Auxiliary Verb Constructions OXFORD STUDIES IN TYPOLOGY AND LINGUISTIC THEORY series editors: Ronnie Cann, University of Edinburgh, William Croft, University of New Mexico, Scott DeLancey, University of Oregon, Martin Haspelmath, Max Planck Institute Leipzig, Nicholas Evans, University of Melbourne, Anna Sie- wierska, University of Lancaster published ClassiWers: A Typology of Noun Categorization Devices Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald Auxiliary Verb Constructions Gregory D. S. Anderson Pronouns D. N. S. Bhat Subordination Sonia Cristofaro The Paradigmatic Structure of Person Marking Michael Cysouw IndeWnite Pronouns Martin Haspelmath Anaphora Yan Huang Copulas Regina Pustet The Noun Phrase Jan RijkhoV Intransitive Predication Leon Stassen Co-Compounds and Natural Coordination Bernhard Wa¨lchli published in association with the series The World Atlas of Language Structures edited by Martin Haspelmath, Matthew Dryer, Bernard Comrie, and David Gil In Preparation Reciprocals Nicholas Evans Applicative Constructions David Peterson Double Object Constructions Maria Polinsky Auxiliary Verb Constructions GREGORY D. S. ANDERSON 1 3 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford ox2 6dp Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York ß Gregory D.S. Anderson 2006 The moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) First published 2006 All rights reserved. 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Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose the same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Typeset by SPI Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India Printed in Great Britain on acid-free paper by Biddles Ltd., King’s Lynn ISBN 019–928031–2 978–019–928031–5 13579108642 TO MARY This page intentionally left blank Contents Acknowledgements xii List of tables xiii List of abbreviations xiv 1 Auxiliaries and Auxiliary Verb Constructions Introduction and overview 1 1.1 Sampling methodology 1 1.2 Auxiliary verbs as understood in this volume 4 1.3 Auxiliary verb constructions 7 1.4 AVCs and other complex predicate types 9 1.4.1 AVCs and serial verb constructions 11 1.4.2 AVCs and verb/complement structures 15 1.4.3 Coordinate formations and AVCs 16 1.4.4 Other aux-like elements 16 1.5 InXection, dependency and headedness in AVCs 18 1.5.1 InXection 18 1.5.2 Heads 21 1.6 Brief history of the study of auxiliary verbs and AVCs 27 1.7 Functional typology of AVCs: an overview 30 1.7.1 TAM categories 30 1.7.2 Negative polarity 33 1.7.3 Voice 34 1.7.4 Version and orientation/directionality 35 1.7.5 ‘Adverbial’ functions 37 1.8 Structure of the volume 37 2 aux-headed Constructions Overview 39 2.1 Formal subtypes of aux-headed auxiliary verb constructions 39 2.2 InWnitive forms of lexical verbs in AVCs of the aux-headed pattern 44 2.3 Nominalized forms of lexical verbs in AVCs of the aux-headed pattern 56 viii Contents 2.4 Gerund/converb forms of lexical verbs in AVCs of the aux-headed pattern 64 2.5 Participle forms of lexical verbs in AVCs of the aux-headed pattern 70 2.6 Tense-aspect-mood forms of lexical verbs in aux-headed AVCs 78 2.7 Other forms of lexical verbs in AVCs of the aux-headed pattern 82 2.7.1 Subordinate/dependent forms of lexical verbs in AVCs of the aux-headed pattern 83 2.7.2 Reduplicated forms of lexical verbs in AVCs of the aux-headed pattern 85 2.7.3 Switch reference forms of lexical verbs in AVCs of the aux-headed pattern 89 2.7.4 Connegative forms of lexical verbs in AVCs of the aux-headed pattern 91 2.7.5 Case-marked forms of lexical verbs in AVCs of the aux-headed pattern 95 2.7.6 Connective/conjunctive forms of lexical verbs in AVCs of the aux-headed pattern 100 2.7.7 Irrealis/subjunctive forms of lexical verbs in AVCs of the aux-headed pattern 101 2.8 Bare or unmarked forms of the lexical verb (Ø) 102 Summary 113 3 lex-headed Auxiliary Verb Constructions Introduction 116 3.1 Subtypes of lex-headed AVCs 116 3.2 Reanalysed ‘clausal’ subject forms as lex-headed AVCs 131 3.3 Other patterns 135 3.4 Dependency relations in lex-headed AVCs 138 3.5 Alternations between lex-headed and other patterns 141 Summary 142 4 Doubled InXection Introduction 144 4.1 Doubled subject (and object) inXection 144 4.1.1 Doubled subject inXection 144 4.1.2 Doubled subject and object inXection 151 Contents ix 4.2 Doubled TAM inXection 163 4.3 Doubled subject and TAM inXection 167 4.4 Doubled negation 173 4.5 Structural dependency and inXectional co-headedness in AVCs 174 4.5.1 Doubled inXection with ‘dependent’ marked lexical verb 175 4.5.2 Doubled inXection with ‘dependent’ marked auxiliary verb 181 Summary 182 5 Split and Split/Doubled InXectional Patterns Overview 183 5.1. Split patterns 183 5.1.1 Lexical verb in a negative form; Auxiliary verb marks subject and TAM 183 5.1.2 Lexical verb marks object, Auxiliary verb marks subject 190 5.1.3 Lexical verb marks TAM categories, Auxiliary verb marks subject (object) 198 5.1.4 Lexical verb marks subject, Auxiliary verb marks TAM categories 200 5.1.5 Lexical verb marks subject, TAM categories, Auxiliary verb marks negative 203 5.1.6 Lexical verb marks subject, Auxiliary verb marks object 205 5.1.7 Some other split patterns 207 5.1.8 TAM splits 210 5.1.9 Pseudo-split patterns 213 5.1.10 Summary of split forms 214 5.2 Split/doubled patterns 215 5.2.1 Categories marked on the Auxiliary verb plus doubled categories 215 5.2.2 Some categories on lexical verb, others doubled 221 5.2.3 Some categories on Auxiliary verb, some on Lexical verb, some doubled 227 5.2.4 Summary of split/doubled patterns 242 5.3 Dependency within split and split/doubled patterns 242 Summary 248 x Contents 6 Complex Verb Forms from Fused Auxiliary Verb Constructions Overview 249 6.1 Fused aux-headed AVCs 249 6.2 Fused lex-headed AVCs 267 6.3 Fused doubled inXection in AVCs 270 6.4 Fused split and fused split/doubled inXection in AVCs 276 6.5 Fusing of subject/pronoun, TAM, polarity, and auxiliary in AVCs 289 Summary 301 7 The Origins of Patterns of InXection in Auxiliary Verb Constructions Overview 302 7.1 Serial verb constructions > AVCs 303 7.1.1 Verbal outcomes of SVCs 305 7.1.2 On nominal developments of SVCs 317 7.2 Clause combining 318 7.2.1 Verb þ complement clause sequences 320 7.2.2 Clause chaining and AVCs 326 7.3 Semantic developments of AVCs: grammaticalization, event schema, etc. 332 7.3.1 Positional/postural event schemata 341 7.3.2 Motion event schemata 345 7.3.3 Action event schemata 352 7.3.4 Change-of-state event schemata 359 7.3.5 Location event schemata 363 7.3.6 Other simplex event schemata 365 7.3.7 Complex event schemata 365 7.4 Category encoding vs. category embodying 373 7.5 Monophrasis and univerbation (syntactic and prosodic headedness revisited) 373 7.6 Synchronic variation and diachronic change in AVCs 375 7.6.1 Variation between dependent and non-dependent forms 375 7.6.2 Variation between dependent forms 376 7.6.3 Variation between fused and unfused forms 377 7.6.4 Variation between inXectional patterns 380 7.6.5 Grammaticalized variation: split paradigms 384 Contents xi 7.6.6 Macro-variation on a micro-scale: pattern variability in one language 387 Summary 389 Appendix 390 References 411 Subject index 459 Language index 463 Acknowledgements This study of auxiliary verb constructions was at diVerent times funded by grants from the following organizations: Hans Rausing Fund for Endangered Language Preservation, Volkswagen Stiftung, IREX and the Wenner-Gren Foundation. This support is gratefully acknowledged. I would also like to thank audiences or participants at the following for sharing comments on earlier versions of parts of various chapters, including CLS 1999, WECOL 1999, University of Manchester Grammatical Change Seminar in 2002 and 2003, and the Departmental Seminar at Swarthmore College 2005 in particu- lar. All errors of course remain my own. Tables 2.1 Aux-headed inXectional pattern 39 2.2 Subject-version AVCs in selected Turkic languages 69 2.3 Sample non-Wnite forms of lexical verbs in aux-headed AVCs 114 3.1 Lex-headed inXectional pattern of AVCs 116 4.1 InXectional heads in AVCs 144 4.2 Doubled subject and/or object patterns in AVCs 162 4.3 Doubled TAM patterns in AVCs 166 4.4 Subject þ TAM doubled patterns 172 5.1 Summary of split inXection in AVCs 214 5.2 Split/doubled inXectional patterns 243 6.1 Progressive forms in selected languages of Papua New Guinea 265 6.2 Kaˆte sentence-Wnal fused TAM þ subject forms 297 6.3 Kaˆte sentence-medial fused TAM þ subject forms 298 7.1 Some SVC > AVC developments 316 7.2 Common types of serial verb > adposition > case developments 318 7.3 Some verb complement constructions > AVC developments 327 7.4 Some ‘conjunctive’ clause construction > AVC developments 331 7.5 Verbal origins of auxiliary verb constructions 331 7.6 Common lexical sources for auxiliaries 340 7.7 Some content > functional semantic shifts in AVCs 369 7.8 Select variation in inXectional patterns in AVCs 384 List of Abbreviations > operating on alternates with y extinct 11st person 1inB 1st inclusive series-B 1r Relating to first person 22nd person 33rd person 3^inc 3rd sg.