USE OF AGROFORESTRY PRACTICES IN SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION
A CASE STUDY OF KAGEYO SECTOR, GICUMBI DISTRICT,
RWANDA
BY
MUTONI JOAN
BEMJ10006/$1/DU
A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE AWARD
OF A BACHELOR OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN ENVIRONMENT
MANAGEMENT OF KAMPALA INTERNATIONAL
UNIVERSITY
May, 2011 DECLARATION
I Mutoni Joan, declare that all that is included in this work is my own effort and has not been presented by any other student for the award of a degree or its equivalent in this institution or any other. Where other individuals, groups, authors, organizations, reports and others have been used has clearly been indicated.
STIJDENT: MUTONI JOAN (BEMJI0006/8l/DTJ)
SIGNITURE
DATE: APPROVAL
This research report entitled Use of agroforestry practices in soil and water conservation; A Case Study of Kageyo sector, Gicumbi District, Rwanda”, is submitted to Kampala International University, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences with my approval as the Supervisor.
SUPERVISOR: MR.ORJSHABA R. AMMON
SIGNITURE
DATE’
ii DEDICATION
I dedicate this piece of work to my father Kabanda P.Claver and my mother Kabanda Annah whose heartfelt courage, kindness and love enabled me reach this far.
iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my sincere thanks to Almighty for the gift of life, wisdom and understanding He has given to me throughout my education.
On the same note my heartfelt gratitude to my parents, Kabanda P.Claver and Kabanda Annah whose financial, material and emotional support enabled me go through my learning time, with their all seasons combined efforts to make my carrier a success.
I am most gratefUl to Mr.Orishaba R.Ammon, who has been my supervisor, for his willingness to offer support, guidance and his deep understanding, without forgetting all my lecturers of the department of environment especially Mr.Omuna Daniel for your understanding, unreserved commitment, time and assistance towards the whole of my studies.
And my dearest sisters; Jacinta, Jeninah, Josephine, Sherry and my only brother Shema Justin, all I have to say thanks for your encouragement and prayers. I also thank all my colleagues and course mates of KJU, and I extend my thanks and gratitude to; R.Emmanuel, Immy, Donna, Emma, and Mugabe all I have to say may God bless you all for all your efforts intended towards this achievement. Finally, to all my friends who helped in which ever kind of way. May God reward your efforts.
iv TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION APPROVAL DEDICATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS viii LIST OFTABLES ix LIST OF PLATES
LIST OF APPENDIX ABSTRACT
CHAPTERONE INTRODUCTION 1 1.0 Background of the study 1 1.1. Statement of the problem 3 1.2 Objectives of the study 4 1.2.1 General objective 4 1.2.2 Specific objectives 4 1.3 Research questions 4 1.4 Scope of the study 4 1.4.1 Geographical Scope 1.4.2 Content Scope 4 1.4.3 Time Scope 1.5 Justification of the study 5
v CHAPTER TWO .6 LITERATURE REVIEW 6 2.0. Introduction 6 2.1 Introduction/definition of the concept 6 2.2 Historical back ground to agro forestry practices in Rwanda 7 2.3 Agro forestry systems and practices 8 2.3.1 Classification of agro forestry systems and practices 8 2.3.2 Agro forestry practices common in the tropics 14 2.4. Adoption of agro forestry practices 15 2.5. Soil degradation 15 2.5.1. Soil erosion 15 2.5.2. Loss of soil fertility 16 2.5.3. Soil conservation 16 2.6. Roles of Agroforestry in soil and water conservation 16
CHAPTERTHREE 23 RESEARCH METHODOLOGy 23 3.0 Introduction 23 3.1 Sample selection and samp!e size 23 3.2 study area 23 3.2.1 Location of the study area 23 3.2.2 Climate and relief of Kageyo sector 24 3.2.2.1 Economic activities 24 3.3 Research design 25 3.4 Data collection methods 25 3.4.1 Questionnaire 25 3.4.2lnterview schedule 26 3.4.3 Observation and photography 26 3.5 Data collection 26 3.6 Data analysis 26
vi CHAPTER FOUR .27 PRESENTATION OF THE RESEARCH FINDINGS 27 4.0 Introduction 27 4.1 Household characteristics 27 4.1.1 Age categories of the household heads 27
4.1.2 Education status of the household heads 28 4.2 Family income 28 4.3 Land size and its utilization 29 4.3.1 Means of land acquisition 29
4.3.2 Land utilization 30 4.3.3 Land location with respect to the hill 30 4.3.5 Motivation for growing trees and constraints 33 4.3.6 Soil erosion problems and solutions as cited by the respondents 34
4.3.7 Means of maintaining soil fertility 35 4.3.8 Suggestions to ensure promotion of agroforestry 36
CHAPTER FIVE 37
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 37 5.0 Introduction 37 5.1 Conclusions 37
5.2 Challenges faced 37 5.3 Recommendations 38
BIBLIOGRAPHY Appendix 1:A map of Rwanda showing administrative boundaries 41 APPENDIX 2: Questionnaire 42
VII ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
AF : Agro forestry
FAO Food Agriculture Organization
ICRAF : International Centre for Research in Agro forestry
ISAR : Institut des Sciences Agronomiques au Rwanda
MU : Kampala International University
MINECOFINE : Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning
MPTs : Multipurpose Trees Species
ORTPN : Rwanda Office of Tourism and National Parks
RADA ; Rwanda Agricultural Development Authority
REMA Rwanda Environment Management Authority
VI : is a Swedish word meaning “we”
VIII LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Agro forestry practices common in the tropics as listed by Nair (1989) 14
Table 2: Nutrient additions from trees 18
Table 3: Number of sampled households in the sector 24
Table 4: Age distribution of the respondents 27
TableS: Education level of the household heads 28
Table 6: Distribution of respondents according to the main source of household income 28
Table 7: Land sizes owned by the respondents 29
Table 8: Mode of land acquisition 29
Table 9: Utilization of the land 30
Table 10: Distribution of the respondents according to land location with respect to hills 30
Table 11: Distribution of farmers according to the possession of agroforestry species on their farms 31
Table 12: Distribution of agroforestry on surveyed farms 32
Table 13: Reasons cited by farmers for growing tress on their farm Figure 32
Table 14: Partners in tree planting 33
Table 15: Problems related to tree growing on farms 34
Table 16: Soil erosion problems 34
Table 17: Methods used for soil erosion control 35
Table 18: Means for maintaining fertility 35
Table 19: Suggestions to ensure promotion of agroforestry 36
ix LIST OF PLATES
Plate 1: Location of land with respect to the hill 31
Plate 2: Vegetation cover 33
x LIST OF APPENDIX
Appendix 1 Map of Rwanda showing the administrative boundaries 41
Appendix 2 Questionnaire 42
xi ABSTRACT A study on use of agroforestry practices in soil and water conservation was concentrated in Kageyo sector and the researcher visited all the 5 cells of; Gihembe, Horezo, Kabuga, Muhondo and Nyamiyaga. The objectives that guided the study included; to determine how farmers are using agro forestry practices; to identify the factors prohibiting agro forestry practices and to find out the suggestions and reconmiendations on how to promote agro forestry practices in soil and water conservation in the study area.
The methods used for data collection were questioimaires, oral interviews, observation and photography. To analyze data, the researcher used tables, pie charts, figures, as well as computer applications for data input and analysis. The researcher used a simple random sampling technique, where she was very careful not to repeat or replace any representative sample or respondents and the total of about 40 respondents were interviewed.
The study found out that the major benefits of agroforestry are; improving soil and water quality, restoring degraded forests, attenuate flooding effect, mitigation of climate change and reducing deforestation of natural forest among others. Small land sizes, lack of technical support and capital, lack of information by farmers on agroforesty strategies, lack of tree seed supply and market are the main constraints of practicing agroforestry .Rwandan environment has been impacted negatively by agricultural activities, but majority of the farmers in Kageyo Sector were young (below 50 years).This may have had a positive influence on adoption of agroforestry practices. And since recommendations have been put forward, the government, Non Govermnental Organizations and the local community are looked upon to come together and find out the best means to practice agroforestry CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Background of the study.
Rwanda fondly known as the land of a thousand hills is located in the Eastern part of Africa. It is bordered by the Democratic Republic of Congo to the west, Uganda to the north, Tanzania to the east and Burundi to the south.
Agrofrorestry has been practiced since ancient times to protect natural resources and increase food production. There are many definitions of agroforestry, it can be defined as sustainable land management system which increases the yields from land, combines the production of crop which includes the trees, crops and animals sequentially on the same piece of land. Development in the field of agroforcstry has been rapid since the early l980s (Bjom Lundgren, 1989).
Today, there is little need to promote agroforestry to a doubtful Scientific and development community. The rapidly expanding interest in agroforestry in recent years, witnessed by a myriad of research and development activities, leaves no doubt that agroforcstry as an approach to land development is now accepted by most, if not all, disciplinary scientists and development specialists. Increased concern at the highest international policy levels about the sustainability of agricultural development, in the light of the apparent rapid depletion of the natural resource-base, has brought agroforestry even further into the limelight. At the very heart of the question of sustaining agricultural production is the problem of soil conservation. Many scientists have explained the most authoritative analysis available up to now of the various hypotheses that trees and shrubs, if properly chosen and managed, have a potential to conserve the soil’s productive capacity. Soil conservation is not seen in its traditional, narrow sense of preventing water and wind erosion, but in the broader and much more important sense of maintaining soil fertility (Bjorn Lundgren, 1989).
A broader field is that of soil and water conservation, since reduction in water loss through runoff is an integral part of soil conservation. In turn, soil and water conservation form part of the wider aim of the conservation of natural resources, which covers also the conservation of
1 other resources, including vegetation (forests, pastures) and wildlife. Desertification is a term that has been widely misused. Properly applied, it refers to irreversible, or slowly reversible, reduction in the productive capacity of the environment in the semi-arid zone. The main symptom, and direct effect on productivity, is impoverishment of the vegetation (both total biomass and composition). Low biomass, however, is commonly caused by drought, and will recover by natural processes if there is no other form of degradation. It is where soil erosion has also become serious that the power of recovery of the plant cover is reduced, and the structure can be correctly referred to as desertification (Young, l984b; Baumer, 1987; Dregne, 1987).
In the context of land scarcity, efforts are being made to develop high performing species that integrate better with crops. Agroforestry techniques are among the solutions that can quickly restore the national landscape which, at present shows the tendency for desertification. It may also be necessary to carry out an inventory of available wood resources in the agroforestry system in order to better plan activities of this specific sub sector. The Rwandese forest landscape is dominated by Eucalyptus plantations which in the long run have greatly contributed to the reduction of fuel wood and service wood deficit. The before independence and are presently in poor condition due to soil degradation and poor management. There is need to convert these plantations and replace them with selected species matching respective ecological zones and types of soils. Some species for consideration include: Acacia mearnsii, Acacia melanoxylon and some species of Eucalyptus like Eucalyptus saligna, E. maideni, E. microcorys and E. grandis.
In order to save the remnant of this heritage, the ministry in charge of forestry with its partners in enviromnent (REMA, ORTPN, districts and donors) should intervene to carry out an inventory to locate all those forests and develop a management plan to identifying priority actions to be implemented for their conservation. Though often underestimated forest resources play an important role in the national economic growth and need to be given necessary attention. The lack of understanding of the impact of population growth on the forests resources has led to severe deforestation accompanied with a host of enviromnental problems in different parts of the country .Efforts to restore the degraded forests are on-going and results are encouraging. In this regard, out of the 30 districts, 15 have already prepared their District Forest Management Plans
2 with thnds from the African Development Banic, the Embassy of the Netherlands, Switzerland and FAO. Other districts are in various states of completion. The Government of Rwanda has set a target of increasing the national forest cover from the present 10 per cent to 30 per cent of the national territory by the year 2020. In order to reach this target, there is a need to combine efforts to increase the number of existing protected forests and to add to the number of tree plantations.
Rwandan environment has been impacted negatively by agricultural activities. In many forest areas trees have been cut down by suntunding people looking for cultivatable and grazing land. This has resulted to many problems related to environment degradation such as soil erosion, soil infertility, lack of firewood, lack of fodder, lack of timber, lack of raw materials and more others (government of Rwanda,2005) is viewed to offer solutions to the above stated land management problems. Several organizations are promoting agro forestry in Rwanda. In Kageyo sector, Vi- LIFE Programme Rwanda has been promoting agro forestry.
1.1. Statement of the problem.
Kageyo is one of the 21 sectors in the District of Gicumbi in the northem province of Rwanda. It’s characterized by environmental degradation which includes soil erosion and deforestation leading to food shortages. VT-LIFE started its activities in Kageyo Sector identifying the priority interventions related to land use in this area like improving fruit nurseries so that agriculturalists could find those varieties which could grow in a short time and occupy a small space, as Rwanda has a problem of land scarcity. Vi-LIFE intervened by promoting agro forestry practices in the area with the objectives of focusing on increased fanu productivity using sustainable agroforestry technologies and on local business development through improved civil society organizations and marketing among all small-scale farmers. The terraces were initiated in 2006 as a means to better erosion control on hilly topography. During 2009, land use management practices were intensified to allow households adapt to climate change and mitigate soil erosion. How farmers are responding to agro forestry promotions of vi-life is not frequently monitored and hence the purpose of this study.
3 1.2 Objectives of the study.
1.2.1 General objective.
To determine the adaptations of farmers in Kageyo sector in using agro forestry practices in soil and water conservation.
1.2.2 Specific objectives.
The study was guided by the following specific objectives: I. To determine how farmers are using agro forestry practices in soil and water conservation. 2. To identify the factors prohibiting agro forestry practices in soil and water conservation.
3. To find out the suggestions and recommendations on how to promote agro forestry practices in soil and water conservation.
1.3 Research questions.
The study answered the following questions. 1. How are agro forestry practices used in soil and water conservation?
2. Which factors prohibit agro forestry practices in soil and water conservation?
3. What suggestions can be put forward to promote agro forestry practices in soil and water conservation?
1.4 Scope of the study.
1.4.1 Geographical Scope
The study took place in Kageyo Sector of Northern Province (Gicunibi) out of the five Districts. The other four are; Burera, Rulindo, Ruhengeri and Gakenke considering the use of agroforestry practices in soil and water conservation.
14.2 Content Scope
The study sought data on use of agroforestry practices in soil and water conservation, a case study of Kageyo sector, Northern Province (Gicumbi). It employed a sample population of 40
4 respondents to represent an estimated target population of 18,844 people in Kageyo Sector. It examined individual households, local leaders, local government leaders, religious leaders and shop keepers operating in the Sector.
1.4.3 Time Scope
The study examined the use of agroforestry practices in soil and water conservation. The study was done in four months. The first month was for proposal making, the 2nd for data collection, 3rd for data compilation and editing and the 4~ would be for submission of the report.
1.5 Justification of the study
The study is highly significant not only to the local council leadership in the sector but also to the district planners and the central government as information about using agro forestry practices in soil and water conservation is a global issue. The researcher has gained a lot on how to carry out scientific research using social research methods and techniques, interact with the community, buildup of knowledge and general extent of the problem under study. It is also seek to determine why some areas have been successfhl in developing agroforestry practices and why others have not and what practical lessons can be learnt.
5 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0. Introduction
This chapter consists of literature review, which comprises of research works which related to agroforestry in general and soil improvement in particular. Furthermore each of the variables contained in the objectives will be considered.
2.1 Introduction/definition of the concept
Agro forestry has many definitions; Young(1989) defined agro forestry as a land use system in which trees or shrubs are grown in association with agricultural crops, pasture or livestock and which there both ecological and economical interactions between the trees and other components. Its essential nature is that it covers combinations of trees with plants and non-tree parts of the system. It is ecological interactions that are the most distinctive feature, and which differentiate agro forestry from social forestry (forestry can-ied out by communities or individuals), although there is a large overlap.
The same author defined agro forestry as a collective name for land use system in which woody perennial(trees, shrubs and more others) are grown in association with herbaceous plants(crops, pasture) and/or lixestock in spatial an~angement, a rotation or both and in which there are both ecological interactions between the trees and non-trees component of the system.
Agroforestry is a farming system that integrates crops and/or livestock with trees and shrubs. The resulting biological interactions provide multiple benefits, including diversified income sources, increased biological production, better water quality, and improved habitat for both humans and wildlife. Farmers adopt agroforestry practices for two reasons. They want to increase their economic stability and they want to improve the management of natural resources under their care. For example, an agroforestry system might produce firewood; biomass feed stocks, pine straw mulch, fodder for grazing animals, and other traditional forestry products. At the same time, the trees are sheltering livestock from wind or sun, providing wildlife habitat, controlling soil erosion, and in the case of most leguminous species fixing nitrogen to improve soil fertility.
6 Agroforestry refers to the dynamic, ecologically based natural resources management system that through integration of trees in farms and in the land scape,diversified and sustains production for increased socioeconomic and environmental benefits for land use at all times.
Some authors have given agroforestry a bio-economic definition which states that it is any combined agricultural tree crop or tree farming system which enable a farmer to make more effective use to his/her land which may yield a higher net economic rate or return on a sustained basis, than alternative farming system which exclude a forestry component.
According to the World Agroforestry Centre (2008).Agroforestry is a collection name for land use systems and practices in which woody perennials and deliberately integrated with crops andlor animals on the same land management unit. The Centre has thither explained that the integration can be either in a spatial mixture or in a temporal sequence.
2.2 Historical back ground to agro forestry practices in Rwanda.
In Rwanda, agroforestry is an old practice. Rwandans practiced this technique many years ago and this can be verified by the presence of some native tree species in their fanning systems. These species are Markhamia lutea, Vernonia amygadalina, Euphorbia tirucalli, Dracaena afromontana, Erythrina Abyssinia, Iboza riparia and more others (Rugerinyange, 2002).
These species are planted either on the field boundaries, scattered in the field or around the homestead fencing. They provide firewood, fodder, medicine, artisan low materials as well as cultural sites (Mukurarinda, I 997).Although, agroforestry practices has been traditionally known in Rwanda, today it has become necessary to solve the problems of soil erosion and infertility, production of wood for various purposes, fodder and monetary revenue in order to alleviate rural population poverty. The reason for agro forestry promotion by research is based on the shortage of land reserves for reforestation and scarcity of family land holdings whereas the need of wood for various purposes increased day after day.
In 1984, TSAR was given the responsibility of promoting agro forestry as a land use system. In ISAR, agroforestry research started in 1982, during the first years the program focused on some studies such as assessment of forestry fruits and fodder species used by the fanners, study on cropping system in former communes’ of Muyaga, Mugusa.Kigembe and Gitesi.Since 1988,
7 ISAR and ICRAF started a survey of diagnosis all over the country and resulted in definition of five ecological zones, based on biophysical and socio-economic criteria.
These ecological zones include; Plateau and Hill zone, Non volcanic highlands zone, volcanic highlands zone, Cong Nile Crete zone, East flatland zone (Mukularinda et al., cited by Ntwari and Rudasingwa, 2005).Therefore, Kageyo sector is found in plateau and hill zone.
2.3 Agro forestry systems and practices
There are different types of Agroforestry systems and practices in use as been researched by agroforestry experts in maintaining the soil and water conservation. Some include alley cropping, silvopasture, windbreaks and shelterbelts, riparian buffer strips, and forest fanning (special forest products) among others. An overview of each of these major systems is presented below.
2.3.1 Classification of agro forestry systems and practices
YOUNG, (1989) classified agro forestry practices basing on the components present (trees, crops livestock) and the spatial and temporal arrangement of components. Rotations practices are those in which there is primary combination in space and spatial arrangements are divided into mixed spatial in the MPTs and herbaceous plants are grown in intimate mixtures, with the trees distributed over more less the whole of land area, and into zone spatial practice in which trees are either planted in same systematic arrangement, such as boundaries or soil conservation structures. Remark that agro forestry practices are packages of technical recommendations (arrangements, management, niche, and more others) is expected benefits to be over traditional practices.
Agroforestry systems involve growing woody herbaceous species and perennials in association with food crops and livestock on the same piece of land.Agroforestry systems have been described extensively in several reports (like; Kang et al 1981, 1989, 1990; Harwood 1987;Nair l989;Szott et al 1991).They are known to increase ecological diversity within a land scape unit and optimize the use of limited resources through the integration of complementary components. Basically we have three types of agroforestry systems, these are;
8 Silvopastoral
It combines livestock grazing on forage crops or pasture within actively managed tree or shrubs crop. Cattle, sheep ,goat are the most common livestock incorporated into Silvopasture systems and may be developed entirely within a private fann/woodlot silvopasture or through collaborative arrangement between forest licensees and livestock producers on public lands for example in British Colombia, Sheep grazing is used as a vegetation management tool in young forest plantations.
Silvoarable/Agrisilvicultural
This system involves simultaneously growing crops and trees on the same piece of land. Some commonly used Agrisilviculture include alley cropping and Hedgerow cropping. It also involves mixing of trees and arable or horticultural crops.
Agrisilvopastoral
This system involves a three-way mixture based on combination of crops, trees and animals. Such a system requires skillful management, and can be sustainable even in harsh environments and fragile soils. In this type of agroforestry system, there is a great interaction between the three components where each of them directly or indirectly benefits from the other. For example; animals provide manure to crops and trees in form of organic matter and carbondioxide for photosynthesis while at the same time plants provide oxygen to the animals hence creating interdependence between them.
The different agroforestry practices that commonly arranged on farmer’s pieces of land include;
Alley cropping
Alley cropping involves growing crops (grains, forages, vegetables, etc.) between trees planted in rows. The spacing between the rows is designed to accommodate the mature size of the trees while leaving room for the planned alley crops. When sun-loving plants like corn or some herbs will be alley cropped, the alleyways need to be wide enough to let in plenty of light even when the trees have matured. Alternatively, the cropping sequence can be planned to change as the trees growth decreases the available light. For example, soybeans or corn could be grown when
9 the trees are very small; then, as the tree canopy closes, forages could be harvested for hay; finally, when the trees are fully grown and the ground is more shaded, grazing livestock or shade-tolerant crops like mushrooms or ornamental ferns could occupy the alleyways. Like all integrated systems, alley cropping requires skillful management and careful planning. Both the crop and the trees have requirements that sometimes necessitate trade-offs between them. The design must allow sufficient room for the equipment needed to service each enterprise. Soil compaction is a danger in wet weather. These examples indicate how crucial planning is to the ultimate success of an agroforestry system.
In most alley cropping systems, trees are planted in straight rows, sometimes with no regard for Bob Caruthers, a crop fanner in Morrilton, Arkansas, faced the choices of getting bigger, getting out of commodity crop farming, or waiting to be pushed out. He decided to plant pecans on his laser-leveled fields and to continue cropping in the alleys while the trees grow. He chose several pecan varieties that are in demand on the market and have an extended ripening season. He planted them 35 feet apart with 60-foot alleyways, installed micro-sprinklers for irrigation, and fertilized, based on soil and leaf-tissue tests, for several years. Four years after establishment, he is already harvesting a few pecans and selling them retail for $1.50 per pound. He plans to buy a mechanical Sheller so that he can add more value to his product and continue to sell direct without depending on a wholesaler. In the 60-foot alleys, Caruthers plants no-till wheat and soybeans, with a 17% reduction in yield as compared to his former monocropped fields. He has planned for the change in light availability as the trees mature; when sunlight limits soybean production, he will grow only wheat in the alleys. At year 22 or thereabouts, he will take out every other tree in the row, leaving a 60-foot by 70-foot spacing. Having originally estimated that he would regain the establishment costs in 13 years, he now expects to do so in 10 or 11 years (Knowles, Leith and Phillip Middlemiss. 1999)
Windbreaks or Shelterbelts
Extensive research on windbreaks, also called shelterbelts, has been carried out in the U.S. Trees are planted in single or multiple rows along the edge of a field to reduce wind effects on crops or livestock. Windbreaks have been shown to reduce wind impact over a horizontal distance equaling at least ten times the height of the trees. Wind and water erosion are reduced, creating a
10 moist, more favorable microclimate for the crop. In the winter the windbreak traps snow, and any winter crops or livestock are protected from chilling winds. Beneficial insects find permanent habitat in windbreaks, enhancing crop protection. Besides providing protection to crops and livestock, windbreaks offer other advantages. The Grazing sheep replace the mower in Christmas trees. A windbreak protects Iowa crops, benefit wildlife, especially by serving as continuous corridors along which animals can safely move. Fanners can even develop windbreaks due to selective timber harvests, firewood sales, and special forest products are some of the possibilities (John and Bunny Mortimer).
Riparian Buffer Strips
Trees, grasses, and/or shrubs planted in areas along streams or rivers are called riparian buffers or filter strips. These plantings are designed to catch soil, excess nutrients, and chemical pesticides moving over the land is surface before they enter waterways. Such plantings also physically stabilize stream banks. On cropland that is tiled to improve drainage, polluted water can flow directly into streams; constructed wetlands installed in the buffers can capture and clean this drainage water before it enters the stream. Forested areas along streams flilfill other needs of the community at large by storing water and by helping to prevent stream bank erosion, which in turn decreases sedimentation downstream. These areas protect and enhance the aquatic environment as well. Shading the water keeps it cooler, an essential condition for many desirable aquatic species. Buffer strips also provide wildlife habitat and can be managed for special forest products. Crop and livestock farmers, as well as local communities, have become aware of the threat that agricultural practices can pose to pure drinking water (Richards, Keith. 1997).
Forest Farming and Special Forest Products
When a natural forested area is managed for both wood products and an additional enterprise, it becomes an agroforestry system. For help with the management of timber, county Extension agents can refer farmers to Extension forestry specialists. These specialists are qualified to give advice on thinning, pruning, and harvesting practices as there are management techniques as well as on marketing options. Established forests offer many non-timber special forest products that contribute to cash flow without requiring the one-time harvest of old trees. For example,
11 landowners can manage established woods to encourage naturally occurring patches of berries or bittersweet. Or they might plant understory crops adapted to the forest type and climate, (Mortimer, John and Bunny Mortimer. 1996).
Orchards
This is a fruit gardenia piece of land set aside for the growing of fruits. They include the following types of farm arrangement.
Single stand-an orchard where only one type of fruit is grown on a particular crop land.
Mixed stand-where different fruit varieties are grown on the same piece of land.Forexample; Oranges and mangoes.
Taungya practice
This is when crops are grown together with trees especially when trees arc still young butbas time goes by, when the trees grow and start shading the crops, the crops are removed and trees are allowed to grow. This kind of practice is important because it allows the farmer to use the same piece of land at the same time hence it not only provides some food but can lessen the establishnient costs.
Improved fallows
This is when the farmer has influence on what to grow on his piece of land during the fallow period. A farmer may decide to plant nitrogen fixing trees/shrubs for example Sesbania sesban, cajanas cajan.This fallows a health growth of the crops that the fanner may decide to grow the next season afier this period because the nitrogen aids the fonnation of the green pigment chlorophyll and this aids the growth of strong plants. He can as well plant trees with large leaf biomass that decomposes quickly when incorporated in the soil.
Natural fallows on the other hand mean that the fann~r has no influence on what grows on his piece of land during the fallow period that is he leaves it to nature.
12 Trees on boundary
This is the growing of trees on the boundary of a piece of land. It is a way of establishing a boundary by planting a line of trees and/or shrubs at relatively close spacing and by fixing wires to them. If the animals are to be kept in or out, more uprights (dead sticks) can be tied to the wires. This practice can also be regarded as living fence, hedge are hedgerows. This practice is important in reducing the rate of soil erosion as it helps to compact soil particles around the garden and reduce speed of running water at the same time trees also act as wind breaks.
Afforestation
It is an agroforestry intercropping system in which species of shrubs or trees are planting of forest trees. This can help to create a cover to the soils in the understory in order to maintain the conservation of soil and water.
Enriched fallow
A fonn of agroforesty in which useful, mainly woody species are sown or planted before cultivation ceases, or at the time it does, so that during the fallow period, or when the land is next cleared for cultivation, products are available for household use or market that would not otherwise have been there(for example;fruits,bamboos,rattans,medicinal).
13 2.3.2 Agro forestry practices common in the tropics
Table 1: Agro forestry practices common in the tropics as listed by Nair (1989)
Ago forestry practices Brief description of arrangement of components I Improved fallow Woody species planted and left to grow during the fallow phase fIt~ungya system Combination stand of woody and agricultural species during early stages of establishment of plantation 3.Alleycropping(hedgerow intercropping) Woody species in hedges, agricultural species in alleys between hedges,microzonal or strip arrangement 4.Multilayer tree gardens Multispecies,multilayer,dense plant associations with no organized planting arrangements 5.Multipurpose tree on crops land Trees scattered haphazardly or according to some systematic patterns on bounds, terraces or plot 6.Plantation crop combination I. Integrated multistory (mixed, dense) mixtures of plantation crops. 2.Mixture of plantation crops in alternate or other regular arrangements 3.Shade trees for plantation, shade trees scattered 4.lntercropping with agricultural crops 7.1-lomegardens Intimate, multistory combination of various trees and crops around homesteads STress in soil conservation and Trees on bunds,terraces,raisers and more others with or without gasses reclamation trees for soil reclamation [~~helterbelt and wind breaks Trees around farmland/plots
lO.Fuel wood production Inter planting firewood species on or around agricultural lands - Ii Trees on rangeland or pastures Trees scattered irregularly or arranged according to some systematic pattern 12.Proteinsbank Production of protein rich tree fodder on farms/rangelands for cut-carry fodder production I 3.Plantation crops with pasture/animals Example: cattle under coconuts in South-East Asia Pacific 14.Home garden involving animals Intimate, multistory combination of various trees and crops and animals around homesteads lS.Multipurpose woody hedgerows Woody hedges for browse,mulch,green manure, soil conservation and more others I 6.Apiculture with trees Trees for honey production I 7.Aquaforestry/Aquaculture Trees lining fish ponds, tree leaves being used as forage for fish 18.Multipurposewoodlots For vaijous purpose(wood,fodder,soil protection, soil reclamation and other more)
14 2.4. Adoption of agro forestry practices
Successful diffusion and adoption of agro forestry practices depend not only upon the technical performance of those practices and their “fit” with farming systems but also on the broader policy, environment. Key factors that influence adoption are free germplasm supply, agricultural input supply, market for agro forestry products, land and forest tenure system and strategies and institutional arrangements for extension and research support. For example the successful dissemination of improved maize production technology in Zimbabwe, Zambia and Malawi, was due not to varietal improvement on farms, but also to technological innovations in processing, price and support policies, institutional and market changes and coordination of these various components(Haward by Franzel and Scheu, 2002).
2.5. Soil degradation
Soil degradation is the decline of soil quality as a consequence of people using the land. Soil degradation is a broad term which encompasses soil erosion, nutrient depletion, pollution, saltation and more others (Topper, 1999)
2.5.1. Soil erosion
Since there are several definitions of erosion, I will first classify what I mean by erosion here. There are two types of erosion that is natural and accelerated erosion, also called manmade erosion. Natural erosion is going on all time; weathering of mountains, hills and more others caused by the influences of natural. New landscapes are formed, but the process is very low. Manmade erosion occurs when people cause the soil to become susceptible to be carried away by rains and winds. Cutting trees and burning vegetation are examples of practices that destroy the protection of the soil (Kuypers,1983).The hazard of water erosion is most serious on sloping land, in virtually all climates, that of wind erosion on land of any slope in the semi-arid zone. In these two, very expensive, sets of environmental conditions, control of erosion is an essential step in maintaining soil fertility. It is, however only one step. Land on which there is no substantial erosion hazard, level or nearly level land in the sub humid and humid zone is frequently subject to soil degradation or lowering of fertility, originating for the most part in what is loosely described as “over cultivation”. The potential of agro forestry to reduce or
15 eliminate such lowering of soil fertility is at least important as that of controlling erosion, (Young, 1989)
2.5.2. Loss of soil fertility
Soil fertility is defined as the ability of a soil to serve. Loss of soil fertility is due to lack of organic matter, nutrients whether organic or mineral, (Young, 1989)
2.5.3. Soil conservation
Soil conservation includes both control of soil erosion and maintenance of fertility. Two policies trends have contributed to this view. First; soil conservation was formally equated with erosion control. This attitude is still to be found in places, it reads to planning measures and projects which erosion is thought of in terms of loss of soil materials, and its control is treated in isolation from aspects of agricultural improvement. It is now recognized that the principles adverse effect of soil erosion is lowering of fertility, through removal of organic matter and nutrients in eroded sediments. The second trend is the recognition of forms of soil degradation, other than erosion, the various kinds of physical, chemical and biological degradation, sometimes grouped as decline in soil fertility. It is now recognized that there can be serious soil degradation problems even in areas where erosion is not problem, and that it is part of the task of soil conservation to address these. This leads to the view that the primary objectives of soil conservation are maintenance of fertility. (Young, 1989)
In general, soil conservation is maintenance of soil fertility, which requires: Control of erosion, maintenance of organic matter, maintenance of nutrients and avoidance of toxicities (Young, 1989)
2.6. Roles of Agroforestry in soil and water conservation
Agroforestry plantations have the potential to contribute significantly to maintaining or improving soil and water quality in a region, while helping to maintain the carbon cycle by sequestering large amounts of carbon in their biomass. The degree to which these and other ecological ffinctions can be provided will depend on plant species composition and their physical structure both above and below the ground.
16 The use of corridors to connect fragmented habitats has long been proposed as a mechanism to enhance population process(Wilson and Willis 1 975).These are arguments for and against the use of distinct corridors, but if spatial arrangement is considered, agroforestry plantations can be used to connect forest fragments and other critical habitat in the landscape, Freemark (2000).Modest considerations, like mixing tree species, allowing for small clearing and water catchments in planting and incorporating understory vegetation can greatly improve habitat for many animals and create micro-site conditions for plant species,(Spies and Franklin 1996).
Agroforestry can help in restoring degraded forest as they will be given time to regenerate as there will be alternative sources of fhel for the population and will also help fighting food
insecurity and removing pressure on natural forest , and conserving the soil and the environment.
Agroforestry indeed in small scale agriculture production systems, trees outside forest management seems to hold a high promise as a bridge between food production and environmental protection due to its capacity to restore the ecosystem and improve soil fertility. On same scale agroforestry and in many traditional farming systems trees have always been a key element of sustainability and farmers often conserve high percentage of trees on their lands to control soil erosion, and usually adopt fallow systems to improve the soil fertility. Fanners may also welcome tree cropping because they are economically advantageous since they provide substantial cash incomes which could be recycled into food incase of crop failure.
Agroforestry is important in improving soil quality for more food production as some trees and crops on the farm help to improve the productivity of the soil through adding soil nutrients for example air in fonn of nitrogen and carbon dioxide that are used by other plants and organisms which live in the soil, like nitrogen fixing bacteria that forms nodules on plant roots and help to fix nitrogen while at the same time using some of the carbondioxide produced by trees and crops since some of the are anaerobic in nature.
17 Table 2: Nutrient additions from trees
Vegetation type Nitrogen yield Phosphorous yield Place Kg/ha/year Kg/ha/year Pinus radiate 14-24 0.97-2.30 Grippsland plantation Eucalyptus forest 2 1-46 0.94-2.00 Grippsland
Source: www.mtg.unimelb.edu.au Examples of nutrient additions and recycling from trees are in table 2 above. Some of the agroforestry systems and practices like forested riparian systems or riparian buffer planting can attenuate flooding effect through protecting the buffer zones of water bodies from the massive water amounts that may end up eroding such areas, and protect water quality while proving wildlife habitat, recreation opportunities and harvestable product, like bedible berries and medicinal herbs.
Plants in agroforestry act as carbon stores as they can sequester substantial carbon (Watson 2000).And these pose the opportunities of climate change mitigation activities in the context of multiple spatial scales. Trees and shrubs planted in shelter belts can store carbon in their shoots and roots while protecting soils, crops and providing biodiversity and habitat for wildlife(Pandey 2002).Through either deposition of wind-blown soils or interception of surface runoff sediments, many of the linear-based agroforestry practices, such as shelter belt and riparian buffers can trap significant amount of carbon-reach top soil that would otherwise be lost from these systems.
Riparian forest buffers are natural carbon sinks and when suitable trees and shrubs are grown in these moist environments, they also filter out contaminants from adjacent agricultural or community activities for example chemicals from agricultural fertilizers and lead greases from parking lots of vehicles. One of the main conceptual foundation of tropical agroforestry is that trees and other vegetation are essential in improving the rural lively hoods through ensuring negotiation support, a farer deal for women farmers and other less-advantaged rural residents when they can be able ‘to receive the high output of the three component of agroforestry in form of income sources and this has helped to reduce the high poverty rate in Africa.
The foliage of many wood species on agroforestry farms may also be harvested to provide green manure for crop plants which provide nutrients which improves on the crop yields on a farm, but
18 also help to prevent soil erosion and water loss and may deter crop pest. Some wood species may be planted to provide shade for crop plants to prevent soil erosion or to act as the wind breaks.
Agroforestry has played an important role in reducing deforestation of natural forest and pressure on wood lands by providing increased diversity of on-farm trees and crop species that provide fuel wood grown on farms.
People have not embraced Agroforestry due to the several reasons , we can call these challenges of Agroforestry. These challenges can be explained as follows;
The need for domestic studies
Researchers need to understand farmers’ strategies in establishing and managing the existing agroforestry system. Fanrters’ surveys have not been found especially reliable for this purpose. Researchers will often need to work together with farmers in exploratory or “diagnostic” trials with new components,sites,configurations or management systems, to detennine jointly which are suitable for further research effort.
Poor under standing of farmers’ agroforestry strategies
Most of farmers’ do not understand or have little understand of how and why farmers use a particular crop, and the role of that crop in the overall strategies of household production,consurnption,saving and risk management Thus the research priorities should be influenced through the long term trends in farmers’ use of land, capital and labour resources. However research has been taken in many tropical cropping systems in recent decades, especially to identify specific research objectives for genetic improvement or resource management.
System complexity and variability
Agroforestry systems are often more complex and variable than are monoculture systems or intererops of annual crops. Hence, they present greater challenges for research design and implementation.
19 Biological changes over time
Since the annual cycle of plant growth and production is fairly determinate then the research on annual crops and perennial grasses is simplifies. However shrubs and trees are indeterminate, they will also have significantly different effects upon their environment and adjacent crops in their juvenile and mature stages.
Mass agriculture’s focus on using fertilizer and pesticides
Demonstrating agroforestry’s large scale applicability is particularly important because since the 1960s the focus of agricultural development has been” mass outreach agriculture”. Mass agriculture includes methods to increase productivity and yields which can be widely applied on millions of fanns and across diverse regions, As a result, donors and governments have prioritized agricultural development programs to increase access to fertilizers and pesticides at the expense of methods lilce agroforestry and eco-agriculture(Scherr,S.J.2003).For example ,in 2008 President Bingu Mutharika of Malawi instituted a country-wide subsidized fertilizer program despite a decade of successfhl agroforestry projects funded by the United States Agency for International Development,the Canadian International Development Agency and the German Ministry for Technical Cooperation. Despite their popularity, mass agriculture programs face serious limitations. While chemical fertizers increase yields, overtime they contribute to soil degradation; in contrast agroforestry systems not only increase yields but also restore soil fertility through the use of nitrogen fixing species. In addition, chemical or petroleum based fertilizers are often too expensive for smallholder farmers to purchase, with the rising price of fuel exacerbating the problem (Franzel S. and Scherr S.J. 2002 b l73).From a donor perspective, subsidized fertilizer and programs to increase yields demand on-going funding and can cost millions of dollars whereas agroforestry has the potential to be a sustainable, self-replicating investment. World Agroforestry Centre economists have estimated the cost of training and equipping one fann family to practice agroforestry to be about $2.50(Akkinnifesi,F,2005,12)
Lack of tree seed supply
Lack of tree seed is considered essential to the expansion of agroforestry systems. Even through there is demand for seeds from farmers, they are often unable to obtain them because of cost or inadequate supply. A reliable seed supply and distribution system on a much greater scale is
20 required to increase adoption of agroforestry practices. At the moment there are few incentives for private sector investment in this area. Some trees species require many years before they produce seeds, laying investment returns and locicing producers into selected products. This time lag is particularly detrimental when fUture markets for the variety of trees species are uncertain.(Scherr S.J.and Franzel S,2002,146-148),G indt R.et al 2006).A good seed production strategy will provide seeds and seedlings of good quality and combine both the informal and formal sectors of production. The informal sector is made up of individual farm households as well as small-scale, independent nursery owners and seed vendors. The thriving formal sector would include public and private organizations with specialized roles in supplying new tree species and varieties (Kindt R. et al, 2006).
Lack of land tenure among smallholder farmer
At the farm scale, the most important institutional arrangement affecting agroforestry is property rights. Property rights shape farmers’ expectations of whether and how they will be able to appropriate long-term benefits from investing in tree management and planting (Meinzen Dick,R.2006,174%Property rights are particularly si~ilficant for smallholder farmers who tend to be risk averse. Studies in Cameroon, Kenya, Mali, Uganda and Zambia have found that tenants without long-term land rights are restricted in their ability to plant or harvest from trees because of insecurity of tenure (Place, P.1994, 6).
Market constraints
Market constraints also play a significant role in hindering the scaling up of agroforestry. Agroforestry extension and research has tended to emphasize increasing production levels of frees and crops but these efforts have been undertaken with little regard for demand or price. Recent work has shown that market conditions and institutions play a critical role in farmer adoption of agroforestry. For example; Scherr and Franzel found that when the price of maize in Zambia decreased, farmers were more likely to use improved fallows to reduce the area under maize cultivation allowing them to increase production of higher value cash crops on other fields. Market instability also affects agroforestry strategies. In Kenya, when the milk industry became unstable farmers replaced dairy meal with farm-grown calliandra. Its lower cost reduced both their operating costs and their nsk in a fluctuating market. In addition Scherr and Franlcel
21 found that, the price of fliel wood had a strong effect on the popularity of agroforsetry in Western Kenya, (Scherr S.J and Franzel 5, 2002, 15 1-152)
Lack of sufficient extension work
The issue of appropriate extension woric for increasing the scale of agroforestry the scale of agroforestry is of particular important because agroforestry is a relatively ‘knowledge intensive’ practice, reducing the likelihood that knowledge will spread easily on it’s own. Several researchers have cited national extension systems in many sub-Saharan African countries as a major barrier to scaling-up agroforestry (Scherr S.J and Franzel S,2002,158).They note a lack of rigorous, organized and locally adapted extension systems, lack of agroforestry training for extension workers, and the unclear assignment of responsibility for agroforestry between agricultural and forestry extension institutions.
Policy constraints
There are significant policy based constraints to the expansion of agroforestry in Africa. Experts in agroforestry are clear that “an enabling policy environment that favors smallholder rural development is an essential condition for the success of agroforestry”. They are equally clear in their belief that the lack of institutional support for agroforestry is a major policy related constraint to agroforestry development in Africa and an issue which has not been adequately addressed in agroforestry research. Studies reveal the need for specific types of policy action and cite factors that are both essential to scaling up agroforestry and are strongly influenced by public policy (Place,F,2006 7l-78).Analysis of the experience of several countries in Latin American has shown that rapid and dramatic expansion of agriculture and plantation forestry occurred in the presence of supportive public policy including subsidies, national investment and strong extension programs.
22 CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
This chapter indicates the operational framework within which data has been collected during the research process. The chapter also gives an account of how data was designed and executed, how the respondents were selected, how data was collected, processed and analyzed.
3.1 Sample selection and sample size.
The researcher used simple random sampling technique where by the element of the survey of population was given some non-zero calculable opportunity of being selected into the sample.
By also using the lottery method, the researcher used a simple random sampling technique, where she was very careful not to repeat or replace any representative sample or respondent. Each respondent was picked once and for all.
This method was used until the final number of the representative sample of both the respondents and the sample sectors was chosen and interviewed as per the arrangements in the questionnaire. The total of about 40 respondents was interviewed.
The research was gender considerate including men and women of varying ages which was ranging from 15 years and above that is youths , child parents ,adults and old Also respondents like the local leaders , local councilors , sub county chief and other stakeholders both government and non-government aid was interviewed using an interview schedule and the questionnaire.
3.2 study area.
3.2.1 Location of the study area.
Rwanda has the population of 9,266,100 people and Kigali city alone inhabits about 268,800 people. This has far reaching effects and a total drag on the meager resources that the government tries to harness for citizens. Furthennore, since Rwanda is a developing country the population largely depends on agriculture for their livelihood. In spite of it is socio-economic
23 importance, agriculture is still dominated by subsistence farming which has resulted into about 45% of the population failing to satisf~’ their food needs. (Minecofin, 2004).
The country has a temperate climate with 2 rainy seasons (February to April), average temperate range from 16-26 degrees Celsius, frost and snow are possible in the Virunga Mountains to the north. Besides its excellent climate, the country is known for its beautifhl terrain with mostly grassy uplands and scenic gently rolling hills, its abundant wildlife including the rare mountain gorillas and an icing on the lalces especially for nature lovers.
Kageyo sector is one of the 21 sectors in the northern province of Rwanda. It has 5 cells such as; Gihembe, Horezo, Kabuga,Muhondo and Nyamiyaga.It have also 27 villages with a square kilometer of 313,333 and are surrounded by; Byumba sector in the North, Mutete sector in the South, Rukomo sector in the East and Kisaro sector in Rulindo district in West. Table 3 Number of sampled households in the sector
Sector Cells Number of households Nyamiyaga 10 Gihembe 7 Kageyo Horezo 8 Kabuga 8 Muhondo 7 • Sample size 40
3.2.2 Climate and relief of Kageyo sector
The climate of Kageyo changes with seasons that are hot and rainy with tropical winds. The zone of the east part of the sector is characterized by temperate climate of equatorial type with moderate annual temperature of 20 degrees Celsius. In the region of higher altitude, the annual temperature is around 11 and 15 degrees Celsius. Where the altitude of 2000 meters, the climate is cold and humid. In the mountainous zone, west part of Kageyo sector the precipitation goes beyond 1200mm per year while in the east it’s generally 950mm per year. The relief of Kageyo sector is too sloppy with an altitude of 2500 meters and the valleys are very deep and wide.
3.2.2.1 Economic activities.
The maj or economic activities in Kageyo sector include agricultural and animal production.
Those under agriculture include the following :- growing of crops for cash and home
24 consumption i.e. millet ,sorghum ,cassava ,potatoes ,rice ,cowpeas ,green grams , cotton
groundnuts, sunflower ,bananas , beans and maize.
Animals reared include the following: - sheep, cows, goats, poultry, pigs and rabbits. Other economic activities include the following; stone quarrying, charcoal burning, retail shopping, brick making, boda boda cyclists, grinding mills and bicycle repairs among others.
3.3 Research design
Research design is the specification of the procedures for collecting and analyzing the data necessary to help identify or react to a problem or opportunity, such that the difference between the cost obtaining the various levels of accuracy and the expected value of information associated with each level of accuracy is minimized.
For this matter, descriptive survey method was applied which included both primary and secondary data. Questionnaires were designed and used for purposes of collecting data from the field.
3.4 Data coJiection methods.
A number of methods shall be used in raw data collection which includes; questioimaire, interview schedule and observation. Tools that have been used include interview schedules, discussions, direct observation and photography.
3.4.1 Questionnaire.
This method was used together with the interviews, observation, transect walk and recording. This involved both closed and open ended questions in line with the already set objectives of this very set study. The questions are intended to find out how agro forestry practices used in soil and water conservation. The researchers have conducted most of the interviews I administer questionnaires to those who were unable to write and read at the time and those who were able answered the questionnaires themselves.
25 3.4.2 Interview schedule.
This method was used to probe for more information about the problem in question, issues concerning the daily life of the community ranging from culture, awareness, socio-economic, political, other global issues and any other information that could have been missed to capture in the questionnaire. This targeted all those from the sample being selected.
3.4.3 Observation and photography
Close use of eye sense was one of the possible techniques of ensuring data and was obtained especially concerning the issues that the questionnaire may not or may involve for instance the infrastructure, population distribution, the natural resources in the areas, economic activities and how the community relates with their surrounding in general.Some photographs were be taken to give proof and credibility to the written material. Areas of interests were photographed to show the existing agroforestry practices in Kageyo.
3.5 Data collection
Data was collected with an aid of questionnaire and making direct observations on the farms to verify the answers given by farmers. The questions were translated in Kinyarwanda to make communication easy.
3.6 Data analysis
The responses of the respondents were summarized and presented in tables and pie charts expressed in percentages for the ease of comparison and interpretation.
26 CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION OF THE RESEARCH FINDINGS
4.0 Introduction
This chapter presents the findings, which were collected from the field about use of agro forestry practices in soil and water conservation in Kageyo sector, Gicumbi District, Rwanda. The discussion is done in the context of study objectives, looks at how, the factors prohibiting and as well as the suggestions that can be put forward to promote agroforestry practices. The results are presented under the following headings; Household characteristics, Family income, Land size and its utilization and adoption of agroforestry practices.
4.1 Household characteristics
4.1.1 Age categories of the household heads
The information of the household heads regarding their age is presented in table4. F
Table4: Age distribution of the respondents.
Age class Frequency Percexftage(%) 15-25 years 2 5 26-50 years 23 57.5 Above 50 years 15 37.5 Total 40 100 Source: Research Field Findings 2011
As shown by the result in table 4, the household heads of 26-50 years constituted the majority 57.5% of the respondents and this because these had up to date information about the study .The age class of above 50 years was 37.5% and the least farmers are between the ages of 15-25 years with 5% because most of them age were at school.
27 4.1.2 Education status of the household heads
Table 5: Shows the Education level of the respondents
Level J Frequency Percentage (%) Illiterate 12 30 Primary 24 60 Secondary 4 10 University 0 0 Total 40 100 Source: Research Field Findings 2011
The level of education of household heads was a factor that influenced the adoption of agroforestry practices and since the household heads are the ones responsible for taking decisions, they adopt easily the sensitized technologies. According to the result shown in the table 5 above, it is evident that the majority of the respondents were those who reached primary level of education with 60% this is because they are aware that agroforestry is important in improving soil quality for more food production as some trees and crops on the farm help to improve the productivity of the soil through adding soil nutrients, followed by 30% those who are not educated and 10% had secondary education while any of all respondents attended university thus lacking knowledge of how agroforestry practices can play a role in soil and water
conservation. -
4.2 Family income
Table 6: Distribution of respondents according to the main source of household income
Employment Frequency Percentage (%) Regular employment 0 0 Agro crops 17 42 Business 0 0 Agroforestry tree products 23 58 TOTAL 40 100 Source: Research Field Findings 2011
The family income is indicated by the number of household’s heads who are employed for salary, those who practice agro crops, agroforestry tree products and who do business.The results in Table 6 shows that, the farmers who depend on agroforestry tree products are the majority
28 57.5%, followed by those who depend on agro crops 42.5%, where as there is neither respondent who depends on regular employment nor business for livelihood. Therefore this shows that the farmers in Kageyo sector are really interested in Agroforestry tree products and agro crops other than any other source of income.
4.3 Land size and its utilization
Table 7: Land sizes owned by the respondents
Size of land Frequency Percentage(%) >1 ha 3 7.5 0.5-1 ha 32 80 <0.5 ha 5 12.5 Total 40 100 Source: Research Field Findings 2011
It is obvious that the size of the land is an important factor that influences the planting of trees. If the land is small then the fanners may decide not to plant trees but if the land is big and farmers are provided with the planting materials with prior knowledge of the advantages of agroforestry species, acceptance of agro forestry trees is easy by farmers. (Mutwewingabo et al.1993).According to the results obtained from the survey, the table above shows that 7% of the respondents had land greater thaniha, 80% had land of 0.5-1 ha and over 13% had land of less than 0.5 ha.This shows clearly that the size of land also influences the adoption of agroforestry practices,if the size of land is small then adption becomes very difficult.
4.3.1 Means of land acquisition
Table 8: Mode of land acquisition.
Acquisition means Frequency Percentage(%) Bought 18 45 Inherited 21 52.5 From government 1 2.5 Renter o 0 Total 40 100 Source: Research Field Findings 2011 Majority of the interviewed farmers obtained their land through inheritance 52.5% ,These lands are not rented but instead they are occupied by the owners hence adopting agroforestry practices
29 diffused more easily whereas 45% bought it, 2.5% obtained it from the government and none of the farmer is renting, according to (Herbert, 1994) the persons who rent the lands have no right to it so adopting agroforestry practices may be a problem.
4.3.2 Land utilization
Table 9: Utilization of land
Land Frequency Percentage(%)
Fodder 1 2.5 - Trees 2 5 A~o crops 1 37 92.5 Total 40 100 Source: Research Field Findings 2011 The table above shows the average proportions of land allocated to different land-uses for the 40 farmers surveyed.92.5% use their land for agro crops,5% use it for trees and only 2.5% use as fodder .Therefore,as we can see farmers in Kageyo sector are well knowledgeable about the agro crops in order to conserve water and soil.
4.3.3 Land location with respect to the hill
Table 10: Distribution of the respondents according to land location with respect to hills.
Land location Frequency Percentage(%) Top of the hill 20 50 Hill sides 15 37.5 Bottom of the hill 5 12.5 Total 40 100 Source: Research Field Findings 2011 The farmer’s land location with respect to the hill was put into consideration because, if a farmer’s land is located on the hill, this accelerates soil erosion and farmers will try to find some possible measures to reduce the soil erosion. Therefore, agroforestry practices were easily adopted by the farmers in this area due to its being hilly in order to minimize the effects of soil erosion,loss of soil fertility and destruction of water bodies.
30 Table 10 shows that the majority of the farmers’ lands are located on the hill top with 50%,followed by of the land situated on the hillside 37.5% and 12.5% are located on the bottom of the side. Plate 1.locationof the land with respect to the hill
Source:From the field
4.3.4 Agroforestry trees recorded in the farms: Occurrence, planting patterns and reasons for planting trees.
Table 11: Distribution of farmers according to the possession of agroforestry species on their farm Presence of agroforestry species Frequency Percentage(%) Yes 25 62.5 No 15 37.5 Total 40 100 Source: Research Field Findings 2011 The table above shows that agroforestry tree species are grown by 62.5% of surveyed farmers. Plants in agroforestry act as carbon stores as they can sequester substantial carbon (Watson 2000).And these pose the opportunities of climate change mitigation activities in the context of multiple spatial scales. Trees and shrubs planted in shelter belts can store carbon in their shoots and roots while protecting soils, crops and providing biodiversity and habitat for wildlife(Pandey 2002). However trees are also necessarily targeted towards soil and water conservation. Table 12: Distribution of agroforestry practices on surveyed farms.
Practice Frequency Percentage(%) Trees scattered on cropland 10 25 Improved fallows 0 0 Home gardens 1 2.5 Trees around roads and pathways 5 12.5 Trees on farm boundaries 8 20 Hedgerows intercropping 9 22.5 Trees on pasture 7 17.5 Total 40 100 Source: Research Field Findings 2011 Table 12 shows that the majority of farmers had adopted agroforestry practices where trees scattered on cropland 25% to provide manure for crop plants which increase nutrients thus improving crop yields on a farm, followed by Hedgerows intercropping practiced at the adoption of 22.5% which help to create a cover to the soils in the understory in order to maintain the conservation of soil and water.Trees on farm boundaries is also practiced at 22.5% and this is because it has helped the farmers in Kageyo sector to compact soil particles around the garden and reduced speed of running water .As well as both Home gardens 2.5% and trees on pasture are practiced at l7.5%while trees around roads and pathways are 12.5 practiced and none practiced improved fallows. Table 13: Reasons cited by farmers for growing trees on their farm. Reasons for growing trees Frequency Percentage(%) Soil and water conservation 24 60 Fuel wood production 6 15 Construction, medicine, extraction, and 10 25 furniture Total 40 100 Source: Research Field Findings 2011 Table 13 shows that the majority of fanners (60%) grow trees on their farm for soil and water conservation because they want to increase their economic stability and they want to improve the management of natural resources under their care, followed by those who grow trees for Construction, medicine extraction and flirniture making at the rate of 25% while trees for Fuel wood production purposely account for 15%. The plate below shows the vegetation pattern of the area above.
32 Plate 2: Vegetation cover
Source: From the field
4.3.5 Motivation for growing trees and constraints
Table 14: Partners in tree planting
I Institutions Frequency Percentage(%) NGOs 19 47.5 Government services i 2.5 Individuals 20 50 Total 40 100 Source: Research Field Findings 2011
Table 14 shows that the main partner in tree planting is individual with 50%, followed by NGOs at 47.5% for example Vi-LIFE intervened by promoting agro forestry practices in the area with the objectives of focusing on increased farm productivity using sustainable agroforestry technologies and on local business development through improved civil society organizations and marketing among all small-scale farmers and then lastly come government services at 2.5%. Table 15: Problems related to tree growing on farms. Problems Frequency Percentage(%) Lack of seedlings 22 55 Lack of technical support 5 12.5 Lack of man power 3 7.5 Shortage of land 6 15 Lack of capital 4 10 Total 40 100 Source: Research Field Findings 2011 Table 15 shows that the majority of farmers did not grow trees on their farms because of lack of seedlings 55% thus causing may farmers in the study area to invest in agricultural activities. followed by shortage of land 15% as Rwanda has a problem of land scarcity where as lack of technical support is at 12.5%.Lack of capital is at 10% and lack of man power is 7.5%. 4.3.6 Soil erosion problems and solutions as cited by the respondents Table 16: Soil erosion problems.
Erosion problems Frequency Percentage(%) Yes 13 32.5 Non 27 67.5 Total 40 100 Source: Research Field Findings 2011
Table 16 shows that 32.5% of the farmers had problems of soil erosion where as 67.5% don’t have. This shows that these farmers have put into action the use of agro forestry practices to conserve water and soil.Not only that but also trees and other vegetation are essential in improving the rural lively hoods through ensuring negotiation support, a farer deal for women farmers and other less-advantaged rural residents when they can be able to receive the high output of the three component of agroforestry in form of income sources and this has helped to reduce the high poverty in the area.
34 Table 17: Methods used for soil erosion control
Methods Frequency Percentage(%) Bench terracing 33 82.5 MPTs on contours 1 2.5 Tree fallows 2 5 Grass strips on contour lines 3 7.5 Fence with stones on boundaries 1 2.5 Total 40 100 Source: Research Field Findings 2011
Table 17 highlights that the majority of farmers use bench terracing at the rate of 82.5% because the land is hilly, farmers use terraces in order to conserve soil and water thus high production. Followed by grass strips on contour lines at the rate of 7.5%.Tree fallows is used at 5% while MPTs on contours and Fence are at 2.5%.
4.3.7 Means of maintaining soil fertility
Table 18: Means for maintaining fertility.
Means Frequency Percentage(%) Organic manure 17 42.5 Inorganic fertilizers 3 7.5 Agroforestry practices 20 50 Total 40 100 Source: Research Field Findings 2011
Table 18 shows that the majority of farmers use agroforestry practices (MPTs) as a means of soil fertilization 50% because it adds soil nutrients for example air in fonn of nitrogen and carbon dioxide that are used by other plants and organisms which live in the soil, like nitrogen fixing bacteria that forms nodules on plant roots and help to fix nitrogen while at the same time using some of the carbondioxide produced by trees and crops since some of the arem anaerobic in nature. Those who use organic manure follows with a rate of 42.5% from food remains and lastly use of inorganic fertilization with a rate of 7.5%.
35 4.3.8 Suggestions to ensure promotion of agroforestry
Table 19:Shows the suggestions to ensure promotion of agro forestry Suggestions Frequency Percentage(%) • Trainings 10 25 Provision of domestic animals 25 62 Community groups 5 13 I Ictal 40 100 Table 19 above shows that the majority of the farmers suggested domestic animals as their option that can help them promote agroforestry at 62% since they can be getting manure from it,followed by 25% of trainings in order to improve on the little knowledge they have and last are solidality groups at 13% to help them share ideas.
36 CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AN]) RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0 Introduction
Chapter five presents the final presentation of the study. As the main objective of the study was to determine whether farmers in Kageyo sector are or not using agroforestry practices in soil and water conservation and reasons as to why. These conclusions and recommendations have been put up in accordance to the results obtained from the study.
5.1 Conclusions
After the data collected, analyzed, interpreted and discussed the following were concluded;
Majority of the farmers in Kageyo Sector were young (below 50 years).This may have had a positive influence on adoption of agroforestry practices.5 8% of the respondents uses agroforestry tree products as their means of household income which shows that farmers are aware of the roles of agroforestry trees as a way of conserving the soil and water.Small land sizes, lack of technical support and capital are the main constraints of growing trees on farms.And use of ten-aces is the main method of soil and water conservation.
5.2 Challenges faced.
There were a number of challenges that were faced among which include;
1. Some respondents were so busy that they considered my interest of getting information from them disturbance. 2. The image created by the previous researchers to some respondents made them unwilling to give me information because previously some researchers promised them some seedlings but all in vain, a view given by one old woman of 54years of age. 3. Some community members (respondents) gave information that was not accurate in the ground for instance about the land size because some had fear of their land and others due to laclc of education don’t know how to measure it. 4. Financial constraints, money needed for facilitation in terms of transport, stationary and feeding was less hence spending a few days in the field.
37 5. Language barrier was also a problem where by many people were interviewed in order to change it in local language (Kinyarwanda)
5.3 Recommendations
Although the obtained results indicate that fanTlers in Kageyo sector have satisfactorily adopted the agroforestry practices, these recommendations are put forward to enhance adoption of agroforestry technologies.
To Vi-Jife programme, Rwanda
1. Farmer training should be emphasized to increase the adoption of agroforestry practices and training approaches should include course demonstrations, field days and field trips, campaigning meetings, group discussions and usage of various media approaches like radio programs,interviews,new releases and fast sheets showing successful practices should be posted in public places. 2. Avail farmers with some domestic animals either through provision of agricultural credits to those farmers to resolve the problem of soil fertility which is one of the problems highlighted in animal production as lack of capital. 3. Sensitize the farmers to group themselves in solidarity groups. This leads to a big number of fanr1ers in accepting agroforestry technologies through exchange of ideas, access to trainings of the solidarity group members. 4. Farmer’s participation in the process of technology development and diffusion should also be emphasized. 5. Vi-life should extend its activities to all sectors of Gicumbi District to give equal chances to farmers in agroforestry technology developments. 6. Vi-life should also put emphasis on monitoring and evaluation of the farmers to see how fanners are adopting the technologies being disseminated.
To agricultural technicians and researchers
Agricultural technicians and researchers should make use of these results in other areas of the country in resolving the fundamental problems in agroforestry such as soil and water conservation.
38 BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Cambel, J. (1983): The agro forestry techniques in tropical countries; possibities and limitations, in forestry journal of Switzerland no 134(1); 1-iSp.
Conservation Trees For Your Farm, Family & Future. No date. The National Arbor Day Foundation. Nebraska City, NE. lOp.
Egli, Kalinganire, A (1988): The agro forestry trees and shrubs in Rwanda, ISAR, Butare, Rwanda, 89-96p.
FAO. (1992): Soil conservation for developing countries. Rome.
Franzel S.,Scherr S.J.,(2002)”Introduction”in Trees on the farm:Assessing the Adoption Pontential of Agroforestry Practices in Africa,Franzel S.,Scherr S.J.,Eds.Wallingford,Oxon,UK;New York:Cabi Pub in association with the International Centre for Research in Agroforestry,2002. 1-10.
Franzel S.,Scherr S.J.,(2002b)”Assessing adoption potential; lessons learned and future directions” in trees on the farm: assessing the adoption potential of agre forestry practices in Afrca, franzel S., Scherr S. J., Eds. Wallinford, Oxon, UK; New York: CABI Pub in association with the International Centre for Research in Agroforestry,2002,169-182
Godsey, Larry D. 2000. Economic Budgeting for Agroforestry Practices. Publication UMCA.—3— 2000. University of Missouri Agroforestry, Columbia, MO. 20 p.
ICRAF, (1992): Annual report for 1991.Nairobi, Kenya.
Knowles, Leith and Phillip Middlemiss. 1999. Evaluating Agroforestry Options. A Continuing Professional Development course held at Hot Springs, AR, June 12, 1999. June. p. 6.
MINECOFIN. (2004): Rwanda development indicators, Kigali.
Mortimer, John and Bunny Mortimer. 1996. Shelter & Shade: Creating a Healthy and Profitable Environment for Our Livestock with Trees. Green Park Press, Jackson, MS. 161 p.
39 Mukuralinda, A.(1997)/Situation of agro forestry in Rwanda after 1994.Survey of April to may 1 997,ISARIICRAF.Butare.
Mutwewingabo, (1993): Land size and utilization of land. Kigali, Rwanda.
NAIR, P.K.R. (1985): Classification of agro forestry systems. In working paper no 28.ICRAF, Nairobi, Kenya. 9
Rugerinyange, A. (2002): Effects of organic mineral fertilization on the growth of some agro forestry tree species. Rwanda, Kigali
Scherr S.J.,Franzel S.,(2002)”Promoting New Agroforestry Technology:Policy Lessons from on Farm Research,”in Trees on the farm:Assessing the Adoption Potential of Agroforestry Practices in Africa,Franzel S.,Scherr S.J.,Eds.Wallingford,Oxon,UK;NEW YORICCABI Pub in association with the International Centre for Research in Agroforestry ,2002.145- 168.Akkinnifesi,F.(2005)Formalizing Agroforestry in Malawi:Trees Take Root in Government Policy,”World Agroforestry Center,Southem Africa Regional Programme,2005.
Sheers, S.and Muller, E.(1989):Follow up and evaluation of technologies of development projects,ICRAF,Nairobi,Kenya.
Strategic plan for Gisenyi province, 2005: Promotion of agroforestry, Kigali-Rwanda. Richards, Keith. 1997. Planning for a positive future: This family seeds enterprises that fit their farm vision. Planting Your Farm’s Future Series, National Center for Appropriate Technology, Fayetteville, AR. 2 p.
Tengnas, B. (1994): Agro forestry extension manuals for Kenya, ICRAF, Nairobi, Kenya.
World Agroforestry Center(2008),”Reseachers Warn that politics and Technical Concerns Unfairly Thwart Efforts to Use Carbon Markets to Hart Deforestation and Help Poor Farmers,”Press Release,November 26,2008.
Young, A. (1989): Agro forestry for soil conservation, British library cataloguing, England.
40 Appendix 1: A map of Rwanda showing administrative boundaries
B DA General Map and Administrative boundaries
STERN ROVINCE
(A 0• — —S
‘Jr—Ia.
I) I) •)cr—~i
4- APPEN]MX 2: Questionnaire.
I am Mutoni Joan a student of Kampala international university pursuing a Bachelor of Science degree in Environmental management. Currently i am conducting research on use of agro forestry practices in soiland water conservation in Kageyo sector, Gicumbi district, Rwanda. So, I therefore request for your co-operation my respondent.
(Answer in the spaces provided below and for those where options have been given tick the appropriate on).
RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE.
A. House holds characteristics. 1. Address; Cell Sectors District 2. Age of the respondents a) 15-25 years b) 26-50 years c) Above 5Oyears
3. Education level of the respondents
a) Illiterate b) Primary c) Secondary d) University
4. Which is the main source of household income?
a) Regular employment b) Agro crops c) Agro forestry tree products d) Commerce e) Others
42 B.Land and its utilization
5. ‘What is the size of your family land?
a) >lha b) 0.5-1 ha c) <0.5-1 ha
6. How did you acquire this land?
a) Inherited b) Donation c) Bought d) Given by government
7. How is the land utilized?
a) Agro crops b) Trees c) Fodder d) Other
8. ‘What is the location of the land with respect to the slope (hill)?
a) On top of the hill b) On the hill side c) On the bottom of the hill
C. Adoption of agro forestry practices.
9. Have you got agro forestry species on your farM?
a) Yes b) No
10. If yes where are they located?
43 a) Trees scattered on crop land b) Improved fallows c) Home gardens d) Around roads and pathways e) Farm boundaries f) Hedgerows intercropping g) Trees on pastures
11. Which are the reasons of growing trees on your farm?
a) Erosion control b) Soil conservation c) Fuel wood products d) Construction e) Medicine production ~ Furniture
12. Where do you get support for growing trees on your farm?
a) NGOs b) Government services(Like, RADA) c) Others
13. What problem do you face in growing trees on your farm?
a) Lack of seedlings b) Lack of technical advice c) Lack of capital d) Shortage of land
14. What agro forestry practices have you adopted on your farm?
a) Agro forestry species with crops b) Home gardens c) Improved fallows
44 d) Fodder production
B. Soil erosion control.
15. Do you have soil erosion problems on your farm?
a) Yes b) No
16. What method do you use for erosion control?
a) Terracing b) MPTs on contour c) Tree fallows d) Fence with stones on boundaries e) Grass strips on contour lines
E. Means of fertilization
17. Which means do you use for soil fertilization?
a) Organic manure b) Inorganic fertilizers c) Agro forestry practices 18. According to you, what do you suggest to ensure promotion of agroforestry in the district? a) Trainings b) Provision of domestic animals c) Communal groups
45