from What Kinds of Learning Need to Be in a Included of Learning Kinds What Skills Course? Communication and shape their own. In other words, a communication skills a communication needs to course In their own. and shape words, other component. strategy a strong have indicates that it is the study of how language is used to get things done. The The done. get things to is used language of how the study that it is indicates become need to language learners is that second of this chapter major theme certain of why things are be aware to they need is, That linguists. like applied the skills develop to and they need of observationdone in certain ways, and refl llers erences erences kinds in turn. ve of focuses English the complete and then present rst language, ection, possible observation, and where the diff on someone making a request which requires considerable work from the from work considerable makingsomeone which requires a request asked?). person being use. in the conversation, others involve to how end a conversation, to how turn and take a to how acknowledge to what the speaker is saying, how make use of humour and acknowledge to take a turn, how others to allow make softento the impact to and how how of what is being said, humour, such as fi of speech non-lexical features and intonation, use of pauses, and sighs. that the L2 and the way is carried out in communication the way between it is done in the L1. 3 and phrases to sentences of useful noting and memorisation Deliberate 4 a conversation, make small talk, encourage to to in how how Training refl Deliberate 5 look at each of these fi us now Let example as a comparison and as a model to analyse. Whatever approach is approach Whatever analyse. and as a model to example as a comparison taken, it is very see typical useful early on if learners examples of what they There are several ways of initially focusing on how communication is carried communication on how of initially focusing ways several are There is way it. Another and analyse example a complete present is to out. One way name comes This path technique”. “the garden called use what some have to which means to path”, lead someone up the garden “to the saying from direction. In the learners take them in the wrong this approach deliberately it will predict how to and then have of a conversation the beginning given are the complete then shown they make their prediction, After they are continue. they would suggest how get learners to be to would way A third example. do something in their fi Observation and Analysis of Interaction Observation and Analysis It is important that learners observe not just ones created interactions, real kinds Studies of the of language or a teacher. book designer a course by agreement is not strong that there typicallymodeled in coursebooks reveal and the examples that appear in analysis of corpus the results between gather lots of has to does not mean that the teacher This coursebooks. books which Course do. be a useful thing to although this would examples, plenty of examples that can be used. have data already on corpus based are is rich book, example, course Each section and Newton for of the Riddiford to and required In be encouraged addition, learners need to in examples. observation.collect examples from their own

Helping ESL Learners Develop Communication Skills Chapter 11 110 Chapter 11 Helping ESL Learners Develop Communication Skills 111 rst level, it is rst level, or far apart?erent, Do rst person say, what is the what is person say, rst ect of the Nature ect a relatively large number of number large ect a relatively ect. erence and level of familiarity between the speakers. Is the status of familiarity the speakers. between and level erence diff moderately speakers equal, of the two erence on communication adults ect of interaction, for and in a course the nature A rather small number of factors can aff Understanding the Factors that Aff that Understanding the Factors Interaction 11.1 lists the most important factors and several Table of interaction. features of interaction that they can aff features The analysis of examples should work on two levels. At the fi At levels. on two should work of examples analysis The are aiming for. aiming are an analysis of what is being said. What does the fi What does what is being said. of an analysis This or not that well? well, moderately the speakers know each other well, the factors some understanding of that involves of analysis level second aff these factors. to given be some attention needs to skills, there At the second level, there needs to be analysis of the features of the status of the features be analysis needs to there level, the second At diff diff response to this, how does the speaker continue? This analysis involves some some involves analysis This continue? does the speaker how this, to response about, is being talked what considering it involves because generalisation the various talking much how predictable and formulaic on, and how goes use the some people commonly example, For are. questions and statements What does signal? “Hey!” What does things going?”. are How “Hey! greeting predictable is the response? mean? How things going?” are “How ect in interaction ect of a set it. It have is useful to ect in interaction ∙ The topics talked about talked topics The ∙ the interaction Who controls ∙ use of humour The ∙ of formality level The ∙ amount of softening and hedging The ∙ of politeness degree The ∙ kinds used The of greetings ∙ amount of small talk The ∙ acknowledged others are way The ∙ pauses and intonation use of The ∙ Who speaks the most ∙ ended begun and are conversations ∙ How taken turns are ∙ How amount of teasing The ∙ the interactionWho begins ∙ culty of culty Social factors eff their and

Factor Eff erence of directness degree The ∙ Status diff the goal of the interaction Degree of intrusion, Degree diffi or seriousness, Level of familiarity Level ecting they aff and how communication Table 11.1 Table Learning Useful Phrases and Sentences Phrases Useful Learning Although it is important that learners observe on draw what others do and memorise deliberately also useful to it is use, their own that as models for part a large spoken Quite of informal used phrases and sentences. commonly that may use of phrases and sentences it makes is, That language is formulaic. greetings examples of this are most obvious The as single choices. be stored of a list 11.2 contains Table gratitude. of expressing and ways and responses, should just These used in spoken language. used phrases that are commonly as a startingbe regarded a collection point and choose from. to Understanding the factors and the features also needs to be accompanied by by be accompanied also needs to Understanding the factors and the features that occur. noting the particular and expressions words There are other important things to consider. What is the goal of the other important are consider. to things There does the interaction occur? When and where interaction? Table 11.1 is designed to help learners build up their knowledge to of the factors 11.1 is designed Table aff It factor each from. consider as is also useful to work to factors and features such as a three-point so that the variable nature a scale, scale, representing of the factor can be appreciated.

Helping ESL Learners Develop Communication Skills Chapter 11 112 Chapter 11 Helping ESL Learners Develop Communication Skills 113 might rst of all, rst for consciousness raising. The The raising. consciousness rst for like that Thank you very much, Thank you so much you Thank very you much, Thank know I don’t know if, I don’t mind, never theory, think so I don’t whether, fi most likely, the way, by better, opinion), in the meantime, me (in my to as well, think about, what do you how same time, at the moment (rephrasing), stuff Words, phrases and sentences commonly used largely for for largely used commonly and sentences phrases Words, purposes discourse

rst. The major weakness of Table 11.2 is that most of the frequency Table major weaknessThe of rst. Discourse functionDiscourse Phrases Refusing in the moment, in practice, for at present, Softeners that is see, I mean, you know, you of course, Requesting to want me do you away, on, straight come Making apologies afraid I’m Giving thanksAcknowledging Ta, a lot, Thanks Cheers, you, Thank Thanks, all right Making suggestions had in a way, at the same time (conversely), DisagreeingMaking compliments far something of a, by on the whole, at the at one time, so, even as yet, as a whole, vaguenessExpressing and something like that, the other day, sort of, Greetings you? Hi, are How Good day, Hello, Exclamations Oh dear Oh no, Table 11.2 Table learners can pick one or two items that they have heard before or that are or that are before heard that they have items learners can pick one or two The them. them in the language they hear around for them and listen new to of and many high-frequency items, are value of the list is that these items the meaning clear from and function a meaning that is not always them have of their parts. The items in each row in column 2 are in frequency order, with the most in frequency order, 2 are in column in each row items The fi frequent 11.2 should be used at fi Table list in The counts drawn on were not discourse focused, and it is important and it is see in focused, to not discourse on were drawn counts and what their particularwhat contexts the phrases occur functions are. Fine, thanks. Fine, c piece of work which is being done. It which is being done. of work c piece How are you? you? are How it going? How’s things with you? are How rms and builds relationships, and these relationships can be really can be really and these relationships rms and builds relationships, is more people oriented than task oriented. Small talk is important than task oriented. people oriented because is more it confi Because one of the important functionsstrengthen of small talk is to is there usually ones where are covered which are the topics relationships, or perhaps sport, such as the weather the and where experience, common health. usually predictable about someone’s as in enquiring are answers predictable so that they can are the initial greeting to Sometimes the answers questions beginning most greeting to response An appropriate be formulaic. thanks.” “Fine, is typically … ?” “How with The term “small talk” is used to refer to the friendly conversation that people friendly conversation the to refer is used to talk” “small term The on getting or serious matters on more not focused are engage in when they In fact,things done. of getting things small talk can be used as a way at times important information usually aimed at conveying Small talk is not done. a specifi to and is usually not related during important Small talk usually occurs done. be when things need to at and lunch breaks, during tea can occur it In a workplace setting, time. free and when people meet casually on their and end of meetings, the beginning task. do some other to when people it oftenway In occurs social settings, meet. It substantial is important skills are communication that there course in any opportunities training and practice communication in the use of for In section this look at making will strategies. we talk, small range of and at a activities practice skills. used to which can be communication Training and Practice in Communication Skills in Communication Practice and Training Learning useful words, phrases and sentences is a helpful step toward toward step is a helpful sentences and phrases words, useful Learning however, important most The step, with discourse. and coping understanding this knowledgeis putting practice. into

Helping ESL Learners Develop Communication Skills Chapter 11 114 Chapter 11 Helping ESL Learners Develop Communication Skills 115 Not much. Not I’m good, and you? and you? good, I’m family? your How’s How are you Albert? you are How SA + EI strategy What’s up? What’s been up to lately? you What have  The Q Q The SA+EI. The formula means a Question can be responded to with the to responded means a Question can be formula The SA+EI.  Figure 11.1 Figure

Q a topic extra provides The information Short plus Extra Answer Information. and an opportunity further for some examples. talk. are Here  A greeting may simply be a greeting with no other small talk expected with no other small or simply be a greeting may A greeting as an opportunity can also be treated further A greeting for perhaps wanted. can be an encouragement a greeting to a person responds way The small talk. furtherfor the talk. can be summarised by strategy A useful discourse formula: following The topics chosen may also be an encouragement to talk more, as in the case talk more, to encouragement also be an may chosen topics The of sport someone has been doing lately. or what An appropriate response to most greeting questions beginning with “What with beginning questions greeting most to response An appropriate “Not much.” typically is … ?” cally ection kindserent of extra information SA+EI strategy is a very ESL learners SA+EI strategy useful one for

 information?

∙ What kind of extra was provided? information ∙ and appropriate? it interesting Was ∙ the extra to well speaker respond Did the second ∙ ne. I was just feeling a bit dizzy but I’m OK now. just feeling a bit dizzy but I’m ne. I was I’m good, and you? How’s your family? your How’s good, and you? I’m Yes. I’m really enjoying it. enjoying really I’m Yes. I’m fi I’m How are you Albert. you are How Aren’t you doing Linguistics 201? you Aren’t Are you OK? you Are    this refl of encouraging One way done. they were ection well on how Focus: Focus: Extra information to observe, analyse, and develop skill It worth and develop in using. is well practising observe, analyse, to in well use the strategy to learning required The strategy. class as a deliberate kind an appropriate of extra and information provide able to being involves extra Each learner should information. the clues in someone else’s interpret diff know or four consciously of at least three Discourse completion tasks and small role plays are very of are useful ways plays tasks and small role completion Discourse by practising skills. communication Such activities usefully followed are refl some examples. are Here addressed to the person) can indicate how willing the speaker is to carry is to willing the speaker how the person) can indicate on to addressed Q The the conversation. same strategy The their shortthat they can add to a greeting. to answer is also useful in interviews. If the person being interviewed includes extra a this extra can play questions, information to in their responses information partlarge in guiding the direction the interview. of being an observer with one of the three who later of three groups form is to commentaryThis can be on the performancecomments speakers. two of the small observation having helped by checklists. Note that the extra information can be a fact, a feeling, or a question. If someone that the extra can be a fact,Note information a feeling, a short with but no extra this is greeting a to answer information, responds further to a clear discouragement talk. a greeting If to someone responds with a short extra of that and extra then the nature answer information, whether it is general or specifi vague or precise, (whether it is information

Helping ESL Learners Develop Communication Skills Chapter 11 116 Chapter 11 Helping ESL Learners Develop Communication Skills 117 of the ESL situation is ning features cient users perform certain speech in English. communication uence an opportunityrst speaker provide the for often enough? second speaker to take a turn? How? take a turn? speaker to second ∙ What kinds of feedback did the listener provide? What kinds did the listener feedback of ∙ they appropriate? Were ∙ often, often or not too enough, provided feedback Was ∙ the end of the conversation? Who signalled ∙ used? were What signals ∙ the signal to the other speaker respond did ∙ How ∙ How did the second speaker manage to take a turn? take to manage speaker did the second ∙ How the fi Did ∙ and Comparing ecting, ect on why it happens. This observationThis is not intended ect it happens. on why Focus: Focus: Ending a conversation Focus: Focus: to Giving feedback the speaker Focus: Focus: Turn-taking Versions of the observation of checklists can guide observationVersions described above but this observation widely at outside the classroom, look more also needs to on small talk. which focus questions like the following, so that learners can copy the performance of native speakers, but has the but has the the performance speakers, of native so that learners can copy style with an out their own of communication goal of helping them work of the factors that infl awareness As pointed out in Chapter 1, one of the defi 1, one out in Chapter pointed As we InObservation this chapter, informed. if it is well is best carried out and understanding as important of analysis looked at the role partshave skillsof communication It lessons. is important observe to not only what refl happens but to Observing, Refl them. A very the language being used around to access that learners can have important observation set learners make use of this advantage is to to way profi how to attention tasks that draw this observation be would Ideally, acts and the context in which they occur. observing this, in addition to interaction.of normal unscripted However, TV of learning. can also be a useful source interactions and on in movies Similar observation or softening checklists requests be made for could speak, others to encouraging making using pauses, compliments, refusals, making suggestions, no, saying call, a telephone and ending beginning and making a request. apologizing, t ection During the on the practice. culties experienced in everyday language use or in classroom language use or in classroom in everyday culties experienced participants? used? What kind of feedback is provided? What kind minimal feedback? to provide is it most appropriate When do they talk? When much do they talk? How the balanced between talk evenly the amount of time in small Is task goals? used to achieve small talk Is Who talks to who? Who starts the small talk? information is What kind of extra about? What do they talk          A communication skills lesson can involve observation skills of A communication and analysis lesson can involve and useful sentences to examples of interaction, attention some deliberate and some refl some practice, phrases, observation in both spoken of an interaction and analysis (ideally presented the learners can talk about the factors and features form), and written A Communication Skills Lesson A Communication We have looked at the major kinds of activity have in the occur which need to We these can fi at how look us now skills. of communication Let development Observation tasks can arise from an analysis of recorded interactions and Observation of recorded an analysis from tasks can arise diffi from on particular attention the learners’ can usefully focus teacher The activities. explain and that they can gather data to interaction issues and suggest ways best done as a whole class activity, Initially this is probably clarify the issue. observation from of information small bits that with the learners providing understanding the learners’ As explains. and together then draws the teacher or three of two small groups in interaction develops, of the factors involved learners can take on particular and report back on issues that they research or so. after a week together into a lesson. into together

Helping ESL Learners Develop Communication Skills Chapter 11 118 involved in the interaction and compare the model interaction with L1 use. Here is an example. The interaction is taken from the British National Corpus.

J: Morning. 2: Morning John. J: How are you? 2: Not so bad. J: Are you, love? How’s the hand? 2: It’s still a bit stiff , but it’s back to work Monday. J: Urgh. 2: Yuk. J: So that’s all right. 2: Yeah. J: Haven’t spotted a little steam cleaner 119 like, have you? Chapter 11 2: No. Helping ESL Learners Develop Communication Skills

 What are the signs that the speakers know each other reasonably well?  What are the topics of the small talk?  How predictable are the questions and responses?  What is the fi rst piece of business talked about?  What is the eff ect of like?  In your L1, do you use short forms of greetings?

The same interaction topic needs to be practiced two or three times within the same lesson and needs to be returned to at least twice in later lessons. Repetition is essential if communication skills are to become fl uent.

. , 119-134. , 88-102. Applied Linguistics, Applied Linguistics, (3), 371-405. System, 34 System, ciencyin the language Workplace Talk in Action. Talk Workplace (4), 26-29, and Holmes, (4), 26-29, and Holmes, Applied Linguistics, 25 Applied Linguistics, The TESOLANZ Journal, 15 The TESOLANZ Journal, the L2 and the L1 in the way between erences (4), 423-431. ciency? English Teaching Forum, 18 Forum, English Teaching ecting the language used, by deliberate memorisation memorisation deliberate ecting by the language used, ection on the diff TESOL Quarterly, 10 TESOL Quarterly, t by improving their skills particularlylanguage, in using that improving t by in (3), 299-320. For more on Q->SA+EI see Nation, I.S.P. (1980). Graded interviews for on Q->SA+EI more Nation, I.S.P. see For practice. communicative in a second sociolinguistic competence (1976). Developing D.F. & Brown, J. language. Wellington: LALS, Victoria University of Wellington, and Riddiford, N. (2007). and Riddiford, Wellington, of University Victoria LALS, Wellington: Does instruction language: in a second Making help appropriately requests profi pragmatic develop to Martinez, list. R., & Schmitt, N. (2012). A phrasal expressions 33 The website of the Languages in the Workplace project has many free free project has many Workplace of the Languages in the website The papers on English in the workplace occasional http://www.victoria.ac.nz/lals/lwp/resources/occasional-papers.aspx Web Resources Resources Web Further Reading Further (2010). J. N. and Newton, - Riddiford, Essential reading can benefi skills training in communication by like and phrases, of useful sentences and by others, involving and making talk, small conversation, encouraging refl deliberate is carried out. communication What Should You Learn from This Chapter? This from Learn You Should What of profi level a reasonable have who already Learners observing done by can be This spoken interaction within the workplace. the of an awareness of interaction, examples developing and analysing by important factors aff Biber, D., Conrad, S., & Cortes, V. (2004). “If you look at ...”: Lexical bundles in bundles Lexical “If look at ...”: you (2004). V. S., & Cortes, Conrad, D., Biber, and textbooks. teaching university The data in Table 11.2 comes from the following sources. the following from 11.2 comes Table data in The and DCT in corpus of gratitude S. (2006). Expressions G.A. & Adolphs, Schauer, and pedagogy. sequences, formulaic Vocabulary, data:

Helping ESL Learners Develop Communication Skills Chapter 11 120 Chapter 12 English for Academic Purposes Courses in an ESL Situation 121 ciency test preparation if learners still have to pass such a to ciency if learners still have preparation test English for Academic Academic for English in an Courses Purposes ESL Situation

library text, listening to lectures, academic use, reading ese include study needs for academic is that preparation e main idea in this chapter note-taking, group discussions, prepared talks, analysing research reports, reports, talks, analysing research discussions, prepared note-taking, group and writing assignments. test-taking, writing under time pressure, Main Idea Main Th in academic study. involved similar to those activities that are to involve Th 12 Chapter Table 12.1 is an expansion of Table 6.1 with a row of Test preparation added, added, preparation Test of 6.1 with a row Table of 12.1 is an expansion Table added in the second skills pleasure and Oral communication and Reading for column. An Overview of the Focuses and Activities in an EAP Course Activities and in an EAP Course OverviewAn of the Focuses ESL Learners for In Chapter 6, we looked at needs analysis and environment analysis for English English for analysis and environment looked at needs analysis In 6, we Chapter looked at the vocabulary demands which We academic purposes courses. for closer to and preferably families a vocabularyindicate of at least 5,000 word the importance also saw of We academic study. 8,000 families is needed for vocabulary 10). textsacademic and technical (see also Chapter when reading at the importance looked study skills of We as a part of the curriculum, and profi the need for test. etymology sources communication skillscommunication ∙ Issue logs ∙ Reading like a writer ∙ reports research Analysing ∙ Making a list of references ∙ under time pressure Writing ∙ practice Touch-typing ∙ using assignments Writing ∙ Linked skills activities ∙ ∙ Dictionary use including ∙ cards Word ∙ ∙ Reading course outlines Reading course ∙ ∙ Test instruction Test ∙ practice Test ∙ ∙ Evaluating note taking note Evaluating styles ∙ taking in note styles Training ∙ mini-lectures to Listening ∙ skillsLinked activities ∙ ∙ Issue logs ∙ discussions Problem-solving ∙ Role plays ∙ talks Prepared ∙ Discussing academic reading ∙ Linked skills activities ∙ in oral Training ∙ ∙ Issue logs ∙ Library tasks ∙ Speed reading ∙ Linked skills activities ∙ reading Intensive ∙ reading Extensive ∙ assignments articlethe classic research format spreadsheets, processing, library and journal searches, programs) referencing vocabulary work, and assessment requirements. ∙ Writing from sources from Writing ∙ Understanding and applying ∙ conventions ∙ Referencing exams ∙ Dealing with written plagiarism ∙ Avoiding use (Word Computer ∙ ∙ Writing emails ∙ Coping with technical with technical Coping ∙ Increasing vocabulary size ∙ ∙ Understanding attendance, Understanding attendance, ∙ ∙ Understanding the test format Understanding the test ∙ formats Understanding item ∙ Managing time ∙ with the content Coping ∙ ∙ Following discussions ∙ Following ∙ Taking part in discussions Taking ∙ skills∙ Oral communication ∙ Using library∙ Using resources resources internet ∙ Using ∙ Reading academic texts pleasure ∙ Reading for Focuses and activities and EAP course in an Focuses

Skill focus and study skill Language use Activities Language learning University University requirements Test Test preparation Listening taking ∙ Note lectures from Speaking talk a prepared ∙ Presenting Reading taking ∙ Note reading from Writing with written Coping ∙ Table 12.1 Table

English for Academic Purposes Courses in an ESL Situation Chapter 12 122 Chapter 12 English for Academic Purposes Courses in an ESL Situation 123 Reading like a writer Making a list of references Touch-typing practice assignments Writing using sources Dictionary use including etymology cards Word Library tasks reading Intensive reading Extensive Prepared talks Prepared Writing under time Writing pressure Issue logs Speed reading Evaluating Evaluating notetaking styles Discussing academic reading Teacher-led responsibility Group Independent work Reading course Reading course outlines instruction Test practice Test reports activities taking styles mini- to Listening lectures discussions Role plays in oral Training communication skills Allocation of responsibility for activities for responsibility of and learning Allocation t such a large number of activities into class time, and the of activities number class time, a large t such into

Test Test preparation Language learning University requirements Writing research Analysing Reading Linked skills Listening in note Training Speaking Problem-solving Table 12.2 Table Table 12.2 is a rough allocation because there are shared responsibilities. responsibilities. shared are allocation because there 12.2 is a rough Table the activities in the Independent for work the bulk of the work Generally, supervisionteacher can be done without immediate column as homework column responsibility Activities in the Group or in independent study time. Activities in the teacher-led. but need not be be done in class, usually need to Table 12.2 takes the activities listed in the third column of Table 12.1 and 12.1 and Table of column activities takes the 12.2 third in the listed Table carrying for responsibility who should take suggests It them out. is not fi to possible aim of making the their own of the learners take control have should teacher about. be a policy should This informed the learners are that learning. because the learners talking lls two main functions.lls two One is the substantial preparation, organization organization preparation, substantial buzz groups ciently through the use of headings and the use ciently through nd useful typing tutor programs and may need initial supervision need may and useful typingnd programs in tutor (2) Training in notetaking styles Training (2) take detailed to notetaking is a range of Some styles. learners prefer There done effi and this can be notes mini lectures to Listening (3) long be too but this may or longer, 50 minutes lectures last around Usually storage of information. That is, notes are taken so that the information can that the information taken so are notes is, That of information. storage function second function The is called the encoding where be looked at later. of the information of notetakingthe actual deepens the processing process at away thrown If were the notes memory. long-term enter helping it to much in relationship too not matter then it would the end of the lecture, taking they are out why work to need function. the encoding to Learners they taking or are for storage notes they taking are for notes is, That notes. practice to they need and choose among the various note Then encoding. taking their purpose. one which suits for options In this kindsubheadings. is important. of the notes of notetaking the layout Another kind of notetakingof a sequential or linear does not make use a kind with the main point diagram of concept arrangement, but involves that topic to related in the middle of the page and the information written should practice a variety Learners projecting out like the legs of an octopus. A useful of styles amongst them when they need to. so that they can choose pairs during a lecture learners sit in or mini-lecture have do this is to to way the lecturer stops points during the lecture, while taking and at several notes, they On the basis of this comparison, their notes. so that they can compare discussion times during These their notetaking. can make adjustments to sometimes called the lecture are should be like the quiet buzzing of bees. together Listening Activities in an EAP Course notetaking styles Evaluating (1) that it fi on notetakingResearch shows Let us now look at the activities listed in Tables 12.1 and 12.2. Tables activities look at the us now in listed Let and input from the teacher. All the activities in the table require some setting some activities All the require in the table the teacher. from and input touch-typing practice is best example, For at least initially. teacher the up by need guidance but learners may computer, on a personal done individually to fi a practicesetting up schedule. Teacher-led column typically require typically column require Teacher-led

English for Academic Purposes Courses in an ESL Situation Chapter 12 124 Chapter 12 English for Academic Purposes Courses in an ESL Situation 125 erence being that there is there being that erence (4) Discussing academic reading (4) is a typical activity tutorial Discussing academic reading tertiary in many been set an article learners have subjects. or a section Usually level of text It expected is worth tutorial. discuss it during the to and are each read to doing this which can act for as a strategy a procedure learner developing (1) involve could procedure This study. that they carry their later into over (3) Prepared (3) Prepared talks most important talks The prepared 9. looked at in Chapter talks are Prepared but they can also be a the issue logs activitywill arise from described below, part of a linked skills possible should activity 15), and wherever (see Chapter study at on the subjects going to drawing the learners that they are involve tertiary level. (2) Role plays the in an EAP course, possible, Where 14. dealt with in Chapter are Role plays the learners to relevant in situations that are roles should involve plays role in tertiary study. (1) Problem-solving (1) Problem-solving discussions the 14. In looked at in Chapter an EAP course, discussions are Problem-solving study and could in academic those typically to involved should relate topic usefully be part of academic text reading of a linked skills series involving text. the Appendix 2 ideas arising from and the spoken discussion of some vocabulary encourage of tasks to detailed guidelines on the design contains learning. Speaking Activities EAP Course in an when learners practice listening to lectures and notetaking. This length of length This lectures and notetaking. practice learners when to listening much opportunity does not provide time also use of buzz groups. the for when these are and long, minutes 20 10 to Mini usually around lectures are half an hour. over to can stretch time the total buzz groups with interrupted of the features most lecture behind a mini idea it should contain is that The academic lectureof a normal the main diff with more built-in support for the learners. This supportThis of can take the form built-in support more the learners. for buzz the lecture, outlines during providing the lecture, before preparation look learners to allow during the lecture and substantial pauses to groups, their notes. over rst cation cult in EAP courses cult in EAP courses in the activityrst and critical step is for elds of study, but this is very diffi elds of study, (1) Issue logs issue log activityThe is a kind of linked skills activity 15) that is (see Chapter speaking, reading, skills four of listening, The weeks. several extended over fi The and writing can all be involved. where there are learners from a wide variety Nevertheless, a of subject learners from are areas. there where amount of independent study time should be spent on reading reasonable academic texts. relevant the and report on over research that they will choose a topic each learner to their subject to areas should relate of topic choice The next weeks. several about which substantial and it must be a topic possible, of study wherever and checked chosen their topic Having can be found. amounts of information on the gather information to each learner then begins it out with the teacher, newspapers, journals, including textbooks, a wide range of sources, from topic and interviews. each Every the internet, weeks two magazines, television, Reading Activities in an EAP Course Reading is such an important activity in tertiary be that it needs to study should occur Ideally most of the reading EAP course. of any a major focus fi within the learners’ carefully reading the text and noting the main points, (2) listing two or three or three two (2) listing the text main points, the and noting reading carefully each of a question about and preparing confusing in the text are that places ideas in the text the about how (3) making and brief notes a few these places, fi These in lectures. been presented and what has reading other to relate (5) Training in oral communication skills communication in oral Training (5) academic are There skills.oral communication looked at In 11, we Chapter such as undesirable, skills,applications of these but some of them are or task, an assignment for extension a time apologising for requesting the and requesting class, from explaining an absence handing in a task late, is clearly value in practising there some Nonetheless, re-marking of a paper. of the skills11 in an academic context. described in Chapter three steps are preparation for the discussion. During the discussion, each During the the discussion. for preparation are steps three main ideas and asking the practicelearner should presenting the clarifi could ideas in the reading discussion of the application of the The questions. be a planned part them as a phrase a learner could of the discussion, or a procedure If learners have running the tutorial. the person question to on, participation draw be less to like the one just described may in tutorials threatening.

English for Academic Purposes Courses in an ESL Situation Chapter 12 126 Chapter 12 English for Academic Purposes Courses in an ESL Situation 127 nding er such copy nd hard looked y describing the sources (2) Library tasks teacher’s The 12.2, library activity. as an independent listed tasks are Table In fi the activity to contribution can be setting initial tasks which involve learner reports to the two or three others in their small group on what they they on what group in their small others reportslearner three or two the to to reports topic separate on their own learner in the group Each found. have also be expected make a regular to learner may Each in the group. the others briefl report written one page the teacher, to of the issue log activity value processes of the great it includes many is that The each week, the EAP teacher minutes a few For in academic study. involved the learners on doing the issue for some general guidance should provide such as pointing out the importancelog activity, of acknowledging sources, both in the text and in a list of references, do referencing to learning how of and planning the organisation the assignment, for using a suitable format the data and its presentation. (3) Speed reading kinds The courses of speed reading 8. in Chapter looked at speed reading We at that should be part read do not train the learners to of an EAP program one speed to usual reading their increase but simply to speeds, exceptional an EAP learners completing The speakers. that of native that is closer to them for which is at the right level material read should be able to course speed reading from gains The minute. per 250 words at speeds of around that is needed the small amount of time to so striking, compared are courses them, that they should be a compulsory do to part Several of every course. The website. Sonia Millett’s from available texts are sets of speed reading academic study include those for learners preparing ones most suitable for 4,000 those at the BNC/COCA and List level, Word at the 2,000 plus Academic level. at and the main points of information found. Toward the end of the course, course, the end of the Toward found. main points of information at and the and a written is expectedeach learner an oral presentation make both to part become could a course. of This the grading of on their topic. assignment the EAP course As of information. pieces or certain information of sources library each learner can suggest their own the week. task for progresses, Such library actually library the going to tasks should cover fi to in the electronic library journals, searching accessing material, catalogue, and making and theses, use of the facilities that libraries off books, Each libraryas interloan. and should ideally be should not be very task large, goal of such tasks is to The in much less than an hour. be completed able to available are kinds of what and resources of information make learners aware use them. to and how uency t, coupled subjecterent areas. in an class levels erent ed as an independent activity. In ed as an independent activity. cult to do as a classroom activity do as a classroom cult to because erent words will occur only once or twice in the text. Thus a Thus or twice in the text. only once will occur words erent y in Chapter 9. Because of the pressure of time in EAP courses, time in EAP courses, of Because of the pressure 9. Chapter y in eld of study, but this is diffi but this eld of study, text almost is because in any This the end. to the beginning cult text from (6) Extensive (6) Extensive reading is a veryIn reading extensive important most language courses of source opportunity fl as being an excellent reading language input as well for with the content learning that goes on during such reading is enough to to is enough learning that goes on during such reading with the content reading. justify such intensive 9 and also in Chapter reading looked at extensive have We development. learners studying in an section 8. Ideally, reading in Chapter in the Further a vocabulary than 4,000 words, larger size should have EAP programme extensive that any means This readers. which is the limit of published graded (see mid-frequency readers involve largely which is done would reading a great the learners have where in areas or reading website), Nation’s Paul It knowledge. the serious balance seems a good idea to deal of background Such pleasure. for with some reading of an EAP course academic focus half of the diff In general, it is not good advice to learners to encourage them to read a read them to encourage learners to to In it is not good advice general, diffi not repeated be spent lookinglot of time could are that up unknown words In academic texts however, relevant subsequently forgotten. and that are vocabulary in the text will be technical 20% and 30% of the words between vocabularyThis anyone to is essential often they occur. of how regardless learning benefi language This studying within that subject area. EAP course, and could meet in a scheduled independent study time. meet in a scheduled independent and could EAP course, typically will be studying in a wide variety learners of diff based on their groups into learners is organising A possible compromise the diff across stretch could groups These study areas. intensive reading may be best done as an individual activity, providing the providing be best done as an individual activity, may reading intensive opportunitylearners with the subject through matter struggle their way to Ittexts. is important within their learners do reading that in an EAP course fi own (5) Intensive (5) Intensive reading is classifi reading intensive 12.2, Table In it is typically done as a class activityother courses, using with the teacher in the language features to attention learners’ the text as a means of drawing 8, been looked at in detail in Chapter has kind reading This of intensive text. and also briefl (4) Linked skills activitiesLinked (4) ideal are They Linked skills 15. activities in Chapter described in detail are vocabularylearning academic of some of the ways developing and of skillsacademic and discussion. reading such as critical

English for Academic Purposes Courses in an ESL Situation Chapter 12 128 Chapter 12 English for Academic Purposes Courses in an ESL Situation 129 any text or are they particularly related to the content of this text? to the they particularly related any text or are account of this audience in any way? section? the text? Are there any useful phrases which are worth copying? any useful phrases which are there Are used? I and you pronouns the is the text? Are personal How the writer take for the text? Does Who is the likely audience What general question is this information answering in each What general question is this information answering What are the main sections of the text? What are subheadings used? Are to the subheadings general headings which can be applied Are of What kind of information is included in each of the sections elds of study. Learners need to take an investigative attitude toward attitude toward take an investigative need to Learners elds of study.         rst activity described below, reading like a writer, has this investigative goal. has this investigative like a writer, reading rst activity described below, To do the reading like a writer activity, the teacher needs model texts needs and the teacher activity, like a writer do the reading To (1) Reading like a writer like Reading (1) texts which the learners reading activity like a writer reading involves The the While reading, typical of the kindare do. that they will need to of writing idea behind this is that the answers The learners ask questions about the text. are text. writing of a similar Here the questions can then guide their own to some typical questions. their writing, and in particular toward the writing in their subject areas. The The and in particular subject the writing in their areas. their writing, toward fi Writing is one of the major modes of assessment in tertiaryis one of the major modes of assessment and so it Writing study, is important plenty of opportunities that learners have in an EAP write to It is also importantcourse. of academic writing that they gain experience particularlyand more of the kind be done within to of writing that needs their fi Writing ActivitiesEAP Course in an Writing extensive reading should not have a heavy vocabulary not have should load. reading extensive ect of writing under erent ways changes from one discipline to another and to one discipline changes from ways erent ect on learners’ exam performance. The eff The exam performance. ect on learners’ (4) Writing under time pressure Writing (4) under time pressure Writing 9. writing in Chapter looked at 10 minute We well language learners write second Typically is necessary exams. in written Although it is very in the same time. speakers write under half of what native is not time if there of a good quality, which are important answers have to then this can have time, said within the limited be all that needs to write to eff a strong from one journal to another, they all include the same bits of information. the same bits of information. they all include another, to one journal from choose to be encouraged learners should early in an EAP programme Very memorise to and should have example APA, for one style of referencing, a for articles for references in a journal, references the exact for formats on this should be tested They in a book. chapters for book, and references see that they and then be periodically checked to knowledge test, a recall in it Note, style a variety to references. of reference apply the can consistently it, it is is not only important style and follow a particular choose to reference use make to important Learning in applying that same style. be consistent to is also very references and formats which stores like Endnote of a program useful. (3) Making a list of references (3) and although the of making ways a list of references standardised are There of these diff format (2) Analysing research reports research Analysing (2) that except reports is very research like a writer, Analysing much like reading includes format This very a format. report standard follows the classic research methodology, questions, research the parts research, of previous of the review should get Learners and list of references. and conclusion, discussion results, they going the discipline that very as it applies to format familiar with this easier but makes reading with this format familiar study in. Becoming to report because each section classic research of the also helps when writing, is most standardised information This certain kindsrequires of information. who the subjects expect read section,in the methodology were, we to where the materials done, was the research where was done, when the research controls special any and used, that were the measurements used, that were reports is a research Analysing during the experiment. exercised that were doing research. very toward good step a set of questions. If the activity of questions. a set be can the questions times, done several is but reading activity like a writer reading involves The time. each added to on the production of texts. focuses

English for Academic Purposes Courses in an ESL Situation Chapter 12 130 Chapter 12 English for Academic Purposes Courses in an ESL Situation 131 uency each week writing sessions uency in good practice can result ecting aspects other knowledge of language in uencyactivity development is virtually unresearched. ects. The topics for writing under time pressure can come can come pressure writing under time for topics The ects. cient touch-typist. Touch-typing means typingwithout looking at Touch-typing cient touch-typist. uency as aff gains as well (6) Writing assignments from sources from assignments Writing (6) in the writing process familiar with the main steps should become Learners 12.3. Table in as shown (5) Touch-typing practice (5) Touch-typing become to it is possible weeks, four over practice about 20 minutes a day With a profi as commercial as well and shareware freeware is excellent There the keys. Because doing such practice. not very for which are expensive programs touch-type tertiary in being able to such a big role use plays computer study, advantage. is a great fl brief fl or three two Having ways. positive good eff have may skills linked or from activities. research, issue log the learners’ from However speed reading practice practice spoken language and speed reading using the However 4/3/2 activity very show that fl clearly time pressure as a fl pressure time work rst and to Looking can also back well. owing This involves working out why you are writing are you working out why involves This main and the the main purpose is, and what communicate. to have ideas you of who will should think you write you Before can adapt your so that you writing your read their needs. writing to making writing by include in your some want to ideas you the more kindrough of plan. Usually, writing. do your be to the easier it will gather, the for and easy writing will also be organised simply ideas may Organising follow. to reader or working order, out their logical involve categories. putting them into part is the central This of the writing process, Sometimesactually people doing the writing. start they gather ideas need to writing before to it is better them. Oftenand organise however the ideas fi gather and organise doing the before goals and readers out your actual writing. what over look back it is useful to write, you As that your make sure to written already have you fl ideas are ideas. in gathering more result after the writing has been completed, Usually included it is important have check that you to that you include, to wanted all the ideas you have that you the ideas well, organised have not have and that you them well, expressed written ideas into in turning your made errors text. Sometimes checklists help with used to are the writing. editing and correcting Seven steps in the assignment writing process writing assignment in the steps Seven

Steps in the writing processSteps Description Deciding on the writing Deciding on goals Thinking of who the reader Thinking of who the reader will be Gathering ideas ideasOrganising Often that you gather the ideas it is useful to of piece so that the be organised to Ideas need the ideas into Turning text written what has Looking over back just been written the Editing and correcting writing Table 12.3 Table The steps described in Table 12.3 can become a focus for teaching and teaching for a focus 12.3 can become Table described in steps The as making in the writing process up It see the steps practice. useful to is quite can be expressed steps The the writing. that learners can bring to a strategy and for as they prepare as a series of questions that learners ask themselves some examples. are Here writing. of do a piece

English for Academic Purposes Courses in an ESL Situation Chapter 12 132 Chapter 12 English for Academic Purposes Courses in an ESL Situation 133 ect on their performance ective way? ective but with a little cult reading, nd sources, how to evaluate them, how to to them, how evaluate to how nd sources, What am I trying in this piece of writing? to say to? Who am I writing be in my writing? ideas that should the main What are in the most eff I organised these ideas Have Is my writing correct and easy to read? my writing correct Is      rm if these form similarities are also signals of meaning relationships relationships of meaning also signals similarities are rm if these form help and assistance they can be very useful sources of information which will which of information they can be veryhelp and assistance useful sources memories. vocabularyhelp technical stick in learners’ (1) Dictionary use including etymology (1) the particularly a long history, subjectIn areas, many those that have parts amongst many shared vocabularyword technical that are contain may similarities formal of this and look for should be aware Learners words. can They know. they already learning and words they are words between confi etymology The etymology the consulting sectionby of a good dictionary. sections of most dictionaries can make very diffi Language Learning Activities in an EAP Course Language Learning Learners who are studying English for academic purposes need to apply the need to academic purposes studying English for who are Learners in their subject practice Giving learners when writing assignments steps area. a very marked eff can have in writing assignments An important part sources. is the use of multiple ideas step of the gathering fi to learn how need to Learners in their academic courses. Ideally, the practice assignments that they write, the practice that they write, assignments Ideally, courses. in their academic be could although initially there of study, should be based on their areas breaking the value in the whole class working topic, on the same assignment 12.3. Table described in the steps into down work acknowledge to them in their them, and how from information combine useful learning of examples are and the analysis guidance Teacher writing. procedures. c ective of classes. or two rst week (2), 19-23) is a good way of is a good way (2), 19-23) pass the course. to l in order ciency requirement by the end of by ciency requirement Guidelines, 26 Guidelines, fulfi l the obligations that they need to test practice as a part of the program. This could begin with one small test with one small test begin could This practicetest as a part of the program. looms nearer. practice the test as session a week, and increase If learners have to meet an English profi to If learners have Test Preparation Activities EAP Course in an Preparation Test the EAP course in order to gain entry to the university, then their motivation gain entry to in order the university, the EAP course to the strength sometimes Unfortunately, test. on this focus will be high to of the content on the regular overwhelms focus the need to of this focus is worth then it If specifi this is the case, including clearly signalled course. Reading course outlines Reading course course a detailed written has that each course require universities Many students in the fi to outline which is made available University Requirements University in the course, what will be covered outline typically course shows This and will be assessed, the course how be done, that needs to the reading such general regulations, be more also may There requirements. attendance unfamiliar with If learners are in the outline. on plagiarism, as a statement or three useful spending two it is or with such regulations, such documents, learners can plan their work outlines and how sessions on examining course and fulfi (2) Word cards (2) Word Not cards. word learning from in detail at deliberate looked In we 10, Chapter an eff but it is such learning, card comfortable with word are all learners technique that they should know about it and know how to apply it well. know that they should technique apply it well. it and know about to how class vocabulary a A. (2004). Using box: A class vocabulary (Coxhead, box and who. when, where, why, How, introducing learners to the word card strategy. As useful words occur in class, in class, occur useful words As strategy. card the word learners to introducing word the put into are and the cards the learners, by on cards noted they are time is spent working a small amount of class basis, On a regular box. card either doing teacher- get attention, to so that they continue on the words activitiesThe word can include or individual study. work, pair work centred part word word analysis, of the meaning or form, dictation, recall testing using a concordancer. searches and collocation family building,

English for Academic Purposes Courses in an ESL Situation Chapter 12 134 Chapter 12 English for Academic Purposes Courses in an ESL Situation 135 ciency outside of ecting the feedback. on It is in an English-speakingrst year a much less university , and there is a reasonable amount of research on this amount of research reasonable is a , and there t the activities into a course by assigning some of them assigning activitiest the by a course into test wiseness class time. Giving attention to the writing process is particularly is the writing process to important Giving attention class time. in such courses. Courses in English for academic purposes need to involve a focus on both focus a involve purposes need to academic in English for Courses be covered so much that needs to is There language use and study skills. divide the activities that it is useful to those which are in such courses into those and group, of a small those which can be the responsibility teacher-led, be learners to division allows This which can be done as independent work. their profi improve and to less dependent on the teacher What Should You Learn from This Chapter? This from Learn You Should What to homework and independent study, others to group work either in class work group others to and independent study, homework to can activities. A good EAP course teacher-led and to or outside of class, fi make an ESL learner’s experience. pleasurable and successful and more frightening (1) Test instruction (1) Test the parts familiar with becoming how of the test, instruction involves Test time much how test, sit the to of time allowed them, the amount answer to each part, to given should be the used in the particularformats item test instruction test only be a few need There them. answer best to and how test had experience already have in the class who learners are and if there sessions, then making test, these TOEFL or the test such as the IELTS in sitting the test, of such instruction goal The is be a good idea. would sessions interactive called practice (2) Test of the versions or created sitting old versions practice simply involves Test refl and on the results, feedback getting test, a rather 12.1 contains Table and be done in an EAP course, is much to There important and activities. It that good needs long list of focuses therefore is not practising is carried out so that learners are things that they are analysis to is an attempt 12.2 Table in of responsibility division The good at. already fi make it easier to topic largely focusing on multiple-choice questions. Test instruction needs Test on multiple-choice focusing largely topic questions. practice. test by be accompanied to under timed sitting the test useful if some of these practice sessions involve conditions. Case Studies in Language Studies Case New York: Routledge. York: New To read about assessment in a university TESOL course, see the chapter by by see the chapter TESOL course, in a university about assessment read To (2011). & Nation, I.S.P. J. L. in Macalister, Roe, & J. Read, Further Reading Further Curriculum Design.Curriculum

English for Academic Purposes Courses in an ESL Situation Chapter 12 136 Chapter 13 Understanding Cultural Differences 137 erences until a erences is feeling erences ecting on L1 and L2 uenced by custom and custom by uenced erences Understanding Cultural Cultural Understanding Diff and experience. erences, guided and thoughtful through is understanding can develop

learning a newmain idea in this chapter is that e language also cultural diff observation,refl discussion of cultural issues, direct involves developing an understanding of the culture of the users of that of the of the culture an understanding developing involves and the L2 the L1 culture between a compromise language and reaching Th culture. Main Idea Main Th 13 Chapter Learning another language is necessarily learning another culture. This is This learning another culture. another language is necessarily Learning Because learners do competence. intercultural sometimes called developing developing culture, an explicit understanding of their own not typically have is no one that there in an awareness should result competence intercultural is infl but that behaviour of doing things, right way beliefs. The positive outcome of understanding cultural diff outcome positive The beliefs. Communication in a second language is necessarily communication between communication is necessarily language in a second Communication not only learning the language involves so living in a new culture cultures, and what behaviour being appropriate but also learning what is seen as of some cultural diff might not be aware is not. Learners at ease and coping in intercultural contexts. Learners of a second language of a second Learners contexts. in intercultural at ease and coping but they should speakers of the language, like native behave do not need to out certain in work and should speakers behave ways native understand why with this knowledge behaving of in mind. ways their own in bad feeling misunderstanding can result The misunderstanding occurs. Sometimes was no bad intention. misunderstandings may when there even 11 looks at one aspect Sometimes and Chapter of this. be language based, be as simple as the misunderstanding of a single misunderstandings may it is important of misunderstanding, learn to the source but whatever word, it. from ve erences erences but ect on this behaviour, nished? these questions. Consider uenced. ection, diff particularly to with regard c training in how to eat? If eating tools are eating tools are to eat? If c training in how kindserent of opportunities neglecting learning without or for ecting this order? a rough order deciding who eats when? What beliefs could be What beliefs could deciding who eats when? order a rough aff used during the meal? any special expressions there Are that they want? specifi given children talked about? used, do they have to be used in certain ways? Do they have to be they have to be used in certainused, do they have ways? Do placed in certain ways when the meal is fi Does everyone sit down to eat at the same time? If not, is there not, is there to eat at the same time? If everyone sit down Does used to start and end the meal? any special expressions there Are person get their food and the amount of food does each How young used? Are are What eating tools eaten? is the food How kinds of topics are What meal time a time for conversation? Is      and (5) refl situations, erent an observer and with some guidance with the perspective of another culture in which the ways example, observation. amount from can learn a large For culturally infl people eat a meal is strongly over-emphasising any one kind of opportunity. These opportunitiesThese should kind one over-emphasising any of opportunity. and incidental opportunitiesinclude both deliberate learning. for between the L1 and L2 cultures. In this chapter we will look at each of these fi will look at each of In we this chapter L1 and L2 cultures. the between these of out useful sequences work can Teachers opportunities learning. for follows competence intercultural developing to approach This opportunities. balanced a roughly provide namely, strands, four of the approach the general range of diff Observation Focused Culturally skills, that communication it was suggested In 11 on developing Chapter like sociolinguists observing become language learners need to second and language second Similarly, in which people use language. the ways interpreting observing how and interpreting like anthropologists, become learners need to refl users rarely language First users of English behave. An Approach to Developing Intercultural Competence Intercultural to Developing Approach An (1) observation, from can come (2) experience, another culture Understanding (4) practicein coping (3) direct of cultural issues, and discussion learning about in diff

Understanding Cultural Differences Chapter 13 138 Chapter 13 Understanding Cultural Differences 139

rst? thank you and ages and erent please who is to er according egy, and skill can in using this strategy egy, erent genders? erent ects the kinds of things they do? ection. Table 13.1 contains a list of topic a list of topic 13.1 contains Table ection. meeting whom? used? certain ways? speaking children? young used for to when talking people of diff to diff each other? What shake hands? example, for each other, aff other? talking children? young to ∙ How is politeness and respect shown? is politeness ∙ How diff Do the greetings ∙ What do people actually do when they greet ∙ fi goodbye who says to an order ∙ Is there Who uses them? ∙ ∙ Is there any vocabulary any which seems specially Is there ∙ What sorts spoken about when of things are ∙ like words politeness Are ∙ ndings of the observation can then be a basis Topic areas and example questions for intercultural intercultural questions for and example areas Topic observation

Topic areasTopic Example questions Ways of addressing people of addressing Ways used are of address and terms What pronouns ∙ Saying goodbyeSaying each when they leave people say What do ∙ Greeting peopleGreeting used when people meet are What greetings ∙ Speaking children young to in children young Do older people speak to ∙ Buying goods in a shop look at certain can people ask to ∙ How goods? Table 13.1 Table be developed by guidance in what to look for. The simplest way to do this is to way simplest The look for. in what to guidance by be developed that they can try questions through or three learners two set to answer to the for above those given can be similar to questions These observation. fi The example of meal times. observation. very for that are fruitful areas areas An important way of developing intercultural competence is to observe is to competence An important intercultural of developing way Such observation do. and is an language say second what users of the important strat learning intercultural and refl discussion, teaching, for There are many other questions that could be asked (the kinds (the be asked and could that questions other of food many are There the and so on), but spent eating, the length of time drink,meals, for the times daily acts that normal show which we enough to are above given questions and based on custom are and complex generally quite are granted take for belief. Teaching Teaching shoes? Do you your ect words? of swear rst after you’ve entered the house? entered rst after you’ve coat? your kind of food? always walk on the same side of each other? always you? it? refuse you swear words and which are the weakest swear swear the weakest which are and words swear words? speak to teachers? speak to learners? speak to they want a cup of tea? they want refuse? to tea? Do they keep to the left or the right, Do they keep to or keep to it matter? doesn’t house? Do you take off house? Do you take off attention if you want to ask a question or ask ask a question want to if you attention help? for ∙ What do they say to accept? What do they say do they say What accept? to do they say What ∙ a cup of given they are when do they say What ∙ some by accompanied always of tea Is a cup ∙ ∙ If a man and a woman walk together, do they If walk together, a man and a woman ∙ do How such an invitation? accept do you How ∙ ∙ On a scale of swearing, which are the strongest the strongest which are On a scale of swearing, ∙ and with whom? words Who uses swear ∙ What is the eff ∙ someone’s enter do when you What do you ∙ ∙ Who goes fi ∙ ∙ What do you do to attract the teacher’s attract do to the teacher’s What do you ∙ learners the ways rules governing there Are ∙ teachers the ways rules governing there Are ∙ ∙ Who decides who speaks when? ∙ speak? to others encouraged are ∙ How vocabularycation of the minimum adequate (West, M. (1960) Having a cup of teaHaving if asked they are when What do people reply ∙ someone's houseEntering house? someone’s into is someone invited How ∙ Swearing words? as swear regarded are What words ∙ on the footpathWalking do people walk on? What side of the footpath ∙ Visiting someone's houseVisiting and see come someone to invite do you How ∙ teachers respect to Showing teachers? for of address special terms there ∙ Are Classroom discussionClassroom discussion? classroom rules for there ∙ Are The topics given in Table 13.1 are just a sample of focuses for developing developing for just a sample of focuses 13.1 are Table in given topics The in general topics the more how and they show competence, intercultural West’s based on Michael 13.2 is largely Table 13.2 can be elaborated. Table classifi

Understanding Cultural Differences Chapter 13 140 Chapter 13 Understanding Cultural Differences 141 London: Longmans, pp. 113-114). pp. Longmans, London: owers engagements, wedding ceremonies, church ceremonies, ceremonies, church ceremonies, wedding engagements, ceremonies graduation ∙ Reading ∙ Computers banking, buying and selling ∙ Money, professions trades and ∙ Jobs, music computers, movies, TV, ∙ ∙ Art and photography ∙ Literature drinking socialising, others, Visiting ∙ ∙ Games sports and ∙ The military ∙ History ∙ Rank and social class ∙ Immigrants and foreigners ∙ Farming farm animals pets, ∙ Animals, and fl Trees ∙ ∙ Medical treatment ∙ Clothing ∙ The emotions ∙ Religion gardening cooking, ∙ Housework, food, meals and ∙ The family funerals, Christmas, birthdays, ceremonies; Formal ∙ General topics for an intercultural focus an intercultural for topics General

cult Circumstances. cult The intellectThe school and education ∙ Preschool, Business ∙ Shops and businesses Relaxation ∙ Travel lifePublic and taxation law Government, ∙ The earthThe the seasons and ∙ Climate selfThe sleeping ∙ Bathing, homeThe ∙ Houses and furniture General area focus Particular Table 13.2 Table The topics in Table 13.2 can be the basis for observation 13.2 can be the basis for discussion, and tasks, Table in topics The teaching. Observation of the observation tasks and the results of can be the beginning learning. other opportunities intercultural for English in DiffiEnglish ered ered for ect a wide range of uenced by belief and custom, and that belief and belief and custom, by uenced er between cultures, between groups within a culture, and culture, within a groups between cultures, er between er, so do groups and individuals within each culture. Pictures can be can Pictures and individuals within each culture. so do groups er, Simulation and role-play of practising activities useful ways and are Such activities most useful if they situations. are understanding intercultural Practice and Culturally Focused Role Play Focused and Culturally Practice Direct Learning and Discussion with a Cultural Focus with a Cultural and Discussion Direct Learning and discussion teaching Directly learning about aspects involves of culture of important and teaching Such cultural factors and cultural situations. the class, bring to that the learners on problems discussion can focus typical speaker behaviour, observations of native made have that learners gender, 13.1 and 13.2), and underlying factors like age, Table situations (see beliefs, tradition, religious legal requirements, family relationship, class, and history beliefs, that aff cultural political beliefs, cultural behaviours. cultural a good and provide comparisons on L1 and L2 Discussion can draw knowledge their opportunity of their own and develop show learners to for of in such discussion is cultural stereotyping beware to danger The culture. observing by some degree that just as cultures to and this can be avoided diff used as a starting an activity discussion, showing point for or situation in the L1 can be made with the discussed and comparisons are These L2 culture. culture. An important that show should be to goal of discussion and teaching infl is strongly behaviour diff custom individuals. between Learning From Experience From Learning occurs misunderstanding when a obvious is most experience from Learning However is a misunderstanding. that there realise those involved and when is a kind active experience observation from most learning of informed where general The actively but is involved. observer, is not a detached the learner when Nonetheless, that has its dangers. but as others do”, “Do is here strategy typically participating learners are language, as a second English is learned and tryingin the culture it. It make sense of to is very helpful if the problems off are gained they have and the understandings faced they have discussion in class.

Understanding Cultural Differences Chapter 13 142 Chapter 13 Understanding Cultural Differences 143 erences erences nd it easy to accept cultural accept nd it easy to erent cultures. erent ection see that diff is to ection and cultural comparison. ection has the goal of understanding the cult, expecting way is one right that there nd it diffi in diff motivations erent erences. Refl erences. Comparison ection and Cultural ection a personal activity is essentially observation, but it is helped by ection and cultural comparison involves looking similarities and for ection involves and cultural comparison while others fi erence erences and similarities, and relating this understanding to the learner’s the learner’s to this understanding and relating and similarities, erences erences between L1 and L2 culture, and considering the nature and the nature considering and L1 and L2 culture, between erences of doing things. An importantof doing things. goal of refl Refl and discussion. Some teaching fi experience, diff values and tradition and they make not arbitrary beliefs, are from come but them. those who follow sense to diff not necessarily may in behaviour Similarities and values. experience own for of school uniforms wearing The a similarity by in purpose. be matched diff have example may Developing intercultural competence involves being able to cope and feel feel and cope being able to involves competence intercultural Developing can be developed Such competence situations. comfortable in intercultural observation, directthrough learning and discussion, practice experience, and refl role-play, focused and culturally What Should You Learn from This Chapter? This from Learn You Should What Refl diff these diff for reasons Refl are informed by observation and research. People’s beliefs about how they how about beliefs observation People’s by informed and research. are same in the they actually how behave by matched always not are behave activities and simulation play and how looks at role 14 Chapter situation. and used. be designed they can erent erent Language Teaching Language Teaching (3), 277-290 for a very(3), 277-290 for e for integrating the intercultural the intercultural integrating e for Japanese Studies, 28 Japanese Studies, ecting class distinctions–property, wealth, ecting wealth, class distinctions–property, Alexandria, Va: TESOL. Va: Alexandria, More than a Native Speaker: An Speaker: for Introduction than a Native More (2), 188-205, has an interesting discussion of social class distinctions discussion (2), 188-205, has an interesting ect on how they would feel about attending the school in the about attending feel ect they would on how erent picture of a school in another countrytheir erent and they interpret erent school. erent The following book was written for teachers of English as a foreign language, language, as a foreign of English teachers for book was written following The list of culture-focused has a substantial but its appendix discussion topics starting be useful which could culture-focused ESL discussions in for point (1996). D. Snow, classes. and learning. in language teaching has a nice Liddicoat dealing with cultural learning. practical to approach of activitiesexample of a series with the learners discussing and beginning sees each group Then of their school. questions about the nature answering a diff school (expert they see with their own what picture and compare groups). has a learner with a diff so that each group then re-form groups They Further Reading Further Volunteers Teaching Abroad. Teaching Volunteers practic (2008) Pedagogical See A.J. Liddicoat, noting the following features aff features noting the following picture (family groups), and they discuss the same questions. Finally the Finally and they discuss the same questions. picture (family groups), learners refl 16 Research, education, social networking, consumption of residence, place occupation, (travel, and spatial relations eating), pastimes, (clothes, behaviour patterns, a provide could features These others). nearness to of house and rooms, size discussion. classroom useful basis for L2 culture and how native speakers of that culture would feel attending a attending feel would speakers of that culture native and how L2 culture diff (2012). Class and SLA: Making Block, connections. D.

Understanding Cultural Differences Chapter 13 144 Chapter 14 Simulation and Role Play Activities 145 ect erent erent ned, ned, immediate ying an aeroplane. Simulation activities Simulation used in also are ying an aeroplane. Simulation and Role Playand Role Simulation Activities coping in situations that commonly means of practising ective

activities play chapter is that simulation and role e main idea in this are veryare eff Main Idea Main Th if learners good for motivation and they are occur outside the classroom, activities can play a part in deciding the topics of these activities. Such conditions for vocabulary learning. set up excellent

ect and used, of practising that can be immediately something relevant 14 Chapter Strictly speaking, activities that have direct relevance for ESL learners are not ESL learners are for Strictly direct relevance speaking, activities that have activity diff activities. In play that are play role a roles learners take on role These four characteristics make role play a very play characteristics important make role four These learning activity. the needs, learners’ activities play toward can be directed is because role This motivational observation,activities by the strong can be informed they have eff a useful opportunity about they provide learning and gaining feedback for issues. cultural In Chapter 1 we looked at four important looked at four In 1 we characteristics Chapter of learning English defi language—(1) readily as a second most learners have opportunities many observe, are to there (2) motivation is high, (3) needs, ESL situation has and (4) language learning in an learn, and use the language, eff a strong aspectsvery which can have cultural and integrational strong in language learning. on motivation and success to An activity the learner does not have the usual daily activity. where from called a properly be someone else but acts is more to as themselves pretend the in best-knownThe simulation activities involved are simulation activity. and simulators in specially designed pilots are where training of airline pilots, practicedealing with situations that they normally meet or might meet in their job as a pilot fl sports such as scuba diving when learners practice dealing with potentially air your share to or having situations such as running out of air, dangerous ),

re lling out forms. out forms. lling culty or trouble trouble or culty ), the bus driver( ), the bus driver(

the bus. the people involved, between erences ) . Here is a procedure that the teacher can follow in can follow that the teacher is a procedure ) . Here

You are going to take a short trip on a bus. You will need to pay the will need to pay the You going to take a short trip on a bus. are You way past some people and sit down. for a ticket, make your driver will get off you bus stop, your reach When you cult to do as it simply involves providing a short a providing description detailed simply involves do as it cult to in looked at these features We ect the kind needed. of language use that is There will be three people in the simulation, you( people in the simulation, you( will be three There Let us startLet on a bus. with a very situation, travelling simple but common that one person is imposing upon the other. Let us look at a few descriptions descriptions us look at a few Let other. that one person is imposing upon the include. see what they need to of situations to how well the people know each other, and the amount of diffi the people know well each other, how of the situation, being careful to mention any particular that will mention any to features of the situation, being careful aff the status diff include They 5. Chapter In Table 2.1 in Chapter 2, there is a list of very situations that 2, there common 2.1 in Chapter Table In talking about cover These daily lives. deal with in their to learners have using important going shopping, services, meeting people, giving yourself, health, taking taking of your directions, partcare and following in sportand entertainment, language input. It in Chapter and controlling was also noted given 2 that as part learners should be repeatedly syllabus, of a negotiated the opportunity suggest situations that they need practice to in dealing with. is not veryThis activities. into turn these situations job is to teacher’s The diffi From a language teacher’s perspective, the best simulation activities perspective, are a language teacher’s From language learning. that encourage those that set up conditions Designing Simulation Activities Designing Simulation best simulation activities the those that deal perspective, are a learner’s From can These daily lives. them in their to relevance immediate with situations of the going to talkinginclude activities like going shopping, on the telephone, public transport, using and fi chatting with friends, doctor, with someone else, and managing equipment failure. When we practice a fi we When failure. equipment managing and else, someone with drill or an earthquake drill, we are taking earthquakedrill or an are part we drill, In in a simulation. chapter this play though role because even play, role simulation and will look at both we not typically meet, would that learners situations activities involve might language practice. opportunities good meaning-focused they provide for and a passenger(

Simulation and Role Play Activities Chapter 14 146 Chapter 14 Simulation and Role Play Activities 147 ect culty of the request what they would between erences and why? anything say the bus do you culty or culty Feature Description Eff watches. the teacher moves around observing around on their and commenting moves the teacher performance. example, or uses their suggestions to write a model dialogue on the a model dialogue on the write to or uses their suggestions example, board. and why, please and thank you say need to do you as, such dialogue, next past them or sit squeeze people when you to anything say do you get off when you them, to will say and to predict what might be said to them. predict to what might be said and to will say After a few days, the learners in their small groups spend a few spend a few learners in their small groups the days, a few After practicing of weeks, minutes couple situation again. After the same they practice it again. The teacher shows the learners the written description of the description the written the learners shows teacher The wish. questions they can ask any They situation. say and do in their home country compared to what they have just what they have their home country and do in to say compared practised. perform of the class can now while the rest of the groups One or two diff on any comment learners The while practice their small groups now the dialogue in learners The dialogue or a recorded the learners a model then shows teacher The of the features the learners talk about various and teacher The plan what they to or four of three or groups in pairs learners work The table. ll in the following trouble Degree of diffi Degree Level of familiarity Level Status relationship Step 8 Step 7 Step 6 Step 5 Step 4 Step 3 Step 2 preparing for and carrying for preparing activity. out the Step 1 (to buy a ticket). This is because these three important is because these three This factors can be assumed buy a ticket). (to is value in getting learners there a part the situation. As from 4 above, of Step to fi In the description of the situation given above, there is no description of the there above, In the description of the situation given the well on how and passenger, the bus driver between status relationship of diffi and on the level passenger knows the bus driver, ect ect ect be a would and not try to request. soften your thanks. thanks. Be polite. talk. thanks. some make would You but you small talk, ask their not would also would name. You say goodbye. lled out. lled Low level of troubleLow level direct be would You EqualKnown to each other to a small degree say please and You EqualUnknown to each other Small please and Say no small Be direct, lled in for the situation of travelling on a bus, with with on a bus, of travelling situation the in for lled culty or culty culty or culty Feature Description Eff Feature Description Eff At least two or three times a week you go into a small shop to buy you times a week least two or three At always served the same person, are by You a newspaper and a drink. friendly become have their name, you know don’t and although you newspaper and drink. into the shop and buy your Go with each other. Status relationship Status relationship Degree of diffi Degree trouble Level of familiarity Level trouble Degree of diffi Degree Level of familiarity Level Here is how the table could be fi the table could is how Here Imagine how the situation and the language used might change if you used might change if you the situation and the language Imagine how every driver the same bus by on the same bus which was driven travelled eff The driver. familiar with the became more and thus you day, being some small talk, of there likelihood such as commenting much greater is another situation. Here is. busy the driver or about how on the weather, Here is how it could be fi could it is how Here regard to the relationship between the passenger and the bus driver. passenger and the between the relationship to regard

Simulation and Role Play Activities Chapter 14 148 Chapter 14 Simulation and Role Play Activities 149 nished the point ers you some more food. food. some more ers you erent one that you know well. What will you say to to say What will you know one that you well. erent nish a piece of homework, but you would like to go. What will you say say What will you go. like to would of homework, you but nish a piece eating and have had plenty to eat. The host off The had plenty eat. to eating and have say? What will you to show that you would like to go with them at some future time, but can’t but can’t time, at some future go with them like to would that you show to go now? with them to a nearby cafe. Unfortunately, you can’t go because you have have go because you can’t you Unfortunately, cafe. a nearby with them to to fi Making suggestions and would at that restaurant the food do not like You along. come to you a diff rather go to forgotten have but seem to the note written have They make a brief note. say? What will you need it back. You pen back. your give to anyway. What will you write in the email? write What will you anyway. that restaurant? suggest going to who you occasionally speak to. He has asked you several questions about several He has asked you speak to. occasionally who you that part he has misunderstood which shows of the course. the course off are all his questions and many answer time to have don’t You Refusing the street says hello to you. Usually you just smile and reply and hurryjust smile and reply you on Usually you. hello to says the street What will your plenty of time. have morning you This bus. the catch to on? focus will you of conversation What topic be? “Hello” to reply you come from. The person seems very person seems The kind would and friendly and you from. come you of extra will topic What information the conversation. continue like to can talk more It that you answer? be a topic needs to in your provide you in. be interested would fellow-passenger about and that your spoken to before. You want to be friendly. What will you say? What topic What topic say? you What will friendly. be want to You before. spoken to small talk? your on in focus will you Making small talk

just fi have You house. just had a meal at someone’s have You come to asked you have close friends not your who are of people A group  asked and they have a restaurant going to friends are of your A group to you a pen from just borrowed met before have Someone who you who is not a close friend but a classmate got an email message from You  just down who lives an older person the bus, catch Often to way your on asks where a bus and the person sitting next sitting on you are to You not have who you but as you, in the same class someone who is see You Here are several other common situations. other common several are Here  nd uency development. uency say? What will you c. cial says something to you that you don’t understand. They say the say They understand. don’t that you you something to cial says offi say you What will understand. don’t still again but you you same thing to in each case? talk. a question questions about your of them asks you One ask you to speaking because they are too understand what they say can’t but you do? What will you quickly. Controlling language Controlling Making apologies because of heavy traffi not have that you but notices is collecting teacher the work The done. say? What will you it is. where in and asks you handed yours say? What will you sitting next you. to you and you want to do something about it by talking to the teacher. talking do something about it by teacher. the want to to and you you say? What will you It on your one. is not the one stated the wrong you that they had given say? What will you take it back and get the right one. want to You receipt. Making complaints of writing. You think the change suggested is not a good idea. What will What idea. is not a good suggested think the change You of writing. say? you What will you friend. your defend and want to wrong are these criticisms say? misunderstood on the writing that the teacher the comments think from You the teacher? point this out to will you How say. meant to what you Disagreeing initially practising deal with. After should return cult to them, the teacher

diffi and fl revision the same tasks for to class members your and it is time for a talk in class, just given have You It learners fi make similar tasks based on situations that your is easy to  and an department information a government gone into for have You  teacher an appointment with your for late 15 minutes arrived have You have to supposed were that you of homework not done a piece have You of the person notes the written drink and it wets your spill accidentally You found got home you a shop and when you from bought a USB drive You  bad things about saying continually by has been bullying you A classmate think that You of yours. a friend has been criticising classmates your One of grade. writing with a low of pieces back one of your has given teacher The  piece your make to should that you a change has suggested teacher Your

Simulation and Role Play Activities Chapter 14 150 Chapter 14 Simulation and Role Play Activities 151 ects of ects rst language rst ect the nature ect through learning uency and all development, play ecting role from learning rst major conditions are based are rst major conditions erence, level of familiarity, and level and level of familiarity, level erence, t into the strands of the meaning- t into culty or seriousness or culty t into the strand of language-focusedt into normal use status diff of diffi and sequences of interaction ∙ Memorisation of topics fi learner’s with the ∙ Comparison ∙ Responding to discourse completion tasks completion discourse ∙ Responding to ∙ Opportunities familiar tasks repeating for and play ecting role through learning ObservationObservation and models, of examples, ∙ Analysis the eff to relating features Noting Understanding ∙ that aff the principles Learning ∙ Creative useCreative Fluency ∙ Opportunities varied use for development Repetition the same material to returning for ∙ A plan Memorisation sentences, of phrases, learning Deliberate ∙ Conditions aff Conditions simulations

Focus Conditions Setting in a course up the conditions Deliberate Deliberate attention Use Retrieval ∙ Opportunities performance and use for Table 14.1 Table Table 14.1 lists two major sets of conditions which aff major sets of conditions 14.1 lists two Table fi The and simulation. play the use of role and they fi attention on deliberate fi major conditions second The learning. output, and fl input, meaning-focused focused Because language-focused use of the language. meaning-focused involve the one quarterlearning should only make up around time, of the course use of involving the conditions to amount of time should be given greatest is a language features to attention deliberate giving However the language. Learning From Role Play and Simulations Play Role From Learning can practice learners at how looked a variety dealing with have So far we just to it is not enough However in their daily life. that occur of situations learn be able to need to Learners these situations. familiar with become them when recall to them and be able from routines and features language aff look at the conditions us now Let necessary. and simulations listed in Table 14.1. Table in and simulations listed Thank , rst language rst language Thanks do they use to do this? phrases and sentences words, erent . It was not uncommon for several expressions of thanks to of thanks to expressions several . It for was not uncommon Cheers How do native speakers …? do native How What diff or after this act? What else comes before    , and occur one after the other. occur you For example, the question could be “How do native speakers give thanks?”. thanks?”. speakers give do native “How be the question could example, For not always the questions are to on this and the answers is research There (2006) predict. Schauer necessarily and Adolphs speaker would what a native and phrases used were words that the most common found Native speakers’ management of small talk and conversation is done without management of small talk and conversation speakers’ Native of the principles which lie behind it and of what they awareness conscious speakers think native that what typically shows Research actuallyare saying. it is very this reason, useful For what they actually do. they do is not always carry to and the learners both the teacher out simple observationfor tasks observationThis can be speakers performingof native speech acts. common questions. general the following based around An amusing and very handy rule of thumb is that if someone greets you with you An amusing and very greets rule of thumb is that if someone handy If they greet “Fine”. is answer a fairly safe “How”, with a question beginning “Not much”! is answer a fairly safe “What”, with a question beginning with you making trouble small talk,If memorise a short learners have it is useful to list be used. that can of handy topics on the other. The teacher can also help such memorisation by using the memorisation by also help such can teacher The on the other. on has been written When a dialogue blackboard exercise. reproduction out parts rub can gradually the teacher or blackboard, of it the whiteboard or very short single words getting a learner or pair of phrases) (preferably dialogue after out. By the end each rubbing the complete repeat learners to though whole dialogue even the repeating the learners are of the activity, is nothing leftthere on the whiteboard. The conditions of deliberate attention include memorisation of useful of include memorisation attention of deliberate conditions The with the phrase cards word done using bilingual can be This items. language fi and the learners’ side and the translation on one or sentence verymemory in powerful them stay helping of way kinds so both learning of in a course. be included need to

Simulation and Role Play Activities Chapter 14 152 Chapter 14 Simulation and Role Play Activities 153 uency er? er? ank you. ank Th Seventy P. Seventy of tea? er someone a cup please. e grapes Th very much. Ta anks very much. Th rst language. rst meal or social meeting? place? How do native speakers respond to such an off speakers respond do native How to go home after a ready that they are speakers show do native How meal at their speakers invite someone to come for a do native How to such an off speakers respond do native How How do native speakers off do native How      While deliberate attention is a very with attention grips While deliberate to useful means of coming small part it should only be a relatively people use the language, the way major part The must be opportunities skillsof the communication course. fl use, creative 14.1 includes retrieval, Table use sectionThe of use. for The fourth deliberate attention condition in Table 14.1 is understanding, and 14.1 is understanding, Table in fourth condition attention The deliberate deliberately the teacher observation from from this can come and analysis, with the comparison pointing out principles of interaction, and through fi learners’ The third deliberate attention condition in Table 14.1 is analysis. Such analysis analysis Such 14.1 is analysis. Table in condition attention deliberate third The observation from examples and data either gathered or provided requires book is full of many excellent (2010) and Newton’s Riddiford the teacher. by be done in could such analysis looked at how have and we useful examples, described earlier in this chapter. 4 of the procedure the description of Step Other observation for questions tasks include the following. erent erent uency ect on strengthening or rather diff erent uency particularly development, uency development activity. Linked skillsuency activity. development 12345 ve repetitions. ve 8 July ! activity met speech acts. previously is a very of repeating way useful Say it Role play activityRole play Using the bus Using a cup of tea Having … It also provides a good opportunity for receptive and productive repetition repetition and productive a good opportunityIt also provides receptive for the act is an example based around of giving Here within the activity itself. thanks on a social occasion. The The development. The repetitions can also include a deliberate learning element, learning can also include a deliberate repetitions The development. on or learners commenting performance, on others’ such as commenting performance. their own As shown in Table 14.1, the repetitions should not always be exact repetitions not always should 14.1, the repetitions Table in shown As and fl use, creative retrieval, but should involve of the same activity, Retrieval involves going over previously met material without having that having without met material previously going over involves Retrieval memory. your it from retrieve to forced are so that you of you, in front material is a veryRetrieval retrieval powerful successful and each learning condition, of the speech act. and the meaning the form link between the strengthens slightly diff are which retrievals use involves Creative development, and a plan for returning to the same material so that there is there so that same material the to returning a plan for and development, plenty of repetition. Fluency development involves working with easy, familiar material, but with familiar material, working with easy, involves Fluency development where 4/3/2 activity, The it faster. and produce process to an encouragement amount a decreasing times but with three the same material learners repeat then 3 minutes, (4 minutes, repetition each successive for of time available very is a then 2 minutes), useful fl 14.1, it is Table mentioned in condition is the last Although repetition need the most important ensuring repetition probably A plan for condition. its simplest, it can just be a list like the one given At not be very complicated. fi for is set up This below. from previous retrievals. It is sometimes called generative use. Retrievals Retrievals It use. is sometimes called generative retrievals. previous from a particularly eff use have strong creative involving memory be to the item associations attached to because they enrich the learnt. fl activities for good conditions also set up the last activityfor of three. in the sequence

Simulation and Role Play Activities Chapter 14 154 Chapter 14 Simulation and Role Play Activities 155 What You want someone You the sugar. pass you to say? you What will want someone You a pair of you pass to What scissors. will say? you leaving, are you As you someone gives empty to plate your What will take home. say? you and the article, Nation, P. (1991) Managing (1991) and the article, Nation, P. Someone thanks you Someone thanks you handing them a for What will cup of tea. say? you Someone thanks you a them giving for What will small gift. say? you Someone thanks you Someone thanks you plate a bringing for will you What of food. say? 123 ! activity, a group of three or four learners take turns at doing the learners take turns at doing or four of three a group ! activity, a cup of tea. What will a cup of tea. say? you What do a small gift. What will you do? you say? plate of food to your your to of food plate afternoon for place What will you tea. say? Say it B you Someone gives C Someone a brings A Someone you hands Should Every EFL Teacher Know? Should Every EFL Teacher Designing Role Plays and these should be used much more looked at simulations have we So far, the communication to because they can be directly related plays than role can be very activities plays enjoyable and role However needs of the learners. just looked at. It is have that we can also set up the useful learning conditions 3 of activities. Chapter play make role to a fairly straightforward matter In this chapter we have focused on spoken interaction. However increasingly increasingly on spoken interaction. However focused have In we this chapter particularly e-mails, writing, through interaction through can occur text and blogs. messaging, It is important an opportunity that learners have that suggest simulations to the opportunity should also have They ask to practice. like to they would understood, not completely seen and have about interactions that they have or because they did not understand the either because of the language used of the interaction. nature In the activity and do The one person choosing a task to by begins tasks shown. number of the task that the the grid when the task is done that person gives nextThe speaker has to example B2. for do, has to next person in the group and the same number can be called, grid B2. Any the task in the square do to activityThis is during the activity. than once number can be called more grid old material. a very of revising way useful (1), 1-10 (available (available (1), 1-10 main groups two t into Guidelines, 13 Guidelines, choose, and rank. Here are several several and rank. are choose, Here cult to complete, and it involves and it involves complete, cult to Role play Figure 14.1 Figure

(i) decide, locate, arrange, and (ii) suggest, and (ii) suggest, arrange, locate, (i) decide, of business and the topic to all related are They examples of each outcome. given part in the references are list which can be found of a much larger above. An outcome is included in the statement of the problem that the learners problem of the is included in the statement An outcome then they know the outcome, reached learners have When the solve. to have that are six useful outcomes are There the task. completed that they have fi They plays. role used in problem-solving commonly a procedure which provides the learners with a set of steps to follow in order in order follow to with a set of steps the learners which provides a procedure with plenty features three us look at each of these Let the outcome. reach to of examples. When designing a good problem solving role play, we have to make sure make sure to have we play, solving role a good problem When designing and restrictions some requirements it involves that it has a clear outcome, diffi which make the task a little bit more  group discussion: problem-solving tasks. tasks. problem-solving discussion: group free from Paul Nation’s website. Look under the heading Publications), Publications), the heading under Look website. Nation’s Paul from free a provide will We plays. role problem-solving make to in detail how describe here. of the steps brief description

Simulation and Role Play Activities Chapter 14 156 Chapter 14 Simulation and Role Play Activities 157 cult. Assigning roles to the to roles cult. Assigning ce of an offi oor plan Suggest ways of spending an amount of money an amount of ways of spending Suggest should buy you which product Choose to buy Rank cars be built should centre whether a shopping Decide school should be insured whether the Decide Locate an advertisement in the newspaper business in the town Locate a fast food Arrange the fl Arrange the buildings around a town square a town around Arrange the buildings          food should not be placed next to shops selling clothing or other food should not be placed next to shops cooking. goods that might absorb the smell of next to each other or close to each other. Fast food shops which involve fried food and strongly smelling fried food and strongly food shops which involve Fast be placed should not the same kind of product shops selling Two   The requirements and restrictions should not make it impossible to reach reach and restrictions should not make it impossible to requirements The diffi but they should make it more the outcome, Requirements and restrictions increase the opportunity and restrictions increase discuss Requirements learners to for the task given when the learners are example, For with each other. and argue of the restrictions some square, a town around the buildings of arranging what kinds to of shops should go next relate each other and what could to example, For kinds next of shops should not be each other. to An outcome gives learners a clear goal to work toward. Imagine a task without toward. work learners a clear goal to gives An outcome discuss the kinds have could example, of buildings that you for an outcome, this with: Decide which of these buildings Compare square. a town around buildings within these three or Locate square, a town should be built around A task with square. a town or Arrange these buildings around square, a town purposeful. makes the discussion much more an outcome nd erent erent rst of all deciding from local shopkeepers. t for erent expert workingerent on groups fi to in order away move to and have nd jobs erent restrictions. For example, if one of the roles in the task roles if one of the example, For restrictions. erent The forest however is a beautiful area where the local people like to go for for go the local people like to where is a beautiful area however forest The out from time a small number of people during holiday walks and where make a list of the In group, your life. the outdoor enjoy to come of town list check your Then the forest? advantages and disadvantages of clearing Decide whether the list if necessary. your adding to with the other groups, and the factory will be cleared built or not. forest a country Keeping school. children the where is a small local country area There school in your away. school has one teacher The school. of the local farming families go to people in the area cannot fi people in the area be the ideal which would near the town of forest is an area There work. the building of the factory, the forest, clearing of The a factory. location for local people, for and the factory a lot of employment provide itself would benefi a very economic strong provide and would Decide whether a forest should be cleared for a factory. a factory. for should be cleared Decide whether a forest

 which has a school is 25 km town and the nearest in a farming area live You Many has a very of unemployment. all live level high you where area The  Procedures are simply a series of steps that learners have to go through go through to that learners have of steps simply a series are Procedures procedure (i) the pyramid are procedures most common The do a task.to reach to in pairs then work think of an answer, learners individually (where then perhaps and agreement, reach to of four in groups then work agreement, (ii) the experttry agreement), group-family reach whole class to get the to diff form learners where procedure group about arranging the buildings around the town square is that of a fast food food is that of a fast square the town around the buildings about arranging certain be on the as to such have wishes, seller may that fast food then seller, be near a very or to popular the square, entering one of the streets of corner store. workingone part diff on our with each group example of the task (for learners can be a part of the restrictions and requirements, because each role each role because a part can be learners restrictions of the requirements, and diff suggest may one of the requirements or restrictions), and then make new groups so that or restrictions), and then make new groups one of the requirements (iii) in each new group, is an expert groups there each of the previous from as fi such a series of outcomes, involving a procedure Here are some activities involving all the features. As you read the activities read you As all the features. some activities are involving Here and what the restrictions are, is, what the outcome note to wish may you activitiesThe do not have it has. steps many is used and how what procedure easily be added. could but they set roles a list of choices what businesses should be placed around the town square, square, the town around what businesses should be placed a list of choices arrangement. in the best possible the choices and then arranging

Simulation and Role Play Activities Chapter 14 158 Chapter 14 Simulation and Role Play Activities 159 tness ord ord to it could do this, to ord orts be much more would spend much money on to ord

re in a public building in your area was over 20 years ago. If the ago. 20 years was over area a public building in your in re ve stories in front of you. One of these stories has to be the lead has to these stories One of of you. in front stories ve re just destroyed one classroom, the school could probably aff probably could the school classroom, one just destroyed re who teaches children from the age of 5 to the age of 12. The school is school The 12. age of the of 5 to the age from children teaches who a very important in number of children but the part community, of the it is likely however, years In a few and lower. is getting lower the school as the younger will increase, in the area number of children that the It of the farms. the running a very is take over good school generation of whom many parents, education and the get a good the children where support strongly children, the they were the same school when to went improved been greatly have in the area the roads years, Inschool. recent that has been a suggestion and so there and easier, faster making travel should be taken in a small bus close and the children the school should school should be Decide if the town. school in the nearby the to each day next the keep it open over closed or if extra to should be found money decision. justify your to Be ready years. few story, attracting people to buy the newspaper. It will have a big headline It will have attracting buy the newspaper. people to story, you will give teacher The page. of the front and will be right at the top have fi have Locate a story on the front page of a newspaper. a story page of a newspaper. on the front Locate is rather low. When you have made your list, try made your it under organise to have When you is rather low. report to the class about your back to will have You headings if possible. list. help that would equipment and technology more also use the money for and the on the school committee, all are You education. in the children’s last The the school or not. insure decide whether to has to committee serious fi fi the whole replace not be enough money to would it, but there replace school. because there are many cases of schools and other buildings like churches like churches cases of schools and other buildings many are because there the insurance pay school has to The burned down. being deliberately budget and although it can aff out of its own costs Decide whether the school should be insured. be insured. Decide whether the school should successful if you set up a plan as a group and helped each other keep to and helped each other keep to as a group set up a plan if you successful One or two loss program. a weight suggestions for the plan. Make three and cannot aff income on a low are of you sport of fi regular level any and your play None of you a program. Suggest ways of losing weight. of losing Suggest ways and exercise be worthwhile getting more that it would all feel You years. eff think that your and you losing some weight,

You and reporters of editors on the local newspaper. a group are You  is This a public building like a school is very for high. of insurance cost The   the past few kilograms over in weight gained a few have of you Several ve , 88-102, for , 88-102, for Workplace Talk in Action. in Action. Talk Workplace TESOLANZ Journal, 18 TESOLANZ Journal, erent from how they have used the used they have how from erent ciency? is one that learners played being t if the role : LALS, Victoria University of Wellington, and Riddiford, N. (2007). and Riddiford, Wellington, of University Victoria : LALS, ve stories from a newspaper, preferably the lead stories from fi from the lead stories preferably newspaper, a from stories ve ve stories. You have to read them and then reach a decision about about a decision reach and then them read to have You stories. ve erent issues). First, make expert groups with one group working on make expert one group with groups issues). First, erent the fi a write to have you and then together which story story, will be the lead than 20 letters more not contain headline must The story. the for headline (The also being counted. needs to teacher words between with spaces cut fi diff good a story one story and decide how understand it thoroughly it is. to and each expertperson from with one group, family groups form Then Report story. your rated the top for headline your Write stories. the rate see. to all for it on the board who will record the teacher rating to Wellington simulation activities. Look at Riddiford, N. and Newton, J. (2010). J. N. and Newton, at Riddiford, Look language: Does instruction in a second Making appropriately requests profi pragmatic develop help to Further Reading Further What Should You Learn from This Chapter? This from Learn You Should What activities an important play play can Simulation and role in English role practice the learners to because they allow courses, language as a second It typicallydealing with the situations that they classroom. outside of the face on the topic needs when deciding is very important learners’ on the draw to of such activities. Such activities so that they be designed and focus need to include conditions These learning. that encourage setting up conditions are repetition. and use, creative retrieval, attention, deliberate Role plays have an added benefi an added have Role plays of advantages one of the strong However life. in their everyday will play activitiesuse play the learners to is that they get role problem-solving will be diff which language in ways of use creative encourage likely to are plays role is, That language before. the and recall use helps learners remember and creative the language, used. vocabularyhave that they

Simulation and Role Play Activities Chapter 14 160 Chapter 15 Linked Skills Activities 161 a teacher ts for ts are typical of ts are linked rst at how Writing Speaking ts, and these benefi ts, uency activity development because Reading Listening Writing Speaking Linked SkillsLinked Activities

probably are chapter is that linked skills activities e main idea in this the most useful of all language learning activities because they are easy to they are all language learning activities because the most useful of strong provide conditions for language learning, and make, set up ideal the parts through of the activity. support while they move for the learners Main Idea Main Th 15 Chapter those where a single topic or subject is focused on for a considerable period a considerable on for or subject a single topic is focused those where One of the major benefi learning. as in content-based of time, but and organize, prepare very to little work is that they generally require very useful can also provide They the students. from they get a lot of work us look fi Let learning. language and content for conditions skills skills judge whether a linked to activities and how activity can be made, made or not. has been well Linked skills activities have many benefi Linked skills many activities have of the previous practice skills. in the other two of the previous Linked skills activities are skills instruction.sometimes called integrated In a linked skills activity, the learners work on the same material through three three through on the same material In the learners work a linked skills activity, to (2) then they listen the material, example (1) they read skills, for successive The such combinations. many are There about it. it, and (3) then they write last activity a fl becomes in each series (Speak) (Speak) rst activity, a rst activity, (Speak) erences between between erences Either prepare and Either prepare your a talk to deliver partner about (1) storage good food OR (2) the procedures danger of not handling carefully food Talk about the Talk diff guesses and the your right answers guidelines for Write safely food storing (Write) Read the text and the questions answer (Read) Do a 4/3/2 activity the of on the content passage

rst activity which in the series, (Listen) (Speak) (Listen/Write) (Write) Talk about your about your Talk guidelines with another student can you what Write about the remember text Read the text and the questions answer (Read) Listen to the text and to Listen your check and correct answers the questions to Listen to answers and write them (Read) (Speak) (Write) (Listen) (Read) Five sets of linked skills sets of linked activities Five

First activityFirst Second activity activity Third skills sets of linked skills is one linked ve activities. series Each row what you knowwhat you about storage good food procedures storing food safely using safely food storing experience own your and background knowledge the by you to read takingteacher if notes wish you without seeing the text and try the guess to answers 5 a partner to about Talk 4 the text being to Listen 3 guidelines for Write 2 Read the text 1 Read the questions Table 15.1 Table choice from three for the second activity, and a choice from two for the third the third for two from and a choice activity, the second for three from choice can that there however activity) Note in the series. if no skills repeated are are there is, That of the actualalso be a lot of variety in the nature activity. kinds is clearly an many of speaking so twenty-four example, activities for underestimate. The activities are described in Table 15.1 which should be read horizontally. It horizontally. should be read 15.1 which Table activities in described The are fi contains the left on item is the fi The activities. of three the one on the right. by and then the one in the middle, by is then followed possible linked skills twenty (four four are sequences there Theoretically, the fi for and writing speaking, reading listening, from choices Designing Linked Skills Activities Linked Designing making be used when may which us take a typical of material piece Let linked skills questions. activities—a with accompanying passage reading is a text on food when training teachers used in class I have example The poisoning. food avoid to in order safety handling

Linked Skills Activities Chapter 15 162 Chapter 15 Linked Skills Activities 163 uency ective? uency goal for nal activity easy. culty of the activities in the series. skills a skillerent a can repeat but aiming for last activityThe is in the series cult questions. fth linked skills is Speak-Read-Speak. series that the sequence rst linked skills series, learners read the questions by themselves themselves by questions the skills rst linked read learners series, the learners to rst activity for easy in the series should be reasonably do. The following activity will be helped by the one(s) before it. activity the one(s) before following will be helped by The do. development activity, because at this point the material that learners are that learners are because at this point the material activity, development with it at least worked working now with is very easy because they have of the of the content in control should be well they is, That times. two challenge The this content. express and of the language used to material a and language through familiar content use this now them is to to been which has previously or writing) speaking, reading, skill (listening, Ifunpractised has a fl the teacher with this material. items, particularly vocabulary and multiword units. The recurrence of recurrence The particularly items, units. vocabulary and multiword the vocabulary the opportunity will help learning through repeated for use of the vocabulary. and hopefully creative retrieval the same piece of content material. This will ensure that the activities will ensure This material. of content the same piece and that the same the series, through easier as learners proceed become during the series. repeated vocabulary structures are and grammatical has made this fi work uency because the previous activity, 4 the last activity be a fl is highly likely to in a series of three Typically, 3 The fi The 3 2 activities the three should make use of the same language Essentially, How can we judge which series of activities judge most eff be the can we is likely to How the perspective and also of vocabulary will look at this from learning, We diffi the perspective of the relative from activities very on all three in the series should draw strongly Ideally, 1 Evaluating Linked Skills Activities Linked Evaluating So, in the fi in So, hear the they Then and try multiple-choice the correct choose to answers. the questions and while they look at the teacher them by to text read being they talk to step, In third the necessary. them when correcting their answers, a partner and report answers the correct their guesses and about orally to diffi class on the most the whole the individual activities some of mix and match possible to that it is in Note make a new series. 15.1 to Table a fl in the fi Note higher performancesame skill. use of the in the second In the last step the learners work in pairs, one learner delivering talk 1 about one learner delivering in pairs, In the learners work the last step Linked skills talk 2 about dangers. and the other student giving storage food activities diff need not use three fth linked skills ective in preparing nal activity see if it to to be useful nal activity it may activity, is a writing nal activity the productive series 4, where Similarly the series. in nal activitynal the activity or wants be done of three, in the series to point for the minimum amount of repetitions needed for learning, learning, needed for of repetitions the minimum amount point for is a receptive skill (listening or reading) or a productive skill skill or a productive (speaking or reading) (listening is a receptive or writing). Ifimportant skill, it is a productive it is probably then of that one use of productive activities series also involves in the preceding the two So fi if the the language. activities is a speaking preceding one of the two that make sure activity, skillsbecause productive is This (speaking and writing) are versa. or vice skills, particularly a than receptive from challenging usually much more practised vocabulary with a productive Having the material perspective. in the nextskillagain productively use it easier to makes it much once the fi 1 above, Table in Thus, activityor later in the series. speaking with series beginning be very is likely to eff the fi for skill the productive by speaking, of is likely to skill of writing is followed performanceenable better the speaking of activityboth of the than if activities. activities had been receptive preceding this fi look at the fi should particularly the teacher well, Fourthly, we have the condition of deliberate attention. Deliberate attention attention Deliberate attention. of deliberate the condition have we Fourthly, Thirdly, we have the condition of creative use. Creative use can be receptive use can be receptive Creative use. of creative condition the have we Thirdly, through meeting a word use involves creative Receptive or productive. when a use occurs creative Productive in new contexts. or reading listening in speaking in which the or writing using it in ways the word learner produces learner has not met it or used it before. Secondly, we have the condition of retrieval. Having an opportunity an Having recall of retrieval. to the condition have we Secondly, When meeting a learning. strengthens something that has been met before of the the form recognising at least involves retrieval receptive again, word as being at least partly the meaning recall word familiar and being able to or part Productive meetings. that was gained on previous of the meaning to form word the spoken or written produce being able to involves retrieval a meaning. express there is plenty of evidence that the greater the number of repetitions, the of repetitions, the number plenty is that the greater of evidence there occur. is to likely learning more There are several conditions which support learning. Firstly, we have the have we which support conditions Firstly, several learning. are There It learn something that is met of repetition. is clearly easier to condition is no clear Although there times than something that is just met once. several cut-off Linked Skills Activities and Conditions for Vocabulary Vocabulary for Skills Activities and Conditions Linked Learning

Linked Skills Activities Chapter 15 164 Chapter 15 Linked Skills Activities 165 dently in dently the task is very do and is, easy to That uency task. development activity? Are they explaining the meanings of words to each other? Are each other? Are to activity? they explaining the meanings of words Are each other? they clarifying ideas clearly to the later steps? the later 1? series rather than repeating them from the input sheet? the input them from series rather than repeating steps of the series? steps the linked skills activity? The activities which are the last two steps in linked skill activities steps the last two highly likely The which are series are activities learners bring a lot of they are where is, That tasks. be experience to of the series of linked early steps The knowledge the activity. to background skills Because of this, this knowledge. and strengthen activities can create of the typically many the last activities in a linked skill have likely to series are of a fl features 8 doing the activity? enjoy Do the learners seem to 7 of the in some steps with each other the learners interacting well Are 6 of the activity the learners handling the content confi Are more 5 use of the vocabulary activity from creative Do activities 2 and 3 involve 4 vocabulary the target in activities the learners retrieving 2 and 3 in the Are 3 activities? in each of the three keep recurring Do the same language items 2 with the activities, especially in the last two well the learners coping Are 1 of steps on in each of the three Is exactly being focused the same topic The following things are worth things are looking skills when linked following for activitiesThe are described above. features the design closely to relate They being used. Monitoring Linked Skills Activities Monitoring Linked Fifthly, learners have the chance to work out the meanings of unknown work to the chance learners have Fifthly, and through or reading, context while listening from guessing through words learners in the group. negotiating with other means consciously focusing on the language item in order to understand or understand to order in item the language on focusing consciously means in a dictionary the word look up when we occurs attention learn it. Deliberate of the word about the meaning ask someone or when we or in a glossary, task. meaning in a spoken negotiating its such as when does long as this As message-focused the not interrupt activity is attention deliberate much, too vocabularya very to learning. contributor useful ective way Washing your your Washing skillserent of is focused on across the three diff the three on across is focused . The learners then form small groups of three or four people to people to or four of three small groups then form learners The . Washing your hands your Washing based instruction procedure Quantity of input activities like extensive reading and content- reading like extensive of input activities Quantity and the pyramid reading repeated activities like Repetition Procedures reading activities like narrow Focused     hands ideas that the predict what they know three and to share about this topic text might contain. reading following in which people can best wash their on the way which discusses research where reading the text quietly or do paired learners read The hands. of the text, and after each a single copy read to learners sit together two read what they have understood check that they have they paragraph problems. and clarify any advising people on the most eff wash basins in the school, is a linked skillsThis activity because the same of washing their hands. topic and writing. speaking, reading, 2 text then hands out the reading the teacher of this, minutes a few After 3 a set of instructions write to that will go above the learners have Then It skills such linked design text. is usually easy to activities a reading around 1 1 example, for on the blackboard, a topic writes teacher The Here is a more detailed example of a linked skills is a more activity. Here Further Examples of Linked Skills Activities Examples of Linked Further There are other activities which share some of the features of linked skills of linked and other activities some of the features are which share There include These conditions. similar learning that set up learners can do it at a faster than usual speed. For this reason, it is important it this reason, For speed. than usual it at a faster can do learners homework for activity example, (for throwaway not just used as a that it is it deserves. that time and attention the …), but is given write

Linked Skills Activities Chapter 15 166 Chapter 15 Linked Skills Activities 167 rst activity, the second second the rst activity, them. on them again and wash them again. ( ) Wet your hands thoroughly. hands your Wet ( ) plenty of soap. ( ) Use carefully. ( ) Dry hands your hands together. your ( ) Rub hands. your run( ) Let a lot of water over drying before hands thoroughly your Shake ( ) hands, wash them, put soap your soap on Put ( ) the ideas presented in the text. the ideas presented others in the group. The group decides on a common ranking. decides on a common group The others in the group. actions in order from the most important the least actions from cleanliness to in order for important. washing your hands. your washing Table 15.2 contains several more examples of linked skills examples of linked more you activities. As several 15.2 contains Table is a reading such activities very especially if there design can see, are easy to use as a part verypassage to Such activities little work require of the activity. input and a good range of meaning-focused but provide the teacher from look 15.2, Table reading When the learners. output for meaning-focused in the activity. steps the three for each row across 3 text and see if their ranking with learners then get the reading The agrees 2 their ranking and compare with the small groups learners then form The ranking the the list carefully, individually and read learners work The 1 in a list of actions the learners that can be involved gives teacher The activity, or the third activity skills is another linked the third or Here activity in the series. activity, topic. the same based around Note that the reading text could be involved in the fi in be involved text could the reading that Note

The teacher then teacher The their asks learners for tells predictions, them the question and asks the learners is This the answer. for an amusing activity especially if one or two are of the keywords actually to the answers questions. the teacher’s They write what they write They most the three think are important ideas in the text. The learners then read read learners then The a text on the same topic ideas that noting any not on the board. were Write a summaryWrite of the textthe three including most important ideas.

is an excellent source of data for of data for source is an excellent The learners then form then form learners The what compare pairs to their predictions of the questions and answers improve and to are their predictions. The learners then read a read learners then The text the same topic. on Each learner then tells Each learner then tells the teacher their idea to ideas on the who writes organising the board, them under headings possible. where Form groups of four of four groups Form compare learners and an and reach ideas your on the three agreement most important ideas. http://www.gapminder.org Examples of four linked skills linked activities of four Examples Step oneStep two Step three Step

ten comprehension comprehension ten questions on a text. On the teacher the board the numbers writes next 10 and 1 to to from oneeach number writes from keywords or two the question or answer. themselves, by Working the the learners read text and using the trykeywords predict to what the questions and will be. their answers talk. They can then ask can then They talk. getquestions about it to a good understanding. topic on the board and on the board topic each learner thinks of one idea they know and about that topic it down. writes list the three most most list the three important ideas. 4 prepares teacher The 3 a to listen learners The 2 a writes teacher The 1 Read the text and Table 15.2 Table linked skills activities. A major strength of using visual data like that provided linked skills that provided of using visual data like activities. A major strength Gapminder at Applying Linked Skills to Gapminder Linked Data Applying A good linked skills activity on the same ideas and focused keeps attention and with a manageable activity, begins steps, the three language through activity. 3 is a productive 1 or 2 if step at steps step has a productive

Linked Skills Activities Chapter 15 168 Chapter 15 Linked Skills Activities 169 (Write)* (Write)* (Listen) (Read)* They then write a then write They summary of the description then listen They other group’s to predictions a then write They description of what and heard they read (Write)* what they write They spoke about, without seeing the graph They change reports change They and with other groups and critique their read reports erent modes. erent ect of the linked skills activities. (Speak)* (Speak)* The learners then give learners then give The explanation their own of the graph They then work in small then work They predict a to groups that beyond year given (Speak) to then listen They the description while looking at the graph (Listen)* They look at the look at the They Gapminder data and report a written write (Write)* working in Then they small groups, the teacher’s recreate description and in Example 5, activities modes, 2 and 3 erent (Write)* uency development activity. There is also good reason for for is also good reason There uency activity. development (Speak) Linked skillsLinked and Gapminder

(Read)* (Read) First activityFirst Second activity activity Third a description of a Gapminder graph without seeing the graph description of a graph while looking the for in the same information graph (Listen)* the learners graph, of a description write certain year to the teacher’s teacher’s the to description of a while Gapminder graph looking the graph at pairs to predict the pairs to a given to answer question 5 a learners read The 4 learners read The 3 Looking at a Gapminder 2 listen learners The 1 in learners work The Table 15.3 Table involve giving the same output through diff the same output through giving involve An asterisk* indicates that the learners can see the graph at this step. graph that the learners can see the indicates An asterisk* be used as input (Example 1, activity output can 3; Example that learners’ Note getting 3, activity also that in Example 4, activities 3). Note 1 and 2 involve diff the same input through input and meaning- Linked skills meaning-focused activities largely are output activities, although the last activityfocused series in a well-planned be a fl is likely to language-focused in a linked skills be one of the steps learning to activity. in Gapminder is that the data remains the same across two or all three of the of the all three or two across the same in Gapminder remains the data is that eff activities,the repetition thus enhancing ective learning conditions. Each linked Each linked ective learning conditions. Language Teaching Methodology for the Language Teaching , Sarinee Anivan (ed.), RELC Anthology Series No 24, 51-63, available Anthology Series No 24, 51-63, available RELC , Sarinee Anivan (ed.), nd out more about experience tasks read Nation, I.S.P. (1990). A system (1990). A system Nation, I.S.P. tasks read about experience out more nd from Paul Nation’s website under Publications. website Nation’s Paul from of tasks for language learning. In language learning. of tasks for Nineties Further Reading Further To fi skills activity involves the successive use of three of the four skills of listening, skills of the four of listening, use of three skills successive the activity involves on exactly the focusing are while learners and writing, speaking, reading, need and teachers design, easy to Such activities relatively are same material. skill them. develop them and in monitoring to in designing What Should You Learn from This Chapter? This from Learn You Should What Linked skills activities learning activities, most useful language among the are they set up very because largely eff

Linked Skills Activities Chapter 15 170 Chapter 16 Refl ections on Teaching English as a Second Language 171 , we , we is is because language needs, What Should Every EFL Teacher Know? What Should Every EFL Teacher uency development, where easy material is easy material uency where development, erences, materials designed for ESL teaching ESL teaching for designed materials erences, situations. er in the two teaching ections on Teaching Teaching on ections English as a Second Second as a English Language Refl

as a Second is that teaching English e main idea in this chapter Language requires teaching skills that are not exactly the same as those not exactly the same as those teaching skills that are Language requires many though Language, even as a Foreign English needed for teaching Th of the same techniques can be used. Main Idea Main Th of cultural opportunitiesmotivation, for learning, and the relevance likely to diff content are 16 Chapter required. may not be suitable for EFL classes, largely because ESL materials may be may materials because ESL largely EFL classes, not be suitable for may because ESL learners language features to regard with uncontrolled too most EFL Similarly, vocabulary than EFL learners. much larger sizes have may be too they may ESL learners because be unsuitable for likely to are materials of the immediate take account they do not importantly, but more controlled, with careful some EFL materials However language needs of the learners. and activity courses reading speed readers, like graded vocabulary control elementary for a very in ESL courses can play and low useful role books, fl learners and for intermediate In this book we have looked at teaching English as a second language, that language, English as a second at teaching looked In have this book we English is widely used outside the where in countries English teaching is, In book, its companion classroom. Because of these striking diff ESL and EFL English in that is teaching language, English as a foreign looked at teaching Table use outside the classroom. English is not in common where countries major types of features. the four 16.1 summarises and compares ected

cant source source cant What Should Every ective when teaching and erent from each other from erent Often has no the learning purpose. obvious Motivation depends heavily on the quality of the may and courses teaching, which is not be compulsory, motivation. usually good for activities be Classroom may the most signifi use. of input and language Much of the language not be aff learning may cultural needs. by nd ways of makingnd ways the learning purposeful ectiveness of learning English as a second ectiveness of learning English as a second immediate language use language immediate the classroom. needs outside motivation needs, long term is typically very high. of A wide range opportunities learning for exist outside the classroom. needs. , turned out to be much more diff be much more , turned out to What Should Every ESL Teacher Know? What Should Every ESL Teacher Comparing the features of ESL and EFL teaching ESL and of features the Comparing

Features ESL EFL ectedgeneral eff in the erences between the two teaching situations involve the importance of situations involve teaching the two between erences Language needsLanguage and strong are There Motivation and Because of immediate Opportunities for learning contentCultural cultural immediate are There Table 16.1 Table The two books, books, two The language compared with the uncertain results of learning English as a foreign the uncertain with of learning English as a foreign language compared results Most in an ESL learners who spend a substantial amount of time language. English speaking country an learn a lot of English, and those that do not are listed the features particularly to study in themselves, with regard interesting in table 16.1. EFL Teacher Know? EFL Teacher Table 16.1 provides a rather negative picture of the circumstances for for picture circumstances of the a rather negative 16.1 provides Table the ESL in with all of the features language, learning English as a foreign and with those in the language learning, to positively contributing column of course This be overcome. to a list of obstacles resembling EFL column is refl EFL teaching of course is not all bad news. It just that the challenges are is is not all bad news. of course EFL teaching fi need to EFL teachers greater. than I expected them to be. There is no doubt that many of the techniques of the techniques is no doubt that many There than I expected be. them to can be eff language as a foreign English used in teaching like retrieval, and that learning conditions language, English as a second major The both learning situations. apply to use and repetition creative diff a rich needs in the ESL situation, and providing taking of learners’ account set of opportunitiesand balanced language learning in the EFL situation. for underlines the importance and the use This in ESL teaching of needs analysis in EFL teaching. strands of the four

Refl ections on Teaching English as a Second Language Chapter 16 172 Chapter 16 Refl ections on Teaching English as a Second Language 173 ciency needs, l their immediate rst language of the learners the fi to er according ciency fulfi which is enough to nd ways of increasing the amount of meaningful input that meaningful input the amount of of increasing ways nd , tense usage, and the singular-plural and countable-uncountable usage, , tense ectiveness of the teaching of grammar is generally not encouraging. It is generally not encouraging. of grammar ectiveness of the teaching they may feel no motivation to improve their control of the grammatical grammatical of the their control improve no motivation to feel they may used are features grammatical many though of the language even features bring Input be enough to not alone may comprehensible. but are incorrectly be necessary may if change is on grammar and a direct focus about change, will diff Such errors desired. This book does not contain any chapters on language testing or on the language testing on chapters any book does not contain This to book is intended The was not an oversight. This of grammar. teaching While it is useful needs. teacher that an ESL the basic information contain should not language testing know to about language testing, a teacher for when this is probably to exception The courses. in most ESL a major role play often because the end of such a at academic purposes, English is taught for of entry chances into learners’ determine which may tests are there course profi international are these tests cases however In many university. the use of formal forms, pronoun include subject agreement, but may verb there know such fossilised to whether changing distinctions. It be interesting would knowledge consciousness-raising. or simply grammatical requires errors What is Missing from the ESL Book? the is Missing from What the learners get, and extensive reading programs are very are important programs of reading get, and extensive the learners way doing this. important is teaching that grammar when the English of It be however may reached when learners have is, That of fossilisation. ESL learners is in a state a certain of profi level and of maintaining the learners’ motivation to learn the language. They They the language. learn to motivation learners’ the of maintaining and fi to also need of the teaching priority of vocabulary teaching over The is clearly given strong own my this is of course in this book. for grammar One reason on the Another important is that the research in vocabulary. reason interest eff as ESL learners occurs for teaching be that the most useful grammar may writing or as a part to reading. feedback of intensive measures such as IELTS and TOEFL. and as IELTS such measures ectiveness of teaching generally shows generally shows ectiveness of teaching as an activity narrowly where ned teaching uency development. That is, learning needs is, That uency development. nally, the least important but still important job, (4) to teach. the least important teach. important but still to (4) nally, job, The teacher’s jobs teacher’s The Figure 16.1 Figure ective than teaching. These include learning through comprehensible comprehensible include learning through These ective than teaching.

In this ranked list of four jobs, I have put teaching as the least important put teaching I have job. jobs, In this ranked list of four defi because I have is largely This the importance it is much down because I consider of teaching played I have learners get and let the well plan and organise learning if teachers for better on the eff Research on with the job. often more which are of learning besides teaching other ways are There eff pushed learning through learning, rote deliberate input, learning through fl output, and learning through as only in perspective, see teaching but they need to should teach, Teachers the teacher is the sole source of information, where attention is focused on is focused attention where of information, is the sole source the teacher of the lesson. I do not decides on the pace the teacher and where the teacher, as part and testing training, organising, include the other jobs of planning, very although they are important clearly of teaching, parts of the teacher’s work. small proportion of what is directly taught is actuallythat only a relatively vocabularylearnt (for it is much less than 50%). In can addition, teaching example, a rather small proportion be learnt. For of what needs to only cover of hundred but only a few families, knowlearners need to thousands of word during class time. be taught ever these could only makes up a small and teaching strands, the four through occur to proportion learning strand. of the language focused  Roles of the Teacher of the Roles The of the teacher. the roles to referred I have times in the book Several (the most importanta good course plan (1) to are main jobs teacher’s learning opportunities and outside the both in learners’ organise job) and so that they strategies in language learning train learners (2) to classroom, learners to test (3) to their learning, independent in be to encouraged are they and that they know well making how they are that progress make sure and fi doing, are 1. Planning the learners Training 2. Testing 3. Teaching 4.

Refl ections on Teaching English as a Second Language Chapter 16 174 Chapter 16 Refl ections on Teaching English as a Second Language 175 , ection and ects on the ects. What Should Every EFL Teacher Know?? What Should Every EFL Teacher try to set out the basic information that a language teacher should know. try know. should that a language teacher the basic information set out to and the last chapter know to about language teaching, is much more There their can develop language teachers in which ways of the EFL book suggests specialist can involve this development In knowledge. brief, professional or in language teaching degree doing a diploma or a Masters study through attending through and books, journals reading through applied linguistics, participating through in teacher at conferences, and presenting conferences carrying and through out refl groups, and teacher organisations and its eff language teaching into investigation life-changing language can have English as a second eff Teaching and so it is importantlearners, should be well-informed that ESL teachers and thoughtful practitioners. at least a small I hope that this book can make that professionalism. to contribution Moving Forward Moving book, its companion book and This Teachers should also be fully aware of the range of jobs that they need to need to of jobs that they of the range aware should also be fully Teachers and they as teacher, and as tester, as trainer, as organiser, perform planner, as importance jobs. of each of these of the relative be aware need to one part of opportunities range learning. of a larger for rst cult text, cult nd a quiet shing. Through the village a noise Through shing. rst meal of the day ______they eat rst meal of the day cult. There are many reasons for this for reasons many are There cult. diffi cult text. If the more they can read culty with reading with culty shing or make cloth. Why Do Some Learners Do Some Learners Why with Problems Have Reading? nd reading diffi nd reading problems nding reading

language readers. most graded enough vocabulary read to they have 2,000 words, vocabulary, have trouble with spelling, and do a lot of reading in their fi of reading and do a lot with spelling, trouble have vocabulary, Some of _____ men get ready _____ take the boats out fi Some of _____ men get ready calling the young men together _____ heard. They come _____ all parts come SomeThey of the village. _____ heard. men together calling the young Others in _____ own in the village garden. work sticks ______work go with their digging hungry the fi too wait for are to Little children gardens. carry at the far end ______the river washing to Women before. _____ day from left over food go fi the village while the older girls In the houses the older women and the mothers with young babies sit and talk about the babies sit and talk about and the mothers with young In the houses the older women already Some families are make rope. to leaves rolling themselves old men sit by The day. Children gardens. the village from which has been brought cooking at work the food hard in put the food to get leaves They carrying running backwards and forwards, are water. it is cooked. before

text? they probably do not have reading problems. reading do not have they probably culty. Reading problems may be caused by hearing or vision problems, hearing or vision problems, be caused by may problems Reading culty. try diffi a more If they can do this easily, A procedure for fi for A procedure 1 an easy text like this one aloud and talk about the ideas in the the learner read Can Some learners may fi Some may learners

Appendix 1 1 Appendix 3 Does the learner know enough vocabulary and grammar? i If the learner knows over Test). Size Vocabulary vocabulary the Measure (Use size 2 is? What does the learner think the problem i diffi they have the learner why Ask ii test knowledge cloze using a function grammatical Measure word and so it is important for teachers to be able to work out the causes of this out the work be able to and so it is important to teachers for diffi suspected it is worthand if these are checking and then them out informally fi it is best to When looking problems, at reading professionally. the following answer individually to with the learner can work time when you questions. ii (Do they need glasses?), know enough the learner if they can see well Ask

Why Do Some Learners Have Problems with Reading? Appendix 1 176 Appendix 1 Why Do Some Learners Have Problems with Reading? 177 arrane leeing tumple campine cussic eet bonus ache sued tick verse accountant clash fl merchant riot rans feld plats ront lect ective fortnight achieve eff link secretary analyse review construct motion proceed so , frit plek spad clat spran brilliant active decision comment tiny attack private hobbies chew rude 2nd 1,000 1,000 3rd 4th 1,000 mine , three , shot , tell way fun needs part home bring story give wait toop leep rine kane fone 1st 1,000 catch , Content words Content let , rst two lists, they either have poor word recognition skills, have a very skills, have recognition poor word they either have lists, rst two sit , rub , jat lef ris fot mun dog Checked Free Initial clusters clusters Final syllables Two the of one is each they he are because has 1st 1,000 , Function words Function pen the learner to tell you what word it is. Use the sounds of the letters not their names. So not their names. the sounds of the letters Use it is. what word you tell the learner to ee tea”. “pea pet, not for eh te” “pe say (phonics), and may need some special individual help with reading phonically. help with reading need some special individual (phonics), and may phonically rather than relying on memory of the form of the whole word. Tell the Tell on memoryphonically rather than relying of the whole word. form of the words. not real learners these are That is, they can recognise these words and recall the spoken forms. If they cannot the spoken forms. and recall these words can recognise they is, That the fi do this for problems. eyesight or have speakers of English, small vocabulary not native if they are can recognise words with regular and irregular spellings. Isolated words are used so are words Isolated spellings. irregular and with regular words can recognise measured. is being recognition that only word

iii test Phonemic awareness and ask the learner without the learner seeing the word, out for Sound these words skills decoding not developed they have most of these, If the learners cannot read

ii test Nonsense word attack skills read to learner has the word check that the used to are Nonsense words a good sight vocabulary. have in this test most of the words who can read Learners

4 words? English read learner the Can i words isolated of reading A test a frequency learner the see at what frequency this test, to ranked list is used level For 5 Can the learner read fl uently? Use a speed reading text and time the reading. If the learner is reading under 100 words per minute, they need a speed reading course.

6 Can the learner read and criticise the text by talking about the accuracy of the ideas in the text and the clarity of the writing?

When doing such diagnosis, every measure should be given one-to-one, that is, not as a test given to the whole class, but with the teacher sitting next to the individual learner while the learner sits the test. This is to make sure that the learner is encouraged and kept on task during the testing, so that they truly show what they are capable of doing.

178 Appendix 1 Why Do Some Learners Have Problems with Reading? Appendix 2 Maximising Vocabulary Learning from Message-Focused Input and Output 179 Read with resources Buzz groups Using graded graded Using readers Linked skills activities Pyramid procedure reading Narrow Ranking, play, role and problem- solving activities cards Word box Word Quickly providing the meaning of a word Extensive reading Extensive to Listening stories Speaking activities Speed reading 4/3/2 writing 10 minute nd uency ed. www.lextutor. ed material material ed ). Be familiar with the Cobb’s Tom activities on ( website ca add a to Know how discussion activity to or reading, a listening, writing task. Understand the principle of the four strands Know about readers. graded motivate Be able to do message- learners to work. focused Know a range of fl Understand the nature and importance of simplifi to compared unsimplifi measure to Know how vocabulary size. learners’ linked design Be able to skills activities. use to Know how like the procedures procedure, pyramid expert groups/family reporting back.groups, train to Know how use word learners to cards. fi to Understand how of the learning burden a word. some vocabulary-Use communication focused activities. development activitiesdevelopment skills. the four across on Tom Cobb’s Cobb’s Tom on Maximising Vocabulary Maximising Vocabulary Message- from Learning Input Output and Focused ect on the new Read with the uency development development uency uency development, development, uency activities. Use resources website. Include discussion to opportunitiesprovide negotiation. for peer work. Use dictionaries, Use and glossaries, concordances. 50% of the course 50% of the course should be meaning- input (listening focused and output and reading) (speaking and writing), and 25% should be fl should be 100% there coverage. Make use of linked skills activities, input output, becoming and procedures, focused narrowly activities. learners in the use Train cards. of word learners Encourage to refl language met during an activity. some direct Use exercises. and teaching For input, learners For 98% should have of the coverage For running words. fl

uency

Ranked guidelines Application skills needed Teacher Activities Make sure there is there Make sure plenty of input and the output across skillsfour including fl a strong strand. development Make use of both and repetitive activitiesrecycling repetition, ensure to and creative retrieval, use. Link message-focused activities language- to but learning, focused that the make sure language-focused learning is only 25% and is of a course in the not counted message-focused time. tasks that some Use supportedare by peers or the teacher, resources. reference

Make sure that the Make sure input and output is at the for the right level learners. Appendix 2 2 Appendix ee ee.” A Culture Test A Culture like this. knife and fork put your nished eating a meal, should you nish the meal,

there (a) “Yes, please” 4 should say You like a cup of tea?” you “Would and they say place “Yes, at someone’s are You (a) (b) one?” have going to you “Are (c) “What kind of tea?” (d) coff prefer I’d like tea. “I don’t (d) facing down of the fork with the prongs (a) on the plate a little food leave (b) cook” an excellent are “You in the house the woman to say (c) “That was delicious” say (d) it enjoyed you show to take some more 5 fi have that you show To (c) 3 fi When you (b) (a) at 8 o’clock (b) 8 to 5 minutes at (c) at 10 past 8 (d) at half past 8 (a) up facing of the fork with the prongs 2 should arrive you a meal at 8 o’clock, for place at someone’s be to invited If are you Being a guest 1 should you tea, home for their to you If someone invites (a) eat a meal to be ready (b) expect and eat cakes drink tea to (c) shoe in your money your put (d) or coff expect tea choose be able to to

This test can be used as a starting point for discussion. The questions are are questions The starting can be used as a test discussion. This for point the All category including a categories, culture. on academic divided into answers The in one categoryquestions one discussion session. be used in could the answer. for reasons along with some of the test at the end given are Appendix 3 3 Appendix

A Culture Test Appendix 3 180 Appendix 3 A Culture Test 181 on it. You You on it. Bring a plate should 12 You have a written invitation to a party to invitation a written which has the words have You 12 11 You have just been introduced to a person of the opposite sex. You should You 11 sex. a person of the opposite to introduced just been have You (a) shake their hand (b) kiss them on the lips (c) kiss them on the cheek (d) smile at them Meeting people should You know them well. You 10 house. visit some friends at their want to You (a) just visit them without warning them (b) way on your are you them tell them to telephone (c) now come to you for ask if it is O.K. them to telephone (d) the time before days arrange a visit several (b) say “Thank you.” nothing 9 “Thank say You the ticket. you gives driver The ticket. a for the bus driver pay You (a) say (b) (c) the driver nod to (d) the change carefully count 8 should You the toilet. go to want to and you house at someone’s are You (a) go looking it for (b) hands.” my wash “I want to say (c) “Where is the little room?” say (d) toilet?” I use your “Can say 7 “Sorry” should You foot. on someone’s stood accidentally You say (b) (a) it did not happen pretend (c) “Did that hurt?” say (d) quickly away smile and move (a) and a knife and fork a plate bring (b) only bring a plate (c) share to bring some food (d) bring a friend Moving around Moving 6 should You old child gets on. year A seven no emptyseats. are and there on a bus are You nothing (a) the child seat to your give do (b) sit next let the child to you to over squeeze (d) (c) knee your put the child on owers are on an advertisement or sign for a restaurant means a restaurant on an advertisement for or sign restaurant meeting again Spuds B.Y.O. New Zealand friend. You say hello and talk a little bit. Then you move on. Then a few a few Then on. move you Then hello and talk a little bit. say You friend. New Zealand should You other again. pass each you later minutes you. You should say should You you. 18 19 should you it out!”, “Cut If someone says (a) doing are what you stop (b) a knife for reach (c) seeing a doctor consider (d) friend your take something from 17 should you patiently “Hang on a minute!”, says When a New Zealander wait (b) (a) hold him or her tightly (c) object the nearest hold on to (d) fl “No thank you” say baby (a) noises potatoes (c) rude (b) socks in your holes (d) (a) the restaurant drinks at buy wine or other alcoholic can you (b) drinks at the restaurant can buy wine but no other alcoholic you the else to bought somewhere have drink that you can bring alcoholic you (c) (d) the restaurant or bring it to at the restaurant cannot buy alcohol you Language 16 15 You are in the supermarket and while walking around with your trolley you meet a you trolley in the supermarket and while walking with your are around You 15 (a) friend do not see your you pretend (b) nothing smile and say just (c) hello and talk a bit more say avoid friend to in the same direction friend and go as your your nod or smile to (d) 14 A friend at work says to you “Let’s go for a drink after work”. Who will pay? Who 14 a drink after work”. go for “Let’s you to says A friend at work (a) it suggested friend will because he\she your (b) drink own your for will each pay you (c) of drinks each round for paying for will take turns you (d) pay the oldest person will (a) “What do?” you job do (b) married?” you “Are (c) “Where live?” you do (d) party” a nice “It’s 13 next sitting with someone to party at a are a conversation begin want to and you You

A Culture Test Appendix 3 182 Appendix 3 A Culture Test 183 x problems you have have you x problems as soon as solved the problem need rmly that you nd what is wrong you for x the problem Zealand in New cream of ice avour is has been servedee or tea fi nd someone else to is is the problem but you cannot fi but you the problem possible with the computer. You had a problem and asked for help, but nothing was done. but nothing was done. help, and asked for had a problem You with the computer. do next?What should you Hokey-pokey A chook A dairy solve tried to have that you bothering them and say the person for to apologise (b) (c) very the person and say fi go to (d) of the lack of help boss complaining that person’s to a note write (a) try fi to Getting things done 25 fi is a person whose job is to work, there you In where the place 24 should you want to, go out with them. If don’t to you asks you A classmate (a) be polite just to agree at that time” not free (b) but I’m like to, “I’d say (c) think so” but I don’t sorry, “I’m say (d) think about it” to “I’ll have say 22 (a) song a popular children’s (b) the most popular fl people from Getting away leave? When should you house. 23 meal in someone’s just had an evening have You coff after (b) (a) just after has been eaten the meal (c) “Thank coming” for you when the host says (d) tired feel when you (a) buy milk to a place (b) things many a small shop that sells (c) milked each day are cows where a place (d) in stay to cows shed for a large (c) TV programme a popular (d) a drunken dance 20 chicken (a) student an international a (b) a black singlet (d) (c) a rude noise 21 cient and friendly. friendly. and cient and then take there are y while you er the group her after the lesson and say how much you enjoyed the course enjoyed much you how her after the lesson and say y mention the errors but don’t make a big issue of them but don’t y mention the errors discuss the errors with the teacher before completing your assignment your completing before with the teacher discuss the errors it back the assignment and get the ideas in the course clear. They have asked you to join the group. What will join the group. to asked you have They clear. and get the ideas in the course do? you tomorrow. You are doing well in the course and have completed your assignment. Your Your assignment. your completed and have in the course doing well are You tomorrow. do? What will you a look at it. have to assignment of your a copy borrow friend asks to the to relate errors These of fact some errors in the text. found you the course, for these errors. do regarding will you What assignment. think that these are important bits of information. What will you do? What will you importantthink that these are bits of information. to show your respect and appreciation. It respect and appreciation. of the last class and although you is the end your show to see to a chance not have will probably you the course, exam for sit the formal to have do? What will you her again. You should You (a) off much to have don’t you no because say (a) trouble into sorry get you say cannot because that would but you (b) them a copy okay say and give (c) briefl yours of copy they can look at a hard say (a) assignment mention them in your don’t (c) briefl supporting strong evidence providing assignment (b) in your point out the errors (d) 31 in the course covered discuss the content to meet regularly classmates Some of your (b) in plagiarism result no because this could say (c) an active part and play join the group in it (d) of the discussion notes make written but don’t join the group 29 on time and it is due a course for their assignment complete A friend has not been able to assignment your When preparing course. your the text for has written teacher Your 30 (a) ask the lecturer about them during the class (b) about them after the class a classmate ask (c) ask about the points make an appointment with the lecturer to (d) ask the lecturer the class ends, immediately of them a copy cannot give that you friend spoken advice your can give you say (d) (a) and post her a gift wait until after completed the assessment is (b) home country your her a gift from after the class of a souvenir give (c) family a meal with your have the lecturer to invite to (d) up go You did not understand. the lecturer points that you raised some a lecture, During 28 26 very was and the waiter in a restaurant had a meal just effi have You culture Academic 27 want and you has been an especially good teacher teachers think that one of your You (a) leaving before thank the waiter (b) the owner to of the waiter speak highly (c) it is part do nothing because of the normal service (d) a tip the waiter leave

A Culture Test Appendix 3 184 Appendix 3 A Culture Test 185 Delicious! crisp. up and become Meeting people 10 (c) the less you relationship, closer the The is OK too), them, 11a (11d warn need to of food”. plate “a means plate “a 12c Here of instead also be acceptable Drink may food. 13 (d) 14 (c) or perhaps b 15 (b) happens) (15d commonly Language 16 (c) 17 (b) 18 (c) socks is also a correct Holes in your socks, in your are feet When your answer. the holes look like potatoes. 19 (a) 20 (d) 21 (b) 22 (b) mixture Hokey-pokey is basically a heated of golden syrup and soda which makes it puff people from Getting away 23 (b) that it is getting Hot drinks usually signal If the host near the end of the evening. not on are and you coming thanks for says should be. you home, way your nished eating yet. 9 (b) but 9a is the politest, “Thank you” Saying OK.and 9c are 8 (d) 8b or 8c might be misunderstood. Saying to lead you Going looking it may for should not go. you places 7 (b) but not as Smiling apologetically is OK too good as apologising. 5 (b) not have that you 5a and 5d signal fi 6 (d) OK)on(6b is probably traveling Children expected give to a student bus pass are adults. their seats to 4 (b) expected in some Asian 4a and 4d are plate on your food Leaving countries. If the meal was be seen as wasteful. may on your food put your you one where is if there more going back for plate, own plenty leftOK. is 3 (c) 3b is sexist, because all or part answer The the by been cooked have of the meal may husband. 2 (c) this but it is know for the reason I don’t common. Answers to the Culture Test the Culture to Answers Being a guest (a) 1 so always is not This of tea. = a cup tea to use tea as some people also however, is best clue The meal. the evening to refer meet is to arranged whether the time you near a meal time. ection. cult points were 28 (a) 28 (a) It the diffi is likely that so asking others, by also not understood have during class would about them as yourself. others as well to been helpful Asking after making the class or a special the can be seen as wasting appointment Asking is a a classmate time. lecturer’s of getting run the risk good idea but you information. or the wrong no information 29 (d) your to assignment your Ifgive you own submit it as their they could friend, big parts or use assignment of it. If this would you the marker, out by was found work. your that it was really prove to have will work that some of your chances The is high, assignment friend’s appear in your so it is not worth the risk. 30 (b) for be grateful would A good teacher out. It that being pointed errors also shows and thoroughly. working carefully are you 31 (c) In should learn higher education you others what from teachers, your from and classmates, your from written, have and refl thought own your from is on clarifying ideas together Working not plagiarism. nitely not be given before exams as before not be given nitely The questions are intended as a basis for discussion and comparison with with discussion and comparison as a basis for intended questions are The Often see a general principle behind the to it is easy enough L1 behaviour. some For thanks. your express such as it generally being good to behaviour, that decides custom like shaking it is largely hands, aspects of behaviour, should do. what you Academic culture Academic 27 (d) gifts can be an countries Western In some the embarrassment and can complicate should They relationship. teacher-student defi of bribery. be seen as a form they may 26 (a), (b), (d) in some is still not common Tipping and when it is done, countries, Western Praising be done tactfully. needs to the boss or manager is someone to usually a good idea. Getting things done 25 (b) important are relationships in Personal 25c & 25d would gaining cooperation. in the cooperation in less result probably you feel because the person would future, well. them had not treated 24 (c) do not but if you It be polite, good to is might be asked you signal, a clear give again.

A Culture Test Appendix 3 186 Appendix 4 EFL Table of Contents

The book What Should Every EFL Teacher Know? is published by Compass publishing in Seoul, Korea. It can be bought as an electronic or hard copy.

Chapter 1 What Should an English Teacher Do? - Planning and Running a Balanced Course - Training the Learners in Language-Learning Strategies - Testing and Monitoring the Learners - Teaching Young Learners - The Teacher and the Course Book - What Should You Learn from This Chapter?

Chapter 2 How Do You Teach Listening and Speaking? - The First Listening and Speaking Lessons - Learning through Listening 187 - Practising Speaking Appendix 4 - Language-Focused Listening and Speaking - Correcting Spoken Errors

- Fluency Activities for Listening and Speaking The EFL Table of Contents - What Should You Learn from This Chapter?

Chapter 3 How Do You Make Good Problem-Solving Speaking Activities? - Outcomes - Restrictions and Requirements - Procedures - How Do You Make Sure that Speaking Activities Are at the Right Level for the Learners? - What Should You Learn from This Chapter?

Chapter 4 How Do You Teach Reading? - Three Kinds of Reading - Extensive Reading - Intensive Reading - Developing Reading Fluency - Integrating Reading with Other Skills through the Linked Skills Activity - What Should You Learn from This Chapter?

Chapter 5 How Do You Teach Writing? - The First Writing Lessons - The Writing Process - How Do I Design Writing Activities that Support the Writer? - How Do I Design Writing Activities that Help Learners’ Language Development? - Improving Writing through Large Quantities of Writing - How Do You Give Feedback on Writing? - What Should You Learn from This Chapter?

ciency Focus? Focus? ciency

How Do You Test Learners? Test You Do How Twenty Additional Techniques for Language Learning for Techniques Additional Twenty Teaching English for Special Purposes English for Teaching How Do You Teach Vocabulary? Teach You Do How How Do You Teach Discourse? Teach You Do How How Do You Teach Grammar? Teach You Do How How Do You Teach Pronunciation and Spelling? and Pronunciation Teach You Do How Focused On? Focused - What Should You Learn from This Chapter? Chapter? This from Learn You What Should - - What Should You Learn from This Chapter? Chapter? This from Learn You What Should - - What Should You Learn from This Chapter? Chapter? This from Learn You What Should - - Listening Listening - Speaking - Reading - Writing - Chapter? This from Learn You What Should - - Teaching Spelling Spelling Teaching and Listening - Pronunciation and Speaking - Pronunciation - Chapter? This from Learn You What Should - Chapter 12 Chapter 11 Chapter 10

Chapter 9

Chapter 8

Chapter 7 Chapter Chapter 6 Chapter On? Be Focusing Should Learners Vocabulary What - Vocabulary? Learn Should Learners How - Use? Should Learners Strategies Vocabulary What - Do? Teacher Should a Teaching Vocabulary What - of the Language? Grammatical Features the High-Frequency Are What - It? Teach Do Not We of the Language If the Grammar Learn Learners Can How - Grammar and Learning Language-Focused - Grammatical Features to Attention of Drawing Ways Useful - Special Purposes? Really Need English for - Do Learners the Goals? Achieve to Time Enough There - Is Deal with Subject-Area Knowledge? Teachers the English Can - Be What Needs to on Agree Teachers and English Teachers Do Subject Matter - Classes? Special-Purposes English for in Be the Language Focus What Needs to - Also Include Profi a General - Should ESP Courses What Should Be in an ESP Course? - Chapter? This from Learn You What Should - - Testing Listening Listening Testing Speaking Test? Be a Good Will Test Your That Make Sure You Do How - - Testing Reading - Testing Writing - Testing - - Written Discourse Discourse Written Pronunciation - Spoken Discourse - Teaching Writing - Formal -

The EFL Table of Contents Appendix 4 188 Appendix 4 The EFL Table of Contents 189

ciency Levels

ciency Useful Classroom Words and Phrases Words Classroom Useful The SurvivalThe Syllabus Activities Examples of Split Information How Do You Become a Better English Teacher? a Better Become English You Do How How Do You Control a Class? Control You Do How How Do You Deal with Teaching Problems? Teaching Deal with You Do How How Do You Plan a Language Course? Plan You Do How How Do You Plan a Lesson? Plan You Do How

Some Spelling Rules Useful Topics 100 Familiar Words per 100 and Errors Writing 10 Minute Graphs for

Language Learning for Conditions The - Know? Teacher What Should a Language - Skills? Teaching Their Improve Do to Teachers What Can - Chapter? This from Learn You What Should - Deciding on the Activities - on an Activity Time Spending - Chapter? This from Learn You Should What - - Good Lessons - Good Relationships - Good Control and Causes - Problems Chapter? This from Learn You What Should - Classes - Dealing with Large Range of Profi Wide Dealing with Classes with a - in the L2 Classroom - Dealing with L1 Use Feedback from Learning and Encouraging Feedback Providing - Homework Their Who Do Not Do - Dealing with Learners Motivation with Low - Dealing with Learners Chapter? This from Learn You What Should - Appendix 6 Appendix Appendix 4 Appendix 5 Appendix Appendix 1 Appendix 2 Appendix 3 Appendix Chapter 17 Chapter 16 Chapter 15 Chapter 14 Chapter 13 Chapter - Testing Vocabulary Vocabulary Testing Grammar - Testing - Overall Profi Testing - Keeping - Regular Record Chapter? This from Learn You What Should - and Learning Teaching Some - Basic Ideas About a Course in Planning Steps First The - Evaluation Design Syllabus - - InstructionContent-Based - Book Choosing a Course - Chapter? This from Learn You Should What - 11, 51-52, 68, 110 87, 165 95 35, 39 14, 21, 58, 60, 61, 73, 52, 68, 71, 82, 83, 91,

11, 95, 145, 151-155, 50 71, 73-74, 83 42 71, 75, 90, 80, 82, 86, 122, 71, 75, 90, 80, 60, 71, 76-77, 78, 82, 86-87, 18-19, 47 78-79, 118-119 14, 39, 69, 73, 75, 76, 80, 86,

189 7 65, 107 11, 51-52, 54, 70-71, 81, 82, 93-94,11, 51-52, 54, 70-71, 81, 82, 44-48 168-169 106 14, 23-25, 29, 42, 83, 90-91, 123, 30, 38, 45, 47, 58, 116, 120, 126 60, 84, 122, 123, 126-127 38, 82, 88, 103, 104 13, 20, 52, 59, 77, 86, 88, 100, 104, 102, 168 26, 28, 38-40, 103, 106 82, 83, 85, 90, 131, 154, 162, 179 82, 83, 85, 90, 131, 154, 46, 49-50, 58, 62, 135, 173 105, 109, 138, 179 108, 130-131, 154, 161, 165 75, 80, 90-91, 101, 123, 126-128, 135, 174 87, 90, 104, 108, 151, 169, 179 70-71, 81-83, Lesson planning Lesson Instructional language reading Intensive Interference Interviews Issue logs Job seekers game Kim’s Language-focused learning classes Large conditions Learning Graded readers Graded readers Grammar context Guessing from High frequency words Home tutors Homework centre Homework Independent learning Extensive listening listening Extensive reading Extensive Feedback Fluency development 4/3/2 strands Four Gapminder technique path Garden General service list Graded dictation Keyword Keyword IELTS IELTS Goals 164, 166, 170, 172 160, 161, 108, 173, 176 135, 149, 150, 166 105, 128, 171, 176, 179 90, 94, 99-101, 107, 122, 123, 128 , 179 123, 128-129

49, 59, 121 19, 176-178 60 45-46, 48, 116, 144, 158, 160, 83, 142 82, 90, 95 93, 107 85 22, 60 113, 173 50-51, 59 108-120 11, 12-62, 70, 81, 92 66-67 63, 65, 67 11, 37, 52, 83, 87, 93, 39, 50-51, 107 65 45 73 94 134, 179 133 139-141, 144 75, 102, 106, 134 124, 125 11, 73, 74, 95, 151, 153, 154, 160, ler ler 136 122, 123, 133 59, 176 83 45, 52, 59, 66, 84, 108, 113, 114, 115 100 18-19, 47, 58, 59, 65, 106, 134 57, 116-117

10-11, 137-144

Experience approach approach Experience Expert group group-family 179 English for academic purposes English for special purposes English for analysis Environment Discourse Discourse tasks completion Discourse 151 Dictation Dictionary use recorders Digital Delayed copying copying Delayed attention Deliberate problems reading Diagnosing Culture Culture topics Culture vitae Curriculum Creative use Creative Cross-cultural discussion Consciousness raising raising Consciousness learning Content-based Correction Collocations Collocations skillsCommunication lexical tutor Compleat Concordancers 95, 101-102, 118, 151-154, 160, 164-165 Classroom management management Classroom tests Cloze Cohesion Articulatory phonetics Buzz groups Checklist Alphabetic principle Alphabetic AntWordProfi Assessment Academic word list word Academic vocabularyAcademic Index 163-165, 172, 179 Etymology Index 190 Index 191 67, 100 100-101, 156-160

37-38 96-97 36, 50-56, 59, 62, 99, 174-175 8, 28 83 82, 89-90, 130-131 76, 82, 87 102 40-41, 60-61, 122, 123, 71, 77, 78, 82, 87, 103, 127, 71 62, 135 57, 123, 131 112 107 8, 18-20, 28, 32, 34-39, 42, 43, 55-59, 122-133 72, 83, 145-160 72, 95, 119, 151, 164 116-118, 138, 143 116-118, 138, 27, 71-73, 79, 83, 125, 142-143, 27, 71-73, 79, 83, 125, 142-143, 27 82, 87, 100, 174 110, 114-117, 149, 152 72, 95, 151, 154, 164, 165 67, 71, 105, 177 46, 49-50, 58, 61, 62, 135 154-155 84-85 99, 100-107, 108, 121,-122, 125, 128, 133, 134, 139, 140, 145, 160, 163-165, 173, 174, 176, 177, 179 ection ection Task-based discussion Task-based 126 50-59, 62, 69, 74-77, 80, 81, 86, 88, 93, 94, Technical vocabulary Technical writing 10 minute preparation Test vocabulary size Testing wiseness Test TOEFL types Topic Touch-typing Vocabulary Social factors Sound-spelling correspondences repetition Spaced Speed reading Speed writing Spelling procedure reading Standardised Strategies Stress Study skills Survival vocabulary 134-135 Refl listening Repeated reading Repeated Repetition Restrictions and requirements Retrieval Role plays Roles of the teacher it! Say Simulation Situations Small talk 178 100, 121-122, 128, 133 145-160 125

51-52, 71, 82, 108, 40 51, 71, 81, 82, 108, 95 43 39, 80, 128 36

35-36, 50, 93 63-64, 67-68, 177 59, 122, 123, 129-130 15-16, 23-25, 61, 81, 146 25, 158, 166, 179 28, 109, 117-118, 138-140 83 33-34 8, 11, 12-62, 70, 91, 92, 172 96 60, 71, 76, 101 87 82, 84, 122, 123, 125 71, 82, 84-85, 106, 108 151, 152 122, 124-125 127 83 71, 74, 82, 84, 85, 90, 94, 95, 71, 74, 82, 84, 53 124 25, 72, 96, 98, 100-101, 126, 108-109 8-9, 47, 172 115-117, 120 56, 57, 122, 123, 184 97, 156-160 16 67-68 SA+EI  Plagiarism Plagiarism 179, 151, 167 Quicklistens Reading aloud Reading faster Reading like a writer Pronunciation Pronunciation Pyramid procedure Q Problem-solving discussions Problem-solving Procedures 146-147, 156-160, 166 Pragmatics Pragmatics talks Prepared Phonemic awareness Phonemic awareness Phonics vocabulary Picture test Observation tasks Outcomes conversation Pair reading Paired Negotiated syllabus Negotiated Negotiation Notetaking Mistakes Motivation Needs analysis Mid-frequency words Mid-frequency words Mini lectures Minimum requirements Memorisation Low frequency words frequency words Low input Meaning-focused output Meaning-focused Listening while reading while reading Listening L1 maintenance Library tasks Linked skills 167, 169 167, Mid-frequency readers 128, 161-170 122, 123, 29 104 131 ciency level 105, 132-133 8, 31-34, 43, 64, 139 77-78, 82, 88, 103 52, 57, 87, 101-103, 122-123, 134,52, 57, 87, 101-103, 54, 57, 77, 100, 102, 105, 133 54, 57, 77, 100, 102, 105, Wide range of profi range Wide cards Word parts Word assignments Writing process Writing tasks Writing with feedback Writing children Young 152, 179 152, 18, 39, 47, 60, 84, 88, 118, 133, 51 18, 20, 22 20, 75, 171 68 20, 34-35, 43, 46, 56, 58, 75, 20, 34-35, 43, 46, 56, 58,

81-82, 92-93, 99, 122 158, 163 158, 104 Whole language Vocabulary size test test size Vocabulary Whole class activities Vocabulary resource booklet resource Vocabulary size Vocabulary Vocabulary control control Vocabulary test level Vocabulary Index 192