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French Creoles French Creoles A Comprehensive and Comparative Grammar French Creoles: A Comprehensive and Comparative Grammar is the fi rst complete reference to present the morphology, grammar, and syntax of a representative selection of French creoles in one volume. The book is organised to promote a thorough understanding of the grammar of French creoles and presents its complexities in a concise and readable form. An extensive index, cross-referencing, and a generous use of headings provide readers with immediate access to the information they require. The varieties included within the volume provide a representative collection of French creoles from the Indian, Atlantic, and Pacifi c Oceans, including: Mauritian Creole, Seychelles Creole, Réunion Creole (where relevant), Haitian Creole, Martinique Creole, Guadeloupe Creole, Guyanese French Creole, Karipuna, St. Lucia Creole, Louisiana Creole, and Tayo. By providing a comprehensive description of a range of French creoles in a clear and non-technical manner, this grammar is the ideal reference for all linguists and researchers with an interest in Creole studies and in French, descriptive and historical linguistics. Anand Syea is Reader in Linguistics at the University of Westminster (London) and a native speaker of Mauritian Creole. Routledge Comprehensive Grammars Comprehensive Grammars are available for the following languages: Bengali Burmese Cantonese Catalan Chinese Danish Dutch French Creoles Greek Indonesian Japanese Kazakh Modern Welsh Modern Written Arabic Panjabi Slovene Swedish Turkish Ukrainian French Creoles A Comprehensive and Comparative Grammar Anand Syea First published 2017 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2017 Anand Syea The right of Anand Syea to be identifi ed as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice : Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identifi cation and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN: 978-1-138-01564-7 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-38858-8 (ebk) Typeset in Sabon and Gill Sans by Apex CoVantage, LLC To my family and my very good friend, Robert Leyland Contents List of tables xv Acknowledgements xvii List of abbreviations xviii List of symbols xix 1 Introduction 1 1.0 Introduction 1 1.1 Theories of creole development 2 1.1.1 Monogenesis theory 2 1.1.2 Substratist theory 3 1.1.3 Superstratist theory 3 1.1.4 Universalist theory 4 1.1.5 Feature pool hypothesis – an ecological approach 5 1.2 Contemporary debates 6 1.3 The comparative approach 7 1.4 About this book 9 1.5 About the French creoles 10 1.5.1 The Atlantic French creoles 10 1.5.2 The French creoles of the Americas 11 1.5.3 The French creoles of the Indian Ocean 12 1.5.4 The French creole of New Caledonia (Pacifi c) 13 2 Nouns 14 2.0 Introduction 14 2.1 General 14 2.2 Nouns in French 16 2.2.1 Subcategories of nouns 16 vii Contents 2.2.2 Gender 18 2.2.3 Number 20 2.2.4 Agreement 21 2.2.5 Word order 23 2.3 Nouns in the French creoles 23 2.3.1 Subcategories of nouns 25 2.3.2 Gender 28 2.3.3 Number 31 2.3.4 Defi niteness and specifi city 35 2.3.5 Bare nouns 35 2.3.6 Noun-noun constructions 41 2.3.7 Nouns and derivational morphology in the French creoles 44 2.4 Concluding remarks 46 3 Determiners 47 3.0 Introduction 47 3.1 General 47 3.2 Determiners in French 49 3.2.1 The defi nite article 49 3.2.2 The indefi nite article 50 3.2.3 The partitive article 51 3.3 Determiners in the French creoles 52 3.3.1 Loss of French defi nite articles 53 3.3.2 The indefi nite article 59 3.3.3 The defi nite determiner 61 3.3.4 The demonstrative determiner 74 3.3.5 The possessive determiner 78 3.4 Concluding remarks 84 4 Pronouns 85 4.0 Introduction 85 4.1 General 85 4.2 Pronouns in French 86 4.2.1 Personal pronouns 86 4.2.2 Demonstrative pronouns 90 4.2.3 Possessive pronouns 90 4.2.4 Refl exive pronouns 91 4.2.5 Impersonal/expletive pronouns 92 4.3 Pronouns in the French creoles 93 viii 4.3.1 Personal pronouns in the French creoles 93 Contents 4.3.1.1 Personal pronouns in the IOC 93 4.3.1.2 Personal pronouns in Haitian 96 4.3.1.3 Personal pronouns in Lesser Antillean creoles 98 4.3.1.4 Personal pronouns in Guyanese 100 4.3.1.5 Personal pronouns in Karipuna 101 4.3.1.6 Personal pronouns in Louisiana Creole 102 4.3.2 Demonstrative pronouns in the French creoles 104 4.3.2.1 Demonstrative pronouns in the IOC 104 4.3.2.2 Demonstrative pronouns in Haitian 105 4.3.2.3 Demonstrative pronouns in Lesser Antillean creoles 106 4.3.2.4 Demonstrative pronouns in Guyanese and Karipuna 107 4.3.2.5 Demonstrative pronouns in Louisiana Creole 108 4.3.3 Possessive pronouns in the French creoles 110 4.3.3.1 Possessive pronouns in the IOC 110 4.3.3.2 Possessive pronouns in the Atlantic French creoles 111 4.3.3.3 Possessive pronouns in Karipuna and Lousiana Creole 112 4.3.4 Refl exive pronouns in the French creoles 115 4.3.4.1 Refl exive pronouns in the IOC 115 4.3.4.2 Refl exive pronouns in Haitian 119 4.3.4.3 Refl exive pronouns in Lesser Antillean creoles 121 4.3.4.4 Refl exive pronouns in Guyanese and Karipuna 122 4.3.4.5 Refl exive pronouns in Louisiana Creole 123 4.3.4.6 Refl exive pronouns in Tayo 124 4.3.5 Impersonal/expletive pronouns in the French creoles 126 4.3.5.1 Impersonal/expletive pronouns in the IOC 126 4.3.5.2 Impersonal/expletive pronouns in Haitian 127 4.3.5.3 Impersonal/expletive pronouns in Lesser Antillean creoles 129 ix Contents 4.3.5.4 Impersonal/expletive pronouns in Guyanese and Karipuna 130 4.3.5.5 Impersonal/expletive pronouns in Louisiana Creole 132 4.3.5.6 Impersonal/expletive pronouns in Tayo 134 4.4 Concluding remarks 135 5 Adjectives 136 5.0 Introduction 136 5.1 General 136 5.2 Adjectives in French 137 5.2.1 Adjectives as modifi ers 137 5.2.1.1 Post-nominal adjectives 138 5.2.1.2 Pre-nominal adjectives 139 5.2.1.3 Pre- and post-nominal adjectives 139 5.2.2 Adjective order 140 5.2.3 Agreement between adjectives and nouns 141 5.2.4 Adjectives as heads and complements 143 5.2.5 Adjectives as nouns and adverbs 144 5.2.6 Comparative and superlative adjectives 145 5.3 Adjectives in the French creoles 145 5.3.1 Post-nominal adjectives 146 5.3.2 Pre-nominal adjectives 148 5.3.3 Pre- and post-nominal adjectives 151 5.3.4 Adjective order 152 5.3.5 Adjectives as heads and complements 153 5.3.6 Adjectives as nouns and adverbs 155 5.3.7 Comparative and superlative adjectives 156 5.3.8 Adjective reduplication 159 5.3.9 Adjective compounds 161 5.4 Concluding remarks 162 6 Adverbs 163 6.0 Introduction 163 6.1 General 163 6.2 Adverbs in French 165 6.3 Adverbs in the French creoles 166 6.3.1 Adverb order 173 6.3.2 Adverb reduplication 178 6.4 Concluding remarks 179 x 7 Prepositions 180 Contents 7.0 Introduction 180 7.1 General 180 7.2 Prepositions in French 182 7.3 Prepositions in the French creoles 183 7.3.1 Absence of French grammatical prepositions 183 7.3.2 The semantics of prepositions 190 7.3.3 The syntax of prepositions 196 7.3.3.1 Preposition reanalysis 199 7.4 Concluding remarks 202 8 Verbs 203 8.0 Introduction 203 8.1 General 203 8.2 Verbs in French 205 8.2.1 French verb morphology 206 8.3 Verbs in the French creoles 211 8.3.1 Morphology of verbs 211 8.3.2 Typology of verbs in the French creoles 214 8.3.2.1 Transitive verbs 214 8.3.2.2 Ditransitive verbs 220 8.3.2.3 Unaccusative verbs 224 8.3.2.4 Unergative verbs 225 8.3.2.5 Ergative verbs 228 8.3.3 Complex-transitive verbs 229 8.3.4 Raising verbs 231 8.3.5 Control verbs 236 8.3.6 Existential verbs 240 8.3.7 Causative verbs 245 8.3.8 Serial verbs 248 8.4 Concluding remarks 252 9 Tense, mood, and aspect 254 9.0 Introduction 254 9.1 General 254 9.2 Tense, mood, and aspect in French 256 9.3 Tense, mood, and aspect in the French creoles 258 9.3.1 Tense in the French creoles 263 9.3.1.1 Present tense 263 xi Contents 9.3.1.2 Past tense 269 9.3.1.3 Future tense 272 9.3.2 Aspect in the French creoles 275 9.3.3 Modality in the French creoles 284 9.4 Order of tense, modal, aspect markers 294 9.5 Concluding remarks 297 10 Negation 299 10.0 Introduction 299 10.1 General 299 10.2 Negative sentences in French 301 10.3 Negative sentences in the French creoles 305 10.4 Negative words in the French creoles 311 10.5 Concluding remarks 316 11 Clause structure and word order 318 11.0 Introduction 318 11.1 General 318 11.2 Typology of sentences in French 319 11.3 Typology of sentences in the French creoles 322 11.4 Word order in the French creoles 325 11.5 Structure of sentences in the French creoles 330 11.6 Subject-less and object-less sentences 333 11.7 Independent verb-less sentences 342 11.8 Concluding remarks 351 12 Clausal complements and complementisers 353 12.0 Introduction 353 12.1 General 353 12.2 Clausal complements and complementisers in French 355 12.3 Clausal complements and complementisers in the French creoles 359 12.3.1 Clausal complements and complementisers in the IOC 360 12.3.2 Clausal complements and complementisers in Haitian 364 12.3.3 Clausal complements and complementisers in Lesser Antillean creoles 367 12.3.4 Clausal complements and complementisers in St.
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