The Journal of ERW and Mine Action Issue 14.3 (2010)

The Journal of Conventional Weapons Destruction

Volume 14 Issue 3 The Journal of ERW and Mine Action Article 1

October 2010

CISR JOURNAL Center for International Stabilization and Recovery at JMU (CISR)

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Recommended Citation JOURNAL, CISR (2010) "The Journal of ERW and Mine Action Issue 14.3 (2010)," The Journal of ERW and Mine Action : Vol. 14 : Iss. 3 , Article 1. Available at: https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/cisr-journal/vol14/iss3/1

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Center for International Stabilization and Recovery at JMU Scholarly Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in The Journal of Conventional Weapons Destruction by an authorized editor of JMU Scholarly Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. JOURNAL: The Journal of ERW and Mine Action Issue 14.3

Issue 14.3 | Fall 2010

Looking Beyond Mine Action Development & Funding Update on National Programs Research & Development

Published by JMU Scholarly Commons, 2010 1 The Journal of Conventional Weapons Destruction, Vol. 14, Iss. 3 [2010], Art. 1

The Journal of ERW and Mine Action Cover Photo Mine Action Information Center The Mjekes demilitarization facility in central Albania. Center for International Stabilization and Recovery Photo courtesy of Anthony Baird at James Madison University Issue 14.3 Fall 2010 | ISSN: 2154-1469 Print Date: November 2010 Contributors Mark Adams Colin King Milan Bajić Dr. Kenneth R. Rutherford, Director Additional articles available online: http://maic.jmu.edu/Journal/14.3/index.htm Chad McCoull Dan Baker Margaret Mathiang Michael Carrier • Journal of Mine Action (printed edition) Ian McLean Director’s Message Martin Chitsama Issue 3.3 through Issue 12.1: ISSN 1533-9440 Sharmala Naidoo Jean Devlin Nick Nwolisa • The Journal of ERW and Mine Action (printed edition) Yori Escalante John Powell Dear Readers, Issue 12.2 and ongoing: ISSN 2154-1469 Matt Goodear Mohammed Haider Reza Zoran Grujić • Journal of Mine Action (online edition): ISSN 1533-6905 Rebecca Sargisson For nearly 15 years, The Journal of ERW and Mine Action has been Dieter Gülle Robin Swanson • The Journal of ERW and Mine Action (online edition): ISSN 2154-1485 Khalid Ibrahim Hamed Kazunori Takahashi a fundamental information source for the ERW and mine-action Adrian King communities by generating conversations; providing useful and timely information from a variety of viewpoints; sharing project successes, Upcoming Issues challenges and failures; and creating an historical record. Table of Contents Issue 15.1 | Spring 2011 The Journal of ERW and Mine Action Editorial Board reviews all articles for content and Middle East | Training/Capacity Development | Special Report: Legal Instruments ON THE WEB: http://maic.jmu.edu/Journal/14.3/index.htm readability, and it reserves the right to alter articles for readability and space concerns. Every The Journal provides interesting content written by field experts. Like any effort is made to assure accuracy and to maintain the integrity and meaning of the text. Issue 15.2 | Summer 2011 Manuscripts and photos will not be returned unless requested. periodical, we do our best to verify information, question inconsistencies Editorial Victim Assistance | Information Management & GIS/Mapping | Deminers on and provide clarity. Since our staff is not embedded with demining 4 The Case for Consolidating CWD Activities by Mark Adams the Front Lines The Journal Editorial Staff reserves the right to reject submissions that include text copied organizations, we have no way to verify if figures are absolutely correct. 7 Letter to the Editor from other sources in part or in whole. Previously published works to which the author retains We expect our authors to provide content in good faith, having confirmed 8 Journal Survey Results by Lois Carter Fay Issue 15.3 | Fall 2011 publishing rights may be submitted, but The Journal requires notification of this previous Focus on Cluster Munitions | Notes from the Field: Expertise & Activities from publication when authors submit material so that reprint permission may be verified. Please and documented the information and quotations in their articles. We the Field note that all rights to content (including photographs) published in The Journal are reserved, leave technical critiques to our readers. Focus: Looking Beyond Mine Action and notification and written approval are required before any content may be used by another 10 The Bridge from Hold to Build by Col Yori Escalante Visit http://maic.jmu.edu/journal/index/callforpapers.htm for more details source or publication. Recently, however, online fora have been ignited with unfair and often and additional Calls for Papers. 13 Destruction of Cluster Munitions in Moldova by Colin King spurious comments about The Journal and its work ethic. The conversation Authors who submit articles to The Journal are expected to do so in good faith and are 16 Albania Makes Progress in Demilitarization by Captain Matt Goodyear Editorial Board regarding an article in Issue 14.2 (pp. 40–45) raises important questions solely responsible for the content therein, including the accuracy of all information and 20 The Terter Regional Vocational Training Center by Nick Nwolisa Lois Carter Fay correct attribution for quotations and citations. about the sad state of global information management; however, it Geary Cox II incorrectly frames the question of responsibility for the article’s content. Stacy Davis Views expressed in The Journal of ERW and Mine Action are those of the authors and do not All of the facts and figures within it were furnished by the authors using Feature: Development and Funding Nicole Neitzey necessarily reflect the views of the Center for International Stabilization and Recovery, the internal organizational documents. Consequently, the responsibility for 25 MA Development Funding in BiH by Michael Carrier and John Powell Jennifer Risser Mine Action Information Center, James Madison University, the U.S. Department of State or 29 Kenneth R. Rutherford the U.S. Army Humanitarian Demining Program. the numbers lies with the authors. GICHD Survey of Donor Countries by Jean Devlin and Sharmala Naidoo 33 U.N. Portfolio of Mine Action Projects by Chad McCoull R&D Review Board Please direct all Journal submissions, queries and subscription/CFP requests to: With all this in mind, I want to share with the community what our Håvard Bach publication is and is not. All sections of The Journal of ERW and Mine Sean Burke Lois Carter Fay, Editor-in-Chief Special Report: Update on National Programs Alistair Craib Center for International Stabilization and Recovery Action are dedicated to those involved in making the world safer. The 36 Mine Action Programme of Afghanistan by Mohammed Haider Reza Mine Action Information Center Michel Dirickx Journal covers innovations in technology and research, lessons learned 40 Bosnia and Herzegovina Demining 15 Years Later by Zoran Grujić Pehr Lodhammar James Madison University in programming and development, and current trends in humanitarian 800 S. Main Street, MSC 4902 44 Mine Action in North Sudan by Khalid Ibrahim Hamed Ian McLean intervention. It has contained a section on Research, Development and Noel Mulliner Harrisonburg, VA 22807 / USA 47 Mine Action Program in Southern Sudan by Margaret Mathiang Frank Navish Tel: +1 540 568 2503 Technology since 2004, and this section has been peer-reviewed since Issue Peter Ngan Fax: +1 540 568 8176 8.2 (November 2004). In the interest of keeping The Journal’s publication Notes from the Field Chris Wanner E-mail: [email protected] timely and affordable, the remainder of its articles are not peer-reviewed but rather depend on the authors to provide accurate information. 50 Falkland Islands Demining Pilot Project by Robin Swanson Editors Graphic Design 55 Demining and HIV/AIDS in Sub-Saharan, Africa by Martin Chitsama Lois Carter Fay, Editor-in-Chief Heather Bowers 58 The Growing Threat to Humanitarian Operations by Adrian King Nicole Neitzey, Technical Editor I invite those disaffected by any article’s content to use The Journal as it is intended—to drive conversations, ask questions, support your Geary Cox II, Assistant Editor Graphic Assistants Jennifer Risser, Assistant Editor Chris Foster-Baril peers and challenge the community by writing an article or letter to the Obituaries Amy Crockett, Copy Editor Elizabeth Swain editor. All submissions to The Journal will be considered under the same 62 In Remembrance: Stephen "Darby" Allan Eric Wuestewald, Content Editor unprejudiced conditions all authors receive from our editorial staff. Web Assistants Editorial Assistants Heather Bowers Research and Development Dan Baker Fernando Perez If we are to advance as a community, those with the knowledge to write 64 Effect of Reinforcement Rate Variations Julia Mitchell articles and critique the work of others must take responsibility for their by Rebecca Sargisson and Ian McLean Megan Sarian Administrative Support comments and suggest improvements. We look forward to receiving your Samantha Shankman 69 Advanced Intelligence Decision Support by Milan Bajić Carolyn Firkin contributions. Jeremiah Smith 76 ITEP Evaluation of Metal and Dual-sensor Detectors Meghan Wallace Dylan Walsh Sincerely, by Kazunori Takahashi and Dieter Gülle Blake Williamson Ken Rutherford Endnotes 80 Endnotes Photo courtesy of Missouri State University Photo Services To subscribe to The Journal of ERW and Mine Action, or any other CISR/MAIC publication, [ visit http://maic.jmu.edu/subscribe ] https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/cisr-journal/vol14/iss3/1 2 JOURNAL: The Journal of ERW and Mine Action Issue 14.3

Integrating ERW Programs: The Case for Consolidating

DITORIAL CWD Activities

E For years, the mine-action community has been revising its definition of explosive remnants of war. Viewing unexploded ordnance, landmines, ammunition stockpiles, and small arms/light weapons as individual threats, the mine-action community has created distinct budgets, programs and policies to address each of them. What we’re beginning to realize, however, is that a more integrated approach allows for greater progress in reducing the ERW threat.

by Mark Adams [ PM/WRA ]

Members of MAG loading munitions stockpiled at a FARDC central logistics base onto trucks to be transported to a demolition ground.

we have separate budgets, programs process allows us to deal with a very to be worth the effort involved to and strategies for dealing with them? serious problem over time in a well- consolidate and integrate our inter- Is there perhaps a better, more effi- thought-out, systematic way. ests and missions as follows: HMA cient way of doing business? An integrated, centralized strat- + SA/LW = ERW. Thus, the action

A technician throws away remnants of surplus weapons destroyed by the Congolese Armed Forces (FARDC) at egy for dealing with ERW allows us of dealing with ERW can be called the central logistics base during a collaboration project between Mines Advisory Group and the FARDC. Integration to more effectively and compelling- “conventional weapons destruction.” A ll photos courtesy of J.B. Russell/MAG At this time of global financial ly demonstrate our needs and ob- Perhaps we should rethink nation- n the last 20 years, the organized sup- work to eliminate the unintended consequenc- downturn and international do- jectives. An integrated approach to al strategies and review our collective port for humanitarian mine action has es of unstable ammunition detonation or loss nor fatigue toward HMA activities, ERW brings together similar skill ERW strategy. This review would run allowed us to make great strides in re- of control of poorly secured government stock- I argue that finding a way to bet- sets related to explosive ordnance the gamut from where to place the Iducing the landmine threat worldwide. Now, piles of weapons, which are just as dangerous ter deal with the ERW problem in disposal under one umbrella. It “Office of ERW” to appeals for do- however, we find ourselves in a position where as explosive remnants of war. Mine-risk educa- affected countries will allow us to streamlines communication. It can nor support to the development of a the traditional lines between mine action and tion and risk management have now broadened more effectively justify budgets to accelerate decision-making. It al- new ERW national strategy. This ap- the threat of excess and poorly secured small to become “armed-violence risk” or “ERW-risk our lawmakers and donors. I often lows us to be more nimble and re- proach is radical and even anathema arms/light weapons and other conventional education/risk management.” discuss with many of my counter- sponsive. It ensures a unified, rather to many governments compared to weapons have blurred. Wisely, our community has refined and re- parts “eating the elephant” one bite than competing, agenda for ERW. It the way we have conducted business The traditional approach to taking mines vised its views about ERW. Perhaps it is time at a time. I have nothing against el- improves our visibility across relat- in the past, but I believe it helps de- and unexploded ordnance out of the ground to consider revising and refining our strategies ephants, but the analogy is that we ed programs. It enhances our ability velop a national vision and provides has evolved. The mine-action community has as well. I believe these new ideas should be re- can only solve the problem one piece to see and monitor the totality of our better synchronization and synergy begun widening its scope to focus on armed vi- flected in integrated approaches to programs, at a time by collectively putting to- efforts, and track and measure our in the program and project manage- olence and the problems caused by aging stock- policies and budgets for dealing with ERW. gether all of our problems related to successes. It improves cost-effective- ment of all ERW activities. piles, remaining landmines and UXO, and the Since we no longer think about UXO, land- ERW and integrating our efforts re- ness. And at a time when we are be- Although there will always be is- removal of all of this hazardous debris of con- mines, aging ammunition stockpiles or aban- garding policy, programs, resource ing asked and often required to do sues of how to resolve different min- flict to make the land safe. We now actively doned ordnance as separate entities, why do management and direct action. This more with less, these benefits seem istries’ equities (usually mine action

Progress was measured by one or modernization review to indenti- undertaking. Similarly, James Mad- Affairs or Ministry of Interior, but more of these yardsticks: fy real war-fighting needs. ison University’s Center for Inter- reaching across ministries is the way • Area cleared • Initiating strict security for at-risk national Stabilization and Recovery of the future. With a unified, ERW • Decreasing numbers of civilians weapons systems (such as shoul- has changed the name of this pub- strategic plan the global CWD com- injured or killed der-fired missile systems) to pre- lication to The Journal of ERW and munity can increase its outreach • Area of roads opened up vent civilian and commercial Mine Action. Other examples exist; and access to the donor community Mark Adams is Senior Advisor for U.S. • Any similarly appropriate mea- impacts these are but two. and, ideally, reduce the ERW impact Conventional Weapons Destruction, U.S. suring tool This sounds great in theory, but Change takes time. New nation- on civilians. Department of State. Prior to his retirement from active duty as a Colonel in the Now, the international commu- how does it “play” in the real world? al policies and mine-action orga- U.S. Marine Corps, Adams served as the nity can do the same by also mea- In 2004, the U.S. Department of nization objectives won’t happen Conclusion Marine Corps Advisor to the U.S. Secre- tary of State and the Deputy Director, suring the number of weapons/tons State’s Bureau of Political-Military overnight. For that reason, when I Whether you work in government Office of Humanitarian Demining Pro- of ammunition destroyed or the Affairs merged the program offic- talk to groups of landmine experts, or a regional organization, I encour- grams, a position he held from 1998– 2001. In his current assignment, Adams number of facilities strengthened es of Humanitarian Demining and I encourage embracing the problem age you to review your achievements has negotiated numerous small arms/ light weapons/man-portable air-defense with better security systems. SA/LW Destruction to form the Of- of inventory control, destruction over the past years, embrace an ex- systems (MANPADS)/ammunition-de- fice of Weapons Removal and Abate- and security of SA/LW and am- panded view of dealing with ERW struction agreements worldwide. The Challenges of Integration ment (PM/WRA). The next step in munition. Likewise, when I talk to and reinvent your organization. I Mark W. Adams A national strategic plan that this evolution will integrate all as- SA/LW experts, I encourage them believe our great collective com- Senior Advisor U.S. Conventional Weapons Destruction conducts humanitarian mine action pects of ERW into one program bud- to talk to and coordinate with their munity has a wealth of knowledge Office of Weapons Removal and executes the reduction of stock- get, thereby focusing a single lens mine-action counterparts. and capacity for innovation that can and Abatement Bureau of Political-Military Affairs piles of excess weapons and unstable on the global human-security prob- I realize the difficulty for those carry us far into the future to better U.S. Department of State (PM/WRA) ammunition could be managed by lem of ERW. Our consolidated bud- in some countries to talk laterally handle the ERW problem and, thus, SA-3, Suite 6100 2121 Virginia Avenue, NW an “Office of ERW Removal” or “Of- get will be called Non-proliferation to their counterparts in the Minis- make our world a safer place. Washington, D.C. 20522 / USA Tel: +1 202 663 0111 fice of Conventional Weapons De- Antiterrorism Demining and other try of Defense, Ministry of Foreign Fax: + 1 202 663 0090 struction.” Below is a sample list of Related Conventional Weapons De- E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://state.gov/t/pm/wra challenges that office might face: struction. With this consolidated Members of MAG and the FARDC pre- pare a demolition pit to destroy stockpiles • Preventing loss of life (since civil- budget, we can better focus on the of munitions as part of a MAG-FARDC ian communities have grown up most severe ERW problems in the project to eliminate munitions stocks and reduce the risk of accidents. around ammunition storage sites) world. We will continue to be fully • Reducing the amount of weap- engaged in severely mine-/UXO-af-

is conducted by the Ministry of For- ons and high stocks of unstable fected countries such as Afghanistan, Dear Ms. Carter Fay, eign Affairs or Ministry of Interior ammunition accessible to criminal Angola, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and SA/LW/ammunition destruc- elements by improving inventory Cambodia, Iraq, Laos and Viet- I would first like to take this opportunityLetter to introduce myself. to I have recentlythe been appointed Editoras Geneva Call's Coordinator for Landmines and other Explosive Devices. I will therefore be the main tion is relegated to the Ministry of control nam, and further strengthen our contact person for all related issues within the organization. Defense), an integrated approach • Designating stockpiled ammuni- efforts to reduce excess stockpiles I would also like to inquire whether the authors of the article "Non-state Actors and Mine Action: allows one office or one ministry tion as “excess” if unassociated with of weapons and destroy old, unsta- Complications and Solutions," in the most recent issue of The Journal of ERW and Mine Action (Is- to take the lead. Whether Defense a host-nation’s weapons system ble ammunition in these and other sue 14.2), have any illustrations of where humanitarian engagement with NSAs have led to their or Foreign Affairs, it doesn’t mat- • Identifying old weapons systems countries. enjoying "a new bargaining position that they may in turn use to advance their international standing," or use "to their advantage by recruiting new members or securing new resources from inter- ter, but having it all under one roof no longer required by defense The United States is not the only ested sponsors"? As you are probably well aware, this is an issue that is potentially of great concern allows for a more streamlined deci- forces nation or organization that has seen to Geneva Call, and which we endeavour to mitigate. It is also one side of an argument used to dis- credit such humanitarian engagement. We'd therefore be very keen to receive any supporting evi- sion-making process to deal with a • Developing a destruction plan for efficiencies in merging CWD pro- dence where this proved to be the case. huge, multi-level problem. SA/LW and ammunition to re- grams. The International Trust Fund In the early years, the inter- duce loss of control and acciden- for Demining and Mine Victims As- Thank you very much for your attention. national community always en- tal explosion risks sistance has developed a five-year Best regards, couraged affected governments to • Managing and protecting the ap- strategic plan envisioning the ex- Katherine Kramer develop their own mine-action ca- propriate amount of weapons nec- pansion of its role from HMA in the Programme Director (Asia) pacity and a national mine-action essary to meet host-nation security Balkans to global ERW remedia- Acting Coordinator on Landmines and Other Explosives center, as well as to develop a stra- and defense needs tion. I salute the Slovenian govern- Geneva Call E-mail: [email protected] tegic, integrated mine-action plan. • Conducting an adequate defense ment for its great vision and huge https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/cisr-journal/vol14/iss3/1 4 6 editorial | the journal of ERW and mine action | fall 2010 | 14.3 14.3 | fall 2010 | the journal of ERW and mine action | editorial 7 JOURNAL: The Journal of ERW and Mine Action Issue 14.3

“What do you like least about The Profile of Journal Subscribers: Subscriber Survey Results Journal?” elicited these (selected) re- by Lois Carter Fay [ Center for International Stabilization and Recovery ] sponses:* • Sometimes the articles are a little irrelevant and self-promo- he staff of The Journal of ERW and Mine Action We found that many of our readers are sharing their tional. Time lag between article wants to thank you, our subscribers, for telling Journal copies with others; some share it with as few as development and publication. us what you think about our publication. We one other person while others share it with as many as • The Journal’s use of the term wantT you to know, “We heard you!” Over the next few is- 20 people. Several readers mentioned that they never let “mines” is inexact, considering sues, we will implement several changes as a result of this their printed editions out of their offices because they the amount of UXO and also im- feedback. For instance, we plan to do the following: find the content too valuable to lose and they refer to past provised explosive devices en- • Create a discussion-driven forum rather than a topic- What sections of The Journal do you tend to read? countered. driven publication • I miss the discussion of the future • Redesign and relaunch the CISR website, better inte- need for MA and the discussion grating it with the MAIC website of how to integrate MA in devel- • Emphasize popular content (Notes from the Field, opment and reconstruction. R&D and more articles about victim assistance) • The lack of discussion forum. • Create new sections (several ideas were given) and • The lack of editorial rigour or would like to see more topics relat- heart and evaluate which ones publish some of the less popular sections (Book Re- peer review. It appears more like ed to the betterment of deminers’ are feasible as we chart our future views, Unsung Heroes) online-only a magazine than a journal. lives (working conditions, problems, course. Thank you for your time • Target specific authors to provide in-depth content • Articles are too theoretical. benefits, etc.), and topics exposing and ideas! from experienced field personnel • Sometimes, I see some articles sloppy UXO removal work. Other • Limit or eliminate the student-written articles articles frequently. One respondent commented, “I cite that are written in a very high suggestions were: *Note: All responses have been ed- In total, 176 readers completed the survey, which is an the article and make a photocopy of the article. I don’t level of literacy and technical lan- • Guest editorial or op-ed, trends, ited for grammar, spelling and clarity. outstanding 10-percent response rate. Contrary to what want to lose my copy.” guage that is not easy to under- “Where Are They Now?,” histor- we believed, we discovered that The Journal is being de- Below are selected responses* to the question, “What stand. ical essays, victim assistance, livered in a timely manner, with 64 percent of the respon- do you like best about The Journal?”: • Same sources for articles. more integration of conventional dents saying they receive it within one month of mailing. • The focus on various regions and topics of current We also received several interest- weapons destruction In addition, although we do not plan to implement a sub- concern or interest. ing ideas from our readers regard- • New developments in standards scription fee, we were pleased to learn that 59 percent of • Accuracy and details. ing what new sections or topics they and procedures; new equipment those responding would be willing to pay US$10 or more • Some useful articles, like a recent issue on ERW had would like to see. One reader sug- developments Lois Carter Fay, APR, is Editor-in- to continue receiving The Journal. one very good article from Arms Control people. Top Chief of The Journal of ERW and gested adding more photo essays to • Things from a social-scientif- Mine Action and Project Manager When asked, “Which topics do you find most help- quality paper. the printed edition and more vid- ic perspective, incorporating an on other publishing projects, includ- ful?” several sections/topics were listed multiple times. • Electronic availability and maintenance of links; also ing To Walk the Earth in Safety. Prior eo on the website. Another said he understanding of how politics, to joining the MAIC in 2005, Carter In particular, many readers noted they like the R&D ar- historic links (i.e., online links to archived articles). Fay was self-employed with Market- Which format do you prefer when you economics and social issues im- ingIdeaShop.com, a consulting and ticles, Notes from the Field, and articles dealing with risk • Good mix between text and pictures; easy to read. read The Journal—hard copy or online? pact the manner in which mine publishing company, and today she education and victim assistance. Case studies, hero pro- • Focus on content relating to mine action and its vari- action is carried out continues this activity part-time. files and organization profiles were also mentioned re- ous pillars of engagement (clearance, mine-risk ed- • Straightforward articles dealing peatedly, with some respondents loving them and others ucation, survivor assistance, program development, with successes and failures Lois Carter Fay, APR Editor-in-Chief not liking them at all. etc.). • Updates on the global landmine/ The Journal of ERW and Mine Action On the other hand, when asked, “Which sections pro- • It’s keeping the community together, allowing us to Mine Action Information Center ERW situation Center for International vide the least value?” readers again repeatedly said hero share experiences. • Personal stories of people in the Stabilization and Recovery profiles. Book reviews, country profiles and “sob stories” • It’s all industry-related. No distractions and nothing Do you share your copy of The Journal James Madison University with others? field; this is an unforgiving busi- 800 South Main Street, MSC 4902 were also mentioned. One respondent said, “I think ev- too political. ness and it’s nice to read stories Harrisonburg, VA 22807 / USA ery now and again, you have an ‘odd’ article that could • Articles on actual experiences in mine action and ex- Tel: +1 540 568 2503 about others whom I have met Fax: +1 540 568 8176 have been approached from a different perspective; how- plosive remnants of war. • All in all, we feel we have re- E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://cisr.jmu.edu or ever, overall, any article that makes it to publication is • I feel The Journal presents a balanced and technical ceived valuable survey feedback. http://maic.jmu.edu worth the time to read it.” response regarding the issue of demining. We will take your suggestions to

In Afghanistan, the United States and United Nations are developing a new approach to community-based demining by funding local nongovernmental organizations. The use of these Afghan NGOs has not only allowed clearance to begin more quickly and continue more effectively, but has also helped the local population along the path to recovery and supported overall counterinsurgency efforts.

R ecruiting and training a local workforce is vital to community-based demining. by Colonel Yori Escalante [ United States Marine Corps ] Photo courtesy of Alex Henegar

ow Zad, located in the district of that the explosive remnants of the battle for Community-Based Demining Afghanistan, quick action is vital cal populations are involved in the Helmand province that bears the same Now Zad and the large number of mines and A concept now being used by to rebuilding trust and confidence improvement of their village or dis- name, was once the second largest IEDs left by the Taliban still littered the area. the United States and the United with the local residents. The United trict. Such examples of CBD rein- Ncity of the province with a population of more Nations in Afghanistan is one of States currently funds five Afghan force local governance and reduce than 30,000. Although somewhat isolated in The Strategy community-based demining. Often, NGOs—Afghan Technical Consul- the influence of insurgents. the northern part of Helmand, it had everything The Office of Weapons Removal and Abate- when contractors and internation- tants, Demining Agency for Afghan- that an Afghan needed to flourish, including fer- ment in the U.S. Department of State’s Bureau al NGOs establish demining and istan, Mine Clearance Planning Successes of CBD in Now Zad tile farmland and bustling bazaars. However, in of Political-Military Affairs (PM/WRA) man- clearance operations in an area, the Agency, Mine Detection Center, PM/WRA regularly makes an ef- early 2006 the Taliban took control and drove ages and executes the work required to create workforce is recruited from the lo- and Organization for Mine Clear- fort to coordinate closely with U.S. away the entire population of Now Zad. Many of the “bridge” from hold to build within the U.S. cal area, trained and employed to ance and Afghanistan Rehabilita- or Coalition Forces in an area, and the residents moved as far away as Lashkar Gah, counterinsurgency strategy. Known as Con- execute the project, and later dis- tion—that are uniquely positioned Task Force Leatherneck was no ex- an arduous 125-kilometer (48-mile) journey on ventional Weapons Destruction, the effort ad- patched to other areas needing clear- to implement these community-based ception. The U.S. Marines quickly rough roads through Taliban-infested areas, dresses humanitarian mine action, battle-area ance. Thus, in a way, all demining projects quickly and effectively. understood the importance of dem- and wondered if they would ever return to their clearance and small-arms and light-weapons and clearance operations can be CBD differs from other demining ining and clearance operations and homes. After taking over Now Zad, the mili- destruction. CWD has enabled the United called community-based. Howev- and clearance efforts; organizations the benefits that CBD could provide. tants filled the homes, shops, schools and streets States to be the international leader in this im- er, CBD in Afghanistan is different work closely with the local leader- Soon after the completion of the with mines and improvised explosive devices, portant aspect of humanitarian assistance and in many ways because the approach ship in a specific village, district or operation, Brigadier General Law- much as they had done in many other areas. development. Since 1993, the United States has uses Afghan NGOs that have worked province. The local leaders identify rence Nicholson, the Command- The second major offensive in Helmand provided more than US$1.8 billion to more in Afghanistan for 20 years or more. projects and assist in informing the er of Task Force Leatherneck, along province for Task Force Leatherneck (the 2nd than 80 countries to conduct demining and un- The Afghan NGOs have built a re- residents of the impact of CBD and with members of the U.S. Embassy Marine Expeditionary Brigade), Operation Co- exploded-ordnance clearance, and since 2001 lationship with the population and the need for a local workforce. This in Kabul, Helmand Provincial Gov- bra’s Anger in December 2009, was to remove the has destroyed more than 1.4 million weapons are able to recruit individuals who workforce, many times consisting of ernor Mangal and leaders from Now Taliban from Now Zad. Once cleared, Now Zad and 80,000 tons of otherwise at-risk, unstable will remain after the project is com- young men who would otherwise be Zad, as well as representatives of the was a prime candidate for immediate assistance or unsecure weapons and ammunition that plete. The NGOs can also enter an recruited by the Taliban for insur- five Afghan demining NGOs fund- and the type of international development crit- could find their way into the militants’ hands.1 area very soon after combat opera- gent operations, is then trained in ed by PM/WRA, conducted a dem- ical to the United States’ counterinsurgency In Afghanistan alone, the United States has tions have ceased. Often, interna- the skill of demining. Often the men ining shura. Shura, the Arabic word strategy of "Clear-Hold-Build." This strategy funded projects totaling nearly $200 million. tional NGOs will not be welcomed are put through vocational training for consultation, is the way most Is- involves clearing a target area of insurgents PM/WRA provides funds to U.S. contractors or cannot gain access to those areas during their off-duty hours to en- lamic tribal leaders meet to resolve (Clear), providing security and infrastructure and international nongovernmental organi- due to the security situation. This sure they have a relevant trade once problems and issues. The purpose to locals while screening the population for zations to conduct clearance and destruction aspect is important since in the past, the project is complete. This in turn of this shura was to highlight the insurgents (Hold), and establishing or re-estab- operations, develop survivor and educational demining and clearance operations builds confidence and a sense of need to implement a CBD project lishing essential services using both NGO and services, and establish capacity for the host na- have only been attempted after con- ownership in the overall project, as in Now Zad, one that would address local workforces (Build). The only problem was tion to eventually take ownership of the effort. flicts have ended. In the conflict in well as a sense of pride that the lo- the most urgent clearance needs of https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/cisr-journal/vol14/iss3/1 6 10 focus | the journal of ERW and mine action | fall 2010 | 14.3 14.3 | fall 2010 | the journal of ERW and mine action | focus 11 JOURNAL: The Journal of ERW and Mine Action Issue 14.3

the village and enable further de- ed communities in and around Now the agencies and organizations pro- velopment projects to begin. Brig- Zad: Ali Zai, Barakzi, Deh Meyan viding relief and development. The Destruction of Cluster Munitions adier General Nicholson stressed and Sarkani. Marine Corps’ approach to coun- that residents and local leadership Over and above the initial ben- terinsurgency stresses building this in Moldova needed to step up and take control efits, the project includes the es- confidence through close coordi- of Now Zad or risk the town being tablishment of a clinic, primarily nation and partnering with local For some countries affected by cluster munitions, the obligations to demilitarize that returned to the Taliban. As a result for the medical care of the demin- forces, government officials and the accompany ratification of the Convention on Cluster Munitions may appear daunting. of the shura, close coordination and ers, but also to serve as a source of citizens of the areas for which they In 2009, however, Norwegian People’s Aid undertook a pilot project in Moldova to planning commenced between the health support for the citizens of are responsible. In order to provide find a cheaper, more efficient alternative-disposal method. They discovered that not Marines, PM/WRA, U.S. Embassy, Now Zad. As the word spread that relief and development quickly, the only can destruction of cluster munitions be done more effectively, but also that by United Nations Mine Action Coor- deminers were starting their work, time between hold and build must be using locally administered programs, international organizations can promote capac- dination Center for Afghanistan, lo- many of the displaced members of as short as possible. Many times, due cal leadership and the NGOs. Now Zad started to return, some for to combat operations recently con- ity building and increased employment while also bolstering national pride and com- the first time in four years. cluding, this time is delayed in order mitment to the Convention on Cluster Munitions. CBD has been conducted in Af- to clear the area of explosive rem-

ghanistan for several years, with nants of war. This delay could poten- by Colin King [ C King Associates, Ltd. ] projects funded and executed in Ku- tially result in a loss of confidence by nar, Nangahar and Kandahar prov- the local communities in the forces inces. The projects’ workforce was operating in their area. CBD is yet uring the Oslo Process, it became intangible gains, such as a strong demonstra- recruited from the local area and another way for the United States clear that several nations were con- tion of commitment to the CCM and a sense included vocational training. Un- to insure that the “bridge” from cerned about their obligations to de- of national pride. Other potential advantages of like the projects that began sever- hold to build is as short as possible. stroyD cluster munition stockpiles under Article utilizing locally administered programs includ- al years after fighting had ceased in see endnotes page 80 3 of the Convention on Cluster Munitions. In ed lower cost and faster completion. During the the Kunar, Nangahar and Kandahar fact, it soon became apparent that this might be 2008–09 period, a preliminary study established U .S. and local leadership must be in- provinces, however, the project in a significant obstacle to signing or ratification that locally administered, alternative-disposal volved to ensure the “bridge” from hold to build is successful. Now Zad commenced within weeks for some countries. options were realistic. Photo courtesy of the author of combat concluding, giving devel- Industrial demilitarization plants exist in Vital to the NGOs and the lead- opment agencies the opportunity to several developed nations; however, costs are Moldova Pilot Program ers of Now Zad were assurances of provide relief to the Now Zad area high, and most are running at or near capacity. The concept of small-scale regional pro- security from Task Force Leather- sooner than expected. The project Even if the resources were available, it would grams was presented at the 2009 Berlin Colonel Yori Escalante, USMC is neck—security that was not visi- in Now Zad is seen as a model for the Commanding Officer of Com- be uneconomical for an industrial unit to gear Conference on the Destruction of Cluster Mu- ble, but effective. What eventually future uses of CBD, especially since bat Logistics Regiment–2 in Camp up for the disposal of small quantities of clus- nitions;1 here, Moldova was among a small Lejeune, North Carolina. Prior to tak- materialized was a collaborative efit uses Afghan NGOs and beginning ing command, he was the Deputy ter munitions, especially if these were unusual number of delegations that approached NPA Director of the Office of Weapons types. A new process would involve a great deal to express an interest in a pilot project. fort for a $1.8 million project with work early with local authorities Removal and Abatement in the U.S. three of the five NGOs (Mine Clear- means clearance operations can al- Department of State. More informa- of additional effort, including research on the An NPA assessment team visited Moldova tion about the U.S. role in conven- ance Planning Agency, the Dem- low relief and development to arrive tional weapons destruction can be ammunition, development of a new procedure, in October 2009 and identified five types of ining Agency for Afghanistan and quickly. This further builds the pop- found at http://state.gov/t/pm/wra. fabricating or adapting existing machinery, re- Russian cluster-bomb and submunition pay- the Mine Detection Center) where ulation’s confidence in the NATO Colonel Yori R. Escalante training the workforce, development of ade- loads in the Moldovan inventory. The sub- Colonel, United States Marine Corps the strengths of each organization International Security Assistance Commanding Officer, quate quality control measures and so forth. munitions included three types of anti-armor were leveraged. The project began in Force’s work, and more important- Combat Logistics Regiment–2 The need for another option led Norwegian bomblets (PTAB-2.5, PTAB-2.5M and PTAB- PSC Box 20132 March 2010 and is scheduled to be ly, in the local Afghan government. Camp Lejeune, NC 28542 People’s Aid to examine alternative-dispos- 10-5) and two types of fragmentation bomb- completed within 12 months, em- Tel: +1 910 450 6634 al means on a national or regional basis. One lets (AO-1SCh and AO-2.5RT). Externally, the E-mail: [email protected] ploying more than 120 local staff, Conclusion possible benefit of using locally administered bombs were in reasonably good condition, benefitting more than 1,350 fami- Confidence is key to successful programs was program ownership. This own- suggesting that the submunitions would be lies and clearing 594,000 square ki- counterinsurgency operations. The ership, or increased national involvement, well-preserved. lometers (229,345 square miles) of local population must have confi- brings with it tangible gains, such as capacity Unloading of cluster bombs. The NPA team land covering the four most affect- dence in the forces in its area and in building and increased employment, as well as conducted all work at a Bulboaca military

blets may become armed as they are ejected from the into wooden ammunition crates bly require attention as aging Soviet demolition, risking widespread site contamination with and covered with a propellant layer ordnance becomes unusable. hazardous ordnance. that had been salvaged from artil- Currently, the NPA team is liais- The relatively straightforward process of removing lery ammunition. The bomblet bod- ing with a number of other coun- the submunitions from the bomb body makes successful ies were then ignited remotely using tries that are interested in developing demolition substantially easier. Furthermore, taking the electrical squibs placed into small their own locally administered clus- additional step of defuzing the bomblets before demoli- bags of black powder.2 ter-munitions destruction programs. tion not only eliminates much of the residual hazard, The A-IX-2 explosive used in the R emoving the fuze from a PTAB-2.5. The question is whether the principle but also exposes the high-explosive filling, thus further AO-1SCh bomblet was particular- munition, such as the US M42, M46 can be applied safely to more com- increasing the likelihood of complete detonation. ly difficult to ignite, and burning and M77 series. plex or challenging ammunition, Once defuzed, demolitions were prepared by placing out these bomblets required careful PTAB-2.5 and PTAB-2.5M-bom- such as cargo projectiles, rockets and the bomblet bodies in wooden ammunition crates and preparation. A number of successful blet disassembly confirmed the NATO cluster bombs. covering them with a layer of TNT demolition blocks. burns were conducted, once again achievability of this option. How- Moldovan soldiers, under supervision, removing the tail from an Reproduced with permission from RBK-500 cluster bomb. This allowed the indoor preparation of shots, minimiz- indicating the technique could be ever, a complication in the PTAB- HIS (Global) Limited–Jane’s Explo- A ll photos courtesy of the author ing the time needed for final preparation at the demo- applied within a large-scale process. 2.5M-shaped charge is the presence sive Ordnance Disposal, 2010–11. facility, which includes a demolition area. Bomb dis- lition grounds. The efficiency of this process indicated Inerting. A selection of each of a flash-receptive detonator, which Note: Since this article was writ- that this technique could be employed successfully on a bomblet type was designated free assembly was carried out in two adjacent tents, despite must be pressed out to make it safe. ten, Moldova has concluded the fi- extremely cold weather and heavy snow. A team of Mol- far larger scale. from explosives for use as demon- nal phase of this project, in which dovan soldiers, trained in demolition under NPA super- stration and training aids. This in- Conclusions their entire stockpile of cluster bombs was destroyed. The work was car- vision for unloading the submunitions from the bombs volved complete disassembly of the The research-and-development ried out by Moldovan soldiers under and assembling the demolitions, mainly used the first fuzing-system to locate and remove phase of Moldova’s pilot program the supervision of NPA and C King tent. The NPA team used the second tent for submuni- all components containing energetic was a great success despite extreme Associates Ltd, making them the first tion disassembly. material and refitting the now free- weather, a difficult operating en- nation to achieve compliance with CCM Article 3 using a “self-help” de- The two types of bomb containers, RBK-250 and from-explosive fuze assembly to a vironment and a restricted time militarization program. RBK-500, were similar in structure and were easily un- bomblet body from which the explo- frame. The operation confirmed that loaded once the tail section was removed. After refin- sive had been burned out. regional demilitarization programs see endnotes page 80 ing their technique, the Moldovan soldiers successfully A simple quality-control system involving Russian cluster bombs re- conducted the unloading procedure in approximately 20 was implemented for the inerting quire minimal resources and could, minutes per bomb. process, involving two people inde- therefore, be implemented anywhere. Submunition disassembly. One of the primary objec- pendently confirming the absence As an unexpected bonus, Mol- tives was to create simple, practical processes to remove of explosive components, with each dova quickly announced its inten- bomblet fuzes, thereby exposing the explosive filling in marking the assembly using paint. tion to ratify the CCM, having been order to make subsequent demolition simple and safe. The finished training aids were then commended for its positive engage- Colin King served 14 years in the British Army, mostly in explosive ord- This objective was achieved with four out of the five sub- marked clearly in blue, the NATO ment and encouraged by its ability nance disposal, including operations in munition types, with the AO-2.5RT as the exception. A color code for inert items. to achieve the demands of Article Bosnia, the Falklands, the Persian Gulf and Kosovo; and he also led the first number of these bomblets were also dismantled and de- AO1 - Sch bomblet bodies after the explosive charge has been Re-use of warheads. Fuze and 3. Moldova subsequently became British team to train Afghan deminers. burned out. fuzed; however, the process was considered too delicate, tail-assembly removal offers the the final state needed to trigger the He worked as a British EOD school instructor and an EOD intelligence analyst and therefore dangerous, for inclusion in a regional de- Burning. Burning has a number of potential advan- possibility of retaining the shaped CCM’s entry into force. before his final tour with the Gurkhas struction program. tages for bomblet destruction, including avoidance of the charge warhead for non-hostile ap- and starting his EOD consultancy. His In addition to the immediate re- recent work includes mine clearance on In keeping with the concept of regional program noise and shock involved in demolition, elimination of plications, such as explosive-ord- sults, the availability of such a na- the Falkland Islands, studies into the the need for large stocks of high explosives, minimizing nance disposal, demolition or effects of aging on mines and regional ownership, locally available tools were used wherev- tional capability may well prove cluster-munition stockpile-destruc- er possible. The few exceptions included hook-and-pin metallic contamination, and the retention of steel scrap. engineering. This option was high- valuable for further regional clus- tion programs. King also writes two reference yearbooks, Mines and Mine wrenches and a chain vice, which was particularly use- Burning normally requires detonator extraction and lighted during early program pro- ter-munition destruction programs. Clearance and Explosive Ordnance Dis- ful for securing the bomblet bodies. exposure of the main explosive filling, which was easily posals and is especially relevant to Furthermore, the facilities and ex- posal, for Jane’s Information Group.

Explosive demolition. Successful explosive demo- achieved in a single step by removal of the fuze-assem- the warheads used in PTAB bomb- pertise in ammunition disposal may Colin King lition of cluster munitions is notoriously difficult, as bly from all of the bomblet types, except for the AO- lets; it may also be applicable to du- be utilized or adapted for other am- C King Associates, Ltd. Tel: +44 1342 826 363 unexploded submunitions tend to be “kicked out.” Bom- 2.5RT. Once defuzed, the bomblet bodies were stacked al-purpose improved-conventional munition types, which will inevita-

Albania Makes Progress in Demilitarization

With the goal of destroying all excess munitions by 2013, the Albanian government is working to eliminate stockpiles of excess military munitions. Following a 2008 deadly explosion at a munitions dismantling factory, the government established safer mandates and successfully destroyed thousands of tons of munitions.

by Captain Matt Goodyear [ United States Army ]

wo years after the 2008 deadly explosion1 at munitions are unstable. In addition, due to residential a demilitarization2 facility on the outskirts of encroachment, several depots are located close to civil- Tirana, Albania’s capital, the Albanian govern- ian populations, endangering the lives of many people. Tment has made significant progress in reducing excess stockpiles and demilitarizing hazardous and obsolete Gërdec Depot ordnance. Although ridding the country of more than Some demilitarization efforts began in 2001, includ- 100,000 tons (9,072 metric tons) of outdated and danger- ing an assistance project by the NATO Maintenance and ous munitions and weapons has been a formidable chal- Supply Agency, which destroyed more than 8,700 tons lenge, the government’s efforts, in conjunction with the (7,892 metric tons) of munitions between 2002 and 2007. international community, have resulted in a robust and Then, on 15 March 2008, a massive explosion occurred effective demilitarization program. Another 5,000 tons at an ammunition dismantling facility in Gërdec, 30 ki- (4,536 metric tons) is expected to be destroyed by the lometers (19 miles) west of Tirana and 3 kilometers (2 end of 2010. This notable improvement in the manage- miles) from the national airport. Previously home to S hells from demilitarized 82mm mortars. ment of Albania’s excess munitions stockpiles reflects a tank division, the site had been converted to allow a p hoto courtesy of william wade, sterling international, llc the government’s commitment to the process and il- private company to demilitarize ordnance and sell the lustrates the impact of international contributions and scrap residue. The residents of the area were unwitting- collaboration. ly living too close to the factory, and the blast killed 26 ordnance types. According to the plan, three primary Mjekes Explosives Factory people, injuring more than 300.1 The explosion’s exact factories would be used for industrial dismantling and During its 2001–07 project, NAMSA developed part Albania’s History of Explosives cause is still unknown; however, unsafe standards and destruction, including cutting open the mortars and of the communist-era Mjekes explosives factory (just The communist period of Albania's history (1946– practices were clearly being used at the Gërdec facili- removing the explosives, and eight demolition rang- east of Elbasan in central Albania) to destroy small- 91) was marked by a massive build-up in munitions and ty. As a result of this disaster, the Minister of Defence, es would be used for open detonation3 and burning. To arms ammunition. As a result of the project and a suc- weapons of Albanian, Chinese and Soviet origin. Hun- along with 29 other people, was subsequently charged realize this goal, significant financial and other contri- cessful business in reprocessing explosive material, the dreds of depots were placed in every corner of Albania with abuse of office. The explosion and the public outcry butions would be needed not only by the Albanian gov- Mjekes explosives factory received significant invest- and were stocked with more than 100,000 tons (9,072 that ensued brought demilitarization efforts in Albania ernment, but also by foreign donors and international ment and was developed into a modern facility. In 2008, metric tons) of munitions. Each depot housed various to a standstill and created an atmosphere of paralysis in institutions. An ongoing demilitarization project man- the Mjekes factory purchased two band saws to destroy types of munitions that became potentially dangerous the Albanian Ministry of Defence. During the months aged by the Office of Weapons Removal and Abatement 3,400 tons (3,084 metric tons) of 160mm mortars. Af- after years of degradation. With the fall of communism immediately following the disaster, Albania, with tech- in the Department of State’s Bureau of Political-Military ter cutting the mortars and revealing the explosives, in 1991, maintenance and management of the depots was nical assistance from the international community, Affairs (PM/WRA) was expanded to provide an addi- the workers used a steam generator to remove the ex- neglected, and when anarchy enveloped the country in worked to establish the necessary legal framework to tional US$2 million for the Gërdec munitions clean- plosives, and the shells were either discarded or sold for 1997, many depots were damaged, destroyed or looted. demilitarize munitions and upgrade the decrepit facili- up.”4 In addition, the international community5 offered scrap. The explosives were then either burned or repro- After stability was restored, the return of reclaimed mu- ties to reduce risk. financial support and expertise to safely clear the explo- cessed to sell as low-grade explosives. nitions to depots was not handled systematically, further sion site and demilitarize the remaining stockpiles. In- The Mjekes factory began processing the 160mm exacerbating an already dangerous storage environment. The National Plan dustrial demilitarization finally commenced in January mortars in January 2009, and by June 2010, had suc- Now, two years after the explosion, ordnance has been In the summer of 2008, the Albanian government es- 2009 and open detonation began several months later. cessfully completed the project without incident. The consolidated into 44 depots. Because of their age, poor tablished a plan to demilitarize the remaining 85,000– Since then, the Albanian government has prioritized its factory line is now being adjusted to dismantle the ap- maintenance and lack of proper storage, some of these 90,000 tons (77,111–81,647 metric tons) of various demilitarization efforts. proximately 11,000 tons (9,979 metric tons) of excess

The incinerator, which went into has made impressive progress, de- in high demand throughout the re- use in January 2010, can burn be- stroying up to 900 tons (817 metric gion. As the country completes its tween five and eight tons (5.54 and tons) of ordnance per month. With national demilitarization plan, the 7.26 metric tons) of bullets per day. support from the Dutch govern- Albanian government and military To date, it has destroyed approxi- ment, AAF EOD received three elec- will end up with a viable skill set that mately 360 tons (327 metric tons) trical firing devices to improve its could be beneficial to NATO and of 7.62mm bullets. safety on demolition ranges. Addi- other countries with deteriorating tional EOD safety and personal pro- stockpiles. Likewise, the Mjekes fac- Gramsh Factory tective equipment was provided to tory, with minor upgrades in equip- Solely run by Albania, the Albania by the U.S. European Com- ment and training, could become a Gramsh factory also does industri- mand. This equipment was used to regional hub for demilitarization. al demilitarization. The government train EOD operators, and it will in- While the prospect of regional weap- has established a line there to decrease safe operations through com- ons destruction cooperation may militarize 37mm ammunition. Due munication and positioning data seem ambitious, a regional approach to its proximity to the local popu- with GPS-enabled radios. Since be- to stockpile reduction is beginning lation, the factory must maintain ginning work in 2009, the AAF EOD slowly to take shape. By taking ad- a very low production rate and ex- teams have destroyed approximately vantage of assistance from the in- plosive-storage capacity. The pro- 4,400 tons (3,992 metric tons) of var- ternational community, Albania is cess does not use band saws and ious size munitions. strengthening its expertise, gaining involves manually dismantling the proficiency in munitions and ord- 37mm projectile from the fuze and The Way Forward nance handling, and is establishing steaming out the explosives. The In 2009, Albanian Prime Min- appropriate munitions dismantling Albanian government expects to ister Sali Berisha announced the and destruction facilities. complete destruction of all 4,000 demilitarization of all hazard- see endnotes page 80 tons (363 metric tons) of 37mm pro- ous ordnance by 2013. With 75,000 jectiles before the end of 2010, when tons (68,037 metric tons) of ord- the plant will retool the line to han- nance identified for destruction, dle up to 100mm projectiles. experts concur that this is an ambitious goal. To support demilitariza- Albanian EOD and Ranges tion, the Albanian government and T he Mjekes demilitarization facility. Due to previous accidents on PM/WRA jointly funded a NAMSA Photo courtesy of Anthony Baird ranges, all open detonation of mu- feasibility study to assess a possible U.S. Army Captain Matthew Good- nitions in Albania was suspended NAMSA project built upon the suc- year is an EOD Officer from the U.S. 120mm rounds. The government of Denmark through itarization occurred through simple dismantling (un- in 2007. However, open detonation cess of its 2002–07 project. In March European Command assigned to the the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Eu- screwing the heads and steaming out the explosives). In U.S. Embassy Tirana’s Office of De- plays an integral part in the new na- 2010, NATO members approved the fense Cooperation as the EOD Advi- rope recently donated to Mjekes four more band saws May 2009, Polican began the demilitarization of 82mm sor to Albania. He is a graduate of tional demilitarization plan. Thus, project and opened a NAMSA of- to establish a second dismantling line to handle other Chinese-made mortars with TNT explosives. In ear- Virginia Polytechnic Institute and in 2009, the government of Albania fice in Tirana in September 2010. Navy Explosive Ordnance Dispos- large-caliber munitions. ly 2010, Polican received a donation of four band saws al School, Eglin Air Force Base. His designated eight ranges and began While the memorandum of under- from Denmark. With these band saws, the factory is previous deployments include Op- training its explosive ordnance dis- standing between NAMSA and the eration Enduring Freedom (Afghani- Polican Munitions Factory developing a dismantling line to demilitarize the more stan) and Operation Iraqi Freedom. posal unit for detonation activities. government of Albania is still under While the communist-era Polican munitions factory sensitive Amatol-filled Soviet mortars. So far, Polican The Albanian Armed Forces EOD review, experts anticipate demilitar- Captain Matthew Goodyear near Berat in Southern Albania was part of the original has destroyed 2,300 tons (2,087 metric tons) of Alba- WCE Team 5 units also received training from ization under this long-term project U.S. Army 20th Support Command NAMSA project, it did not receive capital investment, nia's 15,000 tons (13,608 metric tons) of 82mm mortars. the U.S. Defense Threat Reduction will begin in January 2011, funded ATTN: AFCB-PA and its technology and upkeep were significantly be- Polican also benefits from a PM/WRA-funded por- 5183 Blackhawk Road Agency and U.S. EOD Navy experts. primarily by the United States, fol- Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD hind Mjekes. PM/WRA assisted the government of Al- table incinerator for use in destroying small caliber 21010-5424 / USA Despite various setbacks (including lowing the signing of the MOU. bania by funding a U.S. contractor, Armor Group, to ammunition, beginning with 7.62mm bullets. The in- Tel: +1 352 200 0479 sometimes resistant civilian popu- Through these projects, Albania supervise demilitarization operations there. Polican did cinerator heats the bullets until the gunpowder ex- lations, theft of scrap and minor ac- is developing specialized EOD and not have the capital to buy band saws, and thus, demil- plodes, leaving the melted brass and lead for scrap. cidents on site), the EOD company demilitarization capabilities that are https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/cisr-journal/vol14/iss3/1 10 18 focus | the journal of ERW and mine action | fall 2010 | 14.3 14.3 | fall 2010 | the journal of ERW and mine action | focus 19 JOURNAL: The Journal of ERW and Mine Action Issue 14.3

The Terter Regional In 2008, based on AMVA Terter’s Vocational Training Center success in assisting mine victims, the Office of Weapons Removal and Abatement in the U.S. Department Recently, International Eurasia Press Fund helped to form the Terter Regional Voca- of State’s Bureau of Political-Military tional Training Center to provide computer, business and vocational training for mine Affairs (PM/WRA), AMVA’s origi- victims and their family members. The victims are also given medical and legal help nal donor, financed the replication of by the Azerbaijan Mine Victims Association. The VTC and the AMVA both work to similar actions in the Fizuli and Ag- help war victims reintegrate into society. stafa regions, and assisted AMVA in Terter with pursuing more activities. by Nick Nwolisa [ International Eurasia Press Fund ] Most of the AMVA-Terter members joined the project working group, as- he Azerbaijan National Agency for Mine Action different initiatives and programs related to victim assisting mine victims with their legal was established in 1998 and since then, has car- sistance could be developed through ideas contributed issues and also providing courses in ried out mine-clearance operations and human- by the mine victims themselves. Terter was the first re- business training. Moreover, PM/ itarianT support in several regions and communities in gion identified for bringing together victims because of WRA approved seed capital for pro- T rainees at the Terter Regional Vocational Training Center. Trainees are mine victims, Azerbaijan. Beginning in 2000, the International Eur- the high number of mine victims residing there. More viding microcredit loans to the mine spouses or family members of war victims. asia Press Fund joined ANAMA in conducting various than half of the Terter region’s territory remains under victims. With this initial capital, the A ll photos courtesy of the author surveys to determine the impact of landmines on Azer- Armenian occupation, and landmines and unexploded IEPF established the Avrasia-Kredit, job creation grew; hence, the IEPF Training Center Goals and Strategies baijani territory. The survey results indicated that mine ordnance affect a large portion of the land. Ltd., a non-banking organization dis- programs-development team estab- On 30 March 2010, the VTC offi- victims predominately resided in Agstafa, Fizuli, Goran- tributing small loans to the less for- lished the Terter Regional Vocation- cially announced its opening. IEPF, boy and Terter. Azerbaijan Mine Victims Association tunate people in Agstafa, Fuzuli and al Training Center. in close collaboration with the Ter- In 2004, ANAMA worked with IEPF to conduct the The Azerbaijan Mine Victims Association was for- Terter. Additional financial donors, The VTC was designed to not ter region’s local municipalities, or- Mine Victims Needs Assessment project. The project mally established and registered with the Azerbaijan including CredAgro, AzerStar and only help mine victims and their ganized the ceremony, and many documented some of the challenges mine victims faced, government in May 2007. Through its various achieve- AzerCredit, have increased the cof- families gain the skills they needed dignitaries attended, including PM/ such as: ments, the AMVA Terter branch was evaluated as a suc- fers of Avrasia-Kredit from an initial to become self-sufficient, but IEPF WRA’s Azerbaijan Country Program • They were in urgent need of financial assistance. cess by a committee within IEPF’s executive board, and donation of US$45,000 to $600,000 suggested retired mine-clearance Manager, Katherine Baker, and Mi- • The families that had lost their bread-winners in the was highlighted by several international and local news recently, and Avrasia-Kredit is workers were in need of retrain- chael Gaunt, the military attaché war needed assistance in establishing small-scale outlets. Some of the achievements from AMVA Terter’s ranked among the top non-banking ing, as well. Due to the extremely for the U.S. Embassy in Azerbaijan, businesses to support themselves. project activities were: organizations allocating microcredit stressful nature of their work, mine- along with a large number of com- • Mine victims often faced legal challenges, particularly • More than 50 mine victims received assistance in loans in the region, with more than clearance workers normally retire munity members. ANAMA’s Infor- while trying to obtain their disabled status, citizen- various legal matters, such as changing their federal 1,300 beneficiaries. from their positions at approximate- mation Manager, Murad Rahimov, ship registration card, etc. disability status so their pensions aligned with the se- The mine victims who benefited ly 45 years of age; however, the law also attended the opening ceremony • Both victims and people residing in mine-affected re- verity of their injuries and documenting marital sta- from microcredit loans were main- does not regulate the retirement age. to express ANAMA’s desire to ensure gions needed mine-risk education because accidents tus to allow access to family benefits. ly concerned with the expansion of IEPF noticed that many demining mine-free zones in Azerbaijan’s bor- continued to occur due to lack of information. • 140 mine victims actively participated in various their existing businesses, although retirees had a difficult time finding der territories. During the ceremony, • Mine victims, their families and the local population training courses on small-scale business manage- some were interested in starting new other work and becoming financially Vudadi Isayev, the head of the local residing in mine-affected regions needed access to ur- ment, computer literacy and first aid. businesses. IEPF and AMVA contin- independent because of the difficul- authority, expressed his delight with gent medical attention following mine accidents. • Three mine victims worked in various capacities in ued to provide business advice and ty in transferring their unique skills the continuous financial support of • Mine victims required assistance in community and the regional IEPF offices. entrepreneurial skills training to the into other professions. Vocational the United States. mainstream-society reintegration. • 27 mine victims received advanced medical diagno- mine victims and to a larger extent, training is needed to help them find The Terter Regional Vocational In order to help mine victims overcome some of ses from specialists, which helped them access federal the inhabitants of the communities employment in other fields and re- Training Center is unique, teaching these challenges, IEPF decided it should first bring the disability benefits. in the regions. As the demand for integrate into society. Consequently, food and nutrition skills; domestic mine victims together through the creation of an asso- • More than 30 mine victims received varying amounts microcredit swelled, a need to create deminers were encouraged to attend skills such as painting, carpet weav- ciation. This association would serve as a platform where of social assistance. a viable and sustainable source for the training courses. ing and decorative design; and tech-

tion in which learners put into practice all theorized learning processes. The learners begin to develop actual vocational skills in this stage. • Informal learning: At this stage, learners are encouraged to practice skills outside VTC’s walls, through their daily work and social, family or leisure activities.

VTC’s Operations and Activities In the first week of May 2010, VTC officially opened its operations, with the commencement of four vocational training courses including carpet weaving, food and IE PF Chairman Umud Mirzayev and the project working group meet with staff of the Terter Regional Vocational Train- ing Center. nutrition, advertising and graphic design, and agricultural practices. Participants were from 18 to nical skills like electrical wiring, carpentry, and ing component), and finding job placements O ne of the participants in the carpet weaving class displays her skills on knitting. 50 years of age. Most of the male advertising and graphic design. VTC also pro- or business opportunities for the mine victims participants joined the agricultur- vides training on agricultural practices, busi- and the retired deminers. IEPF plans to expand and improve al courses, while the women took ness skills and microfinance management. The Various local and international specialists the VTC. Hopefully, international the carpet weaving and food and first participants were drawn from the Terter and experts were involved in creating the VTC’s agencies and organizations will take nutrition classes. The advertising region, but VTC expects others will come from training curriculum. The curriculum designed advantage of the unique building and graphic design course attract- the Agdam, Goranboy and Goygol regions. for VTC is modeled after best practices rec- housing the VTC. War victims, refu- ed younger participants, both male Presently, the two-story VTC building has vari- ommended by the International Labour Or- gees, internally displaced people, lo- and female. The first group of VTC ous offices, restroom facilities and two training ganization, and IEPF also has adopted several cal communities and deminers still Nick Nwolisa was born in Kaduna, participants were either mine vic- rooms that can seat up to 20 persons per room. curriculum materials from Western Australia’s need assistance. The VTC is a collec- Nigeria. He was educated in Nigeria, tims or the spouse/other family where he studied biochemistry at In the future, VTC will enroll war victims Department of Education and Training and var- tive community resource, function- Nnamdi Azikiwe University in Awka, member of a war victim; two mine- Anambra state. He worked briefly with and retired deminers, irrespective of their lo- ious similar institutions in the United States. ing to benefit the general public. In clearance workers enrolled in the the Departments of Safety, Health and cations. To accommodate the needs of these Although VTC will use local experts as train- addition, VTC plans to diversify to Environmental Affairs of Exxon Mo- subsequent class. bil in Nigeria before he moved to Azer- remote victims, VTC envisions having ap- ers, it will also work with established interna- also include the promotion of agri- As VTC’s main focus is provid- baijan for further studies at Khazar proximately six lodging rooms for partici- tional organizations, particularly U.N. agencies cultural practices as one of its core University, Baku, and the Baku Slavic ing participants with the skills to University. Presently, he is Head of pants and trainers from more distant regions with similar practices. activities, since this is the primary Programs Development and Interna- help them attain gainful employ- of Azerbaijan, as well as a conference hall that The training procedure followed by the trade of the region’s inhabitants. Al- tional Relations. He is also a columnist ment, the VTC manager will closely with the Nigeria World online news fo- can seat approximately 120 people. trainers will be conducted using three learn- though VTC has taught agricultur- rum and analyst of Nigerian affairs on collaborate with IEPF to find suit- During the opening ceremony, the chair- ing approaches as outlined in the document, al classes for quite some time, it plans various international news outlets. able places where the VTC gradu- man of IEPF, Umud Mirzayev, outlined the “Professional Development Framework for Vo- to extend the training program to its Nick Nwolisa ates’ newly acquired skills will be Head of Programs Development VTC’s overall goals, which include develop- cational Skills of Vocational Education and commercial farm and provide on- needed. Some of the graduates will and International Relations ing income-generating skills for war victims, Training Practitioners.”1 The three teaching the-job training for mine victims and International Eurasia Press Fund be encouraged to start their own 1A Mehdi Huseyn Street their family members and retired humanitar- methods are: their family members. The sales gen- small businesses or even joint ven- Az1006 Baku / Azerbaijan ian mine-action personnel, as well as integrat- • Formal learning: a program of instruction erated from the farm would be used Tel: +994 12 439 7697 tures. Microcredit loans from Avra- Fax: +994 12 439 4915 ing those trained into mainstream society. To emphasizing theory through classroom ma- for salaries and running the farm. E-mail: sia-Kredit are easily accessible to succeed, IEPF will assist with constructing and terials and shared documents see endnotes page 80 [email protected]; VTC graduates. [email protected] equipping the VTC, operating the VTC (train- • Non-formal learning: a program of instruc- Website: http://iepf-ngo.org https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/cisr-journal/vol14/iss3/1 12 22 focus | the journal of ERW and mine action | fall 2010 | 14.3 14.3 | fall 2010 | the journal of ERW and mine action | focus 23 JOURNAL: The Journal of ERW and Mine Action Issue 14.3

Mine Action Development Funding in Bosnia and Herzegovina F

Mine action seeks to eliminate the lingering effects of contamination from landmines EATURE and explosive remnants of war, but the need for development in these communities often trumps clearance and mine-risk education activities. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, where clearance activities are expected to continue until 2019, the Swiss Development Cooperation and Handicap International are exploring new ways for mine action to integrate development efforts into more traditional mine-action efforts.

by Michael Carrier [ Handicap International ] and Dr. John Powell Get the [ Community and Countryside Research Institute ] he Bosnian War took place from 1992–1995 dur- Development Approach Complements Mine Action ing the breakup of the former Yugoslavia and The term “mine action and development” does not principally involved Serbian ethnic groups fight- mean “mine action” versus “development.” As a coun- Advantage Ting against Muslim and Croatian groups in Bosnia. Dur- try moves from an humanitarian crisis to a developing the war, Bosnian and Croatian groups also turned ment phase, a transfer takes place from the traditional T he Center for International Stabilization and Recovery’s specialists want to help against one another for the small part of Bosnia still in mine-action humanitarian assistance to a mine-action their control. As a result of these bitter conflicts, Bosnia development approach. This evolution potentially opens you whenever you need post-conflict training. As leading training providers to the global and Herzegovina is one of the most mine-affected coun- the door to new types of cooperation as a development humanitarian community, we plan, develop, facilitate and deliver custom mine-action and post- tries in the world. donor may support “development activities” involving conflict training in theU nited States and abroad. We bring together subject-matter experts from Despite massive humanitarian mine-action funding mine action, whereas it would not support demining around the world and James Madison University’s internationally recognized professors to deliver during the past 15 years, the suspected hazardous area activities alone.3 Such donors would expect any mine- specialized training to fit your needs. covers 1,620 square kilometers (626 square miles) or 3.1 action intervention to be an integral part of, or at least percent of BiH.1 The development of a new Mine Action closely linked with, a development project. Funding is Working with global partners like the the U.N., GICHD, ITF and the OAS and other organizations, Strategy (2009–19) aiming for a country “free of mines” unlikely to be earmarked specifically for mine action and supported by the U.S. Departments of State and Defense and the U.N., CISR delivers by 2019 means it is officially recognized that the strug- but more likely to be based on sustainable effects that gle to remove landmines will continue for at least anoth- outstanding custom training courses of various lengths and class sizes. any type of intervention, including mine action, would er decade in BiH. Humanitarian donors will not likely have on identified development priorities. Mine-action With over a decade of experience delivering high-quality management training, commit funding in the required quantities to achieve organizations will have a difficult time applying for this bringing trainees together with thought leaders and practitioners from around the the mine-free objective within that timeframe. Mine- type of funding without stronger cooperation with oth- action organizations, therefore, will need to use funding er development actors. On the other hand, without a globe, CISR stands ready to work with you on your training needs. that is specified for more general development activities mine-action contribution, development actors would and operate mine-specific development activities in par- not be able to undertake work addressing social exclu- CISR Will Give You the Advantage! allel with humanitarian assistance. sion of a mine-affected population. Mine action—often This article reflects on a pilot project currently being thought to be dominated by military personnel and implemented in BiH. Funded by the Swiss Development ways of thinking—and development stakeholders—of- Kenneth R. Rutherford, Ph.D., Director Cooperation and Handicap International, the project ten viewed by those in mine action as “civilian”—will Center for International Stabilization and Recovery aims to develop and test innovative ways to improve the therefore need to work together if they want to secure 800 South Main Street, MSC 4902 Harrisonburg, VA 22807 / USA links between mine action and development. This en- development money for mine-contaminated areas. E-mail: [email protected] deavor provides an opportunity to explore how the use Cooperation between the mine-action and develop- Telephone: +1 540 568 2718 of development funding can have a beneficial impact on ment worlds can be difficult and raise a number of ques- On the Web: http://cisr.jmu.edu or http://maic.jmu.edu more traditional mine-action efforts.2 tions, ranging from the existential “what is a ‘mine-action

Published by JMU Scholarly Commons, 2010 13 14.3 | fall 2010 | the journal of ERW and mine action | feature 25 The Journal of Conventional Weapons Destruction, Vol. 14, Iss. 3 [2010], Art. 1

• Demining and other mine-action operations prioritized on the basis of local needs. Prioritization already occurs, but integrating demining more frequently with development priorities is needed. • Local-level processes to enable identification of social and economic benefits. These practices might need to be created from scratch but can be staged to identify key priorities early on and more complex concerns later. • Mine action (e.g., fencing, education) delivered alongside development activities (provision of employment and income assistance, enhanced local services, road rehabilitation, etc.) requires a higher level Mine-affected inhabitants actively involved in reconstructing of communication between mine-action and devel- the existing road leading to the community of Burmazi, Bosnia and Herzegovina. opment organizations. Photo courtesy of Handicap International • Institutional processes enabling compromise between differing objectives. Mine action and develop- Im age courtesy of Navid Bulbulija development approach’?” to practical issues such as ment must adapt institutional goals and practices to “who is in charge?” Linking mine action and develop- allow for cooperation and coordination. Questions then arise as to what such ty. In the long run, however, it may ing their families and risking their ment inevitably creates friction and requires both groups The emphasis is twofold, on both project planning a term might mean on the ground be the best possible way toward a lives to meet their basic needs. Evi- to be aware of their differing needs and requirements in and management, and on a deeper understanding of and how a potential donor might in- mine-impact-free world, as it could dence from a field study implement- order to achieve synergistic benefits from linked activi- community development needs. The approach may re- terpret it. secure longer-term funding and en- ed through this pilot project in May ties. A key finding in the BiH project discussed below is sult in a slower start to mine-action activities on the We define mine-impact-free as sure mine action is only undertaken 2009 in the mine-affected commu- that most of the traditional development and mine-action ground, but the outcome would be more effective inter- freedom for local communities to if the community benefits. In addi- nities of Stolac and Berkovici reveals interventions do not need any major institutional mod- vention that simultaneously develops a community and attain sustainable livelihoods (i.e., tion, to obtain local community sup- that 24 percent of households sur- ification, as long as individual organizations focus on releases it from the wider impacts of mines. economic, social and environmen- port by enabling current generations veyed continue to use marked mine their own mandates within a coherent program of activ- When the BiH project started in 2007, local com- tal benefits) provided through two to engage in rewarding and sustain- areas. These are people fully aware ity. Project outcomes suggest the following: munity members from the mine-affected municipali- broad sets of actions: first, by re- able employment is more likely to of the risk, but they see entering the • Development donors will select the most relevant, ef- ties of Stolac and Berkovici identified road rehabilitation moving fear and uncertainty about occur than waiting for some future minefields as the only alternative to ficient, impact-oriented and sustainable project, irre- as a key priority. They realized that better accessibility what actions can and cannot be un- promised land that may never mate- sustaining their incomes; therefore, spective of whether a mine-action element is included within their community was necessary to obtain ben- dertaken in a specific area, and sec- rialize in their lifetime. no amount of risk education will • A mine-action center can effectively supervise the efits from future mine-action intervention. Mine action ond, through support for developing curtail their actions. Project efforts five official pillars of mine action without the need to would release land for agricultural purposes, thereby in- alternative livelihoods. Providing Development: An Effective Response to integrate mine action and devel- control development interventions in mine-contam- creasing local production, while the rehabilitated road concrete examples of links between If the concept of mine action is opment in these communities have inated areas.4 would ensure that the agricultural products could be traditional mine-action outputs— expanded beyond its current narrow revealed a local capacity to engage • All practitioners should maintain leadership of their taken to regional markets, thus enhancing local income mine-risk education, humanitarian focus on simply removing mines to in bottom-up development activities core activities, while at the same time creating stron- streams. demining, victim assistance, stock- consider a wider set of options for that enhance the inhabitants’ social ger linkages with other stakeholders. pile destruction and advocacy—and managing and removing the nega- and economic lives, largely through Strong project management is required, with both The Best Way to a Mine-free World? human-development goals will ul- tive impacts of mines first, develop- redirecting the focus away from sides involved from the beginning in a process of project The concept of mine action needs enlargement in or- timately be more convincing to po- ment intervention could become a mine removal and instead toward planning that identifies clear goals, actions and evalu- der to encapsulate a country’s evolution from human- tential donors. very effective mine-risk response. prioritizing development activities ation criteria to measure overall effectiveness. An inte- itarian needs and immediate survival to development The adoption of an intermediate More than 15 years after the con- in safe areas. grated approach requires: and sustainable livelihood, as well as a concept that mine-impact-free target would un- flict, the majority of new mine/UXO Prioritizing action, based on • A risk-benefit approach in which risk assessment in- enables movement from a risk-focused to an impact- doubtedly delay the ideal time when victims in BiH are adults entering the limited resources available in a corporates immediate local community social and oriented approach. Instead of taking the traditional all mines would be fully eradicated, into known hazardous areas for eco- mined area can ensure that the most economic objectives within long-term regional and mine-free approach—where all possible resources focus as resources formerly devoted to de- nomic reasons.5 Without sustain- important local issues are dealt with national goals. The current risk-assessment approach on removing all mines before development can occur— mining would be diverted to social able employment alternatives, they first. Mine-risk management has a needs modification. an intermediary mine-impact-free goal may be needed. and economic development activi- face bitter choices between neglect- role to play, including the traditional

Mine-action Funding: GICHD Michael Carrier works as a Local Development Technical Advisor for the Survey of Donor Countries Handicap International South East Europe program. He is also pursuing Ph.D. research on land-contamination A recent survey of donors conducted by the Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Despite the request of the Handicap International team, this local mine-affected inhab- issues at the University of Glouces- itant refused to move out of the marked suspected hazardous area. tershire in the United Kingdom. Demining found that, while short-term donor support remains strong, levels of funding Photo courtesy of Handicap International Michael Carrier may decrease and become more unpredictable over the coming years. mine-action threat-reduction activ- paths that any type of visitor could Handicap International South East Europe Programme by Jean Devlin [ Consultant ] and Sharmala Naidoo [ GICHD ] ities (demining, fencing, marking), use (not just hunters) and promote Hakije Kulenovica 22 but in order to ensure behavioral the area to local inhabitants, as well Sarajevo 71000 / Bosnia and Herzegovina changes, it must also link standard as foreigners, in order to enhance Tel: +387 33 266 880 n May and June 2010, the Geneva International Cen- and capacity for dealing with residual mine and explo- Fax:+387 33 266 881 tre for Humanitarian Demining commissioned a sive-remnants-of-war contamination demand new ap- mine-risk education with actions to the area’s tourism. Such an approach E-mail: michael@handicap- create development alternatives. In requires a deeper understanding of international.co.ba survey of 25 donors that have contributed to mine- proaches to a continual problem. Officials will need to actionI programs. The study’s objective was to gain in- work on strategies for integrating capacity-building into BiH for example, providing an un- local communities and how they contaminated community space function but will potentially enable sight into the donors’ motivation in funding mine-action government priorities in affected countries, ensuring for collecting wood, or temporari- access to development funding for programs, the issues that play a role in driving their con- maximum protection of at-risk populations, reducing ly exchanging suspected hazardous a more holistic form of mine-risk tinued support and the factors that will influence future the size of suspected areas and concentrating on prior- areas with safe agricultural land un- management intervention. funding. The findings indicate that short-term commit- ity areas for socioeconomic development. til clearance is completed, would al- ment and financial support remain strong. However, the These elements constitute a strong argument for sus- leviate financial pressures on locals Conclusion sustainability of the current level of support for mine ac- taining dialogue between donors and affected countries who knowingly use mine-affected The traditional humanitarian- tion beyond 2015 is difficult to ascertain. on how to assist the countries in their gradual takeover land. Thus, these activities would be mine-action assistance alone cannot Dr. John Powell is a Senior Research A few donors responding to the survey indicated that of Ottawa Convention responsibilities and obligations. Fellow in the Community and Country- in the near future they would be subject to program re- The current explorations, such as those of GICHD into safe, cost-effective and complemen- fully erase the impact of landmines side Research Institute at the Univer- tary approaches to mine action. and the related social exclusion fac- sity of Gloucestershire in the United views, multi-year approvals for the renewal of funding the best way of instituting this dialogue, are a positive Kingdom. He has worked on land In the municipality of Berkovici, tors evident in post-conflict zones. contamination’s environmental and for mine action or broader-defined programs that in- step in this direction. an association of hunters is one of Traditional technical mine-ac- economic aspects, as well as a wide clude mine action, anticipated budget cuts this year or range of environmental and rural de- What Led to the Current Study? the most high-risk groups in BiH tion inputs, such as mine clearance velopment issues in Europe, the Unit- in the next, and planned reductions in expenditures in and is currently involved in an in- mine-risk education and survivor ed Kingdom and the United States. mine action. Nevertheless, The majority of donors re- Mine action has traditionally benefited from gener- novative mine-risk management ap- assistance activities, are not suffi- Dr. John Powell sponding indicated that their commitment level would ous donor funding. According to the Landmine Monitor Countryside and Community stay about the same for the next two to three years. Sup- Report 2009, total funding for mine action amounted to proach. After being accredited to cient. In order to improve quality of Research Institute conduct mine-risk education and life and access development fund- Dunholme Villa, Park Campus port will likely decrease beyond the next five years, with US$626.5 million through May 2009. Of this amount, University of Gloucestershire increasing unpredictability in funding. The study con- $517.8 million1 came from international sources and carrying out a participatory, coming, mine action must also become Cheltenham, GL50 2RH / UK munity-needs assessment, the as- part of a development response. It Tel: +44 1242 714129 cluded that if less money will flow to mine action in the $108.7 million from mine-affected countries them- Fax:+44 1242 714395 future, more cost-effective methods that result in con- selves. Despite recent adjustments, this amounted to sociation identified priorities for must include the setting of inter- E-mail: [email protected] development, demining and mine- mediary mine-impact-free targets crete progress will be necessary. some of the highest levels of investment to reduce the risk education. The priorities are and consider a wider set of interven- In the future, a number of factors will converge, pos- landmine threat since financial contributions to mine being formalized into the existing tion measures, from the recognized ing challenges and offering opportunities to officials action were first recorded in 1992. Despite minor fluc- mine-action system while a specific standards of mine action to innova- concerned with mine action. Growing competition tuations in donor data, the Landmine Monitor has also development alternative starts. With tive actions including institutional for financial resources in the broader peace and secu- recorded constant growth in annual mine-action con- the support of local institutions, change, community appraisal, and rity field, a more pronounced desire to integrate mine tributions since 1996. Contrary to this encouraging hunters will manage a specific hunt- support for alternative social and action in the security-development nexus, reduced hu- trend, concerns remain about the effectiveness of mine- ing zone in a safe area, mark safe economic opportunities. man resources in donor administrations dedicated to action programs, the uneven distribution of support see endnotes page 80 mine action and greater affected-country ownership and the sustainability of funding. While funding for

mine action has remained relative- der equality and care for survivors calls made by the Paris Declara- national authorities to become part of a joint evaluation or ly high and donor commitment has than on the number of mines found tion on Aid Effectiveness and the assessment rather than initiate the project (with the nota- been positive, there is some concern and destroyed. Accra Agenda of Action3 for do- ble exception of Japan which has emphasized this aspect in that funding over the coming years Unless there is an unexpected nors to focus their development its recent aid policy). They remain divided about instituting might be limited and difficult to se- turn of events, donors are unlike- assistance on a smaller number new structures like a standing committee on international cure. This is particularly true for less ly to launch new initiatives and in- of partner countries. It is also in cooperation and assistance. developed countries that have ap- crease mine-action funding levels. line with the desire expressed by plied for deadline extensions to ful- 3. Budget and program management. fill their clearance obligations. The budget process varies considerably from country to country. In most cases, mine-action allocations Methodology are not highlighted as specific line items in budgets, but The study carried out between rather are subsumed in humanitarian, development, se- A village development committee in Cambodia. May and June 2010 consisted of a curity or other related programming. Eight donors of Photo courtesy of Sharmala Naidoo/GICHD written questionnaire sent to 25 the 18 that provided answers choose to dedicate a por- with mine-affected governments into consideration. donors, including the European tion of their budget allocations for mine action or a mix This is at odds with the general trend by donors calling Commission, as well as telephone of mine action and ERW/cluster munitions. Two of these for greater national ownership and enhanced national interviews with 10 donors selected donors dedicate part of their budget allocation for mine mine-action capacity. from the study group.2 The findings action for a specific purpose such as victim assistance. The main criteria that donors take into account are based on the answers 18 donors The majority of mine-action funding is channeled when considering funding proposals and making (85.3 percent of total external fund- bilaterally (directed to a specific country), typically funding decisions include: ing) provided and a review of donor through a multilateral organization, a nongovernmen- • Measurement and prioritization of needs, i.e., fo- documents and websites. tal organization or an operator. Most donors provide cusing on clearing areas that yield the most mea- some un-earmarked funding, for example, core fund- surable benefit Key Findings ing through multilateral channels (the United Nations • National ownership and capacity 1. Broader environment and mine Mine Action Service, GICHD), and through NGOs (In- • Commitment to meeting Ottawa obligations action. ternational Campaign to Ban Landmines, Geneva Call, • Measuring the developmental outcomes resulting Even though the Ottawa Conven- International Committee of the Red Cross), but these from mine action tion remains the central anchor of A female deminer in Jordan. amounts are substantially smaller. The preference for bi- • Measuring the experience and the capacity of lo- donor policy-making, it is no lon- Photo courtesy of Erik Tollefsen/GICHD lateral funding is based on foreign policy and strategic cal and international partners ger the only point of reference. Most reasons, as well as a desire to focus aid on those coun- • Aid effectiveness factors (coherence, coordination, donors view mine action as part of This could well be the preview of a donors and recipients to ensure all tries most in need. This partly explains why the majority of sustainability, capacity development, etc.) broader development cooperation, leveling off in programming. It also government departments involved mine-action funding focuses on less than 10 mine-affected • Gender equality which includes humanitarian assis- presents a challenge and an oppor- offer a coherent and consistent ap- countries: Afghanistan, Angola, Bosnia and Herzegovina, • Proven effectiveness and experience of local and tance. Donors no longer view mine tunity for mine-affected countries proach in providing assistance. Cambodia, Iraq, Jordan, Lao PDR, Lebanon and Sudan.1 national mine-action programs and agencies contamination strictly as an emer- and mine-action operators to adjust For fragile states and states com- Within donor agencies, the growth of competing gency issue requiring an immediate programming during these strate- ing out of conflict, this means fields, such as peacebuilding, security-sector reform, 4. Relationships with mine-affected countries and humanitarian response. gically important next five years, in placing greater attention on ensur- and conflict prevention and recovery, have affected mine-action organizations. order to not only prioritize funding, ing that security and development mine-action programs. Competition for time and bud- Due to competing demands and reduced capacity, 2. Policy and strategic planning for but also to improve efficiency and programs are planned in tandem, gets has become a serious challenge. As a result, fewer donor engagement at international mine-action meet- mine action. transparency in mine action. which further supports the argu- people are tasked with primarily mine-action responsi- ings and at field level is weak. Donors typically func- Donors are pragmatic in the way Donors are increasingly concen- ment not to isolate mine action. bilities than in previous years, and there has been a rapid tion in response mode, reacting to proposals submitted they relate to mine action. Donor trating their support on a smaller Putting these principles into turnover of mine-action personnel, resulting in a loss of to them as opposed to developing their own programs. policy language is now more nu- number of countries. Fifteen out of action is not an easy task. Do- corporate memory and in-house expertise. Visits from donors are few and far apart, and are typi- anced and realistic in terms of what 18 donors said that to varying de- nors generally favor coordination Donors typically channel their support for mine action cally for monitoring and evaluation purposes. Most of is achievable. Thinking has shift- grees, the countries receiving as- among themselves and mine-affect- through a small number of intermediaries with limited the liaison work is left to embassies. ed toward placing greater emphasis sistance for mine action are also ed countries but are not proactive direct support provided to national mine-action author- Donors tend to have a light footprint in host coun- on socioeconomic impact, protec- partner countries for other forms in pursuing this coordination. They ities. Of the 18 responses, only two donors mentioned tries in terms of informing mine-affected governments tion, reintegration, livelihoods, gen- of aid. This is consistent with the tend to respond to invitations from clearly that their funding decisions took consultations of their decisions to fund a mine-action project, with

the exception of the United States In terms of commitment to sup- and the European Commission. Di- port mine action, 17 donors stated The United Nations Portfolio rect contacts with central agencies their commitments (which differ occur more frequently when coun- from actual expenditures) would of Mine Action Projects tries integrate mine action with de- hold until the end of the current In Xieng Khouang, Lao PDR, an all-female demining team assesses and velopment, such as in the case of funding period (usually part of an clears unexploded ordnance-contaminated land. In Bogotá, Colombia, a team Australia and Sweden. official strategy, a mine-action plan Jean Devlin works as an international development consultant. Prior to this, his of practitioners nationalizes a plan to train local health personnel about the or a public commitment of some professional career was with the Canadian psychosocial needs of explosive-remnants-of-war victims. In Banja Luka, Bosnia 5. Funding trends and prospects. sort). Donor funding for mine ac- International Development Agency. He oc- cupied successive program management and Herzegovina, primary schoolchildren attend educational puppet shows about While the total flow of official as- tion may well have peaked in 2008– positions, among other areas, for humani- sistance to developing countries may 09 and has reached a new plateau for tarian assistance, academic cooperation, small-arms-and-light-weapons risks. At the heart of each initiative is a collaborative policy, strategic planning and program still be growing despite the current the immediate future (2010–11). In development. Prior to retiring in 2008, he resource-mobilization system called the Portfolio of Mine Action Projects, and in economic climate, there is little evi- the medium-term (2012–15), fund- was Manager of the Peace and Security and Mine Action Programmes for CIDA. 2010 it gives life to 277 projects in 27 countries. dence that mine-action funding will ing will likely fall to a lower plateau.

follow this trend. On the contrary, This situation could change during Jean Devlin by Chad McCoull [ Center for International Stabilization and Recovery ] mine action’s relative importance, the 2014–15 period, as some ma- International Development Consultant 77 rue de Brouage combined with mounting donor in- jor donors review their multi-year, Gatineau, Quebec J9J 1J5 / Canada he U.N. Portfolio of Mine Action Proj- es and personnel necessary to clear minefields terest in other global challenges, and mine-action assistance. Tel: +1 819 775 4486 ects allows government agencies and in the Katanga province. The appealing agency Mobile: +1 819 923 8768 the fact that the Ottawa Convention Many reasons explain this slow E-mail: [email protected] nongovernmental and international or- must carefully articulate and submit a request has delivered tangible results, will but predictable trend toward grad- Tganizations in the field to publicize their plans to its respective Country Portfolio Coordina- probably mark a turning point in ually reduced funding levels in- to deal with local mine-action issues and to tor who then liaises with the Portfolio Team the next three to five years. Beyond cluding lack of transparency and seek financial assistance for these plans. The at the U.N. headquarters. Getting indexed in the next five years, the picture be- progress on clearance, lack of val- annual appeal also serves as a compendium of the Portfolio requires that an appealing agency comes difficult to predict. However, ue for funds invested, extension global mine-action accomplishments and as a work with its implementing partners to formal- it is quite plausible that funding will requests with unreasonable financ- catalog for potential donors to browse. In ad- ize a detailed project proposal. In this example, take a further downward trend. ing estimates, budget restrictions, dition, it is a reference and capacity-building DanChurchAid arranges for one implement-

Donor reaction to the recent ex- and competition for limited fund- Sharmala Naidoo is Project Manager tool, providing a snapshot of global funding re- ing partner to provide mine-detection dogs and tension process is prudent. As other ing. Many donors and experts, how- for the Linking Mine Action and Devel- quirements, the status of countries’/territories’ mechanical assets while another implementing opment program at GICHD and author countries join the extension process ever, contend that it is not the level of GICHD’s Linking Mine Action and De- strategies and whose submission process helps partner conducts advocacy activities. with their list of additional resourc- of funding that counts as much as velopment Guidelines for Policy and appealing agencies hone their skills in proposal The U.N. Headquarters Portfolio Team—an Programme Development. She previ- es needed, the gap between needs the effectiveness of assistance pro- ously worked with Saferworld, Am- writing and strategic planning. interagency group of staff from United Nations and available resources will likely grams, socioeconomic impact, na- nesty International, local human rights Simply submitting a project to the Portfo- Mine Action Service, United Nations Devel- and development NGOs in Zimbabwe, widen considerably. tional authorities demonstrating and the Canadian Foreign Ministry. lio, however, rarely gets it funded. In reality, opment Programme and UNICEF—vets the In terms of change between ownership and pace of progress in the politics of aligning voluntary donors’ in- project proposals to ensure consistency and channels, programming types and land release. Sharmala Naidoo terests with those of the manifold field agents coherence with the stated requirements by the Project Manager modalities, donors do not antici- Linking Mine Action and often involves complex negotiations. Routine Country Portfolio Team. Finally, donor rep- pate any major changes in the way The full report will be available for Development Project communications between stakeholders are nec- resentatives select projects to fund, specifying Geneva International Centre they do business. Donors are open download through the GICHD website for Humanitarian Demining essary to strategize the yearly process of ap- budget timelines and accountability measures. to integrating mine-action projects (http://gichd.org) by late 2010. For fur- 7 bis, Avenue de la Paix proving, funding, facilitating and publicizing Throughout the predetermined duration of PO Box 1300 in broader development programs ther information, contact Sharmala CH-1211 Geneva 1 / Switzerland country projects. project implementation, the applicant (in the if mine-affected countries take the Naidoo at [email protected]. Tel: +41 22 906 83 22 The process begins when an appealing above example, DanChurchAid) and its part- Fax: +41 22 906 16 90 lead in raising the issue. Opportu- see endnotes page 80 E-mail: [email protected] agency identifies an outstanding need for ners report progress to all relevant stakehold- nities within donor administrations Website: http://www.gichd.org/lmad which it requires external funding. For example, ers. Once a year, the Portfolio Team publishes a for initiating new funding avenues DanChurchAid, operating in the Democratic new Portfolio online, refreshing the register of for mine action are marginal.4 Republic of the Congo, may lack the resourc- new requests and ongoing projects.

Thirteen Editions and Counting instrumental in accommodating ad hoc electronic up- US$589 million requested for the for its flexibility in expressing the dy- delayed for some months as a result of Originally called the Portfolio of Mine-Related Proj- dates and biannual progress reports. According to the combined projects, only $24 million namic needs of a particular commu- this review. To learn more about the ects in 1998, the Portfolio first arose from UNMAS’ Portfolio Team, such efforts promote greater local and was secured at the time of publica- nity. Japan, one of the major donors, Portfolio of Mine Action Projects, visit imperative to appraise and monitor the global mine national ownership of the Portfolio process and support tion, amounting to a record shortfall annually references the Portfolio to http://tinyurl.com/36gfzuy. problem’s funding requirements. The first edition only capacity development in terms of outreach efforts, espe- of $565 million. In December 2009, inform earmarking decisions. Do- acknowledged official U.N. programs, eight integrated cially to donors. UNMAS director Maxwell Kerley nors also gain greater awareness of Note: Information presented in this mine-action programs and 10 countries’ proposed proj- announced, “It is unlikely with our the plights of lesser publicized coun- article was provided by the UNDP, ects lists. During the first five years, increasing numbers Linking Mine Action with Development best efforts that funding would be at- tries, such as Mauritania. UNICEF and UNMAS, members of of NGOs and national authorities began to participate, Following the Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention, tained, but it does not mean that the When stakeholders meet to the UN HQ Portfolio Team, inter- some even actively replacing U.N. officials as Country victim rates have receded, consequently enabling the job won’t get done—it will just take solve a problem, assess local needs viewed in July and August 2010.5 global mine-action community to pay greater heed to longer and more people will die.”6 and strategize a plan of action, the see endnotes page 81 issues of community development. Recent studies have The United Nations hypothesiz- Portfolio empowers these parties to proven the importance of linking mine action with de- es that some of the reasons for this communicate uniformly and glob- velopment,2 and an increasing number of mine-action shortfall include deficient reporting, ally. According to the U.N. Portfolio entities have begun aligning their efforts with the U.N. the global economic downturn and Team, Albania often cites thePortfolio Millennium Development Goals3 and Development As- new directions in donors’ earmark- as invaluable for coordinating part- sistance Frameworks.4 ing decisions. In addition, while ners and attracting funds. In the The Portfolio is a testament to this trend. Accord- the Portfolio has expanded from 10 Democratic Republic of the Con- ing to the Portfolio Team, “The benefits of mine action countries in 1998 to 27 countries in go, all national authorities, interna-

are seldom singular. A road made passable reduces vic- 2010, donor interest in the mine- tional agencies and NGOs found the Chad McCoull worked for The Journal of tims, but also promotes the return of displaced popu- action field has stagnated. Though Portfolio to be a useful means to co- ERW and Mine Action from January 2007 until October 2010 as an Editorial As- 5 lations and stimulates trade.” With priorities shifting global support for mine action has ordinate activities. Amid Sudan’s civ- sistant. While attending James Madison University, he earned a Bachelor of Arts toward development-conscious mine action, the Portfo- remained constant, forecasts from il war, the call to compile the Portfolio in technical communication and a Mas- lio has reflected a “more explicit elaboration of develop- TheLandmine Monitor Report7 indi- brought together stakeholders from ters of Public Administration, specializ- ing in international NGO management. ment aspects, where they may previously not have been In October 2010, McCoull began serving highlighted.” In recent years, appealing agencies have as a Small Business Development Peace Corps Volunteer in Burkina Faso, Africa. increasingly partnered with development practitioners to attract the interest of progressive donors. “I t is unlikely with our best efforts that fund- Chad McCoull Editorial Assistant ing would be attained, but it does not mean The Journal of ERW and Mine Action Matching Agencies with Donors Center for International Stabilization and Recovery The track records of some appealing agencies show that the job won’t get done—it will just James Madison University years of experience while others have only recently be- take longer and more people will die.” E-mail: [email protected] gun to grapple with mine-action issues. Despite such Gustavo Laurie Acting Chief of Policy and complexity, the United Nations and donors have been Advocacy Support encouraged by the increase in national authorities as- United Nations Mine Action Service C over of the 2010 Portfolio of Mine Action 380 Madison Avenue courtesy of the United Nations serting their right to oversee their own countries' multi- cate that donors may decrease fund- both the North and South in confi- M-11031B farious activities. ing in future years.8 To gain donor dence-building roundtables, long be- New York, N.Y. 10017 Tel: +1 212 963 3597 1 Portfolio Coordinators. Since its inception, the propos- Some appealing agencies have held the misconcep- attention, the Portfolio Team rec- fore the 2005 Comprehensive Peace E-mail: [email protected] al process has evolved from a top-down approach to a tion that simply participating in the Portfolio will guar- ommends that appealing agencies Agreement.9 Website: http://www.mineaction.org decentralized approach in which field agencies chiefly antee them funding from the international community. respond by “recognizing the wider These success stories underscore assess needs and draft proposals. Today more than ever, Programs that have not received funding in a particular funding interests of traditional and the prospect that the Portfolio will the national strategies, priorities and coordinated pro- year have thereafter withdrawn their proposals. While non-traditional mine action donors continue to serve the mine-action cesses of the 95 appealing agencies currently included the Portfolio ultimately strives to connect the donor and and to partner with wider thematic sector as a permanent fixture. Cur- in the Portfolio guide its content. implementer and serves as a reference tool for many do- and geographic funding sources.”5 rently, the Portfolio Team is review- More recent in its history has been the 2007 debut nors, both parties must align regional and topical pri- ing inefficiencies and assets, listening of the invaluable Automated Portfolio System, which orities before plans can be discussed. For this reason, Building upon Assets to stakeholder feedback and improv- streamlines data submission and funds tracking and re- not every project can receive funding. In 2010, for ex- Donors praise the Portfolio both ing objectives for the upcoming years. porting in real time. The web-based AP System has been ample, most projects did not receive funding. Out of the for its utility as a reference tool and The 2011 Portfolio is expected to be

of contaminated area remain, MAPA can elimi- In addition, mine-action goals were includ- The Mine Action Programme nate high-impact hazards relatively quickly, cleared in the Afghan Compact, namely: ing approximately 80 square kilometers (30.9 square • Land area contaminated by mines and ERW of Afghanistan miles) each year. Furthermore, having cleared the will be reduced by 70 percent by March 2011. high-impact minefields in the last 20 years, MACCA • All stockpiled AP mines will be located and The Mine Action Programme of Afghanistan, coordinated by the Mine Action Coordina- and its implementing partners must begin to con- destroyed by March 2007. tion Centre of Afghanistan, faces a unique set of challenges in combating the national sider how to restructure over time in order to meet the next decade’s challenges. For example, 40 per- Future Goals mine/explosive-remnants-of-war contamination problem. The ongoing war and chang- cent of the existing contamination covers relatively The Afghan government’s end-state vision is ing political climate force the country to adapt its mine-action plan to meet new de- large areas, with low-density contamination of min- “a country free from landmines and explosive mands as they emerge. The following summary of MAPA’s activities highlights these imal-metal anti-tank mines outside urban centers. remnants of war, where people and communi- challenges and their implications for the continued humanitarian effort in Afghanistan. Although once not considered a priority, the impact ties live in a safe environment conducive to na- of these minefields on Afghanistan is increasing as tional development, and where landmine and by Dr. Mohammed Haider Reza [ MACCA ] the country’s infrastructure and industry develop, ERW survivors are fully integrated in the soci- particularly those associated with natural resourc- ety and thus have their rights and needs recog- he Mine Action Programme of Afghan- Red Cross reported more than 1,200 casualties es. Therefore, the priority for clearance of these sites nized and fulfilled.”7 istan is one of the oldest and largest from landmines, unexploded ordnance and must also adapt. In order to realize the end-state vision, the mine-action programs in the world.1 cluster munitions.5 More than 12,000 mine- following end goals must be achieved: TCoordinated by the Mine Action Coordina- fields have been cleared and the land has been Goal 1: Demining. The end goal for de- tion Centre of Afghanistan, more than 10,000 made available for productive use. The initial mining will be achieved when all known mine/ individuals in commercial and noncommer- priorities were to clear the areas blocking ac- ERW-contaminated areas have been cleared. cial entities work in Afghanistan’s mine-action cess to schools, universities, hospitals, residen- Once this goal is achieved, an effective de- field.2 MAPA’s implementing partners vary in tial areas and farmlands. Although many of mining capability will continue and respond to size from large organizations with thousands these priorities have been completed, as more unknown residual risk and raise public aware- of employees to smaller organizations with refugees return and resettle in Afghanistan ness. Mapping of cleared areas will be complete few personnel. MAPA covers all mine-action and the country slowly works toward building and accurate, and this data will be available as pillars,3 including demining (survey, marking a modern infrastructure, mine action will con- needed to the public and designated institu- and clearance), mine-risk education, victim as- tinue to play a crucial role in the country’s post- tions. All post-clearance documentation will sistance and advocacy. war development, such as in the clearance that be complete, and all cleared land will be hand- MAPA began in 1988 as a United Nations was necessary to allow electricity lines to run ed over in accordance with national standards. Office of Humanitarian Affairs coordinated from Tajikistan to Kabul. Despite the fact that Goal 2: Mine/ERW-Risk Education. The end operation based in Peshawar, Pakistan. After the amount of funding received has increased, goal for MRE will be achieved when a compre- the Taliban’s fall in 2001, the new government current funding is insufficient for Afghanistan, hensive and sustainable system is in place to of Afghanistan delegated program respon- as it is in many other countries, if Ottawa Con- educate and raise awareness throughout com- sibility to the United Nations to coordinate vention and Afghan Compact deadlines are to munities nationwide regarding the residual mine-action activities in the country. Since its be met on time. mines/ERW threats. This includes providing Mine-risk education is now taught by 17,000 trained Ministry inception, MAPA has grown in size and ex- As the number of known minefields is re- of Education teachers throughout Afghanistan. the public with sufficient information to rec- panded its area of operation to every mine- duced, MACCA works with implementing all Photos courtesy of MAPA ognize and report these suspicious items to the affected province. In 2000, MAPA received partners to annually review the planning cri- appropriate authorities. only US$17 million4 in funding; since 2001 teria against which priorities are set and pub- Afghanistan’s Goals and End States Goal 3: Stockpile Destruction. The end goal the overall budget of bilateral and multilateral lishes an Integrated Operational Framework6 In 2003, Afghanistan became a signatory to the for mine-stockpile destruction will be achieved funding has averaged $140 million per annum. detailing these priorities. This handbook out- Ottawa Convention which commits the country to: when all known illegal, abandoned or otherwise The additional funding received since 2001 lines mine-action sector policies, details data • Clear all emplaced anti-personnel mines by 2013 unwanted munitions are destroyed or disposed has allowed for some significant achievements. analysis of the current hazard areas and con- • Destroy all known AP-mine stockpiles by 2007 of in addition to the AP-mine stockpile destruc- For example, the number of victims has been tains a compilation of the aspirations of all (this goal was achieved in October 2007) tion already completed. reduced by 75 percent from its high point in implementing partners. Although more than • Provide mine-risk education to Afghans and as- Goal 4: Mine/ERW-Survivor Assistance. 2002, when the International Committee of the 600 square kilometers (231.7 square miles) sist mine survivors The end goal for mine/ERW-survivor assistance

MRE trainers and also trained in monitoring The program is proving to be a successful way of In the same way that buried bombs from and evaluation. MACCA currently supports enabling access to less secure areas as local recruit- World War II are still discovered in Europe, this transition by providing the external moni- ment and strong community involvement enhanc- the issue posed by ERW will be a problem in toring and quality management of this system. es deminers’ security. An additional benefit of the Afghanistan for many years to come. However, The Ministry of Labor, Social Affairs, Mar- community-based demining program is the eco- these concerns should be managed in a very dif- tyrs and Disabled, and the Ministry of Public nomic boost provided to the small rural communi- ferent way, within the realm of a small national Health are leading victim/disability assistance ties through the deminers’ wages and other income, mine-action capacity by potentially partnering activities, ensuring that landmine survivors and through building rentals, etc., over a two-year with the Afghan National Army and police. and others with disabilities have their rights and period, which empowers them to take advantage of C reative mine-risk awareness techniques capture chil- needs addressed alongside all Afghan citizens. land development once it has been cleared. Conclusion dren’s imaginations MAPA and its partners have made tremen- will be achieved when mine/ERW survivors Adapting to Change dous strides toward ridding the country of are reintegrated into Afghan society, with sup- Afghanistan faces particular challenges: the landmines and other ERW, and in clearing the port provided through a national system that ongoing conflict in many parts of the coun- way for its country to develop and prosper. This incorporates the rights and needs of people try and the security threats presented by the progress has been achieved through increased with disabilities. widespread use of improvised explosive de- focus and priority-based strategies, more funds Goal 5: Advocacy and Coordination. The vices by Opposition Forces. In some commu- to expand the workforce and support from the end goal for advocacy and coordination will nities, IEDs have been laid around villages Afghan and international community. Many be achieved when relevant institutions and in strategic patterns resembling traditional challenges lie ahead if the Afghan govern- civil society cooperate and support the ful- minefields, although without the density of ment’s vision is to be achieved. That vision will fillment of Afghan commitments to mine/ the minefields laid by, for example, the Soviet require even greater commitment and focus ERW eradication and acknowledge the impor- Forces in the 1980s. than exhibited thus far. tance of mine action for communities and na- MAPA is dealing with the IED issue care- see endnotes page 81 tional development. fully to ensure it maintains its humanitarian neutrality and does not deal with IEDs in A demining team walks toward a minefield. Meeting Milestones active conflict areas, which would lead to the Clearly, the challenge of reaching these deminers being perceived as parties to the con- The Road Ahead end states in a country as contaminated as flict. However, it is important to heed the hu- Looking to the future, the program’s major chal- Afghanistan, and where conflict is ongoing manitarian imperative of clearing fields of lenge is the requirement to make significant prog- in many areas, is a major one. Nonetheless, abandoned IEDs in areas where conflict has ress toward completely removing the impact of MAPA has met a number of significant mile- been concluded. mines and ERW. There are a number of aspects to stones. In addition to the achievements high- As the nature of Afghanistan’s armed con- consider in order to achieve this objective: contin- lighted earlier and the completion of stockpile flict has changed over the last 20 years, MAPA ued careful and strategic planning, investigation destruction in line with the Afghan Compact has adapted and adjusted the delivery of mine- into new technologies (for example, those needed to goals, significant steps have been made in the action services. In the last few years, commu- clear very large minefields), continued adaptation of Dr. Mohammed Haider Reza is the Programme Director of the Mine Action Coordination Centre of areas of MRE and victim assistance. These are nity-based demining has been reintroduced the program’s structure, and a significant influx of Afghanistan (MACCA), which coordinates the work the two areas where the transition to the gov- to the program. Community-based demining donor funds. of more than 40 implementing partners working throughout one of the world’s most mine-affected ernment of Afghanistan has made the most projects are designed by the traditional Afghan countries. Prior to joining the MACCA, Reza served significant progress. implementing partners working closely with Risks Remaining as a Deputy Minister in the government of Afghani- stan’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Ministry of Mine/ERW-risk education messages have community shuras (or leadership committees) MACCA believes no risk level is acceptable in Commerce and Industry. While Deputy Minister of been incorporated into the national educa- and the National Solidarity Programme Com- areas communities regularly use. If the community Foreign Affairs, he was pivotal in Afghanistan becoming a signatory to the Ottawa Convention and ensur- tion curriculum, and more than 17,000 Min- munity Development Councils. These imple- fears certain areas, this will have a negative impact ing mine action received the attention it deserved. istry of Education teachers have been trained menting partners work to develop projects that on its livelihood and ability to develop. Therefore, Dr. Mohammed Haider Reza and provided the resources to teach MRE in clear mines from the community by training the fear must also be addressed. One of MACCA’s Programme Director Mine Action Coordination Centre of Afghanistan classrooms. In order to ensure the sustainable local people from within that community. The 2010 tasks is to attempt to create a list of hazards PO Box 520 quality of this teaching, Child Protection Of- traditional implementing partners also pro- that do not cause problems for communities and Kabul / Afghanistan E-mail: [email protected] ficers in all provinces have been certified as vide expert oversight and quality management. therefore could be managed in a different way. Website: www.macca.org.af

Bosnia and Herzegovina Demining 15 Years Later

This article outlines the demining steps taken by the United Nations and national authorities following the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 1990s. The author further explores the shortcomings and successes of the demining projects and laws, with attention to preparations for the state’s next decade of mine action.

by Zoran Grujic´ [ Bosnia and Herzegovina Mine Action Information System ]

A deminer begins activities in a new lane.

bility for mine-action coordination in July 1998. Another part of the initial demining ef- The following three “chapters” detail the U.N.-, in- forts was instituting mine awareness. Risk ed- ternational community- and state-led projects in ucation started as a joint venture between the BiH demining. International Committee of the Red Cross, UNMAC and UNICEF. Chapter One: U.N.-led Project The initial programs’ results were signifi- A deminer in action. The United Nations Mine Action Center was cant. The rate of more than 50 mine accidents all photos couresy of BHMAC established in Sarajevo in May 1996. RONCO, an per month in 1995 was reduced to fewer than n 1995, the Dayton Agreement put an end As it was too complicated, logistically and American contracting company, was awarded a 30 in 1998. BiH’s problem was that all of the to three-and-a-half years of war in Bosnia politically, to involve the existing three armies— bid to equip, staff, train and start demining activi- available procedures at the time had been de- and Herzegovina (BiH) following the dis- ABiH (Bosniac), HVO (Bosnian Croat Army) ties. Its first task was to assess the problem. veloped for sandy areas such as Afghanistan solutionI of Yugoslavia. The first minefields in and VRS (Bosnian Serb Army)—in demining, Some 16,600 minefield records were entered and the Persian Gulf. In response to its unique BiH were placed in late 1991 across the bor- the Dayton Agreement tasked local armies to into a database. At that time, mine-action centers situation, BiH modified procedures, shifting der with Croatia in the north. At that time, remove all of the minefields within their area in Cambodia and Afghanistan had database sys- from a “retrace your footsteps” to a seven-step the United Nations Protection Force1 was de- of responsibility, but results failed to assure that tems, but they were custom-tailored to suit their procedure, with the primary aim to avoid en- ploying in the country. Later, with a U.N.-insti- the land could be used safely afterward. own needs. BiH’s situation was different: a small tering a dangerous zone. This procedure was tuted no-fly zone,2 the Implementation Force3 area dense with contamination. later used worldwide. helped significantly reduce pollution from air- Getting into the Game In the early days, the BiH demining effort Close to the end of the U.N. demining pe- craft submunitions. Following the conflict’s end, BiH had no re- was a U.N. Department of Peacekeeping Opera- riod (August 1996–July 1998) in BiH, UNMAC According to the Dayton Agreement (An- sources to begin the arduous task of clearance. tions program, and all activities were targeted to- had five regional offices in Tuzla, Banja Luka, nex 1-a), former warring factions were obliged In January 1996, the Council of Ministers of BiH ward establishing a mine-action-center structure. Mostar, Pale and Bihac, and was employing to submit war documentation to the Imple- requested the assistance of the United Nations Nevertheless, the need for action was pressing as close to 40 trained, local mine-action center mentation Force under the code name Op- to start demining activities. As a result, during the landmine incident rate reached nearly 50 per staff to conduct mine-action activities on their eration Joint Endeavour. Initial information the same year, the United Nations Mine Action month. Reporting procedures were still in their own. UNMAC also had four fully equipped reported 16,500 minefields and enabled IFOR Centre was founded. The BiH demining project development phase, and demining reports from teams capable of demining approximately six to begin clearance. started in 1996 with the center taking responsi- this time had to be resurveyed. square kilometers (2.3 square miles) per year.

on planning and coordination among the mem- drafted a new strategic document for 2009–19. bers of the Mine Awareness Working Group. With the new strategy, at the 9th Meeting of the As time passed, it became increasingly obvi- States Parties of the Mine Ban Treaty, BiH sub- ous that the tripartite structure could not achieve mitted an application for an extension to clear the maximum efficiency. In February 2002, the landmines; the extension was approved. state parliament adopted the first demining law, With the adoption of the first demining law, moving BiH demining to chapter three. BiH accepted responsibility for mine action and developed standard operating procedures Chapter Three: State-led Project and quality assurance procedures for mine-risk BiH took responsibility for enacting the education. These actions enabled strict qual- demining law and appointed the Ministry ity control and allowed MRE field work to be of Civil Affairs and the Demining Commis- evaluated. The law’s creation also resulted in an sion to be the national authority responsible increase in mine-safe areas and a continual re- for instituting the law. BHMAC's role was to duction (with the exception of 2008) in land- coordinate and plan BiH mine-action activi- mine incidents. ties, including establishing a mine-detection see endnotes page 81 dog center and conducting systematic landmine impact surveys. With the new demining law, the former tripartite structure unified and former entity offices became operational offices within their territories. While UNDP originally covered BHMAC’s operational costs, BiH eventually assumed responsibility for the costs, and donor countries continued to send funds through ITF. BHMAC decided to use Technical Survey Zoran Grujic´ has worked in mine action since to release demined areas rather than focusing 1996 when he became Data Management Offi- solely on the complete clearance of demined cer of the UNMAC for BiH. He is the founder and head program designer of the BiH Mine Action areas; this resulted in an increase in produc- Information System. From 1998 to 2002 Grujic´ tivity. Rather than clearing 10 square kilome- was Director of Information at BHMAC. Current- A deminer uses a metal detector in preparation for Technical Survey. ly, he is the Chief of Information Technology at ters (3.9 square miles) per year, figures went the BHMAC. He holds a Master of Science in me- Information systems successfully followed The tripartite structure required strong co- chanical engineering, and is completing a post- up to 150 square kilometers (57.9 square miles) graduate thesis in strategic management at the activities, and maps were produced accurately ordination, which was lacking because resourc- cleared in 2009. Also, with the exception of European Center for Peace and Development. depicting minefields. The program was slowly es were not sufficient to support all demining 2008, there has been a decrease in landmine Zoran Grujic´ moving toward chapter two. activities. With a changed mandate, it was illog- accidents. Estimated annual productivity has Chief IT Bosnia and Herzegovina Mine ical for the MAC to maintain its own demining grown to 35–40 square kilometers (13.5–15.4 Action Center (BHMAC) Chapter Two: State/International team, so these teams were reassigned to survey square miles) for area clearance and Technical Tvornika Sarajevo 371000 / Bosnia and Herzegovina Community-led Project and quality-control tasks. A number of the de- Survey and 80 square kilometers (30.9 square Tel: +387 33 253 858 On 31 July 1998, UNMAC was transferred miners, wishing to remain active with clear- miles) for General Survey area. Fax: + 387 33 464 565 E-mail: [email protected] to BiH authorities. To achieve this, structur- ance, joined one of the three nongovernmental Website: http://www.bhmac.org al changes had to be made. Project financing organizations that were established during this The Way Forward for demining operations was conducted most- time—Pale’s Stop Mines, Sarajevo’s BH Demin- BHMAC has begun to revise the current ly through the International Trust Fund for ing and Mostar’s Pro Vita. Further, to improve demining law and create new legal documents Demining and Mine Victim Assistance and better territorial coverage, the regional offices that would enable greater involvement of local the United Nations Development Programme. in Sarajevo and Travnik opened. authorities in mine action. Having recognized The staff was increased to 63 local staff mem- Information systems were refined and map- the need to plan the next decade of mine action, bers and approximately 20 international advi- ping standards were established, increasing the the Council of Ministers evaluated the mine- sors and consultants. MAC’s effectiveness. An emphasis was placed action strategies employed from 2005–09 and https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/cisr-journal/vol14/iss3/1 22 42 special report | the journal of ERW and mine action | fall 2010 | 14.3 14.3 | fall 2010 | the journal of ERW and mine action | special report 43 JOURNAL: The Journal of ERW and Mine Action Issue 14.3

Mine Action in North Sudan

North Sudan’s National Mine Action Centre is making great strides toward clearing all known mined areas in Sudan’s northern regions by April 2014. In this article, the author, a Quality Assurance Officer for NMAC, explores NMAC’s work, future plans and how it has linked mine action to development and recovery in North Sudan.

by Khalid Ibrahim Hamed [ National Mine Action Centre ]

ore than 20 years of conflict be- as a result, constrains recovery, reconstruction tween North and South Sudan, end- and development efforts in mine/ERW and war- ing with the Comprehensive Peace affected areas. Agreement,M1 has left Sudan riddled with landmines and explosive remnants of war. Based on The National Mine Action Centre the CPA, the northern region of Sudan consists The National Mine Action Centre is the govern- of 15 states including the Blue Nile, Gadaref, ment body mandated to plan, coordinate and over- Gezira, Kassala, Khartoum, Northern, North see all mine-action operations in coordination and Darfur, North Kordofan, Red Sea, River Nile, collaboration with the Northern Region Office of Sennar, South Darfur, South Kordofan, West the United Nations Mine Action Office in North A victim-assistance project under NMAC VA supervision. Darfur and the White Nile. Nine of these states Sudan. NMAC also serves as an implementing arm A ll photos courtesy of NMAC media department in North Sudan reportedly have varying de- of the National Mine Action Authority. ing of more than 40 mine-action management staff. gramme and United Nations Mine Action grees of landmine and ERW-contamination As of June 2010, of the total 1,559 recorded dan- Furthermore, North Sudan has developed and re- Service, the national mine-action authorities with the Blue Nile, Kassala and Southern Kor- gerous areas identified in Sudan's nine affected sourced national landmine/ERW clearance assets, are actively engaged in the planning, coordi- 2 dofan being the most-affected regions. Despite northern states, 1,164 were cleared or verified while including 120 deminers and technical staff. They nation, priority setting, accreditation, quality several years of intensive mine-action opera- 395 dangerous areas remain to be addressed. Dur- are part of the Joint Integrated Demining Units assurance and oversight of mine-action operations, landmines and ERW continue to threat- ing clearance/verification operations, a total of 2,625 that are actively engaged in mine/ERW clearance tions in North Sudan. en civilians and impede economic recovery anti-personnel mines, 686 anti-tank mines, 347,472 activities in partnership with several internation- and development. Contaminated land reduces small-arms ammunition and 35,736 items of unex- al mine-action operators in North Sudan, and that Development and Recovery productivity, thereby negatively affecting the ploded ordnance were identified and destroyed. also manages a number of projects independently. North Sudan has been very successful in sustainable livelihoods of rural communities. As a State Party to the Ottawa Convention, Although North Sudan continues to receive as- linking mine action to recovery and develop- Furthermore, landmine and ERW contamina- Sudan’s northern regions are meeting their envi- sistance from the United Nations and other donors, ment activities. The Government of National tion on key logistical supply routes continues sioned end state for mine action, as well as their mine action has also been included in the state Unity has secured funds from the state budget, to hamper safe and free movement of citizens, obligation to clear all known mined areas by April budget. Approximately US$13.5 million has been the Multi-Donor Trust Fund and the World trade and humanitarian interventions. It also 2014. Mine-action operations commenced in North allocated to mine action since mid-2006. This has Bank for the rehabilitation and reconstruction endangers the lives of local communities, inter- Sudan in 2004, and since then, North Sudan has met encouraged other donors to continue supporting of 446 kilometers (277 miles) of railway lines, nally displaced persons and refugees, as well as a number of key milestones in reaching its mine- North Sudan to address its landmine/ERW con- and approximately 200 kilometers (124 miles) the staff of humanitarian operations. The pres- free end state, including the establishment of the tamination problem. of main roads have been cleared and verified to ence and perceived threat of landmines/ERW mine-action authority and its substructures, adop- With the capacity-development assistance pro- be free of landmines and ERW in the country’s prevents and delays IDPs and refugee population of the North Sudan mine-action law, inclusion vided by the United Nations Development Pro- central and southern regions. tions from returning to their hometowns, and of mine action in the state budget and the train-

made significant progress toward transitioning by strengthening and consolidating their insti- Mine-action Program in tutional and management capacities. As part of its long-term planning process, North Sudan’s Southern Sudan National Mine Action Authority, together with Following more than two decades of civil war between Northern and Southern Sudan, the UNMAO, UNDP and other stakeholders, has developed a three-year operations plan, cov- much of Southern Sudan has been left contaminated with landmines and explosive ering 2009–11 to implement the Cartagena Ac- remnants of war. As a result, the Southern Sudan Demining Authority, along with the tion Plan. North Sudan aims to clear 80 percent United Nations Development Programme, United Nations Mine Action Office and oth- of all known high- and medium-priority affect- er organizations, have been diligently working toward clearing 80 percent of the mines ed areas by the end of 2011 at an estimated cost T he Sudan Joint Integrated Demining Units go to a in Southern Sudan by 2011. field at Babanusa-Waw for a railway clearance project. of US$120 million. by Margaret Matthew Mathiang [ Southern Sudan Demining Authority ] Conclusion Socioeconomic rehabilitation and reintegra- he 21-year north-south civil war in Su- and free movement, trade and provision of North Sudan is committed to fully imple- tion of landmine and ERW victims remains dan that killed an estimated two mil- humanitarian assistance. Contamination also menting the Cartagena Action Plan. As it reach- a high national priority. Furthermore, North lion people, uprooted four million and endangers the lives of local communities, inter- es the Article 5 mine-clearance deadline, North Sudan has signed and ratified the Convention causedT 600,000 to take refuge outside of Sudan1 nally displaced persons, refugees, staff of hu- Sudan will put all necessary measures in place on the Rights of People with Disabilities. Since has left Southern Sudan littered with landmines manitarian missions and the personnel of the to achieve all the goals and objectives set forth 2007, 22 community-based projects have been and explosive remnants of war. The contamina- United Nations Mission in Sudan. The presence in the action plan. To fulfill its Article 5 obliga- implemented for the socioeconomic rehabili- tion poses a serious challenge to the Govern- and perceived threat of landmines/ERW pre- tions, North Sudan’s national demining teams, tation and reintegration of the landmine and ment of Southern Sudan’s development plans vents and delays IDPs and refugee populations which are the nation’s most cost-effective and ERW victims in various parts of the country and is considered a serious threat to the suc- from returning to their hometowns, and as a sustainable assets, need continued and gener- with generous contributions from Canada, cessful implementation of the Comprehensive result, constrains recovery, reconstruction and ous support from the donor community. This Japan and the state budget. Peace Agreement signed in 2005 and ending development efforts in mine/ERW- and war- will enable North Sudan to realize the goal of The North Sudanese authorities, UNDP and in 2011. In 2011, in accordance with the CPA, affected areas. being mine-free by 2014. the UNMAO have embarked on a broader and a referendum will determine whether South- see endnotes page 81 more practical partnership in various areas of ern Sudan will remain a part of a united Sudan Mine-action Assistance mine action in support of the implementation or become its own separate entity. Based on the The Southern Sudan Demining Authority of the mine-action transition plan, and look CPA, in 2005, Southern Sudan gained the right is the mandated government body established forward to further expanding this cooperation to self-determination in Bahr El Gazel, Eastern in 2006 through presidential decree number and partnership in the future. Equatoria, Jonglei, the Lakes, Northern Bahr 45/20062 to plan, coordinate and oversee all El-Ghazal, Warab, Western Bahr El Ghazal, mine-action operations in Southern Sudan with Future of Mine Action in North Sudan Western Equatoria, Unity and Upper Nile. assistance from and in coordination and collab- From August 2010 until April 2014, the All of its 10 states are reported to have vary- oration with the National Mine Action Centre key challenge for North Sudan will be to clear Khalid Ibrahim Hamed has been involved in mine ac- ing degrees of landmine/ERW contamina- based in Khartoum and the southern regional known-mined or suspected-mined areas un- tion since 2007. As Quality Assurance Officer for the tion. sub-office of the United Nations Mine Action National Mine Action Centre, he oversees the accredita- der its Article 5 obligations. In the future, tion of mine-action organizations, conducts quality as- As with the rest of the country, the civil war Office in Sudan. North Sudan envisions producing an expe- surance within the mine-action operations of United has left Southern Sudan with a large-scale land- Other partners in UNMIS who assisted Nations Mine Action Office and reports on these opera- rienced mine-clearance staff capable of ful- tions to North Sudan’s government. In addition to his work mine/ERW contamination problem. Despite SSDA include the United Nations Develop- filling its local role of mine clearance while in humanitarian mine action, he also serves as a Major in the Sudanese Army Engineering Corps in Khartoum, several years of intensive mine-action opera- ment Programme in the area of capacity build- offering support to other countries through where he has been an instructor for almost two years. tions, landmine/ERW contamination contin- ing, UNICEF in support of mine-risk education sharing experiences and lessons and deploy- Khalid Ibrahim Hamed ues to threaten civilians and impede economic initiatives, international nongovernmental or- ing trained staff. Quality Assurance Officer recovery and development. Contaminated land ganizations (Norwegian People’s Aid, Mines With the engagement of all relevant stake- National Mine Action Center (NMAC) Building 42 reduces productivity and thereby the sustain- Advisory Group, Danish Demining Group) and holders, a mine-action transition plan was con- Block 13 able livelihoods of affected communities. national organizations (Operations Save Inno- Mekka Street cluded in November 2008. In 2009, based on the El-Riyadh / Sudan Landmine/ERW contamination on key lo- cent Lives, Sudan Landmine Response, Sudan provisions of this plan, the national authorities Tel: +249 912849 833 gistical supply routes continues to hamper safe Integrated Mine Action Service), as well as oth- https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/cisr-journal/vol14/iss3/1 24 46 special report | the journal of ERW and mine action | fall 2010 | 14.3 14.3 | fall 2010 | the journal of ERW and mine action | special report 47 JOURNAL: The Journal of ERW and Mine Action Issue 14.3

United Nations and others, 5 million Sudanese As UNMAO is operating under UNMIS’s man- As part of SSDA’s long-term planning pro- pounds (US$2.11 million)3 has been allocated by the date, a reduction in international support is also excess and in its implementation of the Cartage- GOSS to mine action since mid-2006. This has en- pected during the forthcoming referendum period. na Action Plan, UNMAO, UNDP and all other couraged other donors to continue to support mine- This loss of funding calls for more financial support stakeholders have developed a three-year oper- action operators in Southern Sudan to address its to national mine-action capacities, which remains a ations plan covering 2009–11. With the imple- landmine/ERW contamination. challenge for the GOSS, as it must confront conflict- mentation of the plan, Sudan aims to clear 80 ing development priorities in the post-war rehabili- percent of all known high- and medium-priority Mine Action and Development tation period. affected areas by the end of 2011 at an estimated Sudan has been very successful in linking mine cost of US$120 million. action to recovery and development activities. Southern Sudan Demining Authority has Northern Sudan’s Government of National Uni- developed a three-year strategic plan that aims ty and the GOSS have secured funds from the state to strengthen national capacities in mine-ac-

A mine was found along a well-traveled path. budget, the Multi-Donor Trust Fund and the World tion activities and to meet the vision of freeing A ll photos courtesy of the author. Bank for the rehabilitation and reconstruction of the country from the effects and threat of land- er national and government institutions. 446 kilometers (277 miles) of railway lines and ap- mines and ERW. Southern Sudan also envisions Achievements proximately 200 kilometers (124 miles) of main itself to one day be active regionally and glob- Since 2004, when mine-action operations roads have been cleared of landmines/ERW in the ally supporting other countries with an ex- started in Sudan, Southern Sudan has met a central and southern parts of Sudan. The clearance change of lessons learned and deployment of number of milestones, including the estab- of railway lines has been extremely important in re- trained and experienced staff. In the mean- lishment of the SSDA and its substructures, storing safe passage between Northern and South- time, Southern Sudan continues to address its drafting of the mine-action bill, inclusion of ern Sudan as the Babanusa-Wau railway line is the landmine/ERW contamination. It is in need mine action in the state budget and the train- only all-season land link between the northern and A man walks past unexploded ordnance. of ongoing generous support from the doing of more than 80 management staff in differ- southern parts of the country. In addition, the clear- nor community to all mine-action operators ent technical and specified fields. Additionally, ance and reconstruction of railway lines and roads Transition Plan and End State working in the region. five senior personnel from SSDA completed the has enabled the safe return and resettlement of IDPs Southern Sudan faces major challenges in pursuit see endnotes page 81 James Madison University Senior Managers' and refugees. of clearing all known landmines by 2014; however, Course in Mine Action, thereby contributing Socioeconomic rehabilitation and reintegration this might not be realistic due to the aforementioned to improved managerial performance. Further- of the victims of landmines/ERW continues to be a geographical and logistical challenges. more, Southern Sudan is supporting the Joint priority on the national agenda. Sudan has signed With the engagement of all relevant stakeholders, Integrated Demining Units (national land- and ratified the Convention on the Rights of Peo- a mine-action transition plan was concluded in No- mine/ERW clearance support) and has provid- ple with Disabilities. Over the past three years, 22 vember 2008. Based on the provisions of the transi- ed 120 deminers and technical staff to the JIDU. community-based projects have been implemented tion plan, the national authorities made significant As of June 2010, 4,206 of the 4,733 recorded for the socioeconomic rehabilitation and reintegra- progress in 2009 by strengthening and consolidat- dangerous areas identified in Southern Sudan tion of the victims of landmines and ERW in various ing their institutional and management capacities. have been cleared or verified as mine-safe, while parts of the country with generous contributions The aim of the process is to transition the man- After receiving her Master's Degree in development training and education from another 527 dangerous areas are waiting to be from Canada, Japan and the state budget. agement and coordination of the Sudan Mine Action the U.K.'s University of Wolverhampton, Programme to national authorities in a systematic Margaret Mathew Mathiang became the addressed. During clearance/verification oper- Deputy Chairperson of the Southern Sudan De ations, a total of 17,023 anti-personnel mines, Challenges and gradual manner as soon as possible but no lat- mining Authority in Juba, Southern Sudan in Southern Sudan is working toward becoming er than early 2011. The desired end state therefore 2006. Today, she is the Undersecretary of the 2,290 mines, 779 landmines of unknown origin, Ministry of Gender, Child and Social Welfare, a 836,355 small arms ammunition and 575,382 “impact free” as soon as possible, as achieving the is that the national authorities in Sudan manage all position she has held since September 2010. status of “landmine free” is very much debatable. aspects of mine action with minimal technical as- pieces of unexploded ordnance have been found Margaret Matthew Mathiang and destroyed.2 One of the key challenges for Southern Sudan is the sistance from the United Nations. The national au- Undersecretary Ministry of Gender, Child and Social Welfare With the capacity development assistance clearance of known mined/suspected mined areas to thorities, UNDP and UNMAO have embarked on Ministries Compound provided by UNDP and the UNMAO, the SSDA provide a safe environment for returning IDPs and a broader and more practical partnership in mine Government of Southern Sudan Juba, Southern Sudan is now actively engaged in the planning, coor- refugees. In addition, the SSDA in Southern Sudan action to support the implementation of the mine- Tel: + 256 477 112 938 dination, priority setting, accreditation, quality faces challenges from the long rainy seasons, logisti- action transition plan and would like to further ex- E-mail: [email protected] assurance and oversight of mine-action opera- cal complications and lack of enough data to deter- pand this cooperation and partnership in the years tions. In addition to assistance provided by the mine the level, type and locations of contamination. to come.

been excavated and where the mines were located, was absolutely essen- Falkland Islands Demining Pilot tial to ensure efficient use of time and resources. Fortunately, the Pub- Project: Completion of Phase 1 lic Works Department on the Islands had access to Real Time Kinematic The United Kingdom has started to remove anti-personnel mines from the Falkland/Malvinas Survey7 and its survey team support- Islands1 in order to meet its obligations under Article 5 of the Ottawa Convention. A pilot phase ed the minefield mapping process was completed in June 2010 to clear four suspected hazardous areas—a critical first step to very effectively. inform future projects following the conclusion of the Joint U.K.-Argentine Feasibility Study. Where the threat was less well- defined at Goose Green and Fox Bay, by Robin Swanson [ Biron Associates Ltd. ] traditional non-technical and technical survey procedures were ad- n article in the 14.1 issue of The Journal of ERW tic, minimum-metal mines, which present a challenge opted. Much information still exists and Mine Action made some observations for conventional metal-detection technologies due to within the Falkland Islands local about the completion status of the Falkland the exceptionally small quantities of metal within the and military community and among AIslands Demining Program.2 This article aims to ar- mines. Some of the SHAs had been subjected to BL 755 military veterans concerning the OTES FROM THE FIELD THE FROM OTES ticulate the program’s objectives, the problems encoun- cluster-munitions strikes, but because of their high events that took place during and N tered and methodologies used, and to draw on some of metallic content, these did not present the same level of immediately after the 1982 conflict. the key lessons learned from the experience. technical challenge to detect. Fortunately for this pilot project, quality information was available. Objectives Clearance Methodologies Used This may not be the case for many The program’s objectives were twofold: to conduct a Modern metal-detection equipment struggled to de- other areas where the minefield doc- pilot clearance program to meet the requirements of Ar- tect the minimum-metal mines to the contract depth. uments and records do not exist, ticle 5 obligations and to inform future projects about Therefore, the demining contractor BACTEC Interna- and as time goes on, memories will clearance challenges. For this reason, the U.K. govern- tional Ltd. used layered and full excavation techniques, fade, and key witnesses will be hard- ment selected four suspected hazardous areas in close depending on the expected mine threat, to meet the er to track and interview. consultation with the Falkland Islands government, contract’s requirements. The mines had been laid in a

which would provide different types of terrain and dif- very formal pattern using cord and markers at inter- The Environment ferent mine and unexploded-ordnance threats—two vals, and the documents recording the two minefields Concerns about the project’s en- SHAs near Stanley were known minefields (Surf Bay and near Stanley soon proved to be credible records of the vironmental impact were raised be- Sapper Hill), and accurate minefield documents were mine pattern.4 Therefore, once rows were encountered, F ully excavating the access lanes on Sapper Hill before the first P4Bs were encountered. fore it began and were a particular held for them, while the ones in Goose Green and Fox the mine patterns could be followed and fully exploit- Photo courtesy of Guy Marot, DPO Technical Adviser issue for the Falkland Islands gov- Bay East had a less well-defined threat. The U.K. gov- ed using excavation techniques. This is a slow and de- within it. The local airport road bi- laid at the current beach level, which ernment. The Planning Permission ernment set standards in excess of International Mine manding method of clearance in normal circumstances, sected the minefield with deep peat was marked by a cobbled layer of and consent provided by the FI gov- Action Standards by demanding a 200-millimeter (7.87 but additional external factors exacerbated the situation to the west and gradually thinner stone, but the sand dunes were be- ernment required submission of an inches) contract depth for the clearance of mine pan- further. During austral summer 2009–10, the Island re- peat and sandier terrain toward the tween two and five meters (7–16 feet) acceptable ground remediation plan els. In addition, mines affected by the formation of sand corded the worst weather patterns on record, with con- beach on the east. Six mixed mine above that level. After initially iden- with each SHA Clearance Plan and dunes required excavation 300 millimeters (11.81 inch- ditions including cold high winds, rain, sleet and snow. panels6 straddled a previous track in tifying the start of the first panel us- that steps were taken to educate the es) below the 1982 profile. These increased standards Additionally, much of the contaminated ground con- sandy soil in the minefield’s north- ing manual excavation techniques, it deminers in the identification of were designed to address concerns within the island sisted of thick, fibrous peat and heavy vegetation, which east part where sand accumula- then became a mechanical clearance rare plant species expected in the 5 community about the ability of a mine-clearance pro- was difficult to cut. This challenged the deminers to tion demanded manual excavation task routinely operating in four to area. The Clearance Plans divided gram to remove all of the explosive hazards. draw on exceptional levels of patience, skill, good hu- of 400 millimeters (15.74 inches). five meters (13–16 feet) of sand. the cleared areas into three parts: mor, and sheer grit and determination. Two further panels, consisting of 16 Finding mines at these depths re- 1. One area is left to recover natu- The Threat The Surf Bay Minefield was the most challenging anti-vehicle mines each, had been quired systematic search procedures. rally. 3 The Joint U.K.-Argentine Feasibility Study identi- task. The dense, mixed minefield contained more than covered by large sand dunes since One early lesson learned was that a 2. One area has the cut vegetation fied the different types of landmines encountered on 1,000 mines (SB33 & SB81) within a relatively small area 1982. Conflict-aerial photography detailed, centimeter-accurate survey, replaced so seeds from the cut- the islands. The majority of minefields contain plas- of 3.34 hectares (8.25 acres), and the terrain also varied revealed that the mines had been used to establish exactly what had tings can drop and germinate.

A rmored excavator searching for the SB81 mines at the 1982 profile within the Surf Bay Sand Dunes. T he sand was replaced in a manner to provide relief for natural forces to operate. Photo courtesy of the author Photo courtesy of Josephine Swanson

3. One area is left for a different ments are not always associated with ly. As a result of the pilot program, that it brought 25,000 landmines to the Falkland Is- itarian, social or economic impact to the community. approach to be specified using mine-action programs and provided these alternative approaches may be lands at the start of the conflict (20,000 anti-personnel Fortunately, no one sustained injuries during the pro- natural and introduced meth- different challenges which required considered during follow-up phases. and 5,000 anti-vehicle mines) and that some 5,000 have gram, which can be attributed to good procedures, cor- ods. A broad plan was devel- close liaison with local environmen- been accounted for since the conflict ended. This means rect protective equipment and a strong ethos for safety oped to satisfy these planning tal bodies. Results that approximately 20,000 landmines remained in the adopted by BACTEC and the DPO. conditions. Although the tender document The following table represents the ground prior to Phase 1 clearance and that this pro- The FI government and the local community were Perfectly rebuilding the sand had been written to discourage the areas actually cleared (including ad- gram cleared more than 6 percent of the remaining also influenced by certain historical myths that had per- dunes was never an aspiration, but use of specialist mechanical sys- ditional battle-area clearance tasks mine contamination. petuated over time, adding to the belief that full clear- in close cooperation with the Envi- tems, at the end of the process, the associated with the four SHAs) and ance was impossible. One of these myths was that mines Confidence Building ronmental Planning Department, final result was visually not dissimi- records the mines and UXO locat- move in peat and would not be found. Most surface lay- BACTEC replaced the sand to the lar to what might have resulted from ed between 3 December 2009 and 4 An important part of any demining program is in- ers of peat (0–300 millimeters, or 0–11.81 inches) contain best of their abilities, stabilizing the a mechanical approach without the June 2010: stilling confidence within the local community. On fibrous peat, or at least semi-fibrous peat, in the topsoil’s 11 dunes’ bases where possible using advantages of immediate re-germi- In order to place this into con- arrival, the Demining Programme Office needed to lower parts, with a structure displaying horizontal lami- geo-textiles and aggregate bags. The nation when earth is processed and text, it is useful to note that Argen- reassure the community that all the mines could be re- nations reflecting the gradual accumulation of little-de- area was left deliberately unsmooth seeds are reintroduced immediate- tina10 declared to the United Nations moved from the areas selected, and to address a wide- composed plant debris. The large surface area and light in order to provide relief for natural ly-held community view that the money could be better weight of the mine would make it highly unlikely to shift SHA AP Mines AV Mines UXO Area Cleared spent removing mines in other parts of the world. While within the peat and, indeed, the Phase 1 clearance pro- forces to work on and to catch drift- 1 M67 Grenade + Surf Bay SA-008 488 SB33 568 SB81 3.34 Ha ing seeds for germination purposes. 7.62mm ammo this may be an honorable stance, the United Kingdom gram found no evidence of this. Taking Sapper Hill as Surf Bay BAC 4 M67 Grenades - - 3.44 Ha has an international obligation to clear the landmines in an example of a typical peat minefield, no P4B mine was Monitoring will take place over (Canache Wet Area) + 7.62 ammo the next two years to establish the Sapper Hil SA-025 190 P4B - - 0.77 Ha the Falkland Islands; therefore, the money for the Phase 1 found deeper than 120 millimeters (4.72 inches), and 97 Sapper Hill BAC8 - - - 6.29 Ha program was allocated separately from the donations the percent were at less than 80 millimeters (3.14 inches) or most effective approach for future (BL755 Strike Area) programs; not only does it need to Goose Green GG-011 - - - 2.41 Ha United Kingdom provided for other international mine- were located on the surface. The program did conclude, Fox Bay FB-008W - - - 2.3 Ha action projects. not surprisingly, that light, plastic anti-personnel mines be environmentally acceptable, it Fox Bay BAC (Head- - - - 1.99 Ha9 needs to be a practical, relatively land Area) The Falkland Islands government was also concerned can be moved by wind, water or by ground slippage, 8 UXO + 7.62mm Total 678 568 20.54 Ha about the risk of injury to deminers when local demand particularly when the topography, such as downhill simple and cost-effective procedure. ammo to clear the minefields was nonexistent, no civilian inju- gradients, was also a factor. Most mines were discov- These additional planning require- S ummary of areas cleared. ries were sustained, and the minefields posed no human- ered at their predicted location within the documented

By the end of the program, all mine signs were removed from the cleared sites, but the fences remained around the former minefields Strengthening the Demining at Surf Bay and Sapper Hill. The fences remained in place not to mark the areas as unsafe, Sector Response to HIV/AIDS but to prevent unnecessary damage during the in Sub-Saharan Africa environmental remediation period and to allow proper monitoring of the regeneration process. In this article, the author explores how HIV/AIDS affects deminers in the African areas

Conclusion where the disease is most prevalent. He considers how deminers’ lifestyles make them One key conclusion from this program in- especially susceptible to HIV/AIDS and suggests mobile HIV/AIDS programs can effec- S urface-laid P4B with lot numbers easily visible and rubber seals dicates that further research and development tively combat this growing threat. intact. is necessary to improve the ability of manual- Photo courtesy of Guy Marot ly detecting minimum-metal mines at greater by Dr. Martin Chitsama [ Demining HIV/AIDS Service Foundation ] depths. The program encountered many physical and philosophical challenges; however, it emining began in Sub- was an enormous success. This pilot phase will Saharan Africa in the undoubtedly inform future projects about the early 1990s, incidental- technical, environmental and logistical chal- lyD commencing just a decade after lenges associated with clearance in the Falk- the HIV/AIDS pandemic started land Islands, and will provide more accurate calling on the human race.1 Ac- planning data for follow-on phases. cording to the 2007 and 2009 Land- see endnotes page mine Monitor Report and national mine-action centers in Africa, at T he manually excavated area at Sapper Hill. (Yellow pickets indi- least 50 national and international cate where P4B mines were found.) demining organizations currently Photo courtesy of the author conduct landmine-clearance opera- pattern, but natural forces had moved a very small mi- tions in Sub-Saharan Africa, collec- nority. What is particularly interesting is that the condi- tively employing more than 10,000 tion of the majority of the mines was very good despite deminers.2 Angola's National Dem- resting in acidic soil and damp conditions for 28 years, ining Institute alone has a contin- Demining crews always have medical teams onsite. Medics and we assess that most would certainly have functioned Robin Swanson, MBE, Director of Biron Associ- gent of 4,000 deminers organized could be trained to run workplace HIV/AIDS advocacy programs. ates Ltd., is a former British Army Bomb Disposal A ll photos courtesy of Joseph Kilino, MDD Handler, VDS Angola given the right pressure. Officer who worked with C King Associates Ltd. into 18 brigades that are demining The FI government, concerned about its residual li- for the duration of the Phase 1 Demining Pro- across the heavily mined southern world.” All in all, “an estimated 22.4 question of checking on a spouse's gram. Prior to leaving the British Army, he worked 2 ability in the event of any future incident within the in the U.K. Ministry of Defence as a senior policy African country. million people are living with HIV HIV status is hardly a priority. cleared areas, considered a number of proposals to keep maker in International Humanitarian Law, specifically those conventions and treaties concerning Considering that all the African in the region—around two thirds of The demining-site remoteness the fences and some form of warning signs in place af- conventional munitions, unexploded ordnance and States Parties to the Ottawa Conven- the global total.”3 As a result, large means that deminers are cut off ter clearance. The DPO made many announcements landmines. He also participated in the Joint U.K.– Argentine Feasibility Study to demine the Islands. tion are lagging behind their targets numbers of deminers in Africa are from mainstream public-health through the media to keep the community fully in- under Article 5 and are continually at a significant risk of contracting campaigns, including HIV/AIDS formed of the clearance process, encouraged visits to the Robin Swanson MBE Biron Associates Ltd calling for extensions, deminers in HIV/AIDS for many reasons, in- programs. Health workers fear trav- minefields and held briefings to explain the detail and 22 Station Road Africa are set to clear landmines on cluding worker mobility and ex- eling to suspected-mined regions in Kennett quality procedures associated with the clearance pro- Suffolk CB8 7QD the continent for many more years. tended separation from spouses. Africa, which also leaves deminers gram. In addition, a public confidence demonstration United Kingdom As reported in 2009 by the Joint For a deminer, the work-leave cy- isolated in terms of outreach pro- Tel: +44 1638 750067 was run after the completion of each task site. Following Mob +44 7773653344 United Nations Programme on HIV/ cle provides for limited family time grams. Furthermore, deminers are the last demonstration at Surf Bay, spectators swarmed E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.biron-eod-search.com AIDS (UNAIDS), the region is also in a year. There is so much to catch usually 20 to 49 years old, sexual- onto the cleared area with their children confirming "more heavily affected by HIV and up on when families reunite af- ly active and tend to have capital to their confidence in the clearance process. AIDS than any other region of the ter long separation periods that the spend while interacting with war-

acted with deminers in Luena and Menongue (Angola); the following programs for deminers and landmine- Shilalo (Eritrea); Mukumbura (Mozambique); Garowe impacted communities in Sub-Saharan Africa: and Hargeisa (Somalia); Ed Damazin, Juba and Rum- • An HIV/AIDS risk-assessment profile for deminers bek (Sudan); and the Gonarezhou National Park and the • An HIV/AIDS educational program for deminers Zambezi Basin (Zimbabwe). I recommend implement- and program managers ing mobile HIV/AIDS programs for deminers for the • Mobile Voluntary HIV/AIDS counseling and test- following reasons: ing programs for deminers • Deminers have easy access to medics at their work- • Delivery of mobile male circumcision services for sites, which would allow the medics to be trained deminers in Sub-Saharan Africa and become part of the HIV/AIDS healthcare team. • Delivery of antiretroviral treatment and care for de- Demining Control Points could carry HIV/AIDS-advocacy banners, reaching out to millions of people using roads being cleared of land- • Demining operators will benefit from getting test- miners in Sub-Saharan Africa mines in Africa. ed: Negative HIV deminers will want to preserve see endnotes page 82 their statuses, and positive deminers will be anxious torn communities whose sexually active youths often that when selecting Mozambican sappers to go on a de- to enter into antiretroviral treatment programs. The author is grateful for the advice he received from engage in commercial sex due to limited economic op- mining mission to Afghanistan, RONCO required them • Circumcision is of particular interest, and if pre- Robert Kingsley of the Demining HIV/AIDS Service tions. to take HIV tests. Similarly, ArmorGroup was fined in sented properly, this practice will benefit deminers Foundation; LifeWorks (South Africa); the U.S. Centers To compound the situation, most demining opera- Mozambique for allegedly hiring deminers destined for and their spouses significantly. Circumcision ben- for Disease Control; Cal Keagle of RONCO Consulting tors in Sub-Saharan Africa only have informal HIV/ Cyprus on the basis of HIV results. In addition, Zimba- efits are well-documented, and instituting Kenya’s Corporation; Andy Smith of nolandmines.com; Trev- AIDS policies, and financial and human resource con- bwe’s Southern Africa Demining Services Agency had to Raila Odinga-inspired male circumcision program7 or Thompson of Security Devices; Temba Kanganga of straints hamper the transformation of these policies into compensate deminers loaned to BACTEC International to the demining setting would immensely benefit Southern Africa Demining Services Agency; Barry Ver- workplace programs. The inherent risk associated with for South Lebanon operations in 2002 when the demin- deminers.8 meulen, Steve du Preez and Thinus Putter of Vanguard demining further puts deminers at risk of occupational ers were denied deployment on the basis of HIV tests. • All Sub-Saharan African states have national and Demining Services Angola; and Johannes Van der Mer- exposure to HIV transmission when a landmine casu- regional HIV/AIDS policies, but these policies are we of the World Bank; and his wife, Hendrina Chitsama. alty occurs. All personnel on the demining site are in- The Solution sometimes contradictory. Forming national/region- volved if an incident occurs and occupational exposure The World Health Organization, UNAIDS and the al protocols for hiring and managing deminers is is probable during the handling of the injured party. Ad- United Nations Population Fund recommend the im- practical. 4 ditionally, antiretroviral post-exposure prophylaxis is plementation of mobile HIV/AIDS services targeting • The United Nations International Mine Action largely absent in the demining industry. hard-to-reach populations, including deminers. The Standards IMAS 10.409 already provides for the mobile-service efficacy for hard-to-reach populations updating of HIV lists during demining operations Deminers and HIV/AIDS has been demonstrated by the Uganda Program for Hu- making it easy for the United Nations to contact de- In May 2002, the Interagency Coalition on AIDS and man and Holistic Development, the success of voluntary miners and provide comprehensive HIV/AIDS pro- Martin Chitsama is a medical doctor who holds Development made observations regarding the relation- counseling and testing in the United States Agency for grams for them. Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery ship between deminers and HIV/AIDS risk and recom- International Development's outreach services in Ethio- degrees and Executive HIV/AIDS Project Man- agement qualifications. For the past 10 years, he mended that intervention programs be implemented for pia, New Start Centres in Zimbabwe, and through the Call for Mobile HIV/AIDS Services for Deminers has been Medical Adviser to demining operations in Eritrea, Mozambique, Somalia, Sudan the sector. The Accelerated Demining Programme in Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome’s re- Motivated by the success stories of mobile HIV/AIDS and Zimbabwe. He also has experience in field Mozambique claims that while it has lost only one de- port on increased voluntary counseling and testing services programs targeting hard-to-reach groups and operations with several international companies. 5 Dr. Chitsama is currently the Senior Medical Ad- miner to a mine accident, it has lost 10 to HIV/AIDS. uptake in mobile clinics as compared to "stand alone" the feasibility of an HIV/AIDS program for deminers, a viser for Vanguard Demining Services in Angola

The labor laws in some countries, such as Mozam- clinics in Nairobi, Kenya. Similarly, the Tanzanian Mili- group comprised of demining experts and medical doc- . bique, demonstrate the difficulties that demining tary reports success stories for its four mobile HIV clin- tors who had worked in demining for the past decade Martin Chitsama, M.D Demining HIV/AIDS Service Foundation companies face regarding HIV tests and can result in ics established with the U. S. Military HIV Research formed an initiative called The Demining HIV/AIDS (REG IT167/10) demining operators facing legal problems. For instance, Program in 25 camps along Tanzania’s Lake Zone.6 Tel: +27 244 92 984 7110 Service Foundation in 2009. The Foundation, a nonprof- E-mail: [email protected] in 2005, Mozambican Labour Minister Helena Taipo it trust based in South Africa, was specifically created to Website: http://demininghivaids.com rejected an appeal by the U.S.-based demining compa- Feasibility and Benefits of Mobile HIV/AIDS mitigate the HIV/AIDS pandemic in Sub-Saharan Afri- ny RONCO Consulting Corporation against a fine im- Programs for Deminers ca’s demining sector. posed for violating Mozambique's ban on compulsory Having worked with thousands of deminers as a The Foundation is calling the mine-action commu- HIV tests. In June 2005, the Labour Ministry discovered medical doctor from 1998 to the present, I have inter- nity to partner with it in building up and implementing

The Growing Threat to Humanitarian Operations

Deminers and other humanitarian-aid workers around the world, though previously viewed as off-limits, have become targets of distrust and even violence by certain groups. This article explores the reasons for this shift in ideology, and what action humanitarian organizations must take in order to protect their personnel.

by Adrian King [ HMS, Ltd. ]

he days of showing respect to civilian humanitar- and its allies, to suppress Islam, spread Christianity in ian-aid personnel and organizations in the field the Muslim world, and support an invasion and occupa- are long gone, so that even the once sacrosanct tion strategy directed toward Muslim countries. These InternationalT Committee of the Red Cross is no lon- views can be seen in the Afghan Talibans' monthly mag- U .S. Army soldiers assigned to the 203rd Combat Engineer Battalion of the Missouri Army National Guard use a tracked excavator to re- ger safe from attack. In recent times, increased rhetoric azine, Al Samood. move tons of rubble and debris as rescue workers search for victims at the United Nations Office of theH umanitarian Coordinator build- against the United Nations and humanitarian-aid agen- One only has to look at the grim record of attacks ing in Baghdad, Iraq, after a truck bomb destroyed much of the building on 19 August 2003. Photo courtesy of Master Sergeant James M. Bowman, USAF cies, mainly from jihadist groups (such as those in the against personnel working for U.N. agencies and oth- call-out box below), has led to a long overdue appraisal er humanitarian-aid organizations to appreciate the ers venture into areas and situations considered by most tection are essential to the success of legally mandated of the vulnerability of aid workers and U.N. peacekeep- fragile and, at times, near non-existent nature of secu- to have an unacceptable risk of attack or at least con- work in agreement between national governance and the ing personnel as the global security situation deterio- rity measures taken in the field. Humanitarian organi- frontation with hostile groups. These groups, for one United Nations. The question then has to be asked, in rates and risk of violent attack increases. zations and personnel must understand that deprived reason or another, do not appreciate or support the aid view of this decision to deploy an armed force, on what work carried out, and because of their beliefs, view hu- basis do nongovernmental organizations and private “The UN is also standing with the enemy against Muslims manitarian-aid workers and those who support them as and commercial companies deploy their personnel to viable targets for aggression. such areas, where the risk of attack is high and the lev- what about the standing Muslim matters like Palestine, In the demining world, work is often conducted in el of protection offered is generally not commensurate Chechnya, Cyprus ... and other Muslim matters, all these are countries where the underlying security situation is un- with the threats that may be encountered? stable or where low-level conflict is in progress. How- As previously alluded to, many individuals are evidence of the oppression of the UN against Muslim countries ...” ever, exceptions exist. In Afghanistan, Iraq and Somalia “called” to intercede on behalf of the victims of crisis Al Somood, The Struggle1 (jihadist propaganda) for example, mine-action activities continue effective- through their vocation and belief, but what is their level ly despite widespread and ongoing violence, where no of responsibility, both to themselves and to those who peaceful resolution is in sight and the situation may es- will support them in-country and be formally engaged The Developing Mindset populations’ access to aid must be balanced against un- calate at any time. In the case of Afghanistan, NATO by them in the conduct of their mission? And perhaps Since the rise in international terrorism, providing derlying security threats where, as a consequence, the maintains that its in-country presence is for the pur- more importantly, what is the responsibility of the orga- aid has become more of a high-risk occupation than ever susceptibility and accessibility of aid personnel and poses of stabilization and infrastructure development. nizations that employ humanitarian workers? before. Military operations both in Afghanistan and Iraq their local employees is increased, and the risk of vio- Unfortunately, this gives the impression that the “war” The posed questions are not meant to undermine have fueled the ill-informed and biased speculation of the lent compromise in certain locations is ever more likely. has been won when it is apparent that ever more vio- an individual’s integrity or an organization’s justifica- jihadists and stirred suspicion of Western motives in these lence occurs daily in communities and organizations tion for carrying out humanitarian work, but to provoke and other regions, with aid workers often seen as agents Valuable Human Assets throughout the country. discussion on the criteria used to guide risk assessment. of military powers. Both the United Nations and aid or- Personnel engaged in humanitarian work are ded- Sanctioning the deployment of U.N.-armed military This assessment should be conducted with the expatriate ganizations are now viewed in some areas of the world as icated to the work they do and the people they serve. personnel to a country or region in crisis not only shows professionals and the local nationals involved at varying being part of a Western agenda, led by the United States Thoroughly commited to their vocation, these aid work- that violence is expected, but that weapons used for pro- levels, from humble driver to mission manager.

Process and Procedure flict and enabling infrastructure renewal and a return to This was recognized in Iraq during the growing threat levels, aid orga- The Geneva Conventions of 19492 are the legal ba- normal life activity. For the majority, mine action would the height of the insurgency, where nizations in general should take a sis for categorizing humanitarian work; they guaran- be seen as an essential and normal part of a country’s foreign contractors were deliber- more responsible stance in provid- tee protection for humanitarian workers provided that post-conflict recovery process, and many would perhaps ately used to remove explosive ord- ing levels of security. If it is known they are not party to the conflict. The Conventions do struggle to understand why people would oppose such nance from stockpiles and former that attacks are likely and that re- not, however, give right of access to conflict areas; and action taking place. The reality is not so simple, howev- battle positions in an attempt to in- prisals may also be visited on local

although combatant attacks on humanitarian personnel er, and in assessing the chronological data of attacks on terrupt the chain of activities that led workers as a result of mine action Adrian King is a Counter-IED Expert em- are prohibited, providing escorts is not a requirement, in- demining personnel, one has to surmise that a political to building IEDs to attack Coalition or any other humanitarian activity, ployed by HMS Ltd., an Allen Vanguard Group company. His diverse military ca- cluding where other factions may pose a threat to safety. motive is often the basis for the incident. In Afghanistan, troops. the decision to deploy at all should reer has included more than 30 years of This article does not provide an analysis of all attacks the Taliban see the United Nations and other aid organi- be questioned. working in conflict and post-conflict situations, including crisis response and de- on U.N. or other aid personnel, but in analyzing dem- zations as collaborators with NATO’s International Sta- Protecting Deminers The United Nations, which over- mining operations in Iraq and Lebanon. King was involved in counter-IED training ining specifically, it is possible to draw a loose analogy bilization Force and corruptors of the Muslim religion, As employers, humanitarian de- sees demining and other contracts, for NATO in Afghanistan and is involved in from the evidence gathered through attacks and, in some views echoed by Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula. mining organizations have a duty of should perhaps also play its part by a number of tasks, including the development of accredited conventional munitions care and responsibility toward their ensuring organizations and individu- disposal and demining training programs, personnel. Top-level personnel must als are aware of the inherent risks of as well as a UXO-clearance task in the Middle East. “The UN is a tool of American global politics, duping people by thoroughly investigate the risk of at- working in a particular country or tack and assess and mitigate against region and that they are taking the Adrian King Consultant claiming that it is a neutral international organization, where it is in apparent threats in the country and proper security precautions. Person- Hazard Management Solutions Ltd. 85-88 Shrivenham fact a criminal American institution; the presidential election in Ka- Hundred Business Park Watchfield bul is evidence enough of this. This organization has not been Swindon SN6 8TY / UK “... attacks on the United Nations and humanitarian- Tel: +44 (0)1793 786350 established to support and help people, and since it was es- Fax: +44 (0)1793 786351 aid workers, including demining personnel, are justi- E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://hms-online.org tablished, it has taken part and contributed to war crimes ... fied in the perpetrators’ minds, but aid workers’ links In the same way the invader forces will be forced to leave with sponsors and other organizations may further Afghanistan; this institution called the UN must leave for good ...” strengthen motives ...” 1 ~ Al Somood. The Struggle” (jihadist propaganda) ~ Al Somood. The Struggle”1 (jihadist propaganda)

cases, predict a continuance of the trend in some coun- For these reasons, attacks on the United Nations region of the proposed work activity. nel validation should begin prior to tries and regions. Since 2003, more than 50 mine-action and humanitarian-aid workers, including demining At the lower levels, the duty extends, arrival in the country and should in- personnel have died from non-mine related injuries, the personnel, are justified in the perpetrators’ minds, but through managers and team leaders, clude checks to make certain that em- majority in Afghanistan.3 The evidence shows that, in aid workers’ links with sponsors and other organiza- to enacting and maintaining the se- ployees are sufficiently briefed and most cases, attacks are targeted directly at the demining tions may further strengthen motives, as in the case of curity plan and providing local op- trained on safety issues, and pro- workers and not randomly, as some believe. In the ma- the lethal attack on deminers in Kandahar province on erating procedures and resources in vided with the resources, including jority of the incidents, the attacks were carried out using 11 April 2010, where the Office of Weapons Removal managing the risks described. procedures and equipment, to safe- small arms and improvised explosive devices, the latter and Abatement in the U.S. State Department’s Bureau The threshold for conducting or ly conduct their work. However, this of which are a well-known threat in Afghanistan and a of Political-Military Affairs (PM/WRA) sponsored the suspending mine-action operations should only happen after an organi- growing threat globally, and which allow precise target- victims’ demining activity. This extra “link” (i.e., the due to security concerns is usually zation understands the risks involved ing without exposure to retaliation or identification of sponsorship) may provide an additional motive for an a responsibility of the mine-action and has determined whether it is pru- the perpetrator(s) at the incident scene. attacker to target one aid group over another and should coordination center, if present in- dent to allow the commencement or possibly be part of the risk-assessment process. country, normally on advice from sustainment of humanitarian demin- Deminers as Targets Another possible motive for attacking deminers in a number of internal and external ing activity in a specific area. Mine action is an activity built on military breach- Afghanistan and elsewhere is because mine action re- agencies. Yet is this enough? Is it see endnotes page 82 ing and explosive ordnance disposal skills to remove moves resources from the Taliban’s arsenal. Their use of sufficient, and is it justifiable in high area explosive hazards, thus allowing repatriation of explosive remnants of war as main charges in their IEDs, threat-level locations such as Af- displaced persons and communities following the con- or even as a viable ammunition source, is well known. ghanistan and Somalia? Surely with

In Remembrance: Stephen “Darby” Allan

tephen “Darby” Allan, a Technical SField Manager with Mines Adviso- ry Group, died on 15 October 2010, following an explosion in which he was critically injured. The explosion took place around noon as Darby was doing mine-clearance work at a site near Kapoeta, in Southern Sudan. He died a few hours later. Darby is survived by his wife, Karen, and his children, Sarah and David. A British national from Portsmouth, Darby Allan began his mine-action career doing underwater and shoreline mine clearance as a diver in the Royal Navy. In 2002, he began working as an Explosive Ordnance Disposal Specialist and Trainer at the Defence EOD School on Horsea Island. A year later he was promoted to Chief Instructor for the Royal Navy Clearance Diving Officers, Darby Allan in a MAG vehicle with his son David during the MAG project they worked togeth- a position he held until he joined MAG er on in the Democratic Republic of Congo in 2008. p hoto courtesy of the Allan family in 2006. Darby worked as a Technical Field RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT Manager for MAG for nearly four did not have to be in Sudan; he chose a member of MAG’s technical staff years, moving from the Democratic to be. He was a true humanitarian who who worked closely with Darby in Republic of the Congo to Lebanon and believed in making a difference, and Lebanon, called him “a great team finally to Sudan in September 2009. the world will be a lesser place without member with a dry humor [and] a MAG estimates that the land Darby him.” dependable, affable technician who helped clear around Kapoeta, will ben- Darby Allan’s family, friends and managed several clearance teams efit more than 7,000 people in the area coworkers paid tribute to his life and with skill and determination.” Fi- who are now able to grow crops, build work as well. Lieutenant Command- nally, Darby’s wife Karen said, “He schools and raise telephone masts. The er Mick Beale, who knew Darby from was a gritty, humorous man who town’s market, a vital source of trade their time together at Horsea Island, commanded friendship and respect for the region, has also been built on praised him as “a hugely experienced from colleagues and friends, a per- land cleared by MAG teams. diver” and “an inspiration and a true son who was not just larger than life Research and Development Section Sponsored by During a celebration of Darby’s life, legend in the diving branch. He was a but was, in fact, life. We are proud Lou McGrath, OBE, MAG’s Chief Ex- big man with a big heart who could al- to say we were part of that life and it ecutive, said, “He took pride in reduc- ways be relied on to get the job done was a great, great adventure. Thank ing the risks communities faced …. [He] with no fuss,” he said. Andy Glesson, you for the adventure.”

Method The Effect of Reinforcement Subjects. Six male non-neutered dogs, aged between 6½ and 7½ years, with several years of previous REST training participated. Five Rate Variations on Hits and were Labrador Retrievers (Retzina, Stavros, Tan, Zante and Zulu) and one was a Springer Spaniel (Rusty). Each dog was assigned an experi- False Alarms in Remote Explosive enced Angolan dog handler. The dogs were exercised six days a week by walking and swimming, housed in individual kennels, given free access to water, fed a high-quality dry dog food in sufficient quantities to main- Scent Tracing with Dogs tain a healthy weight, and were not food-deprived. Detection animals offer untapped potential in terms of locating landmines and explosive ordnance in the field and in the laboratory. In this study, the Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining investigated the effect of low, medium, and high levels of reward on the performance of six dogs searching filters for explosive odor.

by Rebecca J. Sargisson [ University of Waikato ] and Ian G. McLean [ Consultant ]

emote Explosive Scent Tracing—or which two are undesirable—“miss” and “false negative filter without being rewarded for its ROdor Capture—is a detection process alarm.” A miss means that explosive ordnance correct “response”). This training methodolo- in which odor is captured on an absorbent fil- is undetected, presenting a danger to future gy potentially introduces response bias, most ter and analyzed by a detector, such as a dog land users. A false alarm means unneces- likely as a tendency to give an indication re- or rat.1,2 The detector works in a safe and con- sary additional work for the mine-clearance sponse on a negative filter (a false alarm). Thus, trolled environment and is capable of search- program. Low reliability on either of these the training procedure itself may be a source of ing large areas of ground in a short period. outcomes reduces confidence in REST as a de- false alarms, limiting the agency’s ability to at- F igure 1: Dog searching filters in a carousel-style presentation system. Odor capture has a wide range of potential ap- tection technology. tain the objective of minimizing false alarms plications (for example, the detection of oil- The typical procedure is summarized as while maintaining a reliably high hit rate. Signal-detection theory assumes that each animal responds accord- pipeline leaks and the detection of cancer or follows. A team uses a suction pump to vacu- Signal-detection theory3 gives the issues ing to a response criterion (the vertical line C in Figure 3 on page 66). An tuberculosis), but with respect to explosive um the air over a road section, typically 100 or and principles discussed above detailed tech- animal’s responses can become biased toward one response type if more detection, REST’s main value is eliminating 200 meters (109 or 218 yards) long and about nical analysis, and we use that theory’s lan- reinforcement is made available for one response type over another or if road sections that do not contain explosive 5 meters (5 yards) wide. The air is sucked guage in this paper. With respect to REST’S unequal numbers of positive and negative filters are presented.6 ordnance, allowing clearance to proceed more through a filter, and careful records are kept of two objectives of maintaining high hit and low Signal-detection theory makes the following predictions:8 rapidly than is possible using most standard the road section that each filter represents. The false-alarm rates, the theory distinguishes two • If the sensitivity of the detector (d’) varies and the response criterion detection technologies. filters are transferred to a laboratory where processes affecting accuracy: (C) remains constant, hit rate and false-alarm rate should be nega- they are presented to trained detectors (usual- • Sensitivity: The dog’s ability to discrimi- tively correlated; i.e., as the functions move apart, hit rate will in- ly dogs or rats) using a standard methodology, nate between positive and negative filters crease, and false-alarm rate will decrease. Indicate Ignore such as on the arms of a carousel (Figure 1) or can be improved in a variety of ways, in- • If the response criterion (C) varies, hit rate should be positively cor- in a line of stands (Figure 2). cluding increasing the overall reinforce- related with false-alarm rate. For example, if a detector is biased to- Correct Incorrect The dogs are trained using filters made ment rate for correct responses.4 ward indicating, it will hit more positive filters, but will also indicate from controlled odor sources (“benchmark • Response bias: If the training or opera- more negative filters, creating a high false-alarm rate. filters”). For training mine detection, most tional experiences have asymmetries (such • A strong correlation between hit and false-alarm rate would be a use- REST agencies plant test minefields, noting as only rewarding responses to positive ful finding for REST.

Positive Hit Miss each mine’s location, type and depth. Filters filters during training or more abundant • If hit and false-alarm rates were positively correlated, the relation- can then be made in areas that should be con- negative filters than positive filters, which ship between them could be optimized by manipulating reinforce- taminated with explosive odor from a known is expected for operational filters), then re- ment bias, filter ratios, or the experimental method. Incorrect Correct source, and areas treated as free of explosive sponse asymmetries are also expected.5,6 • If hit and false-alarm rates were negatively correlated, the training odor. With a variety of odor sources used, it Under signal-detection theory, all filters approach could focus on increasing hit rate, with the desired low F igure 2: Dog indicating a filter in the line-stand presentation system. is assumed that background odor is consis- contain a background odor (noise). false alarm-rate achieved without explicit training. FA CR tently variable across filters, and the detectors Positive filters should carry an additional The present experiment used data from the regular training of six Negative must therefore use the explosive odor’s pres- odor from the explosive ordnance (signal-plus- REST dogs in Angola to explore the relationship between hit and false- Apparatus. Filters were placed on a carousel apparatus (Figure 1). The ence or absence as the determining variable noise).3,7 A filter’s signal strength can be placed alarm rates. The overall reinforcement rate for positive-filter hits was carousel was a large stainless-steel wheel, mounted horizontally to the T able 1: Matrix of outcomes in a in their analysis. A key benefit of REST anal- somewhere in the area under two normally dis- manipulated across 28 weeks of a calendar year, according to Table 2 on floor, which could be rotated. Filters were mounted horizontally at the REST task. ysis over field-based animal-detection systems tributed Gaussian functions plotting signal in- page 66. The proportion of negative filters was held constant (between 94 ends of 12 arms that were removable for cleaning. The rooms’ walls were A ll graphics and photos courtesy of the authors. is that benchmark filters can be mixed in with tensity as a function of that odor’s probability and 99 percent of filters presented were negative). concrete block, and tiled floors minimized odor contamination. A stain- REST will only be used if it can deliver operational filters, allowing the continuous of being present (Figure 3 on page 66). Signal It was expected that hit rate and false-alarm rate would be correlat- less-steel screen inside the rooms shielded a supervisor from the search- consistently-high detection reliability for fil- monitoring of each detector’s reliability during availability to the left of line C“ ” will result in ed. Given that only reinforcement for hits was varied, increasing reinforce- ing dog. All other personnel (the dog handler and documenter) watched ters containing explosive odor (hits on “pos- operational analysis. an “ignore” response (filter is negative), where- ment availability for hits could have produced a bias toward indicating, activities from adjacent rooms through internal one-way glass windows. itive” filters). However, as a key use of REST All REST agencies use a training system in as signal availability to the right of C will result producing a positive correlation between hit and false-alarm rate. If, how- The filters were a PVC core wrapped in mosquito netting and housed is for uncontaminated land release, REST which hits on positive benchmark filters are in an “indication” response (filter is positive). ever, the reinforcement-rate manipulation for hits altered the dog’s sensi- inside a PVC tube (known as the “Mechem” filter, named for the manu- must also deliver reliable decisions on filters reinforced, typically using a toy or food. Cor- Sensitivity (d’) is determined by the separation tivity to the signal, we would expect a negative correlation between hit and facturer). not containing explosive odor (correct rejec- rect rejections of negative filters are not rein- between the peaks. Greater separation should false-alarm rate. In other words, increasing reinforcement for hits would Procedure Sampling. Unused filters were contaminated with air to tion of “negative” filters). A filter analysis pro- forced because they do not provide a discrete result in greater accuracy because positive fil- either have been expected to cause a bias toward indicating or to improve produce positive filters (filters believed to contain the odor from one or duces four possible outcomes (See Table 1), of behavioral unit (the detector moves past the ters are less easily confused with negative. the dog’s ability to discriminate between positive and negative filters. more landmines) and negative filters (filters believed to be free of explo-

conditions [F(2, 15) = 0.89, p >.05]. However, Weeks Reinforcement Level Percentage of Hits Reinforced ters because the reinforcer for blank runs was not contingent upon a dis- Figure 6 ( on page 68) shows that false-alarm 6-10 Low 20-30 crete response, such as sitting. Zero to three positive filters were present 100 10 rate was lowest during the medium-reinforce- on the carousel among the remaining negative filters. 11-27 Medium 35-50 ment rate condition for four of the six dogs, After the summer break, training recommenced for all six dogs in 80 8 28-33 High 60-75 and for the mean. Week 2 of 2005 and continued for four weeks before experimental ma- Zante Stavros 60 6 Discussion T able 2: Experimental conditions. nipulations. At this point, reinforcement frequency for correct indica- r = -.77* r = -.32, NS Hit rate and false-alarm rate were overall sive odor but containing other neutral odors from similar locations). Air tions on positive filters was manipulated by providing a reinforcer, such 40 4 significantly negatively correlated. was added to the filters by placing the filters at the end of a long stain- as a click from the clicker and food or access to a ball, on only some Thus, as hit rate increased, false alarms de- less-steel tube subject to continuous suction via a vacuum-pump ma- correct indications (intermittent reinforcement). This can be contrast- 20 2 creased. According to signal-detection theory, chine worn as a backpack. The filter was held close to the ground and ed with earlier training stages where reinforcing every correct indica- 0 0 these negative correlations are to be expected swung to the left and the right of the pump operator as he slowly walked tion is common in order to aid learning (continuous reinforcement). All if the distance between the noise peaks and the a 100-meter distance. Filters were considered positive if the pump op- other variables were held constant, including the number of negative fil- 100 10 signal-plus-noise functions changed. In other erator passed within 1 meter of a buried landmine and negative if no ters available on the carousel, and reinforcement for correct rejections words, the correlations between hit and false- landmines were present within 100 meters of the filter during sampling. of negative filters. 80 8 Tan alarm rate were caused either by changing dis- The landmines were a range of anti-tank and anti-personnel mines com- Table 2 shows the experimental conditions. From Weeks 6 to 10, 60 Zulu r = -.42, NS 6 criminability between positive and negative monly found in Angola. The mines were laid between 0 and 10 centi- hit reinforcers were held at a “low” level (20 to 30 percent of hits were r = -.34, NS filters, or by changing the dog’s sensitivity to meters (0–4 inches) beneath the ground surface for a minimum of six reinforced), from Weeks 11 to 27 at a “medium” level (35 to 50 per- 40 4 the odor, and not by changing response bias months before they were used for sampling. A total of 275 mines were cent) and from Weeks 28 to 33, at a “high” level (60 to 75 percent of (decision criterion). Given that the filters’ dis- available for sampling. All sampled filters were stored inside small PVC hits were reinforced). 20 2

Hit rate (%) criminability was not manipulated, the likely containers, and positive filters were stored separately from negative fil- 0 0 reason for the negative correlation between hit ters until analysis to avoid odor cross-contamination. Results and false alarm rate was the dog’s increasing Analysis. The dogs searched filters on the carousel between 8 a.m. A decision for each filter from each dog was obtained. Signal-detec- 100 10 (%) rate False Alarm sensitivity due to changes in the overall rein- and 1p.m., Monday through Friday, taking rest breaks when required. tion theory terminology was used to define the four analysis results pos- forcement rate for hits. After preparation of the carousel, each dog was brought to the carousel sible for a filter: hit (indication on a positive filter), miss (no indication on 80 8 Rusty This result suggests that the experimen- room’s door in a sequential but random order. When the dog was calm, a positive filter), false alarm FA( , indication on a negative filter) and cor- 60 Retzina r = -.40, NS 6 tal method’s nature, reinforcing hits and not the handler instructed the dog to “search,” and the dog handler stepped rect rejection (CR, no indication on a negative filter). Hits, misses, false r = -.40* correct rejections, does not produce chang- behind a wall out of the dog’s view. The dogs walked unaccompanied, alarms, and correct rejections were summed for each week for each dog 40 4 es in the dog’s response bias. In other words, off-lead, in an anti-clockwise direction around the carousel, sniffing and used to calculate hit rates [(hits / (hits + misses) *100] and false- greater reinforcer availability for hits did not each filter consecutively. The dog exited the room after it had correct- alarm rates [(FAs / FAs + CRs)*100]. 20 2 cause a bias toward indicating. Instead, in the 0 0 present experiment, low reinforcement rates 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 for hits produced poorer performance on neg- d' 100 10 C ative and positive filters, while medium and high reinforcement levels produced more ac- 80 8 Hit Rate Mean curate responses on both filter types. In the 60 r = -.72* 6 FA Rate present experiment, performance peaked under the medium level of hit reinforcement. In- N S + N N S + N 40 4 creasing the reinforcement frequency beyond 20 2 this medium level did not result in greater accuracy on positive or negative filters. One im- 0 0 plication of this finding is that procedures to 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 improve the REST system’s accuracy should focus on increasing the animals’ hit rates, and Week that any hit rate increase will be accompanied by a false-alarm rate decrease. F igure 4: Hit (red circles) and false-alarm (yellow circles) rates calculated as percentages for Manipulating reinforcement ratios is one Probability Probability of occurrence each week for all six dogs and for the mean across dogs. Vertical dotted lines show changes way to alter an animal’s response accuracy. in reinforcement level for hits from low, to medium, to high from left to right across the x-axis. Another way is through the experimental pro- Pearson correlation coefficients are given for each dog, and for the mean, and are significant cedure itself. The current procedure was a “go/ Explosive-odor intensity (p<.05) unless shown (NS). no-go” procedure, whereby animals indicat- F igure 3: Hypothetical noise and signal-plus-noise distributions in a sensory discrimination task according to signal-detection theory. The left panel ed, by sitting, the presence of explosive odor demonstrates discriminability (d’) as the distance between the means of the two functions. The right panel illustrates the animal’s response criterion but made no response to filters containing no (C), which dissects the two functions and can shift to the left and right as a function of response bias. for all individual dogs and significantly so for two of the six dogs. All r values are shown in Figure 4. Figure 5 (on page 68) displays the data used to calculate the mean correlation and clearly shows explosive odor. Such a procedure producing a bias toward indicating, rather than ignoring, ly indicated a positive filter by sitting next to it and hearing the condi- Figure 4 shows hit and false alarm rates for all individual dogs, and a strong negative relationship between hit and false-alarm rate, in that, as hit rate increases, false- is possible because ignoring is not explicitly tioned reinforcer (clicker), or when the dog handler called it from the for the mean across all dogs, as a function of week. When actual rein- alarm rate decreases. reinforced. Alternatively, due to the greater room. Reinforcement was occasionally available for hits (indicating a forcement rates were found to deviate from planned reinforcement rates, Weekly hit and false-alarm rates for each dog, and for the mean, were grouped according to numbers of negative filters (between 94 per- known positive filter). The reward most often delivered was small pieces these data were removed, and are therefore missing from Figure 4. Pear- reinforcement-rate condition (low, medium, and high). These data are shown in Figure 6 (on page cent and 99 percent of filters were negative), of dry dog food and sometimes access to a ball or squeaky toy. A reward son correlation coefficients were used to test the relatedness of hit rate 68). A one-way analysis of variance indicated that hit rates in the three groups differed significant- 9 the dog’s behavior could become biased to- was occasionally delivered following a “blank” run (a run containing to false-alarm rate shown in Figure 4. A significant, negative correlation ly [F(2, 15) = 5.34, p < .05]. A Fisher’s LSD post-hoc test showed that the medium and high rein- ward ignoring because it is the most frequent- only negative filters), if the dog correctly ignored all filters. However, the appeared between mean hit rate and mean false-alarm rate (r = -.72, p = forcement rates produced significantly higher hit rates than the low reinforcement rate condition, ly-required response. An analysis of bias, using reward may not have acted to reinforce correct responses to negative fil- .000). The correlation between hit and false-alarm rate was also negative but that the medium and high conditions did not differ significantly from one another in terms of hit rate. No significant difference in false-alarm rates were found across the three reinforcement [log b = ½ log (FA / Hits)(CR / Miss)], showed

4 Zante The Advanced Intelligence Decision 90

3 4 80 Support System for the Assessment 70 2 of Mine-suspected Areas 3 4 After completing a Ph.D. in psychology, 90 Zulu Rebecca J. Sargisson was a Research Several research and development projects have been created to utilize airborne and spaceborne remote sensing 2 3 Consultant at the Geneva International for mine action, but the Advanced Intelligence Decision Support System is the first mine-action technology 80 Centre for Humanitarian Demining from 2003 to 2006 working on many aspects of the use 2 to successfully combine remote sensing with advanced intelligence methodology. The result is a rigorously 70 of dogs in demining. Sargisson is currently 1 False Alarm Rate (%) False Alarm employed by the University of Waikato, New operationally validated system that improves hazardous risk assessment for greater efficiency in land cancellation 4 Zealand. She remains interested in dog re- 70 80 90 100 90 Retzina search but is also researching issues related and release. This article discusses the components of the AI DSS system and its achievements in mine action. to children’s play and playground design. Hit rate (%) 3 F igure 5: Mean hit rate as a function of 80 by Milan Bajić [ University of Zagreb ] false-alarm rate. A straight line has been fit Rebecca J. Sargisson

to the data to illustrate the pattern repre- 70 2 Senior Tutor sented by the datum points. University of Waikato Private Bag 2105 4 Stavros Hamilton 3240 / New Zealand 90 Tel: +64 7 856 2289 that the behavior of four of the six dogs was bi- 3 Fax: +64 7 838 4300 80 ased toward indicating, and this bias strength E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://waikato.ac.nz decreased as reinforcement for hits increased 70 2 for all six dogs. The behavior of two dogs was Mean FA rate (%) rate FA Mean Mean hit (%) rate Mean biased toward ignoring, and this bias was un- 4 Tan affected by reinforcement-rate manipulations. 90

Thus, the present procedure appeared to not 3 produce consistent effects on response bias, 80 Hit rate nor did it produce bias in one direction over 70 FA rate 2 another. Instead, each dog tended to maintain

a fairly reliable preference for either indicat- 4 Rusty ing or ignoring, and biases toward indicating 90 were counter-intuitively reduced by increas- Ian G. McLean worked at the 3 Geneva International Centre for ing reinforcement availability for correct in- 80 Humanitarian Demining, conducting re- dications. search on landmine-clearance systems, 70 2 REST programs should include ongoing studying the environmental influences monitoring of response bias, so they can re- on demining and developing the Remote 4 dress any imbalance. Manipulation of rein- Mean Explosive Scent Tracing system. McLean 90 has taught environmental policy and wild- forcement rates can eliminate response bias 3 life management at the Universities of more easily in procedures where responses to 80 Otago and Waikato in New Zealand, and positive and negative filters are directly rein- is currently raising his two children and forced. In procedures where responses to only 70 2 consulting on environmental issues. one type of filter are reinforced, such as in the Low Medium High Ian G. McLean present REST system, response bias may be Tel: +64 7 544 9703 eliminated by careful manipulation of the ra- Reinforcement level E-mail: [email protected] tio between positive and negative filters. REST programs should seek to determine the opti- F igure 6: Mean hit (red circles) and false- A pplication of AI DSS in the community. Figure 1.1 (left): The state of the mine-suspected area (56 square kilometers) before the project. (Legend: mum ratio for their procedure and animals, alarm (yellow circles) rate for each dog crossed pink for undergoing clearance, striped pink for undergoing survey, yellow if used on owner’s responsibility, blue if excluded from MSA.) and maintain this ratio while continuing to and for the mean in each of the three Figure 1.2 (right): The state of the MSA after the application of AI DSS, as carried out by CROMAC. Note the MSA reduction in the southern part monitor ongoing response bias. reinforcement conditions (low, medium, of the MSA polygon at the ridge of Velebit Mountain. (Legend: crossed pink for undergoing clearance, striped pink for undergoing survey, yellow if and high). used on owner’s responsibility, blue if excluded from MSA.) Other factors which affect the overall accuracy of animals’ responses concern the ongstanding research into aerial and spaceborne remote sensing for called Non-technical Survey) and reduction of mine-suspected areas10 quality of the samples. Sampling can be opti- Author note: The authors conducted this re- mine action1,2,3,4,5,6,7 led to the creation of the first operational system while International Mine Action Standards define wider and more gen- mized in terms of filter material, climatic con- search while employed by the Geneva Interna- L for this purpose as recently as 2008–09.8 Although the remote sensing eral aspects of general mine-action assessment11 and land release.12 dition, avoidance of contamination, and so on. tional Centre for Humanitarian Demining. We methodology and technology were the system’s basis, only significant Once collected, filters should be handled to thank members of the REST team in Angola, es- use of the general-intelligence approach, known as the Space and Air- Development of AI DSS minimize cross-contamination. By maintain- pecially Andolosi Sanjala and Felisberto Joao, borne Mined Area Reduction Tools7 (SMART) system, made its substan- The Croatian Mine Action Centre tries to reduce mine-suspect- ing as clear a signal on the filter as possible, Birgitte Lauritzen and Rune Fjellanger for their tial operational success in mine action possible.9 ed areas10 by using conventional technologies such as General Surveys; the animal is given the best chance to obtain help. Norwegian People’s Aid, and the govern- Well-developed mine-action programs implement conventional however, the repeated use of these mechanisms eventually becomes in- high hit rates. ment of Switzerland through a grant to GICHD, technologies and standard operating procedures of General Survey (also effective and ground-based costly means (demining, Technical Survey) see endnotes page 82 funded the research.

57439 sq. m 1404520 sq. m 33080 sq. m

1899000 608500 sq. m sq. m

F igure 3: Changes of MSA at the ridge of the Velebit Mountain after the AI DSS project. (Legend: Crossed pink for undergoing clearance, 2604500 blue if excluded from MSA.) sq. m Minefield Area Reduction (ARC) project,6,7,13 and was successfully ap- Nevertheless, the airborne and spaceborne imagery processing and in- F igure 2.1 (left): Example of the area excluded from the MSA in the central part of the MSA in Gospic´, shown in Figures 1.1 and 1.2. Figure 3.1 plied in the first operational project.8 The statement of operational needs terpretation can still provide valuable evidence about the indicators of shows the state of the MSA before application of the AI DSS project. Figure 2.2 (right): The application of the project’s results by CROMAC. (Leg- will contain: mine presence and indicators of mine absence at the mined scene. end: crossed pink for undergoing clearance, striped pink for undergoing survey, yellow if used on owner’s responsibility, blue if excluded from MSA.) • The MSA’s analytical description and assessment When the system is implemented and results are collected and deliv- • Map reconstruction of the minefield polygons based on the avail- ered to the MAC, the next phase starts: application of the project results must then be used. CROMAC has tried to re- technology is not applicable (excluding man- system. This partnership proved very suc- able minefield records and other data in the Mine Information in the MAC. The project results in this phase need to pass the SOPs for 10 duce these costs by supporting the development ual demining and Technical Survey). Satellite cessful in Croatia and in BiH.8,17 System of the MAC result verification for General Survey within the MAC. Project results of more efficient technologies.7,6,13 imagery and multisensor airborne imagery • The subsystem for multi-level fusion and Derivation of general and particular requirements. Once the state- in Croatia show that this verification process increases benefits pro- 8 Hopes of such a cost-effective solution served as the data’s main sources. CROMAC’s multi-criteria, multi-objective processing, ment of operational needs is derived, the next step is developing two duced by the project. arose through the development of the SMART use of AI DSS has resulted in increased land and interpretation and production of out- requirement types: the general and the particular requirements for col- Assessing the terrain's impact. Observing terrain characteristics as system, an advanced intelligence system that cancellation/release and improved hazardous- puts, operated by remote-sensing scien- lecting new data to replace missing or unreliable data or for improv- a means for identifying indicators of mine absence has proved valuable. 7 projects such as the one funded by the Eu- risk assessment. AI DSS was applied in Croatia, tists and researchers from the Faculty of ing information quality. The general requirements include analyzing In the SMART project report from 2005, only several kinds of indi- ropean Commission from 2001–04 have op- and its application is underway in Bosnia and Geodesy at the University of Zagreb.16 data on mine barriers, exploring mine incidents, analyzing military and cators of mine absence were considered, so the addition of terrain fea- 8 erationally validated.7 The methodology of Herzegovina.17 Other countries could benefit from SMART’s generic methodology and its U.N. demining records and maps, and examining land conditions where tures as indicators of mine absence marked one AI DSS advancement. SMART used a general approach to the infor- its use as well through regional cooperation and theoretical background are presented in sev- military operations occurred. The particular requirements are a set of In the community of Gospić, one of the three communities in Croatia mation sources, made the role of the mine- capacity-building efforts.9,18 eral references.7,15,14 Therefore only AI DSS hypotheses based on available data sources in the MAC, and they pres- where the project was implemented, the Velebit Mountain ridge was in scene interpreter easier and introduced expert advancements that go beyond the SMART ent desired results of the AI DSS application. In Croatia, due to envi- the MSA (see Figure 1.1 and 1.2 on page 69) with sparse evidence of the knowledge management, although the major- Advanced Intelligence Methodology system are described in the following sections. ronmental changes at the scene that happened after the minefields were minefields and military positions. The terrain’s slopes are the main fea- ity of efforts focused on processing and inter- and Technology Generating the statement of needs. The laid, along with a lack of available data, only a percentage of the particu- tures for the accessibility evaluation and were analyzed for Velebit (see preting the aerial and satellite imagery.7,14 The AI DSS is a system and technology that intelligence applied in AI DSS serves to re- lar requirements and hypotheses derived in CROMAC were achievable. Figure 3) in Gospić and are shown in Figure 4. The AI DSS application Unfortunately, though recognized as po- combines the following main subsystems: construct the spatial, temporal and situational results provided evidence that enabled CROMAC to exclude an MSA at tentially helpful operationally, SMART was • Analytic assessments and derivation of state at the scene during and after the mine- the Velebit Mountain ridge, except on several small areas (see Figure 3). not successful as an integrated system that statements of operational needs about the laying process. It starts with a data overview— Evaluating quality of data/information. The quantitative evaluation could be used with other mine-action tech- data availability and quality, and informa- information existing in the MAC’s Mine of the data quality, information and knowledge (from here on referred nologies. In an effort to reconcile the intelli- tion in the Mine Information System and Information System. If military maps and/or to just as data) is one of AI DSS’s important functions. It should cover: gence system with operational purposes, our Geographic Information System of the other military documents are available (e.g., • Data provided by the Mine Information System of the MAC experience and work on several research and MAC. The experts within CROMAC made orders, commands and reports), they are used • Data collected and derived in AI DSS by airborne multisensor acqui- development or Technology Demonstration these assessments and derivations.8,17 to define the situation at the MSA. Also, oper- sition, by use of satellite multispectral imagery, derived contextual projects allowed us to develop a cost-effective • The airborne multisensor acquisition sys- ational division experts in the MAC derive the information and experts’ knowledge solution, the Advanced Intelligence Decision tem and satellite imagery usage, which statement of operational needs as the set of re- Evaluation of AI DSS sourced data will be considered later. The evalua- Support System,9 which incorporates the ge- provide new data about an MSA’s state, quirements related to the missing, incomplete tion of the Mine Information System sourced data should assess the prob- neric methodology of the SMART intelligence such as the indicators of mine presence or low-quality data, and methods and technol- ability of the data’s accuracy, confidence and completeness as the main system with the processes of hazardous-risk and indicators of mine absence, with high ogies that can be used for their collection or features of data quality; these are considered in the following sections. assessment and land release.9,13,15,16 accuracy and confidence.13 The scientists for improving their quality. Not every MAC Minefield records. Minefield records, if available, are usually the In 2008–09, the AI DSS was implemented from the Faculty of Geodesy at the Univer- uses this process; it was developed and defined F igure 4: This diagram displays the correlation between the degree of most valuable sources of minefield data. In Croatia and in BiH, the slope and the area of MSA at the ridge of Velebit Mountain. The total sity of Zagreb, in cooperation with other minefield records have similar structures and usually have 39 vari- and proved effective in three Croatian com- only for the needs of the earlier research and area of MSA on Velebit’s ridge is 23.64 sq km, with 4.36 sq km of that munities where conventional ground-based researchers and pilots, applied this sub- development projects, SMART and Airborne land having a slope of greater than or equal to 35 degrees. ables (e.g., cartographical data, minefield characteristics, number of

Military maps. Military maps, if they exist and are available, can Indicators of Mine Presence (IMP) Importance provide information about the war history on the considered terrain and Minefi eld records 1 improve understanding about the spatial and temporal distribution of Mine accidents 2 the units and the minefields. The most usable—although rarely avail- Table marking of the minefi eld 3 able—are the maps of the engineers’ activities; they contain details of the spatial and temporal placement of minefields. The maps of higher Fortifi cations 4 ranked military personnel contain less data about the minefields but can Trenches 5 provide contextual information about the scene. Separation lines, distri- Bunkers 6 bution of subunits and engineers’ preparation support the scene recon- Natural objects modifi ed to serve for fi re action 7 struction and can provide the spatial frame for the detected indicators Dry wall (in a battle area) 8 of mine presence or mine absence. Shelters for artillery, vehicles, infantry 9 In the operational project in Croatia,8 military maps became avail- Bridges, passes of water ways 10 able at the middle of the project, and their contribution was not used for Dominant hill 11 the whole area or at every point during the project. In the operational Edges of forest 12 project in BiH,17 the military maps were not available at all, but demin- Fords 13 ers who participated in the war reconstructed the battle-situation maps. Helicopter landing area 14 Besides the military maps, auxiliary map sources can include mem- Roads not in use (in a battle area) 15 oirs of former military commanders. Although edited for publishing, these memoirs can add missing spatial, temporal and situational con- Abandoned overgrown areas 16 textual information. In the operational project in Croatia,8 the memoirs Demolished houses (in a fi rst front line) 17 were used in the analytic assessment of the MSA status and helped to Observation posts (usually for hunting) 18 better understand the MSA site’s behavior. Indicators of Mine Absence (IMA) Importance Houses in use 1 Areas in use 1 Roads in use 1 Step terrain, slope greater than 30 degrees 1 F igure 5.1 (left): Digital orthophoto map scale 1:2000; aerial images acquired in 2006. Figure 5.2 (right): Satellite image of the same area, acquired in 2006. Trenches (long zigzag line) are clearly visible. T able 1: A list of the indicators of mine presence, indicators of mine absence and importance rank given by an expert for the MSA in the community of Gospic´.8 landmines, etc.)8,17 while in other countries— Aerial digital orthophoto maps as sources • The MSA borders delineated the dig- Azerbaijan, for example—the records are not of indicators of mine presence. Aerial digital ital orthophoto area at the fine scale Multisensor aerial imagery acquisition. The multisensor aerial sys- 8 available. The records sometimes have sketch- orthophoto maps, if they exist, are very im- (1:2000). Due to this mistake the digi- tem used in mine action’s first operational remote-sensing project and 17 es of the minefield. portant for AI DSS application. They serve as tal orthophoto maps did not cover areas in current use, was developed and realized in the project funded by the 13 It is widely known that minefield records the cartographic reference that optimizes spa- outside the official MSA. Note that in Ministry of Science, Education and Sports of the Republic of Croatia are seldom complete and that their accuracy tial accuracy of AI DSS products. In the prep- Gospić, 6 sq km was added to the previ- (Figures 7.1 and 7.2). The installation on the aerial platform (helicopters and confidence are not high enough. At the aration phase for AI DSS application they can ously determined MSA, and the digital Mi-8 and Bell 206, airplane Cessna 172R) takes less than two hours. The MAC, experts reconstruct polygons of the be an auxiliary data source for strong indica- orthophoto map did not cover this area. system enables imagery acquisition in the strip mode and in a sequence minefields on the map and consider all data tors of mine presence, e.g., trenches, bunkers, • The radiometric compression decreased of the frames. Width of the strip is 30% of the flight altitude above the available in the minefield records, military shelters, unused paths, bridges, etc. However the digital orthophoto map utility for terrain. The cruising speed is from 90 to 130 km/h; endurance is up to maps and documents. The 39 variables of the the digital orthophoto maps alone are not suf- remnants-of-war detection. 4h 15min (platform Mi-8). This is an electro-optical acquisition system F igures 7.1 (above) and 7.2 (left): Pod with sensors that covers wavelengths from 400 to 900 nm and from 8 to 14 µm, with minefield records differ: 21 of them are more ficient indicators of mine presence. The quality of the aerial digital orthophoto installed on the fuselage of the helicopters Mi-8 important than the others (e.g., position of the In the considered projects8,17 two types of map that has a ground resolving distance of and Bell 206. The moving map supports naviga- several sensors. The hyperspectral scanner in imaging mode provides a minefield, its shape, orientation and the ref- digital orthophoto maps were available: pan- 0.20 m is weaker for the detection of the rem- tion and acquired images are stored on the exter- strip mode image in 95 channels, in wavelengths 430 to 900 nm, using nal hard disks. Two or three operators control the erence point of the coordinates) for the spa- chromatic at the scale 1:5000 and color at the nants of war than the satellite image that has a a multispectral camera in visible and near infrared bands. The inertial aerial acquisition. The standard operating proce- navigational unit is integrated into the pod’s sensor system and enables tial, structural and temporal assessment of scale 1:2000. If the digital orthophoto maps are ground resolving distance of 1 m. dures that include pre-flight and post-flight opera- parametric geocoding of the hyperspectral scanner’s data. the minefields. acquired in different years, as was the case in tional calibration are developed for general aerial When CROMAC examined 122 MSA the 2008 International Trust Fund for Demin- multisensor imagery acquisition. The particular Extraction of data and formalization of experts’ knowledge. The minefield records in Gospić,8 completeness ing and Mine Victims Assistance project,8 they SOPs are developed for mine-action survey and preparation phase finishes after terrain analysis, after the multisensor surveillance of the sea oil spills are under continu- aerial imagery acquisition and after obtaining the satellite multispectral and positioning accuracy was compared for can serve as valuable tools for detecting changes ous advancement. 39 variables/21 variables/positioning accura- over time. The quality of the digital orthophoto imagery. The next phase is data extraction from these sources and in- cy, as estimated by experts, and was shown to maps in ITF’s project was limited due to the fol- formation-quality assessment. This phase also includes a formalization vary among the three. In previous R&D proj- lowing constraints: Derivation of requirements for acquiring data by aerial multi- of the experts’ knowledge, which provides contextual information cor- ects7,6 the quality of the minefield records was • The acquisition time was wrongly select- sensor survey. The general and particular requirements derived by data related with the particular terrain. The objects that should be detected not considered. The importance of minefield- ed when vegetation (forests, agricultural analysis available in the Mine Information System of the MAC are tested are defined as the indicators of mine presence and the indicators of mine record quality is now recognized in the cur- fields) was high and leaves obscured the regarding vegetation and snow cover, as well as the expected indicators absence; this is a valuable contribution from the previous R&D proj- 2,5,6,7,16 17 of mine presence and indicators of mine absence, types, dimensions and ects (see example in Table 1). rent operational project. Further research of ground’s surface. This problem is a con- F igure 6: Example of the fortification ob- the variables’ behavior (completeness and po- sequence of the false assumption that shapes. The output of this process is a list of the objects the aerial mul- The data extraction is used by different remote-sensing interpreta- jects, remnants of war marked with arrows, tion methods and by subjective interpretation supported by different sitioning accuracy, relationship between vari- detecting fields in use by their owners triangles or circles visible on the aerial im- tisensor system is expected to detect. The airborne sensors’ operational ables, factor analysis, etc.) is underway and will lead to the most MSA reductions parameters will provide necessary spatial, spectral and radiometric res- techniques (imagery enhancement, feature mapping, principal compo- age that was acquired in April 2009 at the 8,17 new statistical models are expected. (see Figures 5.1 and 5.2). MSA community of Gospic´.8 olution in imagery, as well as the surveyed area’s spatial coverage. nent analysis, etc). Experience from the operational projects shows

that the subjective computer-assisted indicators of mine presence ex- respective confidences reach high thresholds. Mine Action Centre Advanced Intelligence Decision Support System traction was the most efficient solution for the extraction of the rem- Multi-level fusion, fuzzy classification and hazardous-risk maps. MIS (mine fi eld records, incidents, accidents, MIS (Mine fi eld records, incidents, accidents, survey, nants of war and similar objects (see Figure 7 on page 72). There are The next step in processing data is rather complex; it includes multi- survey, QA). QA). Scanned maps scale 1:5000, 1:2000, aerial Scanned maps scale 1:5000, 1:2000, aerial digital ortho more efficient classification methods for indicators of mine absence level fusion, data fuzzification, fuzzy classification, multi-criteria and digintal ortho photo maps scale 1:5000, 1:2000 photo maps scale 1:5000, 1:2000 extraction that usually cover larger areas. The goal of the considered multi-objective decision support processes. Also, danger maps and the only for MSA. Satellite maps at the scale 1:5000 for areas of MSA and activity is extract indicators of mine presence and indicators of mine maps of the confidence and stability must be produced. The original outside of MSA. absence with high probability and at the same time provide very high source for these terms is SMART7 and will not be discussed here. For Aerial digital elevation model (DEM) for 3D Aerial digital elevation model (DEM) for 3D visu- vizualisation of the terrain. alization of the terrian. Aerial and satellite DEM for confidence. For this purpose, we use images from one, two or more im- CROMAC, the most pertinent information was the map of proposals quantitative spatial analyses of the terrain and for 3D Milan Bajic´, Ph.D, Lt. Colonel (Ret), is Pro- 16,8 agery sources until the accuracy of the detection and/or classification for the MSA exclusion and inclusion. See Figures 8.1 and 8.2 for the visualization. fessor of Remote Sensing at the Facul- of the indicators of mine presence, indicators of mine absence and their map of the indicators of mine presence and indicators of mine absence. Scanned military maps. Scanned military maps. ty of Geodesy at the University of Zagreb, War history data, data about explosive barriers. War history data, data about explosive barriers. Croatia. He led Croatian teams in the Eu- Analytic assessment of the mine suspected area (MSA). ropean Commission’s R&D projects about Statistical evaluation and quality assessment of all data airborne remote sensing for mine action used in AI DSS: completeness, probability, confi dence, (SMART, ARC), in the national technolo- sensitivity. gy project that led to AI DSS use in Croatia Detection and extraction of the indicators of mine and a similar project in Bosnia and Herze- presence (IMP) and mine absence (IMA) in the satel- govina. He has authored more than 40 sci- lite images, airborne multisensor images, digital ortho- entific papers, a book on radar antennas and photo map (DOF) (if usable). Assessment of quality, several papers presented at conferences. confi dence. Collecting and processing of the contextual data and Prof. Milan Bajic´, Ph.D. information. Faculty of the Geodesy University of Zagreb Formalization of experts’ knowledge: membership Kac˘icéva 26 function, relative importance of IMP. 10000 Zagreb / Croatia Quantitative spatial analyses of the terrain. Detection Tel: +385 98 460 917 and extraction of the indicators of mine absence (IMA) E-mail: [email protected] Processing of the multisensor aerial and satellite imagery. Detection and extraction of the strong indicators of mine presence IMP. Classifi cation and extraction of indicators of mine presence IMP and absence IMA. As- sessment of detection probability and confi dence. Delivery of the AI DSS results: danger map, confi dence map, proposal for reduction, for re-categorisation, for inclusion areas into MSA, maps of confl icts between MIS and AI DSS results. Application of the results delivered by AI DSS. Feedback to AI DSS, assessment of the cost-benefi t ra- Exclusion from the MSA, inclusion in MSA, tio. Evaluation of the collected new experience, inclu- recategorization. sion into the methodology of the AI DSS. T able 2: This table shows the difference in functions between the MAC and the AI DSS. New content is shown in red.

Functionalities of the AI DSS and CRO- • Exclusion of 28 sq km from 56 sq km of along with other countries choosing to im- MAC. Between the processes of the General MSA (i.e., MSA reduction) plement the system (such as BiH), is moving Survey in CROMAC10 and the Advanced In- • Inclusion of 6 sq km in MSA, new areas that closer to fulfilling the Ottawa Convention’s telligence Decision Support System8,17 com- were not registered before in the Mine In- Article 5 goals. monalities exist in their functions and data. formation System as hazardous risk areas see endnotes page 82 However AI DSS also introduces new func- • Re-categorization of areas inside MSA tionalities, as seen in Table 2. (e.g., from “minefield” to “for survey”) Thanks to the Ministry of Science, Educa- Similar activity started in June 2010 for tion and Sports of the Republic of Croatia, AI the community of Bilje; the results should be DSS was developed and realized in 2007–08 Implementation Results in Croatia available in late autumn 2010. as an operational system under one of its tech- The three Croatian communities where nology projects.13 Financial support was pro- AI DSS was implemented had 104.97 sq km of vided by the Office of Weapons Removal and MSA and nearly 46 sq km outside of the MSA Conclusions Abatement in the U.S. Department of State’s prior to the project. The proposals for reduc- The Advanced Intelligence Decision Sup- Bureau of Political-Military Affairs with as- ing MSAs with the highest level of accuracy port System has met an important mine-ac- sistance from ITF, which supported operation- and reliability resulted in a suggested MSA re- tion community need: finding a cost-effective alization and advancement of the AI DSS in duction of 7.67 sq km to 23.34 sq km, and cer- way to improve land cancellation and release. Croatia in 2008–09 and has a project under- tain areas were proposed for MSA inclusion.8 The AI DSS cost-benefit ratio compared to that way in Bosnia and Herzegovina. CROMAC The project results were delivered in Septem- of other systems aiming to exclude areas from provided data, information and expertise in ber 2009 to CROMAC so it could make deci- MSA proved more than 140:1. AI DSS is the mine action as crucial operational support for sions about MSA additions and reductions in first system to combine airborne and space- the project. The AI DSS is the result of con- accordance with its standard operating proce- borne remote sensing with advanced intelli- tinuous efforts of many researchers, mine-ac- dures.10 In July 2010 the AI DSS process results gence for MSA assessment in an operationally tion experts, Croatian Air Force and Defense F igures 8.1 and 8.2: Indicators of mine presence and mine absence (except for Velebit Mountain in the southern part) shown over the MSA in Gos- as applied to the community of Gospić, Croa- effective way. The system also enables a more pilots, research institutions, academia and 19 pic´. For Velebit Mountain, please see Figure 3 (on page 71). The map that visualizes conflicts of statements between MIS of MACs and the results tia, were available. See Figures 1.1, 1.2, 3, 8.1 efficient resource allocation (minimizing cost- fruitful cooperation between Croatian and of the AI DSS project are also very suitable for further application of AI DSS results in MACs.16 A similar experience was obtained by the map that and 8.2 for the map of Gospić. The results of ly Technical Surveys and demining in nonhaz- European scientists. It was our privilege and shows detected indicators of mine presence and indicators of mine absence on the MSA as shown in the figures above. its successful application in Gospić were:8 ardous areas). Because of this success, Croatia, pleasure to work with all of them.

Probability-of-detection ranging from 0% to 100% indicate how often targets are found, and a higher value indicates a better performance. False-alarm rate shows how many false positive indications (false alarms, alarms from other than target) are obtained in one square meter, and a lower value indicates better performance. False-alarm rate reduction indicates how many false alarms the GPR use decreases the number of false alarms found with the metal-detector alone. False-alarm rate reduction of 100% means that GPR use successfully discriminates and rejects all false alarms, and 0% means that no false alarms are rejected. This measure directly relates to efficiency improvements. ITEP Evaluation of Metal Detectors Probability-of-detection loss indicates how many mines detected by the metal-detector part are falsely identified as metals and rejected by and Dual-sensor Detectors the GPR. A 0% probability-of-detection loss means all mines are correctly recognized as mines, and a 100% probability-of-detection loss means all mines are falsely rejected. This measure is directly related to Since its development in the early 1970s, scientists from an array of disciplines have found reason to utilize the safety of deminers. ground-penetrating radar to create radar images of the subsurface. The following article examines how GPR use Probability-of-detection and false-alarm rate can be calculated at two stages of the dual-sensor detector’s operation: after using only the O bjects used in the test. From left to right: metal clutter (ammuni- in combination with standard metal detectors could aid workers in the field of demining. metal-detector feature and after using both sensors. On the other hand, tion belts, cartridges, bullets) and mine-like targets (Gyata-64, PPM- false-alarm rate reduction and probability-of-detection loss can only be 2, ERA calibration target). by Kazunori Takahashi [ Leibniz Institute for Applied Geophysics ] and calculated after using both sensors. This means that both can be con- Photo courtesy of BWB Dieter Gülle [ Federal Office of Defense Technology and Procurement ] sidered to be performance measures of the dual-sensor detectors’ GPR sensor. no mine will be missed, but also no false alarms will be rejected, mean- Note that in this data analysis, unlike previously-conducted standing both probability-of-detection loss and false-alarm rate reduction are n ITEP dual-sensor detector test, led by the Bundesamt für Weh- also tested. Operated by two scientists in the test, the stand-alone GPR alone metal-detector trials, metal pieces are considered a source of false very low. This is due to the fact that the device only provides informa- Artechnik und Beschaffu (BWB), Germany’s Federal Office of De- system is not specially designed for demining but for general non-de- alarms, not true positives. In this data analysis, only mine-like objects tion on the objects, and this information must be interpreted by the op- fense Technology and Procurement, took place September–October structive testing purposes. Since the stand-alone GPR is not integrated are considered the source of true positives (see Table 1 below from our erator. Thus, the decision is entirely up to the operator. Nevertheless, the 9 2009 in Germany.1,2 Analysis of the test results clearly confirmed that with a metal detector, the system followed various models of stand-alone earlier article). This is because dual-sensor detectors are supposed to figure clearly shows that GPR itself is potentially capable of discriminat- the tested dual-sensor detectors reduce false alarms and that their met- metal detectors and performed only discrimination. Therefore, the de- discriminate mines from metals. In this article, this categorization is ing landmines from metal pieces. However, from the operational point al-detector parts are not deteriorated, in comparison to the base model tection performance of the stand-alone GPR cannot be discussed, and applied to stand-alone metal detectors as well so that their results can be of view, probability-of-detection loss must be kept as low as possible. of a stand-alone metal detector used along with the GPR part of a dual- only the discrimination performance is demonstrated. directly compared to those of the dual-sensor detectors. sensor detector. The test was a blind test: The detector operators did not know the lo- 1 8 Results In this article, a dual-sensor detector refers to a combination of a cations or the object types. Dual-sensor operators first used the met- 0.9 metal detector and GPR. The combination allows the detection and al-detector part of the device for detecting mine-suspected objects and To demonstrate an overview of the detectors’ performance, results 0.8 identification of metal-containing objects; this combination is expect- switched over to the GPR for discriminating mines from metals. Two shown in this article are averaged overall soil types. These results, as well 3 ed to contribute to the reduction of false alarms and, consequently, im- colors of markers were used to indicate the location and object type as detailed interpretations, will be in the test report. 0.7 prove clearance-operation efficiency. This article provides an analysis (mine or metal) found in the search with a dual-sensor detector. Opera- Figure 1 shows probability-of-detection versus false-alarm rate of 0.6 and overview of the test results. The test’s detailed descriptions, as well tors of stand-alone metal detectors simply used one color of markers. ALIS and stand-alone metal detectors. The metal-detector part of ALIS as the results, can be found in the test report which will be available on- After each test run, marker positions were measured with total stations. (blue dot) achieved a result similar to its base metal detector (CEIA 0.5 line soon.3 MIL-D1, light blue cross). This result indicates that the metal-detector POD Data Analysis performance integrated in ALIS is not deteriorated by the combined 0.4 Test Conditions Data collected in the test was analyzed in the same way as analyzed GPR, and it is still as good as the base metal detector. The metal detector 0.3 A test site was constructed at a BWB facility in Oberjettenberg, Ba- in “Data Analysis and Performance Evaluation of Japanese Dual-Sensor part of ALIS declared approximately 2.5 false alarms per square meter, CEIA MIL−D1 and using the GPR sensor reduces it to about 1.4 false alarms, denoting 0.2 Ebinger 422GC varia, Germany. Three types of soil were prepared: laterite, magnetite Systems tested in Croatia” from The Journal of ERW and Mine Action, Minelab F3S and humus. Laterite is a reddish clay loam with low stone (basalt) con- Issue 13.3.9 Detection capability is evaluated by calculating probabili- a 45% reduction. Consequently, the false-alarm rate obtained by ALIS is 0.1 ALIS − MD ALIS − MD+GPR tent. The soil has a very high magnetic susceptibility and is frequen- ty of detection and false-alarm rate, and discrimination performance lower than any other stand-alone metal detector tested in the campaign. Since the metal detector is the primary sensor in ALIS, the detection 0 cy dependent. Thus, it often causes metal detectors to give false alarms. is evaluated by false-alarm rate reduction and probability-of-detection 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 Magnetite, the second soil type, is coarse sand mixed with engineered loss. The measures are defined as follows: performance depends entirely on the base metal detector. In the soils FAR [1/sq.m] magnetite. The soil has a very high magnetic susceptibility but no fre- used in this test, the base metal detector achieved the lowest probabili- Number of false alarms F igure 1: Probability-of-detection versus false-alarm rate of ALIS and quency dependence. The third soil type is a loamy soil with a relatively FAR = ty-of-detection among all tested detectors. Therefore, the probability-of- stand-alone metal detectors, in all soil types averaged. The error bars high humus content—about 10%. Test-soil properties are described in Area searched detection obtained by ALIS is also low, but this is due to the base metal show 95% confidence bounds. For ALIS, the dot and circle indicate detail in an accompanying report.4 Three types of mine-like targets, in- detector’s performance. before and after discrimination respectively. cluding rendered-safe mines, were planted in the soils: ERA calibration Number of rejected false alarms by GPR False-alarm rate reduction and probability-of-detection loss are FAR reduction = plotted in Figure 2. The stand-alone GPR (red cross) achieved a remark- target, Gyata-64 and PPM-2. In addition, various sizes of metal pieces, Number of false alarms by metal detector Figures 3a and 3b (on page 78) shows false-alarm rate reduction and such as bullets and cartridges, were buried as metal clutter. The burial ably high false-alarm rate reduction, indicating that approximately 90% probability-of-detection loss as a function of depth. As a tendency, ALIS depths ranged from 2 to 15 centimeters (0.78 to 5.90 inches). of the false alarms are correctly identified. Furthermore, the false-alarm and the stand-alone GPR achieved lower false-alarm rate reductions and Number of detected targets An advanced landmine-imaging system developed by Tohoku Uni- POD = rate reduction by ALIS is much lower, meaning more metal pieces were higher probability-of-detection losses at shallow depths, which confirms versity, Japan5,6 participated in the test. Cambodian deminers, who were Number of buried targets misidentified and left as mines by ALIS as compared to the stand-alone the results in a former test.10 The depth dependency looks weaker for trained by Tohoku University and attended previously conducted tests, GPR. On the other hand, the stand-alone GPR missed more mines than ALIS, especially at the shallowest depth range of 0–3 centimeters in both 7 Number of rejected targets by GPR ALIS. It is difficult to grade the devices because the results can change false-alarm rate reduction and probability-of-detection loss. This vari- operated the dual-sensor detector. For the comparison, various mod- POD loss = els of commercial metal detectors, including the base metal detector of Number of detected targets by metal detector with each operator. If an operator is afraid of missing mines and re- ance might be due to the difference in signal processing employed in the ALIS (CEIA MIL-D1), as well as a commercial stand-alone GPR, were ports mines for all metal-containing objects the metal detector signals, systems and the GPR data’s representation to the operators. The stand-

1 be equal to the search time plus the time for excavation (and other processes). The search time can be expressed as the time for searching one 0.9 metal-containing object (ts) multiplied by the number of objects found, x. In a similar manner, the time for excavation can be expressed as the 0.8 time for excavating one object (te) multiplied by the number of objects, x. Assuming ALIS needs twice the search time of a stand-alone metal 0.7 detector for detection and identification of one object, but reduces false

0.6 T0 = tsx+tex

0.5 alarms by half, the total work time using ALIS (T1) can be expressed as:

If T0 > T1, we obtain te > 2ts, which means that the clearance operation 0.4 is expected to be accelerated if the excavation process for one object re- FAR reduction 1 T = 2t x+ t x T able 1: Differences in categorization of sources of alarms for stand-alone metal detectors and dual sensors. 0.3 1 s 2 e detection loss) for dual-sensor detectors. If an sonnel who have trained for a short period of 0.2 quires more than twice the time necessary for finding one object, un- area is assessed as dificult for dual-sensor by time appear significant in search speed and der the assumption that rejected false alarms will not be excavated. For ALIS the investigation, a dual-sensor should not be performance. 0.1 the sake of humanitarian demining, rejected false alarms may also need Stand−alone GPR used and other methods should be employed. The dual-sensor test allowed us to evaluate checking, but it can be done quickly if the detected objects are identified The search speed is directly related to the ef- detection and discrimination performance in 0 as non-explosive items like Boshoff and Cresci showed with the Hand- 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 ficiency improvements, and the higher the a blind test. Although a very rough estimate held Standoff Mine Detection System.12 Even taking into account rapid search speed, the more improvements can be of the efficiency improvements has been made, POD loss excavation to accelerate the process, the situation may be realistic, espe- achieved. The test results indicate that dual- other factors need consideration for the de- F igure 2: False-alarm rate reduction versus probability-of-detection cially in heavily metal-contaminated areas. Kazunori Takahashi is a Research Sci- loss found in the discrimination process in all tested soil types aver- sensor detectors are twice as slow as stand- tailed assessment such as excavation time, de- A study shows that the most common activity at the time of an inci- entist at the Leibniz Institute for Applied aged. The error bar shows 95% confidence bounds. alone metal detectors. Even so, the clearance tector costs, and training and practice costs. Geophysics in Hannover, Germany. His dent is excavation.13 Using a dual-sensor detector to reject metals can- operation can be accelerated if a certain num- Only a long-term field trial can evaluate these research activities include development alone GPR displays almost raw data11 as a vertical slice of the subsurface, not reduce the potential risk of the excavation process because detected ber of false alarms are reduced. Furthermore, factors. and evaluation of dual-sensor systems for whereas ALIS constructs horizontal slices by applying a number of sig- landmines must be taken out anyway. However, the amount of this humanitarian demining, investigations of an additional attempt in this test indicated In the test campaign, stand-alone metal nal processing operations. As a result, ALIS may be able to obtain more stressful work can be reduced, and it may help deminers concentrate soil influences on demining sensors and that operators of dual-sensor detectors who detectors that possess the capability of dis- GPR-system development, as well as sig- robust information on targets than the stand-alone GPR through the soon their tasks. have more experience and knowledge working criminating objects were also tested. The nal processing for subsurface sensing. phisticated processing. with the device can work as fast as operators evaluation is not discussed in this article, but Figure 4 shows the averaged search speeds of ALIS and stand-alone Discussion and Conclusions Kazunori Takahashi using stand-alone metal detectors. However, readers interested in these devices can find the metal detectors operated by newly trained vs. experienced personnel. The test results confirm that dual-sensor detectors can reduce false Research Scientist this fact also indicates that more training and/ results in the test report.3 ALIS required nearly double the metal detector’s time. In other words, alarms as compared to stand-alone metal detectors, which indicates Leibniz Institute for Applied Geophysics or practice is necessary for dual-sensor de- see endnotes page 83 Stilleweg 2 ALIS was twice as slow as the stand-alone metal detectors. In this test, potential efficiency improvements in clearance operations. However, a tector use when compared to standard metal 30655 Hannover / Germany only detection and discrimination were performed. Excavation and few issues in need of consideration came up during the test and data detectors. The advantages of experienced per- Tel: +49 511 643 3572 confirmation of detected objects, which corresponds to the steps 4 and 5 analysis, such as probability-of-detection loss, search speed and train- Fax: +49 511 643 3665 in the Boshoff and Cresci Journal of ERW and Mine Action article, “The ing. From observation, dual-sensor detectors can correctly reject false E-mail: [email protected] Website: http://www.liag-hannover.de HALO Trust and HSTAMIDS,” were not included.12 Therefore, assess- alarms, but they also sometimes falsely reject mines. This seems to hap- 15 ing the efficiency improvements of the entire clearance operation with pen especially at shallow depths (see Figure 3b), but it also appears re- a dual-sensor detector in detail is impossible based on the obtained related to the soil type.14

sults. However, a rough estimate can be made as follows: Let T0, the total Investigating soil properties and screening out unfavorable soil time necessary for the entire clearance operation with a metal detector, types can help to minimize the false rejection of mines (probability-of-

1 1 ALIS 10 0.9 0.9 Stand−alone GPR

0.8 0.8 Dieter Gülle is a retired colonel who has 0.7 0.7 worked since 1995 in different positions connected with minefield survey, clear- 0.6 0.6 ance operations and clearance-equipment testing. He represented Germany in the 0.5 0.5 5 International Test and Evaluation Program

POD loss for Humanitarian Demining as head of the 0.4 0.4 Search speed [min./sq.m] FAR reduction ITEP Secretariat. He is currently a consultant to the Federal Office of Defense Tech- 0.3 0.3 nology and Procurement in Germany. 0.2 0.2 Dieter Gülle 0.1 ALIS 0.1 Consultant Stand−alone GPR Federal Office of Defense 0 0 0 Technology and Procurement 0 3 6 9 12 15 0 3 6 9 12 15 ALIS MD MD mfr Stubenrauchstr 65d / Germany Depth [cm] Depth [cm] Tel: +49 306 366 418 F igure 4: Average search speed of ALIS and stand-alone metal detectors in minutes per E-mail: [email protected] F igures 3a and 3b: False-alarm rate reduction and probability-of-detection loss as a function of depth in all soil types averaged. The dashed lines square meter. The labels “MD” and “MD mfr” indicate metal detectors operated by trained show 95% confidence bounds. operators and the manufacturers, respectively.

https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/cisr-journal/vol14/iss3/1 40 78 research and development | the journal of ERW and mine action | fall 2010 | 14.3 14.3 | fall 2010 | the journal of ERW and mine action | research and development 79 JOURNAL: The Journal of ERW and Mine Action Issue 14.3 The Bridge from Hold to Build, Escalante [ from page 12 ] ly/a4vP29. Accessed 17 June 2010. UAE did not respond to the initial message. tion Programme of Afghanistan. May 2010. http://bit.ly/alCdH7. 1. To Walk the Earth in Safety. 2010. Office of Weapons Removal and 8. Kerimoglu, Rey. “Tartar Regional Vocational Training Centre 3. Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness and the Accra Agenda for Accessed 30 June 2010. Abatement in the U.S. Department of State’s Bureau of Political- Was Opened.” International Eurasia Press Fund. 3 April 2010. Action. Organization For Economic Co-operation And Develop- Military Affairs (PM/WRA). http://tiny.cc/jyblf. Accessed 20 http://bit.ly/b3xz38. Accessed 17 June 2010. ment. http://bit.ly/AvgX. Accessed 11 October 2010. Bosnia and Herzegovina Demining 15 Years Later, Grujić September 2010 9. “Deborah Netland of the US Department of State Visits IEPF Of- 4. The GICHD study did not explore new funding avenues for de- [ from page 43 ] fice in Tertar Region.” Side-Talks Azerbaijan. 29 October 2009. velopment activities in mine-affected communities, for which 1. U.N. peacekeeping force UNPROFOR had originally arrived in Destruction of Cluster Munitions in Moldova, King http://bit.ly/3XYOS0. Accessed 17 June 2010. there may be significant opportunities. 1992, and Security Council Resolution 1031 discussed the trans- [ from page 15 ] 10. Perry, Debra. The Basics of Vocational Assessment: A Tool for Find- fer of authority. 1. Berlin Conference on the Destruction of Cluster Munitions. Ger- ing the Right Match Between People with Disabilities and Occupa- UN Portfolio of Mine Action Projects, McCoull [ from page 35 ] 2. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) operation that be- man Federal Foreign Office and Geneva International Centre for tions. ILO, Bangkok. http://bit.ly/a1156Q. Accessed 17 June 2010. 1. Country Portfolio Directors initially were solely U.N. officials, gan 12 April 1993 Humanitarian Demining. 25 - 26 June 2009. http://bit.ly/d7CK- 11. Professional Development Framework for Vocational Skills of VET but some NGOs and national authorities have become more in- 3. The Implementation Force (IFOR) was a NATO-led multination- uw. Accessed 1 September 2010. Practitioners. 1st Edition 2009. Government of Western Australia volved. Due to greater involvement in such mine action projects, al force in Bosnia and Herzegovina under a one-year mandate 2. An electrical squib is a small electrical explosive device which Department of Education and Training. http://bit.ly/djor5l. Ac- these NGOs and countries have had leaders and experts of their from 20 December 1995 to 20 December 1996. through detonation can be used to ignite other explosives. Black cessed 17 June 2010. agencies named as Country Portfolio Directors. powder is an explosive combination of sulfur, charcoal and po- 12. Tartar Regional Vocational Training Center. http://bit.ly/bH- 2. “Overview.” Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian De- Mine Action in Northern Sudan, Hamed [ from page 46] tassium nitrate, also known as saltpeter. 8p0I. Accessed 17 June 2010. mining. http://tinyurl.com/6lah3h. Accessed 7 October 2010. 1. “The background to Sudan’s Comprehensive Peace Agreement.” 3. Millennium Development Goals. For more information: http:// UNMIS. http://bit.ly/aoeQFW. Accessed 05 October 2010. Albania Makes Progress in Demilitarization, Goodyear Mine Action Development Funding in Bosnia and Herzegovina, un.org/millennium. Accessed 1 October 2010. 2. “Sudan.” E-mine Electronic Mine Information Network. http:// [ from page 19 ] Carrier and Powell [ from page 28 ] 4. United Nations Development Assistance Framework (UNDAF). bit.ly/cgjD9r. Accessed 24 August 2010. 1. “AMAE Response to Gërdec Tragedy.” Albanian Mine Action 1. “Guidelines for grant applicants: Support to Mine Action in United Nations Development Group. For more information: Executive. March 2008. http://tinyurl.com/394qpj8. Assessed 27 BIH.” The Delegation of the European Union to Bosnia and Her- http://undg.org/?p=232. Accessed 11 October 2010. Mine-action Program in South Sudan, Mathiang [ from page 49 ] September 2010. zegovina, 12 July 2009. p. 4. Call for Proposals Number: EC/BIH/ 5. E-mail from Gustavo Laurie, United Nations Mine Action Ser- 1. “The Background to Sudan’s Comprehensive Peace Agreement.” 2. Demilitarization is the full range of operations from demolition CFP/09/001. http://bit.ly/a23mfY Accessed 5 October 2010. vice, 9 August 2010, sent on behalf of the HQ Portfolio Team UNMIS. http://tinyurl.com/246yw4d. Accessed 08 September to industrial dismantling. 2. The authors thank the project team and partners for support- (UNMAS, UNDP and UNICEF). 2010. 3. In open detonation, additional explosive charges are added to ex- ing this pilot intervention and constantly searching for positive 6. “Aid Policy: Money for mine action is hard to come by.” Integrat- 2. “Government of Sudan Presidential Decree No. 25/2006.” Gov- plosives and munitions to detonate and destroy them. solutions to recurring issues related to the integrated mine action ed Regional Information Networks. http://tinyurl.com/2bmhroj. ernment of Southern Sudan, Office of the President. Internal 4. “Albania.” To Walk The Earth In Safety, 8th Edition, U.S. Depart- development approach. Accessed 11 October 2010. document. 27 June 2006. ment of State, Bureau of Political-Military Affairs, June 2009 3. “Landmine Contamination: A Development Imperative,” Social 7. Landmine & Cluster Munition Monitor. http://lm.icbl.org. Ac- 3. The United Nations Mine Action Office. Internal document. (Page 27). http://tinyurl.com/39l9zt8. Accessed 27 September development notes, World Bank, October 2004. p. 3. http://bit. cessed 11 October 2010. 4. Conversion as of 27 October 2010. 2010. ly/cXRuCJ. Accessed 5 October 2010. 8. In addition, the overall problem is diminishing because of ef- 5. The Office of Weapons Removal and Abatement in the Depart- 4. From a mine-action institutional perspective, a key area of fective mine-action efforts having been undertaken and an in- Falkland Islands Demining Pilot Project: Completion of Phase 1, ment of State’s Bureau of Political-Military Affairs (PM/WRA) concern revolves around the need for the national mine-action ternational normative framework being in place. However, this Swanson [ from page 54] provides funding to the International Trust Fund for Demining center to differentiate formal mine action (that must be super- does not mean that funding flows should cease but that the focus 1. Although a territory of the United Kingdom, Argentina says it and Mine Victims Assistance, which is managing the Gërdec vised) from “uncontrolled” development intervention in mine- can now be on finishing the job in more and more cases, with has a right to the islands, which it calls the Malvinas, because site clearance. The Dutch government supported the Albanian affected areas. For example, when a development organization national authorities taking the lead, according to UNDP. it inherited them from the Spanish crown in the early 1800s. It Army EOD with equipment and demolition firing systems. Dan- implements a standard priority needs assessment in a mine- 9. The Comprehensive Peace Agreement Between the Government has also based its claim on the islands' proximity to the South ChurchAid and the United Nations Development Programme contaminated area, mine-action institutions may interpret it as of The Republic of The Sudan and The Sudan People’s Liberation American mainland. It has stressed that its claim to the territory also assisted immediately following the accident with mine a mine-action activity conducted without accreditation and/or Movement/Sudan People’s Liberation Army. The Comprehen- is nowadays entirely peaceful. For more information: http://tiny. clearance through Albanian Mine Action Executive. http://bit. without respecting the existing standard operating procedures. sive Peace Agreement, or Naivasha Agreement, ended the Sec- cc/azd1b. Accessed 4 October 2010. ly/boOmcj. Accessed 4 October 2010. A solution is possible: The organization conducting development ond Sudanese Civil War between the Sudan People's Liberation 2. Kuklick, Cory. “Falkland-Malvinas Islands Update” The Journal activities in mine-contaminated areas should be aware of mine- Movement and the Government of Sudan. http://tinyurl.com/ of ERW and Mine Action, Issue 14.1. (Spring 2010: 65-66). http:// The Terter Regional Vocational Training Center, Nwolisa action procedures while mine-action institutions should focus y5y5ut8. Accessed 11 October 2010. bit.ly/9HdNC7. Accessed 8 August 2010. [from page 23 ] their supervisory role on the five official mine-action pillars and 3. The Feasibility Study can be found in PDF version under Item 1. Professional Development Framework for Vocational Skills of related national procedures, namely advocacy to universalize the 10 “General Exchange of Views” at the 8th Member States Party VET Practitioners. 1st Edition 2009. Government of Western The Mine Action Programme of Afghanistan, Reza Anti-personnel Mine Ban Convention, assistance to landmine (MSP) meeting in Jordan on 18 November 2007 under Argentina Australia Department of Education and Training. http://bit.ly/ [ from page 39 ] survivors/victims, clearance of mined areas, mine-risk educa- 1. Bolton, Matthew. Foreign Aid and Landmine Clearance: Gover- or U.K. http://bit.ly/bT2S7O. Accessed 8 August 2010. djor5l. Accessed 17 June 2010. tion, and stockpile destruction. nance, Politics and Security in Afghanistan, Bosnia and Sudan. 4. This information was in the form of documents turned over to References 5. Gasser, Russell (Dr.) and Music, Almedina. “Evaluation of the London: I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd, February 2010. the U.K. government by the Argentine military following its sur- 1. “Landmines: Major Public-Private Partnerships.” U.S. Depart- UNICEF Mine Risk Education Programme in Bosnia Herze- 2. Portfolio of Mine Action Projects. (2007, Tenth Edition.) United render; and when they were found to be credible, they allowed ment of State Bureau of Political-Military Affairs. http://bit.ly/ govina 2007.” Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Nations Mine Action Service. http://bit.ly/aDYQga. Accessed 30 the technical surveys and subsequent clearance to be properly cpV4Bq. Accessed 17 June 2010. Demining. October 2007. p. 11. http://bit.ly/98tPDL. Accessed 6 June 2010. targeted and conducted 2. Nwolisa, Nick. “Azerbaijan Mine Victim Association: The Sto- October 2010. 3. In Afghanistan, marking is only carried out when minefields are 5. BACTEC employed Roger Gagen and Kev Bryant as Project and ry So Far.” Journal of Mine Action, Issue 12.1 (Summer 2008). under active management for survey or clearance. On other sites, Ops Manager repectively plus 37 Zimbabwean and 15 Lebanese http://bit.ly/auYUKp. Accessed 17 June 2010. it is not considered a helpful long-term protection measure due demining personnel. 3. UN Marked Mine Awareness Day in Azerbaijan Jointly With Vil- Mine-action Funding: GICHD Survey of Donor Countries, to the risk of materials being removed or moved. 6. A mixed mine panel is one which contains both anti-personnel lagers and Local Partners in Borsunlu Village Situated Near Cease- Devlin and Naidoo [ from page 32 ] 1. Landmine Monitor Report 2009: Toward a Mine-Free World An- 4. “Afghanistan.” Landmine Monitor Report 2001. New York: Inter- mines and anti-vehicle mines. fire Lines. 2 April 2010. http://bit.ly/cQdP6B. Accessed 17 June nual Report. International Campaign to Ban Landmines. The national Campaign to Ban Landmines. http://bit.ly/bfc36Z. Ac- 7. Centimeter accurate survey similar to, but better than, Differen- 2010. 2009 Landmine Monitor refers to total external funding amount- cessed 30 June 2010. tial GPS. 4. Jalalov, Musa and Sadigov, Vagif. “Mine Risk Education: The Ef- ing to US$517.8 million in 2008. http://bit.ly/c2uKtd. Accessed 5. “Afghanistan.” Landmine Monitor Report 2003. New York: 8. This was a separate BAC task designed to check the area south of fective Way to Save Lives.” Journal of Mine Action, Issue 7.3 (De- 11 October 2010. International Campaign to Ban Landmines. http://tinyurl. the Sapper Hill minefield which was a cluster-munitions strike cember 2003). http://bit.ly/aBD8HQ. Accessed 17 June 2010. 2. Australia, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, the European Commis- com/2d5xxxe. Accessed 30 June 2010. during the conflict. 5. “Azerbaijan.” Landmine Monitor Report 2009. http://bit.ly/ sion (EC), Finland, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, 6. The Integrated Operational Framework is published annually 9. This was a technical survey BAC task designed to check the com- d9RX2e. Accessed 17 June 2010. the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, and is available on the MACCA website at www.macca.org.af. plete area of a cluster-munitions strike during the conflict. It only 6. Azerbaijan Mine Action Programme Mine Victim Assistance, the United Kingdom and the United States. Canada stated it was The current Afghan calendar year 1389 runs 1 April 2010–31 represents 10 percent of the headland area released as cleared. one of the Pillars of the Humanitarian Mine Action. unable to respond at this time as it is undergoing a review, and March 2011. 10. The U.K. also laid a small number of minefields some time after 7. Azerbaijan Mine Action Strategy 2009–2013. ANAMA. http://bit. China, the Czech Republic, France, South Africa, Spain and the 7. “Mine Action Programme of Afghanistan Newsletter.” Mine Ac- the conflict ended but these were subsequently cleared by U.K.

Published by JMU Scholarly Commons, 2010 41 80 endnotes | the journal of ERW and mine action | fall 2010 | 14.3 14.3 | fall 2010 | the journal of ERW and mine action | endnotes 81 The Journal of Conventional Weapons Destruction, Vol. 14, Iss. 3 [2010], Art. 1 military personnel in the mid-1980s. 6. Coren, S., Ward, L. M., & Enns, J. T. (1999). Sensation and and Methodology,” Geneva, Switzerland; 6–8 September 2010. http:// Program for Humanitarian Demining. (April 2010). http://tiny. 11. The DPO was provided by C King Associates Ltd. Perception (5th ed.). Orlando, Harcourt College Publishers. tinyurl.com/2cpwut7. Accessed 2 November 2010. cc/s965w. Accessed 12 October 2010. 7. Goldstein, E. B. (1989). Sensation and Perception (3rd ed.). 10. Standard Operating Procedure. Survey of Mine Suspected 2. Borry, F. “An Update on the ITEP Program and Activities.” The Strengthening the Demining Sector Response to HIV/AIDS California, Wadsworth. Area and/or Buildings. 0.1, Area Reduction in MSA 01.04. Journal of ERW and Mine Action, 12.2 (Winter 2008/2009: 98- in Sub-Saharan Africa, Chitsama [ from page 57 ] 8. O’Toole, A. J., Bartlett, J. C. and Abdi, H. (2000). A signal Croatian Mine Action Centre, November 2009. http://tinyurl. 100). http://tiny.cc/g8t0g. Accessed 12 October 2010. 1. “The origin of AIDS and HIV and the first cases of AIDS.” Avert. detection model applied to the stimulus: Understanding com/39s9r6n. Accessed 14 October 2010. 3. Takahashi, Kazunori; Gülle, Dieter. ITEP Dual-Sensor Test http://tiny.cc/xnr6p. Accessed 2 November 2010. covariances in face recognition experiments in the context of 11. IMAS 08.10, General mine action assessment, Second Edition, September/October 2009. Will be available soon at http://www. 2. Landmine Monitor Report 2007 and 2009. http://the-monitor.org. face sampling distributions. Visual Cognition, (pp. 7, 437–463). UNMAS (1 January 2003). http://tinyurl.com/2ftrcz2. Accessed itep.ws or http://gichd.org. A summary is currently available at Accessed 19 October 2010. 9. When an analysis of variance (anova) gives a significant result, 2 November 2010. http://tiny.cc/b9efy. Accessed 12 October 2010. 3. “Sub-Saharan Africa.” Aids Epidemic Update 2009 (November this indicates that at least one group differs from the other 12. IMAS 08.20, Land release, First Edition, UNMAS (10 June 2009). 4. This radar type’s performance capability is strongly dependent 2009). http://tiny.cc/1yiln. Accessed 19 October 2010. groups. Yet, the omnibus test does not indicate which group http://tinyurl.com/2fdvhrw. Accessed 2 November 2010. on the site’s soil electrical conductivity. If the soil conductivity 4. “Post exposure prophylaxis and pre-exposure prophylaxis.” differs. In order to analyze the pattern of difference between 13. Fiedler, T., M. Bajić, D. Gajski, H. Gold, N. Pavkovic, D.I. is high, the radar signal’s attenuation in the soil can severely Avert. http://tiny.cc/pz0a4. Accessed 2 November 2010. means, the anova is often followed by specific comparisons, and Milosevic. System for the Multisensor Airborne Reconnaissance restrict the radar signal’s maximum penetration depth. For cart- 5. “Landmine Removal: Restoring Land, Restoring Lives.” United the most commonly used involves comparing two means (the and Surveillance in the Crises Situations and the Protection mounted radars, 150 MHz is a typical center frequency; however, Methodist Committee on Relief. http://bit.ly/cUyc02. Accessed so-called “pairwise comparisons"). In 1935, Fisher developed the of Environment. Faculty of Geodesy University of Zagreb, 300 and 500 MHz are sometimes used for shallow, high- 29 October 2010. first pairwise comparison technique called the least significant Technology project TP-006/0007-01, supported by the Ministry resolution probing, and frequencies as low as 20 MHz are used 6. “Barrick Gold’s Tanzanian Corporate Health Responsibility: difference (LSD) test. This technique can be used only if the anova of Science, Education and Sports of the Republic of Croatia, for locating deep caves or mine tunnels. For more information: The Lake Zone Health Initiative.” Republic of Mining. Home to F omnibus is significant. The LSD’s main idea is computing the Zagreb, 2007–08. (Document in Croatian) http://bit.ly/cnYBnW. Accessed 12 October 2010. nine million residents, Tanzania’s Lake Zone wraps around Lake smallest significant difference (i.e., the LSD) between two means 14. Acheroy M., Yvinec Y., 2008, “Mine-suspected Area Reduction 5. Preetz, H., Takahashi, K., and Igel, J. “Physical Characterisation Victoria and spans seven regions, including the Kahama and as if these means had been the only means to be compared (i.e., Using Aerial and Satellite Images,” in book edited by Maki K. of the Test Lanes in the ITEP Dual Sensor Test.” Oberjettenberg/ Mara districts. http://tiny.cc/qifak. Accessed 2 November 2010. with a t test) and to declare significant any difference larger than Habib: Humanitarian Demining: Innovative Solutions and the Germany 2009. Leibniz Institute for Applied Geophysics. 7. “Circumcision Gains Ground as Anti-AIDS Measure.” AolNews. the LSD. For more information: http://utdallas.edu/~herve/ Challenges of Technology. I-Tech Education and Publishing, (February 2010). http://tiny.cc/04aju. Accessed 12 October 2010. http://tiny.cc/zro0q. Accessed 24 September 2010. abdi-LSD2010-pretty.pdf. Vienna, Austria, February 2008. http://tinyurl.com/3yfklcm. 6. Takahashi, K., and Sato M. “ALIS – A Hand Held Dual-Sensor 8. “Male Circumcision for HIV Prevention.” World Health Accessed 23 September 2010. with Imaging Capability.” Mine Action Technology Newsletter. Organization. : http://tiny.cc/tu449. Accessed 2 November 2010. The Advanced Intelligence Decision Support System for the 15. Baji, M., H. Gold, T. Fiedler, D. Gajski. Development of a No. 9. (January 2009). http://tiny.cc/3la0v. Accessed 12 October 9. IMAS 10.40. Safety & occupational health - Medical support to Assessment of Mine-suspected areas, Bajić [ from page 75 ] Concept from 1998 and Realization of the System for the Airborne 2010. demining operations, First Edition. UNMAS (1 October 2001). 1. Engelhardt, F.R. Workshop on Remote Sensing of Anti-Personnel Multisensor Reconnaissance and Surveillance in Crisis Situations 7. “ALIS: Innovative Hand Held Dual Sensor for Humanitarian http://bit.ly/9MYogm. Accessed 2 November 2010. Land Mines, ENOVA Research applications, Ottawa, Canada. and the Protection of the Environment in 2007–2008. Proceedings Demining.” (2009). http://www.alis.jp/. Accessed 12 October References 2. Van Genderen, J., B. Maathuis. Pilot Project for Airborne Mine- of the first international conference on Remote Sensing 2010. 1. Mine Action Centers Angola, Mozambique, DRC, Sudan, Chad Field Detection in Mozambique, EC-DG8, UK, Netherlands, Techniques in Disaster Management and Emergency Response 8. Sato, M. “Evaluation Test of ALIS in Cambodia for Humanitarian 2. Interagency Coalition on AIDS and Development Luxembourg, Sweden, United Kingdom, Portugal, Belgium, in the Mediterranean Region, 22–24 September 2008, Zadar, Demining.” Proceedings of the SPIE Conference on Detection and 3. UNAIDS HIV/AIDS Report 2009 Germany, Norway, Angola project. Croatia, Ed. M. Olui, EARSeL, pp.401–410. http://tinyurl. Sensing of Mines, Explosive Objects, and Obscured Targets XV, 3. Bajić, M, Impact of Mine Polluted Area Characteristics on the com/2u462uv. Accessed 14 October 2010. 7664, April 2010. The Growing Threat to Humanitarian Operations, King Suitability of the Airborne Multisensor Mine Field Detection: the 16. Baji, M., L. Buhin, A. Krtalic, T. Cvetko, Z. Candjar, H. Gold, D. 9. “CEN Workshop Agreement, Humanitarian Mine Action - Test [from page 61.] Case of Croatia, Proceedings, Fourth International Airborne Laura, C. Matic, N. Pavkovic, D. Vuletic. Fusion of Data, a Priori and Evaluation – Part 1: Metal Detectors.” CWA 14747-1, June 1. Al Somood. The Struggle, Nov 2009. Islamic Emirates of Remote Sensing Conference and Exhibition/21st Canadian Information, Contextual Information and Experts’ Knowledge 2003. Afghanistan. Extract of an interview with a Taliban regional Symposium on Remote Sensing, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, 21– for Support of the Decision Making About Mine Suspected 10. Takahashi, K., Gaal, M., and Gülle, D. “Data Analysis and commander (translation by HMS Ltd). 24 June, 1999, pp. I779–I786. Area Reduction. Book of papers, International Symposium Performance Evaluation of Japanese Dual-Sensor Systems tested 2. “The Geneva Conventions of 1949: The Geneva Conventions 4. Bajić, M. Variability of the Landmine Fields in Croatia, a Challenge "Humanitarian Demining 2009," 27–30 April 2009, Šibenik, in Croatia.” The Journal of ERW and Mine Action, Issue 13.3 (Fall and their Additional Protocols are international treaties that for the Airborne Multisensor Mine Detection, 2nd International Croatia. http://tinyurl.com/2wky24c. Accessed 14 October 2010. 2009: 66-70). http://tiny.cc/1ljvv. Accessed 12 October 2010. contain the most important rules limiting the barbarity of Symposium on Operationalization of Remote Sensing, Enschede, 17. Deployment of the Advanced Intelligence Decision Support System 11. “Landmine Detection and Clearance.” The Landmine Action war. They protect people who do not take part in the fighting The Netherlands, 16–20 August, 1999, Proceedings on CD. for Mine Suspected Area Reduction in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Smart Book (December 2004). Mine Action Information Center. (civilians, medics, aid workers) and those who can no longer 5. Workshop on the Needs of Airborne and Spaceborne Data for International Trust Fund for Demining and Mine Victims http://tiny.cc/bahed. Accessed 12 October 2010. fight (wounded, sick, shipwrecked troops, prisoners of war).” Minefield Survey, EC Joint Research Centre, Ispra (VA), Italy, Assistance, Ig, Slovenia; HCR Center for Testing, Development 12. “Raw data" means "unprocessed data." It is very common to apply ICRC. http://tiny.cc/h0op1. Accessed 2 November 2010. 9–10 March 2000. and Training, Ltd., Zagreb, Croatia; Mine Action Center of some signal processing to GPR data, but the stand-alone GPR 6. Bajić, M., Beckel L., Breejen E., Sahli H., Schrotmeier D., Upsal Bosnia and Herzegovina, Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina. did not apply sophisticated processing. This simple processing The Effect of Reinforcement Rate Variations, M., Varas F.J., et a. Airborne Minefield Area Reduction - ARC, 2009–10. cannot drastically improve the data quality. Sargisson and McLean [ from page 68 ] European Commission Research Directorates General project 18. Annual Report 2009. International Trust Fund for Demining and 13. Boshoff, C., and Cresci, R. “The HALO Trust and HSTAMIDS.” 1. Fjellanger, R. (2003a). Remote explosive scent tracing – a method 2001–03, Information Society Technologies Programme, IST- Mine Victims Assistance, Slovenia. http://tinyurl.com/2aasvea. The Journal of Mine Action, Issue 12.1 (Summer 2008: 86-89). for detection of explosive and chemical substances. In M. Krausa 2000-25300, Brussels, April–May 2000. Vrije Universiteit Brussel. Accessed 14 October 2010. http://tiny.cc/8nux8. Accessed 12 October 2010. and A. A. Reznev (Eds.), Vapour and Trace Detection of Explosives http://bit.ly/awcdj7.Accessed 2 November 2010. 19. Laura, D., C. Matic, T. Cvetko. Results of the AI DSS Project in the 14. Smith, A. “Injuries that Occur In Humanitarian Demining.” for Anti-Terrorism Purposes (pp. 63–68). The Netherlands: 7. Yvinec, Y., M. Bajić, B. Dietrich, I. Bloch, S. Vanhuysse, E.Wolff, Community of Gospić, Croatia, 2010. Data from Mine Information Landmine Monitor Report 2001. New York: International Kluwer Academic Publishers. J. Willekens. Final Report, Space and Airborne Mined Area System of Croatian Mine Action Centre, Sisak, Croatia. Campaign to Ban Landmine. http://tiny.cc/n1i3g. Accessed 9 2. Fjellanger, R. (2003b). The REST concept. In I. G. McLean (Ed.), Reduction Tools, project SMART. European Commission IST- September 2010. Mine detection dogs: Training, operations, and odour detection (pp. 2000-25044, V3, Classification: Public, 20 April 2005. http://bit. ITEP Evaluation of Metal Detectors and Dual-sensor Detectors, 15. Takahashi, K., Preetz, H., and Igel, J. "Soil Characterisation and 53–105). Geneva: Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian ly/acOilZ. Accessed 2 November 2010. Takahashi and Gülle [ from page 79 ] Performane of Demining Sensors." 7th International Symposium Demining. 8. Deployment of the Advanced Intelligence Decision Support System 1. “ITEP Work Plan 2000-2009.” International Test and Evaluation Humanitarian Demining 2010, Sibenik, Croatia, April 2010. 3. Green, D. M., & Swets, J. A. (1966). Signal Detection Theory and for Mine Suspected Area Reduction, International Trust Fund for Psychophysics. New York, John Wiley. Demining and Mine Victims Assistance, Ig, Slovenia, and HCR 4. Brown, G. S. & White, K. G. (2005). On the effects of signaling Center for Testing, Development and Training, Ltd., Zagreb, reinforcer probability and magnitude in delayed matching to Croatia, 2008–09. For a glossary of common terms used in many of our articles, please view sample. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, (pp. 83, 9. Bajić, M., Tursic R. Operations with Advanced Intelligence Decision 119–128). Support System for Mine Suspected Area assessment in Croatia The Journal’s Common Terms and Definitions list 5. Commons, M. L., Nevin, J. A., & Davison, M. C. (1991). Signal and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Geneva International Centre for at http://tinyurl.com/JournalTerms. Detection: Mechanisms, Models, and Applications. New Jersey, Humanitarian Demining/United Nations Mine Action Service Lawrence Erlbaum. joint workshop “Merging Mine Action Technology https://commons.lib.jmu.edu/cisr-journal/vol14/iss3/1 42 82 endnotes | the journal of ERW and mine action | fall 2010 | 14.3 14.3 | fall 2010 | the journal of ERW and mine action | endnotes 83 JOURNAL: The Journal15.2 of ERW and Mine Action Issue 14.3 Call for Papers Deadline: February 15, 2011 Publish Date: Summer 2011

FEATURE Deminers on the Front Lines Our Feature section will tell the stories of deminers working in unusually dangerous situations, including places where non-state actors or local tensions are still causing pockets of con ict, or areas in which acts of terrorism, kidnapping and violence are common. What hazardous conditions are deminers overcoming every day to complete their work? What dangerous encounters have deminers experienced? How has the land- scape of humanitarian mine action changed with respect to security concerns in recent years? When have areas been deemed too hazardous for demining to continue? Are the experiences di erent in countries where mine action is carried out by militaries?

SPECIAL REPORT Information Management and GIS/Mapping This issue will also include a Special Report section on information-management issues as well as updates in the ﬁ eld of Geographic Information Systems and mapping. What information -management issues does the mine-action community struggle with today? How has information management for mine-action data changed over the years? What are the current best practices and what changes are still necessary? How are GIS and map- Landmine survivor and Peer Support Worker Mohamed Alisič helped ping techniques being used to inform data collection? How could they be used better? Kavara Mehmed, a mine survivor from Bosnia-Herzegovina, recover from depression and resume his occupation as a farmer. Photo by Paul Jeffrey/kairosphotos.com RESEARCH, TECHNOLOGY AND FOCUS DEVELOPMENT IN MINE ACTION Victim Assistance The Journal of ERW and Mine Action is soliciting articles for its peer-reviewed Issue 15.2 of The Journal of ERW and Mine Action will focus on Research, Technology and Development section, which appears in most issues the topic of Victim and Survivor Assistance. Articles related to of The Journal. All articles on current trends and developments in R&D will be services available to landmine survivors, their families and the considered for this section. communities where they live are requested. We are especially interested in articles regarding methodologies to help survivors SUBMISSION GUIDELINES: deal with psychosocial problems as well as physical injuries, including peer-to-peer support programs, and programs that Article length: 1,000–2,000 words submitted in digital format (i.e., Microsoft Word). help victims, survivors and communities regain socioeconomic R&D articles can be up to 3,000 words. independence. Individual victims’ stories of triumph, as well as Images/photos: Photos must be scanned at 300 dpi or better. Line art, graphics and submissions describing the efforts of organizations working with charts should be scanned at 600 dpi or better. Submit all graphics by e-mail or CD. these survivors, are encouraged. Also of interest are articles about When submitting photos you are giving e Journal permission to use the photos, with changes in the deﬁ nition and perception of who a survivor or proper credit, in any media or publication under CISR’s control now and in the future. victim is and how best to assist them, as well as how disability- Important: Please do not include images in your documents. e quality is too poor advocacy efforts have helped survivors on their roads to recovery. for printing. Contact information/bio: Articles must contain each author’s name and full contact reaD tHis: information at the end of the article (i.e., phone, e-mail and mailing address). Please e Journal Editorial Sta reserves the right to reject submis- include a headshot photo and biography (up to 60 words) of each author for inclusion sions that include text copied from other sources in part or as at the end of the article. Consider including credentials, books authored and other a whole. Works published previously and for which the author biographical information. retains publishing rights may be submitted, but e Journal requires the author provide noti cation of this when submitting Submit all materials to: the article and give contact information for the original publish- Editor-in-Chief, e Journal of ERW & Mine Action er so reprint permission may be veri ed. Reprinted submissions Center for International Stabilization and Recovery/MAIC with this information not provided up front may be rejected. James Madison University, MSC 4902 Please note that e Journal reserves all rights to content pub- 800 S. Main Street lished and requires noti cation and written approval before Harrisonburg, VA 22807 / USA content is used again by another source or publication. Authors Phone: +1 540 568 2503 / Fax: +1 540 568 8176 who submit articles to e Journal are expected to do so in good E-mail: [email protected] faith and are solely responsible for the content therein, including the accuracy of all information and correct attribution for quotations and citations. { To subscribe to e Journal, visit http://maic.jmu.edu/subscribe } For complete submission guidelines, please visit: http://maic.jmu.edu/journal/index/guidelines.htm.

Published by JMU Scholarly Commons, 2010 43