Masaryk University Faculty of Arts

Department of English and American Studies

English Language and Literature

Romana Havránková

Word-formation Processes In Journalistic Texts

Bachelor’s Diploma Thesis

Supervisor: doc. PhDr. Naděžda Kudrnáčová, CSc.

2013

I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently, using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography.

………………………………………... Romana Havránková

Acknowledgement

I would like to thank my supervisor doc. PhDr. Naděžda Kudrnáčová, CSc. for her

guidance, valuable advice and willingness to help. Table of Contents

1. Introduction………………………………………………………………………….7

2. Theoretical Background……………………………………………………………10

2.1 Word and its definition…………………………………………………………..10

2.2 Word: its internal structure and constituents ……………………………………11

2.2.1 The internal structure of word……………………………………………11

2.2.2 Word and its constituents…………………………………………………12

2.3 Word-formation………………………………………..………………………..14

2.3.1 Defining word-formation………………………………………………...14

2.3.2 Overview of word-formation processes in English……………………...15

2.3.2.1. Derivation……………………………………………………………..15

2.3.2.2 Conversion……………………………………………………………..15

2.3.2.3 Back-formation………………………………………………………...16

2.3.2.4 Acronyms………………………………………………………………16

2.3.2.5 Clipping………………………………………………………………..16

2.3.2.6 Blends………………………………………………………………….17

2.4 Compounding……………………………….…………………………………..17

2.4.1 Defining compounds……………………………………………………...17

2.4.2 Spelling patterns of compounds………………………………………….19

2.4.3 Distinction between compounds and phrases…………………………….20

2.4.3.1 Spelling…………………………………………………………………21

2.4.3.2 Stress……………………………………………………………………21

2.4.3.3 Syntactic criteria………………………………………………………..22

2.4.3.4 Semantic criterion………………………………………………………22

2.5 Main types of compounds…………………...…………………………………..23 2.5.1 Subordinative, appositional and coordinative compounds……………….23

2.5.2 Endocentric and exocentric compounds………………………………….24

2.5.3 Neoclassical compounds………………………………………………….25

2.6 Compound adjectives…………………..……………………………………….25

2.6.1 Properties of the class of adjectives………………………………………25

2.6.2 Classification of compound adjectives…………………………………...26

3. Analysis……………………………………………………………………………...27

3.1 CAs whose right-hand constituent is present participle…………………...…….32

3.1.1 Noun + present participle…………………………………………………33

3.1.2 Adjective + present participle…………………………………………….34

3.1.3 Adverb + present participle……………………………………………….34

3.2 CAs whose right-hand constituent is past participle…………………...………..35

3.2.1 Noun + past participle…………………………………………………….35

3.2.2 Adjective + past participle………………………………………………..36

3.2.3 Adverb + past participle…………………………………………………..37

3.3 CAs whose right-hand constituent is an adjective……………………………...... 38

3.3.1 Noun + adjective………………………………………………………….38

3.3.2 Adjective + adjective……………………………………………………..40

3.3.3 Adverb + adjective………………………………………………………..41

3.3.4 Numeral + noun + adjective……………………………………………...41

3.4 CAs whose right-hand constituent is an adjective derived from a noun………...42

3.4.1 Noun + adjective derived from a noun…………………………………...42

3.4.2 Adjective + adjective derived from a noun……………………………….43

3.4.3 Adverb + adjective derived from a noun…………………………………44

3.5 Compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is a noun………………….44 3.5.1 Noun + noun……………………………………………………………...44

3.5.2 Adjective + noun………………………………………………………….45

3.5.3 Numeral + noun…………………………………………………………..46

3.6 CAs containig particles…………………………………………………………...47

3.6.1 Particle + present participle………………………………………………48

3.6.2 Particle + past participle………………………………………………….48

3.6.3 Verb + particle……………………………………………………………48

3.6.4 Particle + noun……………………………………………………………49

3.7 Phrasal CAs…………………………..………………………………………….49

3.8 Summary of findings…………………………………………………………….50

3.8.1 CAs whose right-hand constituent is present participle…………………..51

3.8.2 CAs whose right-hand constituent is past participle……………………...51

3.8.3 CAs whose right-hand constituent is an adjective………………………..51

3.8.4 CAs whose right-hand constituent is an adjective derived from a noun....51

3.8.5 CAs whose right-hand constituent is a noun……………………………..52

3.8.6 CAs containing particles…………………………………………………52

3.8.7 Phrasal CAs………………………………………………………………52

3.8.8 Spelling patterns of CAs………………………………………………….53

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………..55

Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………...58

Abbrevations…………………………………………………………………...... 71

Resumé in English………………………………………………………………….…72

Resumé in Czech………………………………………………………………………73

Appendix……………………………………………………………………………….74

1. Introduction

Word-formation, the topic of this thesis, is the creation of new words on the basis of already existing words or parts of words. After some research into the topic, I decided to focus on the process of compounding, namely compound adjectives and their occurence in written language. I chose to investigate the class of compound adjectives, because I think that due to the large number of diverse patterns that can be distinguished within this group as well as their high productivity, compound adjectives represent a remarkable example of the creativity and diversity of word-formation processes in the

English language. Because of these reasons, I believe that compound adjectives deserve more attention.

The aim of this thesis is to provide a classification of compound adjectives found in journalistic texts and to find out what types of compound adjectives appear most frequently in the selected terminology.

The corpus was created using various articles that were found on TV news websites. I decided to use these articles for several reasons. It has become a part of everyday life of the majority of people to read news and the internet is the most widely used source of information in the modern era. The language of those articles is up-to- date and the occurence of adjective compounds in this type of texts is very high. The primary sources that were used in this thesis include four major American TV news websites, namely abcnews.go.com, edition.cnn.com, www.foxnews.com and www.nbcnews.com.

Not much attention is devoted to compound adjectives in literature. In my thesis

I rely mostly on the detailed classicication proposed by Valerie Adams in An

Introduction to Modern English Word-Formation and the classification used by Conti in her dissertation Compound adjectives in English: a descriptive approach to their

7 morphology and functions. Other principal sources used in this thesis that deal with compounding include Laurie Bauer's English Word-Formation and Compounds and

Compounding: (and Attempt at a Complex View) by Kavka and Štekauer.

The thesis is divided into two main parts. In the first part, the area of word- formation in general is introduced and the theoretical background necessary for understanding the various word-formation processes in English is provided. The main attention is devoted to the proces of compounding. The second part of the thesis is concerned with compound adjectives found in the selected texts, their classification and analysis.

The first part of the thesis opens with a discussion of the notion of the term

'word'. A description of the internal structure of word follows. Word-formation as a part of morphology is defined, followed by a brief overview of the various word-formation processes in English. The processes of derivation, conversion, back-formation, acronyms, clipping and blends are described. A separate chapter is dedicated to the process of compounding. Definitions of compounding are provided and the most frequently used criteria for determining compoundhood and distinguishing between compounds and syntactic phrases are discussed. The main types of compounds are described.

The second part of this thesis is concerned with compound adjectives. First, the process of identifying compound adjectives in the corpus is described. The criteria used for their classification are presented together with an overview of the classification used for the purpose of this thesis. The largest part of this section is devoted to the analysis of the compound adjectives found in the corpus. Each type of compound adjectives is analysed according to the stated criteria and several examples of each type of compound adjectives are provided. Their morphological and functional properties are discussed.

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The characteristics that are usually ascribed to the class of adjectives are applied to the compounds in order to test their adjectival status. Attention is devoted to the number of occurences of the individual types of compound adjectives in the corpus, their position in the sentence and their spelling patterns. For easier orientation, the results are presented in tables.

Finally, conclusions are drawn from the presented findings. The most important features of compounds and compound adjectives are summed up. It is evaluated, what types of compounds occured most frequently in the corpus. Also their adjectival status is discussed. The main differences between the discussed types of compound adjectives are drawn from the observations made in the second part of the thesis. Results of the conducted analysis are summed up.

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2. Theoretical background

2.1 Word and its definition

Because the central topic of this thesis is word-formation, it is useful to define what the term 'word' actually stands for. Although speakers of a language usually have some kind of intuitive feeling for what a word is, there is not a universal definition of the term and it can be sometimes unclear what it refers to. The aim of this chapter is to clarify the ambiguity in the term 'word'. First, word as a unit in speech or writing is defined and the criteria used for its identification are presented. Secondly, different senses in which the term 'word' is used are introduced.

Sapir (1921) defines word as "one of the smallest, completely satisfying bits of isolated 'meaning' into which the sentence resolves itself" and which "cannot be cut into without a disturbance of meaning" (p. 35). According to Crystal (2009), word is "a unit of expression which has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, in both spoken and written language" (p. 521).

The criteria used by Crystal (2009) for the identification of words include their stable internal structure, uninterruptibility and the fact that word is "the smallest unit which can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance" (p. 522). Plag (2002) identifies the following properties of words:

1) words are entities having a part of speech specification

2) words are syntactic atoms

3) words (usually) have one main stress

4) words (usually) are indivisible units (no intervening material possible) (p. 9).

Three main senses of the term 'word' are usually distinguished. In the first sense, word is defined simply as a unit consisting of syllables which are built up of letters (if it is understood as a unit in the writing system) or phonemes (if it is defined in terms of its

10 sound structure) (Matthews, 1974, p. 20; Plag, 2002, p. 4-6). Because it is the particular orthographic or phonological shape of the word that is under consideration, it is referred to as the orthographic or phonological word (Bauer, 1983/2010, p. 12; Crystal, 2009, p.

522). A single term word form is often used to subsume both (Crystal, 2009, p. 522).

In a more abstract sense, word is defined as an abstract unit that represents "all the possible shapes that the word can have" (Bauer, 1983/2010, p. 11). Or, as described by Crystal (2009), "the common factor underlying the set of forms which are plainly variants of the same unit" (p. 522). For this sense of word the term lexeme is used

(Bauer, 2010, p. 11). Matthews (1974) says that lexeme is the "fundamental unit of the lexicon of the language" (p. 22). Lexemes do not actually occur in a language. Instead, they are realized by word forms because their "actual occurrences in speech or writing always have phonic or orthographic form" (Bauer, 1983/2010, p. 12).

In the third sense, word is referred to as morphemic, morphosyntactic or grammatical word (Crystal, 2009, p. 522). It is defined as a grammatical unit whose function is to show how words work in the grammar (Crystal, 2009, p. 522).

2.2 Word: its internal structure and constituents

In order to understand the various processes that are involved in word-formation, it is necessary to take a look at the structure of the word and to identify its constituents.

2.2.1 The internal structure of word

Words may consist of one or more elements. Those elements are called morphemes and they are the basic units of analysis recognized in morphology, a branch of linguistics that deals with the internal structure of words (Bauer, 1983/2010, p. 13).

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Morphemes are defined as the smallest parts of words that have meaning or grammatical function (Yule, 2006, p. 63).1

As the minimal units of grammar, morphemes serve as the basis for larger units such as words (Matthews, 1974, p. 78). Words in English may be either simple or complex. Simple words are indivisible units composed of only one element that cannot be further divided into its constituents (Adams, 1973, p. 7). Such forms are also called free morphemes because they are the smallest units that can stand alone and still carry a meaning (Yule, 2006, p. 63).

Complex words, on the other hand, consist of more than one element (Adams,

1973, p. 7). They may consist of free morphemes which are independent in other contexts, or bound morphemes which do not appear independently (Adams, 1973, p. 7).

Bound morphemes can only be used in combination with other morphemes to produce a word because they have no meaning on their own and therefore they normally cannot stand alone (Yule, 2006, p. 63).

Morphemes, though, are only "abstract elements of analysis" and they do not occur as forms in a language (Bauer, 1983/2010, p. 15). What actually occurs is a phonetic (or orthographic) representation of a morpheme (Bauer, 1983/2010, p. 15).

Morphemes are realized by individual units known as morphs (Crystal, 2009, p. 313).

Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph depending on their position in a word. These variants of morphs are termed allomorphs (Crystal, 2009, p. 313).

2.2.2 Word and its constituents

When a word is decomposed into its constituents, the terms affix, root, stem and base are used to refer to the individual parts of the word.

1 Morphemes with a specific lexical meaning are termed lexical morphemes. Morphemes with a more abstract and general grammatical meaning are termed grammatical morphemes (Mair, 2008, p. 43). 12

Affixes are those parts of word that can only occur when attached to a morpheme. Thus, all affixes in English are bound morphemes (Yule, 2006, p. 63).

Based on their occurrence in word, three types of affixes are distinguished: prefixes, infixes and suffixes.

Prefixes are added to the beginning of the word. Their role in English is purely lexical because they are the constituents involved in the formation of new words

(Crystal, 2004, p. 198). Suffixes, on the other hand, are added to the end of the word.

They are divided into two groups. Most of them are purely lexical because their function is to change the meaning of the base form (Crystal, 2004, p.198). There are also a few purely grammatical suffixes2 that indicate how the word is used in a sentence. These are called inflectional affixes (Crystal, 2004, p. 198). On rare occasions in English, affixes can also be inserted inside the word. These are termed infixes and they are used in a very restricted manner, usually to express emotion or emphasis, e.g. absogoddamlutely, unfuckinbelievable (Yule, 2006, p. 58).

The terms root and base are used for the part of the word that remains after all affixes have been removed (Bauer, 1983/2010, p. 20). A root is a term that is used to refer to the base that canot be further analyzed into morphemes (Plag, 2002, p. 13). It is the fundamental part that is always present in a lexeme and which remains after all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed (Bauer, 1983/2010, p. 20). The term 'stem' is used to refer to the part of the word that remains after removing all inflectional affixes (Bauer, 1983/2010, p. 20). A base, on the other hand, is any part of a word that affixes can be attached to (Plag, 2002, p. 13). Basically, any root or any stem

2 Examples of purely grammatical suffixes include the plural marker -s, the past tense -ed, and the comparative -er (Crystal, 2004, p. 198). 13 can be termed a base, but not every base is also a root or a stem (Bauer, 1983/2010, p.

21).3

2.3 Word-formation

In the first part of this section, definitions of word-formation are provided. They are followed by a brief overview of the various types of word-formation processes in

English. Compounding is not included in the overview. It is dealt with in a separate chapter.

2.3.1 Defining word-formation

Crystal (2009) makes distinction between two senses of the term word- formation. He says that in general sense, word-formation denotes the whole process of morphological variation in the constitution of words, i.e. including inflection and derivation, while in a more restricted sense, word-formation refers only to derivational processes (p. 523-525). Derivational processes can be further subclassified into composition and derivation (Crystal, 2009, p. 523-524). Usually, however, the term word-formation is used in the narrow sense, strictly separated from inflection.4 Štekauer

(1998) assumes that the basic difference between word-formation and inflection lies in the fact that only word-formation, but not inflection, creates new naming units (p. 49).

Plag (2002) defines word-formation as a process of creating new words on the basis of already existing words, including the addition and subtraction of phonetic (or orthographic) material (p. 17). Bauer (1983/2010) defines word-formation simply as

"the production of complex forms" (p. 30). By complex forms he means both products

3 Bauer (1983/2010) explains that in the word untouchable the constituent touchable can act as a base but "it can not be referred to as a root because it is analysable in terms of derivational morphology, nor as a stem since it is not the adding of inflectional affixes which is in question" (p. 21). 4 See Matthews (1974, p. 38) 14 of derivation and compounding although he admits that there are some other categories of word-formation which cannot be completely subsumed under these processes (p. 30).

2.3.2 Overview of word-formation processes in English

2.3.2.1 Derivation

Derivation is a highly productive process of word-formation that involves the attachment of one or more affixes to an already existing word.

Only derivational affixes can be used in the process because words with different inflectional affixes are usually considered to be versions of the same word, i.e. inflectional affixes do not generate new naming units (Feldman, 1993, p. 69).

Two types of derivation may be distinguished. A class-maintaining derivation creates lexemes that are members of the same word class as the original base, while the lexemes produced by a class-changing derivation belong to a different word class than the base (Bauer, 1983/2010, p. 31). Most prefixes preserve word class, whereas most sufixes change the word class (Mair, 2008, p. 46).

2.3.2.2 Conversion

Conversion is a process by the means of which a new word is made on the basis of another one without any change in its form, simply by changing its word class (Mair,

2008, p. 47).

Other labels for this highly productive process are 'category change', 'functional shift', 'syntactic homonymy' and 'zero-derivation' (Yule, 2006, p. 56; Mair, 2008, p. 48).

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2.3.2.3 Back-formation

Back-formation is a process where an already existing word is reduced in order to produce a new word (Yule, 2006, p. 56).

It is often described as a reversed process with respect to derivation since it is the opposite of the usual pattern where the base form comes first and a new word form is derived from it (Adams, 1973, p. 105).

2.3.2.4 Acronyms

Acronyms are words that are made up of the initial letters of the words they represent (Yule, 2006, p. 57). Crystal (2004) makes a distinction between initialisms (or alphabetisms) which are items that are pronounced as individual letters and acronyms which he describes as initialisms pronounced as single units (p. 120). He subsumes both of these processes together with clipping under the category of abbreviations (p. 120).

An example of acronym which is pronounced as a single word is laser, an abbreviation for light amplification by the stimulated emission of radiation (Mair, 2008, p. 49). Examples of initialisms (or alphabetisms) include TV or DJ (Mair, 2008, p. 49).

2.3.2.5 Clipping

Clipping is a process by which a word containing two or more syllables is shortened so that only a part of the original lexeme is kept but its meaning and function remains unchanged (Adams, 1973, p. 135).

In most cases it is either the first or the last part of the original lexeme that is kept, but cases where only the middle part is kept are also possible (Crystal, 2004, p.

120). Adams (1973) notes, that "clipped words are generally used in less formal situations than their full-length equivalents" (p. 135).

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2.3.2.6 Blends

Blends are the result of merging the shortened forms of two other words together

(Crystal, 2004, p. 120). They are also called portmanteau words (Mair, 2008, p. 49).

Blending is usually carried by joining the beginning of one word with the end of another word creating lexemes such as smog (smoke + fog) or brunch (breakfast + lunch) (Mair, 2008, p. 49; Yule, 2006, p. 55). Other possible even though not very common way of blending words together is to create a single unit from their beginnings, as it was done in the word modem (modulator + demodulator) (Yule, 2006, p. 55).

2.4 Compounding

2.4.1 Defining compounds

Compounding is a very common word-formation process in English (Yule,

2006, p. 54). It generates a large number of different types of new naming units.

The process leading to formation of compound words is described by Teall

(1892) as "omitting minor or connecting parts of a full expression, and using only the principal elements in more or less arbitrary association and frequently in inverted order"

(Custom versus principle section, para. 1).

A universally accepted definition of compounds does not exist (Kavka &

Štekauer, 2006, p. 53). In the following section, definitions gathered from various sources including dictionaries of English and definitions provided by scholars are presented with the intention of finding out their common features.

The Dictionary of Lexicography (1998) defines compound word as "a word formed by joining two or more simple words" (p. 26). In A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, Crystal (2009) gives a more detailed definition of compound saying it is

"a linguistic unit which is composed of elements that function independently in other

17 circumstances" (p. 96). He calls these elements free morphemes claiming that there are two or more such elements in each compound (p. 96). Likewise, Adams (1973) sees compound as "the result of the (fixed) combination of two free forms, or words that have an otherwise independent existence" (p. 30). She adds that compounds, "though clearly composed of two elements, have the identifying characteristics of single words"

(p. 30). Lipka (1992) claims that compound is made up of at least two lexemes, i.e.

"constituents which occur (or can in principle occur) in isolation" and which "may themselves be complex" (p. 83). According to Jespersen's (1974) simplified definition, compounds are combinations of two or more words that function as one word and a single unit (p. 134). Kavka and Štekauer (2006) claim that the usual way of defining compounds merely as combinations of two words is incorrect (p. 52). They say that

"compounds result from the combination of word-stems, or better, word-formation bases of originally independent words, i.e., the 'disinflected' parts of words", concluding that "it is the compound as a whole that is inflected" (p. 52). Bauer (1983/2010) shares a similar view, claiming that compound is "a lexeme containing two or more potential stems that has not subsequently been subjected to a derivational process" (p. 29).

Summarized, those definitions describe compounds as combinations of two or more elements. Different terms are used to name the elements that make up a compound. However, according to some linguists, compounds are in fact composed of only two elements as can be seen from the following definitions.

Plag (2002) claims that compound is in fact a combination of no more than two elements. According to his explanation, even compounds constisting of more elements can be analysed as essentialy binary structures (p. 170-172). Similarly, Bauer

(1983/2010) says that "most longer compounds can be analysed as combinations of two elements, each of which may in turn be compound" (p. 202).

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Concluded, a compound can be defined as a combination of two or more elements. If the compound is composed of more than two elements it is still analysable into two-element structures. This characteristics of compounds is called binarity. Other important factors that are being used to define compounds (except for the number of their constituents) are their function and meaning. Units that are labeled as compounds behave as single units in regards to their syntactic and semantic function.

2.4.2 Spelling patterns of compounds

The spelling of compounds varies. There are three possible ways to write a compound. Compounds can be solid, i.e. written as one word, e.g. jellyfish, blackbird, sunflower. Often compounds are spelt with a hyphen placed between the constituents, e.g. blue-eyed, three-year-old, star-shaped. Many compounds are also spelt as separate words, e.g. scuba dive, ice cream, human being. Some compounds may even be spelt in two or even all three ways mentioned above, e.g. flowerpot, flower-pot and flower-pot.

Although the spelling of compounds is very varied, some tendencies may be observed. There is a certain tendency to spell established compounds either hyphenated or solid while novel compounds, on the other hand, are usually spelt separately. Kavka and Štekauer (2006) propose that the degree of unity between the constituents and "the writer's awareness about the novelty of the given compound" play a role in the way the compound is spelt (p. 33). Similarly, Huddleston (1984) proposes that the transition in spelling of compounds "from space to hyphen to close juxtaposition reflects the progressive institutionalisation of the compound" (p. 45). This variation in spelling is diachronic, because it reflects the change that takes place throughout the time as the originally novel compound gradually becomes established (Ryder, 1994, p. 12).5 Some

5 Ryder (1994) demonstrates the diachronic variation in spelling of compounds on the example of the word suitcase which was originally spelt as suit-case (p. 12). 19 words may be spelt in two or even all three possible ways at the same time, because even the various dictionaries list more alternate spellings of the same word. This is a case of synchronic variation in spelling (Ryder, 1994, p. 12).

Although the spelling of compounds is generally very inconsistent, some guidelines for a preferred spelling of compound words exist. According to APA style, a hyphen should only be used in case it serves a purpose, i.e. if the meaning of the compound is not sufficiently established or in case it could be misread. Hyphenated spelling is commonly used in compound adjectives if the compound precedes the term it modifies. But if the adjective is used in predicative position, it is usually not hyphenated

("When do you need to use a hyphen," n.d.). Usually compounds consisting of more elements and compounds whose constituents are in a coordinate relationship are hyphenated as well as compounds in attributive position (Kavka & Štekauer, 2006, p.

34).

2.4.3 Distinction between compounds and phrases

It may be sometimes difficult to decide whether a particular structure should be treated as a compound or a free phrase. The main difference between compounds and phrases lies in the fact that whereas compounds are naming units, phrases are "units of syntax whose basic function is to combine signs for the sake of description" (Kavka &

Štekauer, 2006, 52). The problem is that the distinction between compounds and phrases is rather vague and there are hardly any universally accepted criteria for distinguishing between the two structures. The next section presents the most commonly used criteria for distinguishing between compounds and free phrases.

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2.4.3.1 Spelling

There may be a certain tendency to regard structures that are spelt solid or hyphenated as compounds and to exclude the ones that are spelt separately. However, as it was stated in the previous section, the spelling of compounds in English is very inconsistent and therefore it cannot be considered an applicable criterion for the identification of these formations.

2.4.3.2 Stress

Another criterion used for determining compoundhood is stress. The assumption concerning stress is that the main stress in compounds should fall on the left-hand constituent while syntactic phrases have a level stress or they are stressed on the right- hand constituent (Kavka & Štekauer, 2006, p. 54). However, there are numerous exceptions to this rule. A large number of compounds, especially compound adjectives, carry double-stress (Kavka & Štekauer, 2006, p. 32). The stress pattern of adjective compounds in general is more variable than the stress pattern of nominal compounds

(Adams, 1973, p. 92). Therefore, with regard to many compounds, the stress criterion is of no use. Adams (1973) notes that this is especially the case of adjectival sequences consisting of the combination adverb + adjective or participle where the stress pattern of both compounds and phrases of this combination is the same (Adams, 1973, p. 90).

Usually when an adjective compound is in attributive position, the stress is on the first element. When it is in predicative position, the final element is normally stressed

(Adams, 1973, p. 91). Sometimes, the semantic value of compound is an important factor in stressing compounds, because stress can be distributed according to the importance that the speaker assigns to the individual constituents of a compound

(Kavka & Štekauer, 2006, p. 32).

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2.4.3.3 Syntactic criteria

There are several syntactic criteria that are used by scholars for delimitating compounds from phrases. First, it is the uninterruptability of a compound. The uninterruptability criterion means that it is impossible to divide a compound by inserting other elements between its constituents, or by interrupting them by a pause

(Adams, 1973, p. 7-8).6

Secondly, compounds should be inflected as a whole, i.e. the inflectional morphemes should be attached to the right-hand constituent (Kavka & Šteakuer, 2006, p. 59). Again, there are exceptions to this rule, e.g. compounds which pluralize both elements, as in men-servants, or compounds in which the first element is a head noun followed by a modifying adjective on the Romance pattern, as in court martial – courts martial (Adams, 1973, p. 8).

According to another criterion, the constituents of compounds have fixed order, and switching the order of their constituents would result in changing their meaning or destroying it altogether (Kavka & Štekauer, 2006, p. 58).

2.4.3.4 Semantic criterion

Generally, compounds are believed to be more specialised in meaning than phrases (Kavka & Štekauer, 2006, p. 24). Jespersen (1974) argues that "we have a compound if the meaning of the whole cannot be logically deduced from the meaning of the elements separately" (p. 137). Accordingly, Kavka and Štekauer (2006) describe compound as a combination of two or more words "which has a total meaning different from that of simple words in a free syntactic combination" (p. 23).

6 The exceptions to this rule are very rare, e.g. absobloominlutely (Adams, 1973, p. 8). 22

2.5 Main types of compounds

The classification of compounds is done in many different ways using various criteria. As Bauer points out (1983/2010) the usual way of classifying compounds is by the function they play in the sentence (p. 201). This syntactic division is made according to the word class of the compound as a whole and the word classes of the individual constituents of the compound (Bauer, 1983/2010, p. 31). Using the syntactic criterion, compound nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc. can be distinguished (Bauer, 1983/

2010, p. 201). Using semantic criteria, compounds can be subdivided into several groups based on the relationship between their constituents. They may be subordinative, appositional, coordinative, endocentric and exocentric.

2.5.1 Subordinative, appositional and coordinative compounds

Most compounds in English are headed which means that one of the constituents of the compound is dominant (head) and the other constituent is its modifier (Kavka &

Štekauer, 2006, p. 65). If this is the case, we speak of subordinative (or determinative) compounds (Kavka & Štekaue, 2006, p. 65). Examples of subordinative compounds include blackbird, cry-baby, compact-disc, etc. (Kavka & Štekauer, 2006, p. 65).

Semantically, the compound is a hyponym of its head (Kavka & Štekauer, 2006, p. 65).

If the elements of the compound are in apposition to each other, it is termed appositional compound, e.g. maid-servant, woman doctor, bitter-sweet, etc. (Kavka &

Štekauer, 2006, p. 65-66). According to Bauer, (as cited in Kavka & Štekauer, 2006) each of the elements of the compound "independently refers to some aspect of the enitity denoted by the compound as a whole" (p. 65). Finally, there are coordinative

(copulative, dvandva) compounds whose elements are in a coordinate relationship

(Kavka & Štekauer, 2006, p. 66). Coordinative compound is not a hyponym of either of

23 its elements. Instead the elements of coordinative compound "name separate entities which combine to form the entity denoted by the compound" (Bauer, 1983/2010, p. 31).

Examples of coordinative compounds include Alsace-Lorraine, Schleswig-Holsten, etc.

Kavka and Štekauer (2006) claim, that the basic difference between the two latter types lies in the fact, that unlike appositional compounds, coordinative compounds constitute of "two clearly separable parts" (p. 66).

2.5.2. Endocentric and exocentric compounds

The binarity of compounds is highly relevant to this categorisation. According to this division, compounds are treated as two-constituent structures in which one of the constituents is the determinant and the other determinatum. The determinatum (or head) is a superordinate constituent which determines the lexical class and the grammatical properties (number, gender) of the compound (Kavka & Štekauer, 2006, p. 62; Bauer,

2010, p. 30). The determinant functions as a modifying element of the head (Kavka &

Štekauer, 2006, p. 62). Compound whose head is formally expressed is endocentric

(Kavka & Štekauer, 2006, p. 62). For example, the compounds beehive and armchair are both endocentric because beehive is a type of hive and armchair is a type of chair

(Bauer, 1983/2010, p. 30).

If the determinatum of the compound is only implicit, it is termed an exocentric compound (Kavka & Štekauer, 2006, p. 62). None of the constituents of exocentric compound "refers to the referent directly" (Mair, 2008, p. 46). An example of exocentric compound is a pickpocket because it is not a type of pocket but "a person who picks other people's pockets" (Mair, 2008, p. 46).

Scalise et al. (2009) distinguish between semantically and formally endocentric compounds. According to the semantic point of view, an endocentric compound denotes

24 a hyponym of its head. According to the functional point of view, the head must be identified on formal grounds (p. 49).

2.5.3. Neoclassical compounds

Neoclassical compounds are complex words which include classical elements, such as tele-, micro-, scope-, that are usually Greek or Latin in origin. These elements are termed combining forms (Bauer, 1983/2010, p. 213; Adams, 1973, p. 31). Like affixes, these forms can be combined with stems, or two combining forms may be joined together to form a new word without using any lexical stem (Kavka & Štekauer

2006, p. 66).

2.6 Compound adjectives

2.6.1 Properties of the class of adjectives

The members of the class of adjectives are generally characterised as having the following four properties:

Adjectives can occur before the noun they premodify, i.e. in attributive function

(Quirk et al., 1985, p. 402). They can also occur after the noun they modify. They can occur in predicative function if they function as subject complement or as object complement (Quirk et al., 1985, p. 403). Sometimes, they can occur in postpositive function, i.e. they immediately follow the noun (or pronoun) they modify (Quirk et al.,

1985, p. 418). Most adjectives are gradable, i.e. they can be premodified by intensifiers such as very, so, extremely, etc. (Quirk et al., 1985, p. 435). They can also take comparative or superlative forms, either by means of inflection or by the addition of the premodifiers more and most (Quirk et al., 1985, p. 403).

25

However, it must be stressed, that although the above mentioned characteristics are regarded as important factors for determining the adjectivehood of a given entity, not all members of the class of adjectives possess all of these properties (Quirk et al.,

1985, p. 403). The same holds true for compound adjectives. Important is whether they possess at least some of these characteristics.

2.6.2 Classification of compound adjectives

Many various classifications of compound adjectives that are based on different criteria are used by linguists. Usually, both syntactic and semantic criteria are used.

Jespersen (1974) recognizes only four types of compound adjectives, although he admits that there are many possible logical relations between their elements (p. 162). He makes no distinction between adjectives and participles. Bauer (1983/2010) recognizes twelve groups of compound adjectives. Again, he does not make distinction between adjectives and participles. Kavka and Štekauer (2006) do not focus on compound adjectives in particular, but they distinguish between compounds as syntactic adjectives and compounds as syntactic adjectives of participle form. Plag (2002) outlines three main types which he further analyses according to the semantic relationship between the constituents. Adams (1973) offers a much more detailed classification that includes ten classes of adjective compounds which are further subclassified. She also distinguishes a group of adjectival compounds containing particles which she further subdivides according to the syntactic function of the constituents. Conti (2007) distinguishes between subordinative and coordinative (copulative) compounds. She further divides them into endocentric and exocentric compounds and identifies the combinatory patterns based on the word classes of the constituents.

26

3. Analysis

This part of the thesis is concerned with the classification and description of compound adjectives that were found in the corpus. The corpus was created using various articles taken from websites of four major American television stations: CNN news, ABC news, NBC news, and FOX news. It includes over 39,000 words. The whole corpus is The examined articles were chosen randomly. They cover a wide variety of topics from different areas. Their primary function is informative.

When identifying the compound adjectives in the corpus, I focused on several things. First, I was looking for those formations whose function was to modify a noun

(or pronoun). These formations had to be composed of at least two constituents in order to be considered compounds. A frequently occuring type consisting of numerals and a noun was also included. The constructions I found were usually composed of two elements, sometimes three and certain constructions appeared in the form of a whole phrase.

When deciding whether the compounds identified in the corpus can be classified as adjectives, two factors were taken into consideration: their position in the sentence and their gradability (or non-gradability). I attempted to find out whether it was possible to use the compounds attributively and/or predicatively and whether they were gradable or not.

Adams (1973) proposes a test for the identification of compound adjectives.

According to her, the construction can be considered a compound if the second element cannot stand alone as a premodifier (Adams, 1973, p. 91). Furthermore, she assumes that in the majority of established adverb-adjective sentences, the first element should be neutral, i.e. an –ly adverb appears without the suffix (Adams, 1973, p. 91). However, there are no universally accepted criteria and some expresions, if used often enough,

27 may be considered adjective compounds even though they do not meet all these criteria.

As Adams (1973) points out, a frequently used collocation may become institutionalized and in this case, it will probably take on such a meaning that its constituents will no longer be independent of one another (p. 91).

The classification used in this thesis is based on the word classes of the constituents of the compounds and on the relationship between the constituents. It is quite straightforward although, as Bauer (1983/2010) notes, "the major disadvantage of this system of classification is that because of the amount of conversion in English it is not always clear what form class a particular element belongs to" (p. 202). The classification mostly relies on the modifier-head distinction relevant to subordinate compounds. Where it was possible, the compound adjectives were divided into several groups according to the word class of their right-hand element. Compounds whose constituents have equal status were included in a group of compound adjectives according to the word class of their right-hand constituent. Following Kavka and

Štekauer (2006), I made distinction between compounds whose right-hand constituent is a present participle and compounds whose right-hand constituent is a past participle.

Another group consists of compounds whose right-hand element is an adjective.

Following Adam's (1973) classification, I made distinction between compound adjectives whose right-hand element is an adjective and derivational compound adjectives whose right-hand element consists of a noun stem and the adjective suffix

-ed. All these compound adjectives are formally endocentric, i.e. they function as adjectives and at the same time their right-hand element (head) also functions as an adjective. The remaining groups of compound adjectives are formally exocentric, i.e. they function as adjectives, but their right-hand element is not an adjective. They

28 include compound adjectives whose right-hand element is a noun. In this group it was difficult to determine the compoundhood status of the formations because most combinations were noun compounds that served as modifiers of a noun only in a particular context. Another group of formally exocentric compound adjectives consists of formations containing particles. Due to their diversity and marginal status I decided to include compound adjectives that contain particles in one separate group as well as

Adams (1973) does. Last group consists of phrasal compounds whose function is to premodify a noun. The inclusion of phrasal compounds may be viewed as a rather questionable decision because they are often regarded merely as lexicalized syntactic formations and not compounds. Nevertheless, I decided to include phrasal compounds in my classification because I think they are an interesting marginal type. Both compounds containing particles and phrasal compounds are regarded as borderline casess. It was sometimes quite difficult to decide whether such formations should be included in the classification. I relied mostly on the definitions provided by dictionaries and the productivity of such constructions in the examined texts. If the pattern appeared to be productive, I chose to include it.

The classification is made using only the compounds that were found in the examined texts. Certain types identified by scholars were not found at all and therefore were not included in the classification. Such patterns are very restricted in use and their occurence is therefore very low.

The following is an overview of the seven main groups of adjective compounds that were distinguished:

1) compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is present participle

2) compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is past participle

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3) compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is an adjective

4) compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is an adjective derived

from a noun

5) compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is a noun

6) compound adjectives containing particles

7) phrasal compounds

Further subdivisions were made within each group of compounds according to the lexical class of the left-hand constituent. The following tables give an overview of the classification used in this thesis. Examples of each type of compound adjectives are provided.

1) Compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is present participle

Left-hand Right-hand constituent Examples

constituent

Noun awe-inspiring

Adjective Present participle liberal-leaning

Adverb far-reaching

2) Compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is past participle

Left-hand Right-hand constituent Examples

constituent

Noun Barcelona-based

Adjective Past participle British-based

Adverb full-fledged

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3) Compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is an adjective

Left-hand Right-hand constituent Examples constituent

Noun age-old

Adjective Adjective cool-moist

Adverb almost-daily

Numeral + Noun 6-year-old

4) Compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is an adjective derived

from a noun

Left-hand Right-hand constituent Examples constituent

Noun goat-headed

Adjective Adjective derived from a dead-eyed

Adverb noun well-heeled

5) Compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is a noun

Left-hand Right-hand constituent Examples constituent

Noun space-age

Adjective Noun high-tech

Numeral 22-member

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6) Compound adjectives containing particles

Left-hand constituent Right-hand constituent Examples

Particle Present participle overwhelming

Particle Past participle overturned

Verb Particle live-in

Particle Noun indoor

7) Phrasal compounds

Constituents Examples

Phrase one-of-a-kind

In the following section, the various patterns of compound adjectives found in the corpus are introduced and described. Several examples of each type of compound adjectives that were found in the examined texts are provided.7 The source of the compound is indicated in parentheses. The formal and semantic properties of each type, as well as the relationship between the constituents of the compounds are discussed. In my description of different types of compounds that can be found in each group I rely mostly on Adams' (1973) detailed classification and the classification proposed by Conti

(2007). The occurence of the properties that are usually ascribed to the word class of adjectives (i.e. syntactic position and gradability) is also examined.

3.1 Compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is present participle

This pattern was highly productive. However, Conti (2007) states, that "many ad

7 All compound adjectives found in the corpus are listed in the appendix. 32 hoc formations in predicative position raise doubts on their compound vs. phrasal nature" (p. 148). Adams claims (as cited in Conti, 2007) that if such formations contain present participles with a progressive function, they are no more than phrasal constructions, but if they have a more property-denoting function, they can be considered compounds (p. 148).

3.1.1 Noun + present participle

…something equally awe-inspiring and unnerving…(CNN)

Amid ever-increasing belt-tightening trends...(FOX)

…"talking" and bubble-blowing dragon…(CNN)

…the only castle-dwelling roaylty…(ABC)

…goggle-wearing marines in camouflage…(CNN)

…various envy-inducing job alerts…(CNN)

It should be an eye-catching sight…(CNN)

…the giant smoke-breathing dragon…(CNN)

…NASA's sun-watching Solar Dynamics Observatory…(FOX)

…France's major wine-producing regions...(CNN)

This is a highly productive pattern of compound adjectives. In these constructions the nominal element is usually the object of the action expressed by the verb, e.g. a smoke-breathing dragon can be paraphrased as a dragon who breathes smoke, a wine-producing region is a region that produces wine, envy inducing job alerts are job alerts that induce envy, etc. In some cases, the nominal element determines the location of the state or the action denoted by the verb, e.g. castle- dwelling, seagoing. These compounds are endocentric and non-gradable. The majority of the compounds were used attributively. The compound awe-inspiring was used in

33 both positions: something equally awe-inspiring and unnerving(CNN), the awe- inspiring complex (CNN).

3.1.2 Adjective + present participle

…several liberal-leaning think tanks…(FOX)

This type of compound adjectives was not very frequent in the selected journalistic texts. The first element, although an adjective in its form, usually assumed the role of an adverb in similar constructions. Only one example consisting of an adjective and present participle was found. It is endocentric and non-gradable.

3.1.2 Adverb + present participle

Amid ever-increasing belt-tightening trends…(FOX)

…the most far-reaching gun safety legislation in the country…(FOX)

…in fast-growing China…(FOX)

…a long-running family business…(CNN)

…a long-standing and very strong relationship…(CNN)

…in the never-ending planetary race…(CNN)

Guests climb into slow-moving clamshells…(ABC)

…Governor Malloy signs wide-ranging gun limits into law…(FOX)

This type of compound adjectives consists of an adverb and present participle. It can be sometimes difficult to decide whether the left-hand constituent is an adverb or an adjective because their form is often identical. The adverb functions as an adjunct of the participle. It specifies the manner (e.g. slow-moving, fast-growing), duration (e.g. long- running, long-standing), or extent (e.g. far-reaching, wide-ranging) of the state or the action denoted by the participle. These compounds are endocentric. The majority of the

34 identified compounds is gradable, even though there are some exceptions, e.g. ever- increasing and never-ending, which cannot be graded.

3.2 Compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is past participle

These formations constitute the second most numerous group in the examined corpus. They proved to be highly productive in journalistic language. Again, different patterns may be distinguished in this group of compounds.

3.2.1 Noun + past participle

A small Al-Qaeda-influenced group…(ABC)

…a Barcelona-based former politician…(CNN)

…the government-held heart of the city…(NBC)

…the graffiti-covered cars will soon be replaced…(CNN)

…attempting to plant home-made explosives…(CNN)

…a small town in Pakistan-administered Kashmir. (ABC)

…traditional rock-influenced interiors…(CNN)

…a Shanghai-born singer…(CNN)

…the Chinese state-run news agency…(CNN)

…the money went to U.S.-based operations…(ABC)

This type of compound adjectives appeared very often in the examined texts. It can be further subclassified according to the semantic position of the nominal element in relation to the participle. According to Conti (2007), the left-hand constituent is usually the agent, the instrument, or the cause (p. 149). In compounds such as Al-

Qaeda-influenced, Pakistan-administered, government-held, etc., the nominal element functions as the agent that carries out the action expressed by the verb. It may also be

35 the instrument of the action denoted by the verb, e.g. graffiti-covered, currywurst- fueled, handmade, or it may be the cause of the state denoted by the verb, e.g. panic- stricken, etc. But the left-hand constituent can also function as a locative element, e.g.

Barcelona-based, Shanghai-born, home-brewed, homemade, world-renowned, etc. The latter type was very common in the journalistic texts that were examined. Very often, the nominal element was represented by a place name or by a name of an organization.

Conti (2007) notes, that the compounds containing the head -based actually allow double morphological reading because base can be a noun as well as a verb and therefore -based can be rephrased either as "positioned/located in"or as "having a base in" (p. 151). Therefore, the adjectival head -based may be either a participle or an adjective derived from a noun. (p. 151). Similarly, compounds containing the expressions -branded, -laced, -shaped, -sized, and -themed as their second element may be viewed either as participial compound adjectives, or as derivatives.

According to Adam's (1974), in some of these compounds the nominal element may be both the element determining location and the instrument of the action denoted by the verb (p. 96). Examples of such compounds include airborne and seaborne.

The compounds in this group are endocentric. The majority of them are non- gradable. The compound battle-hardened is an exception because it is gradable, e.g. the most battle-hardened Yuletide veteran (CNN).

3.2.2 Adjective + past participle

The British-based Syrian Observatory for Human Rights...(NBC)

…the Democratic-controlled General Assembly…(FOX)

…different-sized people…(ABC)

…faux-cobbled streets…(NBC)

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The French-themed Be Our Guest restaurant…(CNN)

…the longer, old-fashioned way…(CNN)

…good ol' fashioned dog…(CNN)

…featuring 50-meter-high solar-powered "supertrees"…(CNN)

This type of compound adjectives is very similar in meaning to the noun + past participle pattern. Only a few examples of this type were found because there was an obvious preference towards the use of the noun + past participle. Again, the right-hand constituent of the majority of these compounds allows double morphogical analysis.

The compounds British-based, different-sized, faux-cobbled, French-themed, and old- fashioned may also be regarded as derivatives. The compounds are endocentric. The majority of them is non-gradable.

3.2.3 Adverb + past participle

…the best-known terrorist rehabilitation program…(CNN)

…traveled to far-flung places…(NBC)

…officialy demoted Pluto from a full-fledged planet…(NBC)

…the wealthiest among them have been hard-pressed…(CNN)

…Morrison traveled to Uganda to report on a little-known war…(NBC)

…a long-planned overhaul…(CNN)

…it will provide much-needed momentum for other global disarmament…(CNN)

…the newfound Earth-sized planet…(NBC)

…who made a shaky and short-lived run for Senate…(FOX)

The other is well-known criminal lawyer Jesus Maria Silva. (CNN)

This pattern consisting of an adverb and past participle appeared quite often.

Some of the expressions, e.g. well-known and so-called are well established.. The first

37 element functions as an adjunct of the past participle. The function of the adverb is sometimes intensifying e.g. compare: needed vs. much-needed, known vs. best-known.

According to Adams (1973), the first element in these expressions should be always neutral, i.e. an –ly adverb should appear without the suffix (p. 91). Conti (2007) notes, that most of these compounds, "although mainly appearing in attributive position, admit predicative use" (p. 158). The majority of these compounds can be graded, except for the ones containing adverbs in the comparative or superlative form (Conti, 2007, p.

158). They are endocentric.

3.3 Compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is an adjective

3.3.1 Noun + adjective

…fight against an age-old problem…(CNN)

…a carefree holiday destination…(FOX)

…the family-friendly theme…(CNN)

…wealthy horse-mad sheikhs…(CNN)

Ice-cool Raikkonen tops the charts…(CNN)

…my lifelong hero…(NBC)

…producing malt-heavy Christmas beers…(CNN)

…campaign by the oil-rich Gulf…(CNN)

…the city's tourism-worthy places…(CNN)

…the chain's worldwide hotels and resorts…(FOX)

This is a highly productive class of compounds. The nominal element further develops and specifies the meaning of the adjectival head. The members of this group of compounds may be further subclassified according to the large number of different semantic patterns that can be recognized within this group. Adams (1973) distinguishes

38 between several types of compound adjectives according to the semantic relationship between the constituents: comparative, instrumental, prepositional, and locative.

The meaning of the adjectival head of comparative adjectives is specified through a comparison with the quality that is denoted by the nominal modifier (Adams,

1973, p. 97). Adams (1973) further subdivides comparative adjectives according to the semantic relationship between their constituents into intensifying and particularizing (p.

97-98). Examples of intensifying compounds found in the corpus include brand-new, malt-heavy, ice-cool, age-old, sky-high, etc. These compounds are usually non-gradable, even though their adjectival head is usually gradable (e.g. heavy-heavier-heaviest, old- older-oldest, etc.). Conti (2007) describes the compound sky-high as a borderline case between intensifying and particularizing compounds that describe dimensions (p. 131).

She claims that in the case of the the nominal modifier sky the meaning is only metaphorical because it does not denote a specific measurable quality (p. 131).

Therefore it is included within the group of intensifying compounds.

Particularizing compounds represent the second subtype distinguished by Adams

(1973) within comparative compounds. She divides them into adjectives of extent or measurement and adjectives denoting colour (p. 98). Examples of adjectives that describe dimensions include lifelong, worldwide, decade-long. Again, they are normally non-gradable.

Another subgroup includes compounds in which the left-hand constituent is the instrument of the action or the state expressed by the adjectival head, e.g. oil-rich, horse-mad. These compounds are therefore instrumental. They are gradable.

Another type, included in the class of noun + adjective compounds is treated as a special group by Adams. If we attempt to paraphrase these compounds, their elements

39 will be linked by preposition, e.g. tourism-worthy = worthy of tourism. Adams (1973) uses the term prepositional compounds to refer to them (p. 98-99).

Another group consists of compounds, in which the nominal element functions as a subject of the adjectival head, e.g. duty-free, which can be paraphrased as free from duties. These compounds are non-gradable.

All the compounds in vhich the nominal element modifies the adjectival head are endocentric.

3.3.2 Adjective + adjective

…the Arab-Israeli conflict…(NBC)

…the cool-moist climate of the tropical montane region… (CNN)

…fierce Israeli-Palestinian fighting… (NBC)

…Israeli-Palestinian peace talks…(NBC)

…Southeast Asia…(CNN)

…the southwest portion of the sea…(NBC)

…in the southwest sky…(CNN)

…at the racecourse in south-west London…(CNN)

…future U.S.-Russian defense talks… (FOX)

…beyond the west-northwest horizon…(CNN)

This pattern was used to describe a relationship between the two constituents

(usually countries), e.g. U.S.-Russian, Israeli-Palestinian, etc. Also, compounds denoting cardinal points were found, e.g. west-northwest, south-west. These compound adjectives are coordinative (or copulative) because there is no modifier-head distinction within the structures and both constituent parts are equally important.

40

According to the semantic relationship between the constituents, these compounds can be either antonymic or non-antonymic (Conti, 2007, p. 100). An example of antonymic compound is top-down, as in top-down approach. However, the majority of the identified examples denote qualities that complement each other and therefore they are non-antonymic, e.g. Arab-Israeli, U.S.-Russian, south-west, cool- moist.

Three examples of subordinate compounds were also found. These include faux-

French, nuclear-free and quirky-chic. Formally, all compound adjectives in this group are endocentric. They are non-gradable.

3.3.3 Adverb-adjective

…The almost-first kiss…(ABC)

…the ever-popular Julform Popup market…(CNN)

…on an almost-daily basis…(FOX)

Only three examples of this marginal type were found in the corpus. However, it is questionable, whether they should be treated as compound adjectives at all because the second element can stand alone as a premodifier of a noun, e.g. first kiss, popular market, daily basis. The adverb functions as an adjunct of the adjective.

These formations are endocentric and non-gradable.

3.3.4 Numeral + noun + adjective

…the shelter was 15-feet wide…(NBC)

…224-foot-long hull had been cut…(CNN)

…featuring 50-meter high solar-powered "supertrees"…(CNN)

…their 10-month-old son…(FOX)

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…the fictional 6-year-old heroine… (FOX)

…13-year-old assassin murdered in Mexico…(CNN)

…their 15-year-old daughter…(ABC)

…a 20-year-old gunman…(FOX)

The seven-year-old gelding…(CNN)

…during the two-year-old revolt… (NBC)

This is a highly productive pattern of compound adjectives that consists of three constituents that are connected by hyphens. The singular form of the nominal element is usually used, even though it has a plural quality. This type of compounds was very frequently used to describe people's age, but it can also describe a duration, e.g. the two- year-old revolt, or proportions, e.g. a 63-meter-high office, 224-foot-long hull, 2,060- meters-long runway, etc.

These compound adjectives are predominantly used in attributive position but they can also be used in predicative position. However, they must fulfill the condition of modifying a noun in order to be considered adjectives, otherwise the same form functions as a noun, e.g. the arrested man is 86-year-old X the 86-year-old was arrested.

These constructions are endocentric and non-gradable.

3.4 Compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is an adjective

derived from a noun

3.4.1. Noun + adjective derived from a noun

…gruesome goat-headed long-haired monsters…(CNN)

This group consists of compounds in which the adjective is derived from noun stem by the means of adding the adjective suffix -ed (Adams, 1973, p. 99). Adams

42

(1973) uses the term derivational compounds to term these structures with respect to the process involved in the formation of their right-hand elements. Only one example of such compound was found in the corpus. It is endocentric and non-gradable.

A few other compound adjectives that could be regarded as derivational were found. These include compounds whose right-hand element is -based, -laced, -shaped, - themed, -sized, -cobbled and -fashioned. Compounds containing such elements allow double morphological analysis. This is because the words base, lace, shape, theme, size, cobble and fashion may be both nouns and verbs. Therefore it is sometimes not clear whether the compounds containing these elements should be regarded as participial compounds or compounds that were subjected to derivation. I decided to include all of them in the group of adjective compounds whose right-hand element is past participle.

3.4.2 Adjective + adjective derived from a noun

…increasingly dead-eyed shoppers…(CNN)

…which ended last season empty-handed…(CNN)

…gruesome goat-headed long-haired monsters…(CNN)

…many critics prefer a more open-ended approach…(CNN)

…that they are open-minded…(CNN)

These compound adjectives are endocentric. Both gradable and non-gradable examples were found in this group. According to Adams (1973) the second element in derivational compound adjectives often contains a human or animal attribute, which can be both mental or physical (p. 100). Four out of five compound adjectives identified in the corpus cotained such element. The compounds dead-eyed, empty-handed and long- haired contain a physical human attribute while the compound open-minded contains a mental attribute.

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3.4.3 Adverb + adjective derived from a noun

…the nation's well-heeled tourists…(CNN)

This is a marginal type of compound adjectives. Only one example of this type was found in the corpus. It is endocentric and gradable.

3.5 Compound adjectives whose righ-hand constituent is a noun

3.5.1. Noun + noun

Parisian apartment-style guest rooms…(ABC)

Western diamondback rattlesnakes are common…(FOX)

…a love-hate relationship…(CNN)

…self-service technology…(CNN)

…space-age skyscraper…(CNN)

…one-of-a-kind lifestyle experience…(ABC)

…the same resort-style properties…(CNN)

The focus of U.S.-Mexico cooperation…(CNN)

…our two world-class hotels…(CNN)

…field of world-class horses…(CNN)

This is a marginal pattern of compound adjectives. All members of this class of compounds are formally exocentric, because the lexical class of the compound as a whole is not determined by the right-hand constituent, i.e. in the example a space-age skyscraper, the right-hand constituent is a noun, but the compound's function is to modify the noun skyscraper and therefore it formally functions as an adjective. All the identified members of this group of compounds can be used in attributive position only.

44

There are two types of noun + noun compound adjectives. In the first type, the modifier- head distinction is possible, e.g. space-age, world-class, lifestyle, etc. The second type consists of compounds such as Asia-Pacific, love-hate. Here, the constituents are equally important. Both types are formally exocentric and non-gradable.

Due to these discrepancies, it is especially difficult to decide whether these formations should be included in the class of compound adjectives or not and their status as compound adjectives is often questionable. I relied mostly on the definitions provided by dictionaries. Also, I decided to include formations which appeared to be productive, e.g. resort-style, apartment-style, lifestyle, etc. On the other hand, I decided not to include formations such as car bomb, as in a car bomb blast because they have a modifying function only if they are used attributively. If they are used predicatively, however, they function merely as noun compounds.

3.5.2 Adjective + noun

Crew takes first fast-track flight…(CNN)

…no high-end, intimate properties…(CNN)

…a few high profile instances of recidivism…(CNN)

A high-tech hunt for pirates…(CNN)

…providing large-scale equipment…(CNN)

…low-fat local cuisine…(CNN)

…focused primarily on the long-term problem…(FOX)

…a military-style semi-automatic rifle…(FOX)

…heavier than most modern-day warships…(NBC)

…the chain's top-tier hotels…(FOX)

45

This type was quite productive in the selected texts. Members of this class pose a similar problem as the noun + noun type. It was sometimes quite difficult to decide whether some of the formations should be regarded as compound adjectives. Again, I relied mostly on the definitions provided by dictionaries.

Members of this group of compound adjectives are formally exocentric because the word-class of the right-hand element is different of that of the whole compound.

Semantically, however, these formations are endocentric because the adjective modifies the noun. They are non-gradable.

3.5.3 Numeral + noun

…the 28-acre LEGOLAND California theme park… (NBC)

…smoke-breathing, 400,000-brick welcome dragon…(NBC)

…the 11-day carnival…(CNN)

…bedroom with a 23-foot exposed cathedral ceiling… (FOX)

…the 101-hectare venue's three gardens…(CNN)

…including a 2.5-hour ferry ride…(CNN)

…he broke a 48-hour curfew…(CNN)

…42-inch rattlesnake found abandoned in backpack…(FOX)

… the 22-member Arab League… (NBC)

…the 250-room hotel… (CNN)

This pattern combining numeral and noun was highly productive in the selected type of texts. The elements of the compounds were almost always joined by a hyphen.

These compounds are formally exocentric and semantically endocentric. They are non- gradable. They are often used to describe either the amount or number, e.g. 22-member, size, e.g. 28-acre, or duration, e.g. 87-year. This type is similar to the previously

46 mentioned numeral-noun-adjective pattern but in this case the adjective is ommitted.

The meaning, though, is very similar. Although the numerals are in plural, the noun that follows is always kept in singular form.

This type of adjective compounds is always used attributively. In order to be used after the noun they modify, they would have to be rephrased using a relative clause with the noun in plural, e.g. the Arab League that has 22 members. The main reason for writing these expressions like this is to save space and keep the text more readable because relative clauses, repeatedly appearing throughout the text, would be rather disturbing.

These constructions are non-gradable.

3.6 Compound adjectives containing particles

Compounds containing particles are included in my classification as a marginal case. Again, it was difficult to decide whether some of these formations should be regarded as a part of morphology or as mere syntactical constructions. The following four types were distinguished: particle + present participle, particle + past participle, verb + particle and particle + noun. All the types are discussed here. In the majority of cases, these combinations were used attributively. The formations ongoing and overwhelming were used both attributively and predicatively, e.g. …an investigation into the grounding is ongoing…(CNN), …an ongoing project…(NBC), …it was overwhelming…(NBC), counter-threat of overwhelming force…(FOX).

The compounds were always either hyphenated or solid. The identified examples are non-gradable.

Examples follow:

47

3.6.1 Particle + present participle

…an investigation into the grounding is ongoing…(CNN)

…ongoing political unrest…(NBC)

Rescue efforts are ongoing…(CNN)

…an ongoing project…(NBC)

…an "outstanding" response…(NBC)

…it was overwhelming…(NBC)

…counter-threat of overwhelming force…(FOX)

…the underlying mechanisms of the link…(FOX)

…two upcoming properties…(CNN)

3.6.2 Particle + past participle

…wreckage of an overturned bus…(NBC)

3.6.3 Verb + particle

…guests can splurge on add-on services…(NBC)

… the live-in orbiter…(CNN)

…a pop-up hotel…(NBC)

…pop-up hotels…(NBC)

…Kreuzberg pop-up nightspot…(CNN)

…hoteliers have created pop-up accommodations…(NBC)

…pop-up restaurants…(NBC)

…pop-up shops…(NBC)

Pop-up hotels…(NBC)

…officials will open trade-in centers…(CNN)

48

3.6.4 Particle + noun

…Taliban targets poor parents and at-risk children…(CNN)

Venues include indoor and outdoor events… (CNN)

…indoor/outdoor nightclub…(ABC)

…the past eight decades of in-flight toilet innovation.(FOX)

…their off-track relationship…(CNN)

…even the best on-stage spellers…(NBC)

…overweight passengers…(ABC)

…an underwater archaeological expedition…(NBC)

…the city's overseas tourism promotional advisor…(CNN)

…underwater excavation…(NBC)

3.7 Phrasal compound adjectives

…response to boy-with-gun photo…(FOX)

…after signing a four-and-a-half-year deal…(CNN)

…a hassle-and-worry-free trip…(FOX)

…will inevitably lead to some less-than-perfect moments…(CNN)

…the low-and average-weight passengers…(ABC)

…the need-to-know stories…(CNN)

…a one-of-a-kind lifestyle experience…(ABC)

…out-of-state visitors…(NBC)

It's over-the-top, it's just gorgeous…(CNN)

…soon-to-be space station crew members…(CNN)

49

These phrasal formations represent a borderline case between morphology and syntax because their components include words that are typically used in synax, such as articles, conjunctions and prepositions (Kavka & Štekauer, 2006, p. 70). Therefore, as

Bauer (1983/2010) notes, "it may be questionable whether such formations should actually be considered to be compounds or lexicalizations of syntactic structures" (p.

207). Conti (2007) remarks that this is because "no morphological process is actually involved" in formation of such expressions (p. 12).

I decided to include phrasal formations in my classification because I think they are an interesting marginal pattern. In the case of phrasal formations, the whole phrase behaves as a single unit. The constituents are hyphenated to reinforce the integrity of the expression. Expressions joined by the word and, e.g. hassle-and-worry-free, which are not in accordance with the uninterruptibility criterion of wordhood, also fall into this category.

Most phrasal compounds are used only on a particular occasion and in a particular context and only very few of them actually become established.

These constructions are non-gradable. Almost all of the identified examples were used attributively.

3.8 Summary of findings

The following section contains tables which provide information about the distribution of the individual classes of compound adjectives (CAs) that were found in the corpus as well as their prevailing syntactic position and spelling patterns.

50

3.8.1 CAs whose right-hand constituent is present participle

Type Number Attributive Predicative

N+P-ing 23 22 1

Adj+P-ing 1 1 0

Adv+Ping 8 8 0

Total 32 31 1

3.8.2 CAs whose right-hand constituent is past participle

Type Number Attributive Predicative

N+P-ed 87 81 6

Adj+P-ed 9 9 0

Adv+P-ed 24 21 3

Total 120 111 9

3.8.3 CAs whose right-hand constituent is an adjective

Type Number Attributive Predicative

N+Adj 26 25 1

Adj+Adj 14 14 0

Adv+Adj 3 3 0

Num+N+Adj 29 23 6

Total 72 65 7

3.8.4 CAs whose right-hand constituent is an adjective derived from a noun

Type Number Attributive Predicative

51

N+Noun-ed 1 1 0

Adj+Noun-ed 5 3 2

Adv+Noun-ed 1 1 0

Total 7 5 2

3.8.5 CAs whose right-hand constituent is a noun

Type Number Attributive Predicative

N+Noun 13 13 0

Adj+Noun 32 32 0

Num+Noun 63 63 0

Total 108 108 0

3.8.6 CAs containing particles

Type Number Attributive Predicative

Particle+P-ing 9 6 3

Particle+P-ed 1 1 0

Verb+particle 10 10 0

Particle+Noun 14 14 0

Total 34 31 3

3.8.7 Phrasal CAs

Type Number Attributive Predicative

Phrasal 14 13 1

52

3.8.8 Spelling patterns of CAs

Spelt Hyphenated Solid

separately

16 332 39

The occurence of compound adjectives in the examined texts was very high.

Altogether, 387 compound adjectives were found. The most numerous group consisted of compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is past participle, followed by group of compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is a noun. Third most numerous group consisted of compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is an adjective. Compounds containing particles represented the fourth most numerous group.

They were followed by compounds whose right-hand element is present participle. The second least numerous group consisted of phrasal compound adjectives. Compounds whose right-hand constituent is an adjective derived from a noun constituted the least numerous group of all. However, some compound adjectives in which the second constituent was treated as past participle actually allow double morphological analysis and therefore, they may be also regarded as derivatives.

As far as the spelling is concerned, compound adjectives constitute quite homogenous group. The vast majority of compound adjectives (332 out of 387) was hyphenated, 39 of them were spelt as one word and only 16 were spelt separately.

Compound adjectives show a strong preference towards attributive use. Altogether 364 compound adjectives were used attributively and only 23 of them were used predicatively.

53

The main function of compound adjectives is to modify a noun. Compound adjectives carry a combined meaning of two or more words. The meaning of most compound adjectives can be easily derived from the meaning of their constituents. The reason for the frequent use of compound adjectives in journalistic texts is probably the advantage of not having to use relative clauses whose repetitive use throughout the text would be rather disturbing. The use of compound adjectives saves space in the text and makes it more readable.

54

Conclusion

The main objective of this thesis was to map the occurence of the different types of compound adjectives in the selected journalistic texts and to provide a classiffication of the compound adjectives that were found.

Compounding is a highly productive process of word-formation in the English language. Compounds are usually defined as combinations of two or more elements.

The majority of compounds consist of two elements, although structures consisting of three or more elements, or even a whole phrase, also appear. But even compounds that consist of more constituents can be analysed as essentialy two-constituent structures.

This important feature of compounds is called binarity. In binary structures, one element may be hiearchically higher than the other, while the other element functions as its modifier. The superordinate element is called the 'head' of the compound. The notion of 'head' is an important feature relevant to the classification of compound adjectives.

Compounds that have a head are termed subordinative. If, on the other hand, both of the constituents are equally important and there is no modifier-head distinction, the compounds are called coordinative (or copulative). The vast majority of the compounds identified in the corpus were subordinative. Subordinative compounds may be further divided into endocentric compounds in which the central constituent determining the lexical class and the grammatical properties of the compound is formally expressed, or they may be exocentric if the formally or semantically superordinate element is expressed only implicitly.

Compounds behave as single units. They take over the function of one word class as a whole, i.e. the function of compound as a whole may be different from that of its individual constituents. Also, the resulting meaning of a compound is different from the meaning of a free combination of its constituents. However, as far as compound

55 adjectives are concerned, their meaning can be easily derived from the meaning of their constituents.

Compound adjectives form a class of compounds whose syntactic function is that of adjectives. Following four properties of adjectives are generally identified: attributive use, predicative use, possible premodification by intensifiers such as very and the possibility to take comparative or superlative forms. Those features are also applicable to the class of compound adjectives. The research conducted in this thesis shows that most compound adjectives are used attributively. Some of the compounds

(especially those whose head is a noun) behave as adjectives only if used attributively.

As for the gradability, not all compound adjectives can be graded. Moreover, in some groups that were distinguished, both gradable and non-gradable compound adjectives can be found. As far as the spelling is concerned, the majority of compound adjectives was hyphenated. Some words were also spelt in more possible ways.

For the purpose of this thesis a corpus was created using a large number of articles from internet websites of American TV news stations. Compound adjectives were identified in the corpus and classified. Usually, compounds are classified according to their syntactic function. They can be further subclassified according to several criteria. The system of classification used in this thesis is based on the word class of the individual constituents of the compounds. The semantic relationship between the elements of the compounds is also taken into consideration. Only the types of compounds that were found in the corpus were classified. Therefore, some marginal types of compound adjectives were not included. Altogether, twenty-one distinct patterns of compound adjectives were distinguished. Furthermore, seven classes that subsume all these patterns of compound adjectives were established to allow easier comparison. These include: 1) compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is

56 present participle, 2) compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is past participle, 3) compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is an adjective, 4) compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is an adjective derived from a noun,

5) compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is a noun, 6) compound adjectives containing particles, and 7) phrasal compound adjectives. The first four groups are formally endocentric, because the compounds function as adjectives and at the same time their right-hand element (head) also functions as an adjective. Some classifications do not even make distinction between participles, adjectives and adjectives derived from nouns. The last three groups are formally exocentric because they function as adjectives even though their right-hand constituent is not an adjective. They are regarded as borderline cases and sometimes it is not clear whether such formations should be regarded as compound adjectives at all. This is especially true for phrasal compounds which were included in the classification mainly because they serve as an example of the creativity of the English language.

Compound adjectives constitute a numerous and varied class of compounds.

They can be easily formed and they are highly productive, especially in written language. They can be formed by combining a wide variety of constituents. Twenty-one distinct patterns of compound adjectives were identified in the corpus. Altogether, 387 examples were found. The research conducted in this thesis proves high occurrence of compound adjectives in the journalistic texts that were examined.

Despite their high productivity, not much attention is devoted to compound adjectives. The large number of different types of compound adjectives allows numerous possible classifications, but at the same time, makes it hard to provide an exhaustive and widely accepted classification. Therefore, this area is certainly suitable for further research.

57

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Abbreviations

Adj = Adjective

Adv = Adverb

CAs = compound adjectives

N = Noun

Num = Numeral

P-ed = Past participle

P-ing = Present participle

ABC = http://abcnews.go.com/

CNN = http://edition.cnn.com/

FOX = http://www.foxnews.com/

NBC = http://www.nbcnews.com/

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Resumé in English

This thesis deals with word-formation processes in English. Main attention is devoted to the process of compounding and to compound adjectives in particular. The aim of the thesis is to provide a classification of compound adjectives found in journalistic texts and to find out what types of compound adjectives appear most frequently in the selected terminology. In order to do so, a corpus was created using various articles that were found on TV news websites.

The theoretical part of the thesis introduces the area of word-formation in general and provides the theoretical background necessary for understanding the various word-formation processes that can be found in English. A brief overview of the different types of word-formation processes is followed by a separate chapter dedicated to compounding. Definitions of compound words are provided together with the criteria that are usually used for distinguishing between compounds and syntactic phrases. The main types of compounds are described. The properties that are usually ascribed to the class of adjectives (i.e. syntactic position and gradability) are also discussed.

In the second part of the thesis, the compound adjectives that were identified in the corpus are classified. The classification used in this thesis is based on the lexical classes of the constituents of the compounds. Altogether 21 distinct patterns of compound adjectives were distinguished. They were subsumed under seven main groups which were usually determined by the right-hand (central) element of the compounds. The formal and semantic properties of each type, as well as the relationship between the constituents of the compounds are discussed. This section also provides information about the distribution of each type of compound adjectives in the corpus as well as their prevailing syntactic position and spelling patterns.

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Resumé in Czech

Tato práce se zabývá slovotvornými procesy v anglickém jazyce. Hlavní pozornost je zaměřena na kompozita, konkrétně kompozitní adjektiva. Cílem práce je vytvořit klasifikaci kompozitních adjektiv, jež byly nalezeny v žurnalistických textech a zjistit, jaké typy kompozitních adjektiv se nejčastěji objevují ve vybrané terminologii. Za tímto účelem byl vytvořený korpus, který byl sestavený z různých

článků, jež byly nalezeny na zpravodajských portálech televizních stanic.

V teoretické části práce je představena oblast slovotvorby a teoretické zázemí nezbytné pro pochopení rozličných slovotvorných procesů v anglickém jazyce. Po stručném přehledu různých typů slovotvorných procesů následuje samostatná kapitola věnovaná kompozitům. V této kapitole jsou uvedeny definice kompozit společně s hlavními kritérii, jež se obvykle používají k odlišení kompozit od syntaktických frází.

Popsány jsou hlavní typy kompozit. Vlastnosti, jež jsou obvykle připisovány adjektivům, (tj. postavení ve větě a možnost je stupňovat) jsou také zmíněny.

Druhá část práce se zabývá klasifikací kompozitních adjektiv, jež byly nalezeny v korpusu. Klasifikace použitá v této práci se zakládá na slovních druzích jednotlivých prvků, z nichž se kompozita skládají. Celkem bylo rozlišeno 21 různých typů. Ty byly zahrnuty do sedmi hlavních skupin, jež byly obvykle určeny na základě centrálního prvku v kompozitech. V rámci jednotlivých typů jsou dále rozebrány jejich formální a sémantické vlastnosti, stejně tak jako vztah mezi jednotlivými prvky v rámci kompozit.

V této části jsou shrnuty poznatky ohledně výskytu jednotlivých typů kompozitních adjektiv v korpusu a také ohledně jejich převládající pozice ve větě a způsobu, jakým se píší.

.

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Appendix

* compound adjectives that allow double morphological analysis

Sources: ABC: http://abcnews.go.com/ CNN: http://edition.cnn.com/ FOX: http://www.foxnews.com/ NBC: http://www.nbcnews.com/

CD with the corpus of journalistic texts enclosed

1. Compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is present participle

1.1 Noun + present participle Awe-inspiring something equally awe-inspiring and unnerving (CNN) Awe-inspiring the awe-inspiring complex (CNN) Belt-tightening Amid ever-increasing belt-tightening trends (FOX) Bomb-detecting High-speed bomb-detecting airport boarding gate (CNN) Bomb-detecting The high-speed bomb-detecting gate from Hitachi (CNN) Bubble-blowing bubble-blowing dragon (FOX) Castle-dwelling the only castle-dwelling royalty (ABC) Envy-inducing various envy-inducing job alerts (CNN) Eye-catching It should be an eye-catching sight (CNN) Goggle-wearing goggle-wearing marines (CNN) Grammy Award-winning Grammy Award-winning singer (CNN) Japanese-speaking Japanese-speaking Harvard scholar (FOX) Missile-firing missile-firing ships (FOX) Name-selling recent name-selling campaign (NBC) Planet-naming planet-naming schemes (NBC) Planet-naming information on the planet-naming contest (NBC) Seagoing a massive seagoing crane (CNN) Self-respecting every self-respecting British city (CNN) Smoke-breathing the giant smoke-breathing dragon (FOX)

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Smoke-breathing smoke-breathing, 400,000-brick welcome dragon (NBC) Sun-watching NASA's sun-watching Solar Dynamics Observatory (FOX) Title-winning Sergio Aguero's title-winning strike (CNN) Wine-producing France's major wine-producing regions (CNN)

1.2 Adjective + present participle Liberal-leaning several liberal-leaning think tanks (FOX)

1.3 Adverb + present participle Ever-increasing Amid ever-increasing belt-tightening trends (FOX) Far-reaching the most far-reaching gun safety legislation (FOX) Fast-growing in fast-growing China (FOX) Long-running a long-running family business (CNN) Long-standing a long-standing and very strong relationship(CNN) Never-ending in the never-ending planetary race (CNN) Slow-moving Guests climb into slow-moving clamshells (ABC) Wide-ranging Malloy signs wide-ranging gun limits into law (FOX)

2. Compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is past participle

2.1 Noun + past participle Action-packed following an action-packed spell (CNN) Airborne tinier airborne toilets (FOX) Air-launched air-launched cruise missiles (FOX) Al-Qaeda linked an al-Qaeda linked group (CNN) Al-Qaeda affiliated The al-Qaeda affiliated Mojahideen Shura (CNN) Al-Qaida-influenced A small al-Qaida-influenced group (ABC) *Amaretto-laced The Amaretto-laced hot apple wine (CNN) *Apple-shaped Apple-shaped body type (FOX) *Apple-shaped commonly referred to as being “apple-shaped” (FOX) *Apple-shaped apple-shaped people not only have poorer kidney function (FOX)

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*Apple-shaped even for apple-shaped people (FOX) Awe-struck awe-struck patrons (NBC) *Bangkok-based a Bangkok-based regional carrier (CNN) *Barcelona-based a Barcelona-based former politician (CNN) Battle-hardened the most battle-hardened Yuletide veteran (CNN) Bikini-clad bikini-clad women (NBC) *California-based video by California-based film-maker (NBC) *Cannabis-themed several cannabis-themed events (NBC) *Castle-themed castle-themed play area (NBC) 21-century-designed a 21-century-designed hotel room (FOX) *Chef-branded celebrity chef-branded hotel venture (ABC) *Child-sized child-sized buffet station (NBC) *Christmas-themed Christmas-themed rides (CNN) Climate-controlled climate-controlled flower dome (CNN) Climate-controlled climate-controlled biomes (CNN) *Cone shaped the structure is cone shaped (NBC) *Cone shaped The mysterious structure is cone shaped (NBC) Currywurst-fueled a currywurst-fueled glühwein (CNN) *Delaware-based A Delaware-based consulting firm (FOX) *Denver-based Denver-based entrepreneurs (NBC) Drug-related drug-related violence in Mexico (CNN) Drug-related killed in drug-related violence (CNN) Drug-related because of drug-related violence (CNN) Drug-related drug-related crimes surged (CNN) *Earth-sized the newfound Earth-sized planet (NBC) *England-based England-based Merlin Entertainment Group (CNN) *Florida-based The Florida-based hospitality company (CNN) Force-fed hunger strikers are being force-fed (ABC) Government-held the government-held heart of the city (NBC) Graffiti-covered the graffiti-covered cars (CNN) Graphite-moderated graphite-moderated reactor (ABC) *Ground-based a ground-based missile defense site (FOX) Handmade The handmade wooden toys (CNN) Handmade handmade wooden instruments (CNN)

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*Heart-shaped served on a heart-shaped tin plate (CNN) *Heritage-themed multiple heritage-themed outdoor gardens (CNN) Home-brewed home-brewed beer (NBC) Homemade homemade chutneys and cheeses (CNN) Homemade attempting to plant home-made explosives (CNN) *Horticulture-themed horticulture-themed leisure destination (CNN) Human-made They say it is definitely human-made (NBC) Internet-connected those futuristic, Internet-connected glasses (ABC) LEGO-filled LEGO-filled moat (NBC) *LEGO-themed LEGO-themed wallpaper (NBC) *LEGO-themed LEGO-themed items (NBC) *Los Angeles-based a Los Angeles-based firm (FOX) Man-made We therefore conclude that it is man-made (NBC) *Nick-themed play Nick-themed games (FOX) Nicky Henderson-trained The Nicky Henderson-trained winner (CNN) Pakistan-administered town in Pakistan-administered Kashmir (ABC) Panic-stricken Panic-stricken women (NBC) *Pear-shaped than their pear-shaped counterparts (FOX) Pot-related specific, pot-related interests (NBC) Rock-influenced traditional rock-influenced interiors (CNN) *Rock-themed such rock-themed hotels (CNN) Scandal-rocked Scandal-rocked Pompeii (CNN) Seaborne the seaborne criminal gangs (CNN) Security-obsessed Security-obsessed Israel (NBC) Self-proclaimed claim to naming rights in space is a self-proclaimed one (NBC) Self-styled a self-styled mystic leader (NBC) Shanghai-born a Shanghai-born singer (CNN) *Space-based several space-based observatories (FOX) Spirit-fortified spirit-fortified variation (CNN) State-run Mexico's state-run Notimex news agency (CNN) State-run state-run Phillipine news agency (CNN) State-run the Chinese state-run news agency (CNN) Sugar-induced with sugar-induced temper tantrums (CNN)

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Sun-kissed sun-kissed beaches (NBC) *Toronto-based Toronto-based company (NBC) *Toronto-based Toronto-based agency (CNN) *U.K.-based U.K.-based price-comparison website (NBC) United Nations-mandated a United Nations-mandated mission (CNN) U.N.-outlawed U.N.-outlawed uranium and plutonium enrichment program (FOX) *U.S.-based the money went to U.S.-based operations (ABC) *Weight-based The weight-based fare (ABC) World-renowned world renowned dive sites (NBC)

2.2 Adjective + past participle *British-based The British-based Syrian Observatory (NBC) Democratic-controlled the Democratic-controlled General Assembly (FOX) *Different-sized different-sized people (ABC) *Faux-cobbled faux-cobbled streets (NBC) French-inspired The French-inspired menu (ABC) *French-themed The French-themed Be Our Guest restaurant (CNN) *Old-fashioned the longer, old-fashioned way (CNN) *Ol' fashioned good ol' fashioned dog (CNN) Solar-powered solar-powered trees (CNN) Solar-powered featuring 50-meter-high solar-powered "supertrees" (CNN)

2.3 Adverb + past participle Best-known the best-known terrorist rehabilitation program (CNN) Far-flung traveled to far-flung places (NBC) Full-fledged officialy demoted Pluto from a full-fledged planet (NBC) Hard-pressed the wealthiest among them have been hard-pressed (CNN) Just-opened the just-opened Legoland (CNN) Little-known a little-known war (NBC) Long-planned a long-planned overhaul (CNN) Much anticipated much anticipated restaurant (ABC)

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Much-criticized "200 times better" than the much-criticized 2012 model (CNN) Much-needed much-needed tourist dollars (CNN) Much-needed it will provide much-needed momentum (CNN) Newfound the newfound Earth-sized planet (NBC) Soft-spoken He is very soft-spoken (CNN) Short-lived made a shaky and short-lived run for Senate (FOX) Short-lived a short-lived radio communications blackout (FOX) So-called a so-called "fat tax" (ABC) So-called many so-called loyalty programs ´(FOX) So-called so-called "accessible luxury" (CNN) So-called the so-called "Internationally Recommended Transit Corridor." (CNN) So-called the so-called Arab Peace Initiative (NBC) Well-known The other is well-known criminal lawyer (CNN) Well-known the well-known House of the Gladiators (CNN) Well organized its people were clearly well organized Well-organized well-organized society (NBC)

3. Compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is an adjective

3.1 Noun + adjective Age-old fight against an age-old problem (CNN) Brand-new the brand-new LEGOLAND Hotel (FOX) Brick-like colorful blick-like façade (NBC) Carefree a carefree holiday destination (FOX) Centuries-old The prestige of centuries-old races (CNN) Chameleon-like a "chameleon-like" form (NBC) Decade-long a decade-long bloody insurgecy (CNN) Decade-old decade-old Mideast peace plan (NBC) Family-friendly the family-friendly theme (CNN) Horse-mad wealthy horse-mad sheikhs (CNN) Ice-cool Ice-cool Raikkonen tops the charts (CNN)

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LEGO-legal the models are all LEGO-legal (NBC) Lifelong my lifelong hero (NBC) Malt-heavy producing malt-heavy Christmas beers (CNN) Month-long after a month-long break (CNN) Oil-rich campaign by the oil-rich Gulf (CNN) Pot-friendly pot-friendly hotels (NBC) Reischauer-like a Reischauer-like appointment (FOX) Sky-high their sky-high latrines (FOX) Snack-free Snack-free zones (CNN) Star-like a bright star-like object (CNN) Starlike the brightest starlike object (CNN) Tourism-worthy the city's tourism-worthy places (CNN) Worldwide collaborative worldwide research (NBC) Worldwide IHG worldwide hotels and resorts (FOX) Worldwide the chain's worldwide hotels and resorts (FOX)

3.2 Adjective + Adjective Arab-Israeli the Arab-Israeli conflict (NBC) Cool-moist replicate the cool-moist climate (CNN) Faux-French speak in faux-French accents (CNN) Israeli-Palestinian fierce Israeli-Palestinian fighting (NBC) Israeli-Palestinian Israeli-Palestinian peace talks (NBC) Nuclear-free a nuclear-free Korean peninsula. (FOX) Quirky-chic quirky-chic accommodations (NBC) Southeast Southeast Asia (CNN) Southwest in the southwest sky (CNN) Southwest the southwest portion of the sea (NBC) South-west at the racecourse in south-west London (CNN) Top-down accusing the U.S. of a top-down approach (ABC) U.S.-Russian future U.S.-Russian defense talks West-northwest beyond the west-northwest horizon (CNN)

3.3 Adverb + Adjective Almost-first the almost-first kiss (ABC)

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Ever-popular the ever-popular Julform Popup market (CNN) Almost-daily on an almost-daily basis (FOX)

3.4 Numeral + noun + adjective 15-feet wide the shelter was 15-feet wide (NBC) 224-foot-long 224-foot-long hull (CNN) 50-meter high featuring 50-meter high solar-powered "supertrees" (CNN) 1,100-meters-long The runway is only 1,100-meters-long (CNN) 2,060-meters-long 2,060-meters-long runway. (CNN) 10-month-old their 10-month-old son (FOX) 5-year-old 5-year-old Myriam (CNN) 8-year-old 8-year-old Tirad (CNN) 9-year-old 9-year-old Najwa (CNN) 10-year-old his 10-year-old son (FOX) 13-year-old 13-year-old assassin murdered in Mexico (CNN) 14-year-old 14-year-old Malala Yousafzai (CNN) 15 years old she was 15 years old (NBC) 15 years old she was 15 years old. (NBC) 15-year-old their 15-year-old daughter (ABC) 20-year-old a 20-year-old gunman (FOX) 25-year-old the 25-year-old German said (CNN) 28-year-old 28-year-old retailer (NBC) 30-year-old 30-year-old data (FOX) 32-year-old 32-year-old training manager (NBC) 36-year-old a 36-year-old Jordanian housewife (NBC) 55-year-old The 55-year-old New Yorker (FOX) 64-year-old 64-year-old Maysara Abu Hamdiyeh (ABC) 81-year-old His 81-year-old wife (NBC) 81 years old she was 81 years old (NBC) 86-year-old An 86-year-old man (NBC) 4,000 years-old that are more than 4,000 years-old (NBC) seven-year-old The seven-year-old gelding (CNN) two-year-old during the two-year-old revolt (NBC)

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4. Compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is an adjective derived from a noun

4.1 Noun + adjective derived from noun Goat-headed gruesome goat-headed long-haired monsters (CNN)

4.2 Adjective + adjective derived from noun Dead-eyed incerasingly dead-eyed shoppers (CNN) Empty-handed which ended last season empty-handed (CNN) Long-haired gruesome goat-headed long-haired monsters (CNN) Open-ended many critics prefer a more open-ended approach (CNN) Open-minded that they are open-minded (CNN)

4.3 Adverb + adjective derived from noun Well-heeled the nation's well-heeled tourists (CNN)

5. Compound adjectives whose right-hand constituent is a noun

5.1 Noun + noun Apartment-style Parisian apartment-style guest rooms (ABC) Asia-Pacific the Asia-Pacific region (CNN) Diamondback Western diamondback rattlesnakes are common (FOX) Lifestyle one-of-a-kind lifestyle experience (ABC) Lion-dog watched over by lion-dog shiisa guardian statues (CNN) Love-hate a love-hate relationship (CNN) Resort-style the same resort-style properties (CNN) Self-service self-service technology (CNN) Space-age space-age skyscrapers (CNN) Space-age like a space-age skyscraper (CNN) U.S.-Mexico The focus of U.S.-Mexico cooperation (CNN) World-class field of world-class horses (CNN) World-class our two world-class hotels (CNN)

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5.2 Adjective + Noun Cutting-edge cutting-edge horticultural mega project (CNN) Fast-track This pioneering, fast-track crew (CNN) Fast-track Crew takes first fast-track flight (CNN) First-degree first-degree murder (NBC) Full-service a full-service butler (NBC) High-end high-end hotels (CNN) High-end no high-end, intimate properties (CNN) High-end high-end clients (CNN) High profile A few high profile instances of recidivism (CNN) High-profile a high-profile sequester cut (FOX) High-quality a high-quality trip (CNN) High-speed High-speed bomb-detecting airport boarding gate (CNN) High-speed The high-speed bomb-detecting gate from Hitachi (CNN) High-tech a high-tech hunt for pirates (CNN) High-tech The high-tech course (CNN) High-tech The high-tech hunt for pirates (CNN) High-tech this high-tech ship (CNN) High-tech high-tech flowers (CNN) Large-scale providing large-scale equipment (CNN) Long-term focused primarily on the long-term problem (FOX) Long-term part of the long-term U.S. strategy (FOX) Low-fat …low-fat local cuisine (CNN) Military-style a military-style semi-automatic rifle (FOX) Military-style holding a military-style rifle. (FOX) Modern-day heavier than most modern-day warships (NBC) Multiple-choice multiple-choice vocabulary tests (NBC) Multiple-choice the multiple-choice test (NBC) Red carpet Red carpet treatment (CNN) Straight-line to increase straight-line speed (CNN) Top-flight in 54 top-flight appearances (CNN) Top-notch top-notch scuba diving (CNN) Top-tier the chain’s top-tier hotels (FOX)

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5.3 Numeral + noun 28-acre the 28-acre LEGOLAND California theme (NBC) 74-acre a heavily fortified 74-acre (30 hectares) site (NBC) 400,000-brick smoke-breathing, 400,000-brick welcome dragon (NBC) 22-caliber a 22-caliber rifle (FOX) 10-course the 80-square-kilometer, 10-course Mission Hills Hainan resort (CNN) 11-day over 11-day carnival (CNN) 11-day the 11-day carnival (CNN) 6.5-hectare a 6.5-hectare piece of property (CNN) 54-hectare The 54-hectare section (CNN) 101-hectare the 101-hectare venue's three gardens (CNN) 18-hole 18-hole golf course (CNN) 18-hole the 18-hole course (CNN) 46,000 horsepower With a 46,000 horsepower engine (CNN) 2.5-hour including a 2.5-hour ferry ride (CNN) 48-hour He broke a 48-hour curfew (CNN) 42-inch 42-inch rattlesnake found abandoned in backpack (FOX) 42-inch a 42-inch rattlesnake (FOX) 5-megawatt The 5-megawatt, graphite-moderated reactor (ABC) 4x5 meter 4x5 meter room (CNN) 46-meter The 46-meter pool (CNN) 22-member the 22-member Arab League (NBC) 57-member The 57-member Organization of Islamic Cooperation (NBC) 30-minute A 30-minute YouTube video (NBC) 45-minute 45-minute speedboat (CNN) 80-minute three 80-minute flights (CNN) 18-month an 18-month counterinsurgency campaign (CNN) 18-page the 18-page order (CNN) 139-page the 139-page bill (FOX) 45-person a 45-person company (CNN) 250-room the three-story, 250-room hotel (NBC) 250-room the 250-room hotel (FOX)

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285-room a 285-room luxury hotel (CNN) 40,000 square-foot 40,000 square-foot casino (ABC) 65,000 square-foot 65,000 square-foot indoor/outdoor nightclub (ABC) 80-square-kilometer the 80-square-kilometer, 10-course Mission Hills Hainan resort (CNN) 150,000-square-meter the 150,000-square-meter Mission Hills Centreville (CNN) 22-story The 22-story Hard Rock Hotel (CNN)¨ 15-time a 15-time grand slam winner (CNN) 48-villa the 48-villa resort (CNN) 11-year the sun's normal 11-year cycle (FOX) 44-year he last season helped end a 44-year wait (CNN) 64-year in the sport's 64-year history (CNN) 87-year during its 87-year history (NBC) Multi-million-dollar A multi-million-dollar construction project (CNN) Five-star five-star resorts (CNN) Five-star the five-star Meydan Hotel. (CNN) Four-match he was given a four-match ban (CNN) Four-time four-time world champion (CNN) Six-cylinder they must use six-cylinder turbo engines (CNN) Six-hour This six-hour jaunt (CNN) six-night a six-night stand (CNN) Six-party to resume six-party talks (FOX) Six-star Qatar's six-star hotel (CNN) Three day three day hunger strike (CNN) Three-judge a three-judge panel (CNN) Three-member Its three-member crew (CNN) Three-mile the final fence of the three-mile steeplechase (CNN) Three point a three point turn (CNN) Three-story the three-story, 250-room hotel (NBC) Three-year three-year contract (CNN) Two-day the normal two-day adventure (CNN) Two-hour the rocky two-hour ferry ride (CNN) Two-night The two-night stay (NBC)

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6. Compound adjectives containing particles

6.1 Particle + present participle Ongoging an investigation into the grounding is ongoing (CNN) Ongoing ongoing political unrest (NBC) Ongoing Rescue efforts are ongoing (CNN) Ongoing an ongoing project (NBC) Outstanding an "outstanding" response (NBC) Overwhelming it was overwhelming (NBC) Overwhelming counter-threat of overwhelming force (FOX) Underlying the underlying mechanisms of the link (FOX) Upcoming two upcoming properties (CNN)

6.2 Particle + past participle Overturned wreckage of an overturned bus (NBC)

6.3 Verb + particle Add-on add-on services (NBC) Live-in the live-in orbiter (CNN) Pop-up a pop-up hotel (NBC) Pop-up pop-up hotels (NBC) Pop-up Kreuzberg pop-up nightspot (CNN) Pop-up created pop-up accommodations (NBC) Pop-up pop-up restaurants (NBC) Pop-up pop-up shops (NBC) Pop-up Pop-up hotels (NBC) Trade-in officials will open trade-in centers (CNN)

6.4 Particle + noun At-risk Taliban targets poor parents and at-risk children (CNN) Indoor Venues include indoor and outdoor events (CNN) Indoor indoor/outdoor nightclub (ABC) In-flight in-flight toilet innovation (FOX) Off-track their off-track relationship (CNN)

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On-stage even the best on-stage spellers (NBC) Outdoor Venues include indoor and outdoor events (CNN) Outdoor indoor/outdoor nightclub (ABC) Outdoor outdoor gardens (CNN) Overweight overweight passengers (ABC) Underwater an underwater archaeological expedition (NBC) Overseas the city’s overseas tourism promotional advisor (CNN) Underwater Underwater excavation (NBC) Overall the quickest overall time (CNN)

7. Phrasal compound adjectives 50-and a 200-megawatt a 50-and a 200-megawatt reactor (ABC) Boy-with-gun response to boy-with-gun photo (FOX) Four-and-a-half-year after signing a four-and-a-half-year deal (CNN) Hassle- and worry-free a hassle- and worry-free trip (FOX) Less-than-perfect will inevitably lead to some less-than-perfect moments (CNN) Low- and average-weight the low- and average-weight passengers (ABC) Need-to-know the need-to-know stories (CNN) One-of-a-kind one-of-a-kind lifestyle experience (ABC) One-of-a-kind one-of-a-kind experiences (NBC) Out-of-state out-of-state visitors (NBC) Over-the-top It's over-the-top, it's just gorgeous (CNN) Soon-to-be soon-to-be space station crew members (CNN) State- and municipal-level building state- and municipal-level capabilities (CNN) Waist-to-hip individual’s waist-to-hip ratio (FOX)

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