Olo Language Materials

PACIFIC LINGUISTICS

Series D - No. 42

OLO LANGUAGE MATERIALS

Donald E. McGregor

Aileen R.F. McGregor

Department of Linguistics

Research School of Pacific Studies

THE AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

McGregor, D.E. and McGregor, A. editors. Olo language materials. D-42, viii + 163 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1982. DOI:10.15144/PL-D42.cover ©1982 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative. PACIFIC LINGUISTICS is issued through the Linguistic Circle of Canberra and consists of four series:

SERIES A - Occasional Papers SERIES B - Monographs SERIES C - Books SERIES D - Special Publications

EDITOR: S.A. Wurm

ASSOCIATE EDITORS: D.C. Laycock, C.L. Voorhoeve, D.T. Tryon, T.E. Dutton

EDITORIAL ADVISERS:

B.W. Bender John Lynch University of Hawaii University of Papua New Guinea David Bradley K.A. McElhanon La Trobe University University of Texas A. Capell H.P. McKaughan University of Sydney University of Hawaii S.H. Elbert P. MUhlhiiusler University of Hawaii Linacre College, Oxford K.J. Franklin G.N. O'Grady Summer Institute of Linguistics University of Victoria, B.C. W.W. Glover A.K. Pawley Summer Institute of Linguistics University of Auckland G.W. Grace K.L. Pike University of Michigan; University of Hawaii Summer Institute of Linguistics M.A.K. Halliday E.C. Polom� University of Sydney University of Texas A. Healey Gillian Sankoff Summer Institute of Linguistics University of Pennsylvania L.A. Hercus W.A.L. Stokhof National Center for Australian National University Language Development, Jakarta; Nguy�n E>ang Liem University of Leiden University of Hawaii J.W.M. Verhaar Gonzaga University, Spokane

All correspondence concerning PACIFIC LINGUISTICS, including orders and subscriptions, should be addressed to:

The Secretary PACIFIC LINGUISTICS Department of Linguistics Research School of Pacific Studies The Australian National University Canberra, A.C.T. 2600 Australia.

First Published 1982

The editors are indebted to the Australian National University for assistance in the production of this series.

This publication was made possible by an initial grant from the Hunter Douglas Fund.

National Library of Australia Card Number and ISBN 0 85883 262 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Editor's Note v

Background vi

A PHONEMIC STATEMENT OF THE OLO LANGUAGE , by D.E. McGregor 1

Description of Contrastive Features of the Phonemes 2

Formational Statement of the Phonemes 2

Non-Segmental Phonemes 10

Consonant Vowel Patterning in Relation to the Syllable 11

Distributional Statement of the Phonemes 12

List of Phonemes 13

A TENTATIVE GRAMMAR STATEMENT OF THE OLO LAN GUAGE , by A. McGregor 15

Morphophonemics 15

Grammar Introduction 22

CHAPTER

1 Exclamations, Names and Titles and Simple Commands 22

2 The Intransitive Statement (with Subject Pronoun) 24

3 The Intransitive Statement (with Subject Noun) 28

4 The Intransitive Statement (with or without Subject Noun or Pronoun) plus Prepositional Marker and Direct Object Pronoun 34

5 The Intransitive Class B Verb Expression and the Simple Possessive Object Pronoun 37

6 Transitive Class A Verb Expression and Direct Ojbect Noun or Pronoun (optional) with or without Subject Noun or Pronoun 38

7 Transitive Class A Verb Expression plus Qualifying Noun and the Possessive Pronoun 41

8 Transitive Class B Verb Expression (with or without Subject Noun or Pronoun) plus Object Noun or Pronoun 43

111 1v

Page CHAPTER

9 Transitive Class B. l. and 2. Verb Expression plus the Possessive Pronoun 45

10 Auxiliary Verb 48

11 Subject Complement Construction 49

12 Indirect Object to Sentence Construction 49

13 Adverb Construction 50

14 Adjective Construction 53

15 Expansion of Pronoun Expression 56

16 Adjective Complement Construction 58

17 Expansion of Subject Noun Expression 58

18 Possessive Forms 59 19 Expanded Noun Expression (Possessive

22 Tense 63

23 Negative Construction 69

24 Question Construction 71

25 Subordinate Clauses 73

26 Noun Clause as Complement of Verb 75

27 Alternative Sentence Constructions 75

28 The Joining Together of Two Clauses, Phrases or Parts of Speech 78

EN GLISH - OLO NOUN DICTIONARY , by D. E. McGregor 81

ENGLISH - OLO TERMS FOR : BODY PARTS, BODY FLUIDS AND EXCRETIONS AND COLOURS, by D.E. McGregor 117

TEXTS 121

KINSHIP TERMS AMON G THE WAPE, by D. E. McGregor 137 EVITOR'S NOTE

The materials presented here were written over a number of years by Donald E. McGregor, a mi ssionary in Lumi (West Sepik) with the Christian Mi ssions in Many Lands (CMML) , and his wife Aileen. The McGregors became fluent in the 010 language during their time in Lumi , and under took courses at the Summer Institute of Linguistics to improve their understanding of the phonology and grammar of the language , but neither were professional linguists . After the death of Don McGregor in 1976 it was decided that the materials so painstakingly gathered over a number of years were certainly worthy of publicat ion . In preparing this mat erial for the press, typographical conventions have been modified , and , in the first two sections , the phonemes I�I and lui have been spelt e and 0 , rather than l and �, in accordance with the later orthographic practice of the McGregors . Glosses in Tok Pisin have been replaced, as far as possible, by glosses in English, but some have been retained in the text section and dictionary . Where Tok Pisin glosses have been retained , the orthography has been modified to conform with standard Tok Pisin orthography . A few redundant or doubtful statements have been omitted or amended . Otherwise , the mat erial remains as it was written in the 1960s , and should be read with this date in mind . It remains for me only to express here my personal gratitude for the hospitality and assistance offered me by Donald and Aileen McGregor on my several visits to Lumi . The editing of these materials is but a small contribution to the great debt l owe them .

Don Laycock Canberra March 1981

v l

BACKGROUNV

Donald McGregor was a Christian missionary in Papua New Guinea working with Christian Missions in Many Lands , the missionary arm of the Open Brethren. He arrived from New Zealand with his wife Aileen in March 1957 , both having completed a course in Australia with the Summer Institute of Linguistics in 1956, and finally leaving the country in November 1972. During this time they based at Lumi where the Australian Admin istration Office for the West Sepik District was situ ated , as well as the local branch of their own mission. On arrival at Lumi , the McGregors began to study the 010 language , which is that spoken by the approximately 10,000 Wape people of the West Sepik. Much of the recorded data was catalogued and appears in this collection of their work , mo st of it originally prepared for fellow missionary colleagues . Donald McGregor died in April 1976 of cancer in New Zealand . His wife has submitted the following material - mainly in its original form - at the suggestion of Dr D.C. Laycock of the Research School �f Pacific Studies at the Australian National University. Dr Laycock became acquainted with the McGregors during his field work in linguistics in Papua New Guinea . The material submitted was recorded by both Donald and Aileen McGrego� either or both of them then working to produce the final result . Begin ning with the Phonemic and Grammar Statements in 1961 these were gradu ally added to over the years . While recognising the need for revision of the material , time wa s not set aside to do this , so the collection of work is "tentat ive" in every way and the need for correction and revision already recognised . The speakers of the 010 language , known as the Wape, inhabit a fairly broad pear-shaped swathe in the West Sepik Province , extending from the immediate area of Aitape on the northwest coast of Papua New Guinea ,

vi vii

inland to a distance of approximately 30 miles . The total Olo-speaking populat ion has been censused at approximat ely 10,000, of whom about 1000 are located in the Aitape District , on the coastal side of the Torricelli Range ; the remainder live south of the range , and constitute the largest language group in the Lumi District . The dialect of most of the materials here presented is that spoken in the immediate vicinity of Lumi . The greatest dialect differences occur along a line running inland from the coast , the most extreme variat ions being between the villages on the coast and those which are furthest inland . There is a considerable amount of overlap , so that the distinct dialect boundaries are difficult to determine . The difference s in dialect are mo stly phonetic , but are also lexical . However, all the Wape speakers can readily und�rstand each other . Two other dialects are indicated in these materials : the letter (E) indicates the dialect of the Eretei-Somoro area , and the letter (Y) indicates the dialect of the Yebil area. Silki , a man from Maui village (born about 1935 ) was the main inform ant . Waisi , a slight ly younger man from the same village , and some other speakers, also contributed a lesser amount of material . The Phonology and Grammar stateme nts were based on material collected by the Mc Gregors up to 1961, after a period amongst the people of approxi mately four years. The Dictionary and Text materials were prepared at a later date. For further informat ion on the 010 language , and its genetic groupings , see :

LAYCOCK, D.C. 1968 Languages of the Lumi Sub-District (West Sepik District, New Guinea). OL 7:36-66. 1973 Sepik languages - checklist and preliminary classification. PL, B-25.

1975 The Torricelli Phylum. In S.A. Wurm, ed. Papuan languages and the New Guinea linguistic scene, 767-780. PL, C-38.

Additional publications on the Wape, by Donald Mc Gregor include :

McGREGOR, Donald E. 1966 New Guinea basic assumptions. Paper presented at CMML annual conference. Revised 1968, 1969. Also published under the title, Basic Papua New Guinea assumptions. Catalyst 6/3, 1976. 1967 A sing-sing festival at Teloute village: an interpretative report. CMML, Lumi. Mimeo. 1969 Learning from wape mythology. Practical Anthropology 16/5. 1973 Traditional beliefs, health and Christianity. Contact No.14. World Council of Churches, Geneva (French edition, Les croyances traditionnelles, la sant� et le Christianisme). Also published under the title, The villagers' world. Catalyst 2/4, 1972. l

viii

1974a New Guinea myths and scriptural similarities. Missiology: An international review, January 1974.

1974b Communicating the Christian message to the wape people of Papua New Guinea. International review of mission. October 1974.

1975 The fish and the cross. 118pp. privately printed by the author.

Aileen R.F. McGregor Hamilton , New Zealand July 1979

Note : Some of the materials presented in this volume originally bore the fo llowing dates of preparation .

A Phonemic Stat ement of the 010 Language June 1961 A Tentat ive Grammar Statement of the 010 Language June 1961

English - 010 Noun Dictionary 1967 Kinship Terms Among the Wape July 1967

D.E. McGREGOR

CHART OF PHONEMES

Consonants. These are twelve in number as follows :

Bi-labial Labio-dental Alveolar Velar

Stops Vis P t k

Fricatives Flat f

Grooved 5

Nasals V/d m n f)

Laterals V/d 1

Vibrants V/d i'

Semi Vowels w y

Vowels . These are seven in number as follows :

Front Central Back

High i u L u

Mid E ::>

Low a

McGregor, D.E. "A Phonemic Statement of the Olo Language". In McGregor, D.E. and McGregor, A. editors, Olo language materials. D-42:1-14. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1982. DOI:10.15144/PL-D42.1 ©1982 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative. 2

DESCRIPTION OF CONTRASTIVE FEATURES OF THE PHONEMES

A. Consonants. There is contrast as to the manner of articulation between Stops , Fricatives , Nasals , Laterals and Vibrants and Semi vowels . Stops : These contrast between Bilabial , Alveolar and Velar points of articulation . Nasals :· These likewise contrast between Bilabial , Alveolar and Velar point s of articulation . Fricatives: These co ntrast between Labio-dental and Alveolar points of articulat ion . Lateral : Made at the Alveolar point of art iculation . Vibrant : Made at the Alveolar point of art iculation.

B. Vowels. The contrastive features of the vowels are between front and central unrounded and back rounded positions , with a further contrast between high, mid and low positions .

FORMATIONAL STATEMENT OF THE PHONEMES

A. Consonants . These are all non-vocoids and all non-syllabic vocoids of a vocoid cluster .

Phoneme Allophone Description, occurrence and examples

Stops Ipl [b] Voiced bi-labial sto p . Occurs immediately following the em] and [n], and immediately preceeding the lateral [I]. e.g. Imampe i I [mam-bel] 'soon' lenpell [en-bel ] 'move' lepll! [e-bll] 'sun'

[p] Voiceless unaspirated bi-labial stop . Occurs in all syllable initial positions . e.g. IpaI I CpaI] 'base of br:rnWoo' It�pel [t�-pe] 'water'

h [p ] Voiceless aspirated bi-labial stop . Occurs in free non -contrastive fluctuation with [p] word initially . h e.g. !parakul [p a-ra-ku]�[pa-ra-ku] 'shie�' h Ip�r�wanel [p�-r�-wa-ne]�[p �-r�-wa-ne] 'friend' 3

Phoneme Allophone Description, occurrence and examples

ItI [tJ Vo iceless unaspirated alveolar stop . Occurs in all syllable initial positions . e.g. IYLtal1 [YL-taIJ 'nameaake' Itutu 1 I [tu-tu 1J 'anake' lete�kll [e-teQ-gIJ 'creek'

h [t J Voiceless aspirated alveolar stop . Occurs in free non-contrastive fluctuation with [tJ in all positions . h e.g. lehf/ [e-t Lf}v[e-tLf] 'hand' h ' IteplaLfl [t e-blaLfJ'v[te-blaLf] 'aky'

[dJ Voiced alveolar stop . Occurs occasionally in free non-contrastive fluctuation with [tJ when following [nJ. e.g. Imantell [man-deIJ�[man-teIJ 'male anceator' Isountel [soun-deJ�[soun-teJ 'a name of a hamlet'

Ikl [kJ Voiceless unaspirated velar stop . Occurs in all syllable initial positions , other than immediately following [mJ [nJ and [�J. e.g. Ikel-korl [kel-koi'J 'birda 'of paradise' lom-ka II [om-ka IJ 'atorw axe'

h [k J Voiceless aspirated velar stop . Occurs in free non-contrastive fluctuation with [kJ word initially and occasionally in other posit ions . h e.g. IkLml [k LmJ�[kLmJ 'yam' h Ikaflafl [k a-flafJ�[ka-flafJ 'yellow'

[gJ Voiced velar stop . Occurs immediately following the nasals [nJ [mJ and [�J. e.g. lomkL rl [om-gL i'J 'nipple' lonkLsl [on-gLsJ 'pua' InaQkel [naQ-geJ 'name'

N.B. No stops occur either syllable or word final . Syllable divisions are marked by a hyphen . 4 l

Phoneme Allophone Description, occurrence and examples

Fricatives If I [f] Voiceless labial-dental flat fricative . Occurs in all consonant posit ions in both syllable and word positions . e.g. Ifroul [frou] 'quickty' Ikaflafl [ka-flaf] 'yeLLow'

N.B. Ipl and If I are separate phonemes , proved by contrast in identical environments. Ipaloll [pa-lol] 'root' and Ifaloll [fa-lol] 'head'

151 [5] Voiceless alveolar grooved fricative . Occurs in all consonant positions in both syllable and word . e.g. Is�naroroul [s�-nar-or-ou] 'nose ornament' Itwas�sl [twa-s�s] 'Lung'

N.B. It I and lsi are separate phonemes , by contrast in identical environments . It�tll [t�-tl] 'be Longing to' (two obj ects ) It�sll [t�-sl] 'road'

Nasals Iml [m] Voiced bi-labial nasal . Occurs in all consonant positions in both syllable and word . e.g. Im�mnell [m�m-nel] 'neru' Iw�neml [w�-nem] 'house'

Inl [n] Voiced alveolar nasal . Occurs in all con sonant positions in both syllable and word . e.g. Inal)kel [nal)-ge] 'name' Ifank�sl [fan-g�sJ 'muddy' Illnel [11-neJ 'etaer brother' Itow�nl [to-w�nJ 'dirt'

Voiced velar nasal . Occurs only syllable final, and only when the velar Ikl [gJ immediately fol lows it in the next syllable . 5

Phoneme Allophone Description, oc.currence and examples

Hence it never occurs in the final syllable in a word . Note : /n/ [n] may also occur in this position . e. g. /nLl)glLf/ [nll)-gl Lf] , after'nOon' 'before (in time) ,

N.B. /n/ and /1)/ are separate phonemes proved by contrast in the following identical environments: /LnkLf/ [Ln-gLf] 'go inside' /Ll)kLf/ [LI)-gLf]' 'foUow' lYe LnkLf kl wL nEm/ eYe Ln-gLf ki wL-nEm] 'You go inside my house' lYe Ll)kLf ki aulE wLnEm/ eYe LI)-gLf ki au-IE wL-nEm] 'You follow me and aome to the house'

The following analogous environments also show /n/ and /1)/ to be separate phonemes : /wLnkE/ [wLn-gE] 'younger brother' /wil)kE/ [Wil)-gE] 'aU men' /twEnkLs/ [twEn-gLs] 'whistle' /twal)kLs/ [twal)-gLs] 'smoke'

More than twenty words have been noted where the alveolar nasal immediately preceeds the velar stop /k/ [gJ. In only one word does /n/ fluctuate with /1)/.

/wankESLI/ [wan-gE-sLI] 'exdamation of joy' /wal)kEsLI/ [wal)-gE-sLIJ

Lateral /1/ [ I ] Voiced alveolar lateral non-fricative . Occurs in all consonant positions in both syllab le and word . e.g. /ilom/ [II-om] 'garden' /falol/ [fa-Iol] 'head'

Vibsant /r/ [i'] Voiced alveolar trilled vibrant . Occurs in all consonant positions in syllable and word except word finally . 6

Phoneme Allophone Description, occurrence and examples

e.g. /FLrLm/ [rL-rLmJ ,eva spirit' /pora/ [po-raJ 'smaH basket'

Voiceless alveolar trilled vibrant . Occurs finally only . e.g. /tLfL?! [tL-fL!) 'ant' Ito?! [to!) 'burnt Lime'

N.B. /1 / and /?/ are separated by contrast in identical environment s. e.g. /frou/ [frou J 'quickLy' /flou/ [flouJ 'sweet' /koro/ [ko-roJ 'I dance' ' ' /kolo/ [ko-loJ no

Semi-vowels. (Vocoids interpreted as consonants, or , non-syllable vocoid )

/y/ [yJ[ 1 J Voiced high close front unrounded vocoid . (Voiced alveolar non-syllable vocoid) . Occurs word or syllab le initially , and· before a full vowel (other than [IJ) in the same vocoid cluster. e.g. /yas/ [yasJ 'staLk' /yute/ [yu-teJ 'a boa' /oYLn/ [o-YLnJ 'hoLe' /neiyu/ [ne i -yuJ 'high pitched caLL'

/w/ [wJ[uJ Voiced high back close rounded vocoid . (Voiced bi-labial non-syllabic vocoid) . Occurs word or syllable initially and before a full vowel (other than [uJ) in the same vocoid cluster . It also occurs as the second member of the consonant clusters [pwJ [twJ [kwJ. e.g. /wLnem/ [wL-nemJ 'house' /wauw£s/ [wau-wesJ 'food scraps' Itowa/ [to-waJ 'bush' /pwasle/ [pwa-sleJ 'they give to you' /twamo/ [twa-moJ 'froth' /kwatu/ [kwa-tuJ 'species of yam' 7

Phoneme Allophone Description, occurrence. and examples

Further notes on the interpretation of the high vocoids [yJ [IJ and [wJ [uJ are found under 'Consonant Vowel Patterning' .

B. Vowels . These are all syllable vocoids occurring both singularly and in clusters .

iii [ I J Voiced high front close unrounded vocoids . Occurs in all vowel positions in both syllable and word . e.g. lf i el1 [fI-e1J 'apika 8hoot8' 1101 [I-oJ 'ye8 ' Ifl1fll1 [fll-fllJ 'movement' lwei II [we-lIJ 'fire'

Voiced high front open unrounded vocoid . Occurs in all vowel positions in both syllab le and word except word finally . e.g. /Lltell [d-teIJ '8peech' IYL�kLll [YL�-gL1J '8ago thorn'

[eJ Voiced mid front close unrounded vocoid . Occurs in all vowel positions in both syllable and word , in non-contrastive free fluctuation with [LJ. The phoneme is probably mid-way between [LJ and [eJ.

N.B. III and ILl are separate phonemes, as proved by contrast in identical environments. Ifllfll1 [fll-fllJ 'movement' IfdfLll [fd-fL1J 'witd banana'

lei [eJ Voiced mid front open unrounded vocoid . Occurs in all vowel positions in both syllable and word . e.g. leu f I [e-tL f] 'hand' IteluLsl [te-ltt-LsJ 'b Lood' Ipelel [pe-leJ 'dog' lelpL II [el-pd J 'pun' 8

Phoneme Allophone Description, occurrence and examples

Voiced low front close unrounded vocoid. Occurs in free non-contrastive fluctuation with [e] syllable initially . e.g. Inemp�sl [nem-b�s]�[n�-b�s] 'ye8terday , Ikelll [ke-li]�[klil-II] 'I go' Ikenkafl [ken-gaf]�[kllln-gaf] 'Zeft hand' Iser)kel [ser)-ge]�[slllr)-ge] 'pig'

N.B. lei and I�I are separated by contrast in identical environments . Iyel�ml [ye-I�m] , 8tick for turning 8ago' Iy� I �ml [y�-I�m] '8ugar' lerell [e-rel] 'Zeg8 ' ler� I I [e-r�l] 'si8tezo8'

Iii and lei are separated by contrast in identical environments . Ikalil [ka-II] 'fetch' Ikalel [ka-Ie] 'cZear the ground'

lal [a] Voiced low central open unrounded vocoid . Occurs in all vowel positions in both syllable and word . e.g. /apal [a-pa] 'eZder 8i8tezo' Iyall [yal] 'father' Ilaulel [Iau-Ie] 'he come8'

N.B. lal and lei are separated by contrast in identical environments. lallol [al-Io] 'caH out' lei10 1 [ello] 'get up' Inamp�sl [nam-b�s] 'urine' Inemp�sl [nem-b�s] 'yesterday , Ira-tall [ra-taI] 'to under8tand' Ira-tell [ra-tel] 'to remain' Ika-lil [ka-IIJ 'fetch' Ike-Iii [ke-II] 'I go'

There is some fluctuation between the full phonemes lal and lei. e.g. [kan-gafJ�[ken-gaf]�[kllln-gafJ 'Zeft hand' [a-rau]�[lII-rau] 'stone' 9

Phoneme Allophone Description , occurrence and examples

lui [uJ Voiced high back close rounded vocoid . Occurs in all vowel positions in both syllable and word , except when preceeded or followed by a high front vocoid . e.g. lumol [u-moJ 'brother' (as called by a sister) Iy uluml [y u-l umJ 'round objeat' 11 ulul [lu-luJ 'ahin'

[ttJ Voiced high central close rounded vocoid . Occurs when immediately preceeded by , or followed by a high front vocoid . e. g. Inu L1 I [ntt-L1 J 'arrow' ItEluLsl [tE-ltt-LsJ 'blood'

lui [uJ Voiced high back open rounded vocoid . Occurs in all vowel positions in both syllab le and word . e.g. lurul [u-ruJ 'hair' Ikupul [ku-puJ 'eLbow' 11 uul [luuJ ,sago pa Z.m ' loruul [o-ruuJ 'sister'

[oJ Voiced mid back close rounded vocoid. Occurs in all vowel positions in both syllab le and word in free non-contrastive fluctuation with [uJ. The phoneme is probably mid-way between [uJ and [oJ.

N.B. lui and lui are separate phonemes , as proved by contrast in ident ical environments. Iyufl [yufJ 'smeLL of men' Iyufl [yufJ 'wind' lufl [ufJ 'viHage' luf I [uf] 'pandanus soup' lurul [u-ruJ 'to run away' lurul [u-ruJ 'hair'

101 [oJ Voiced mid back open rounded vocoid . Occurs in all vowel positions in both syllable and word , except immediately preceeding [uJ. 10

Phoneme Allophone Description, occurrence and examples

e.g. 10101 [o-loJ 'no' lwoml [womJ 'aoaonut'

[o·J Voiced mid back close rounded vocoid . Occurs only immediately preceeding the high back close rounded vocoid [uJ. e.g . /uroul [u-ro·uJ 'leg ' ItouQkal [to·uQ-gaJ 'baak'

[oYJ Voiced low back close rounded vocoid . Occurs in free non-contrastive fluctuat ion with [oJ in all posit ions . e.g. IsoQkoul [soYQ-gouJ (or [soQ-gou]) 'pigs' lomka ll [oYm-gal J (or [om-ka i]) 'stone axe'

N.B. Phonemes lui and 101 are separated by contrast in ident ical encironments. I1 UmI [lUmJ 'eye' ll oml [lomJ 'ena l08ure ' It UmI [tUm] 'spittle' Itoml [tomJ 'biZwn' 11 uul [luuJ 'sago palm' lioul [ louJ 'possessive'

Phonemes lui and la l are separated by contrast in ident ical environments. Ikorol [ko-ro] 'noise of an animal' Ika ral [ka-raJ 'little finger'

NON-SEGMENTAL PHONEMES

Neither length, stress or intonation are phonemic , but the following have been noted .

Length . Not phonemic . It is noted however that a vowel cluster usually has the same length as a single vowel . e.g. Inaflel [na-fleJ 'bird' Ina lbl [nal-bJ 'distre88 aall' Ikulpoul [kul -pouJ 'ton' IkuLl poul [kuLl -pouJ 'wild limbom' 11

Stress . Not phonemic . The first syllab le in the word usually has slightly more stress than the following syllables . Only in one or two instances has the second syllable more stress than the first . e.g. /orou/ [o-Fou] 'leg'

Intonation pattern . Not phonemic . Depends almost entirely on the emotional content of the speech.

Syllable divisions . Not Phonemic . Only when these divisions are determined can the interpretation of the high vocoids [I] [y] and [u] [w] be decided on . A syllable never contains more than one vowel or vowel cluster . It may commence with a consonant or consonant cluster , or vowel or vowel cluster . It may end with a consonant fricative , nasal lateral or vibrant , or vowel or vowel clUster. A syllab le may consist of a single vowel.

CONSONANT VOWEL PATTERNING IN RELATION TO THE SYLLABLE

These are as follows : (e = consonant , V = vowel ) . Syllables involving no clusters

V e.g. /i/ [ I ] 'yes' /nLQk lo/ [nLQ-g l-o] 'daughter' ve e.g. /Em/ [Em] 'mother' /omka l/ [om-ga l] 'axe' ev e.g. /yE/ [yE] 'you' /ma/ [ma] 'will' eve e.g. /lom/ [ 1 0m] 'enalos ure ' /wEf/ [WEf] 'goods'

Syllables involving vowel clusters

vv e.g. /au/ [au] 'aome' /Eif [Ei ] 'exa lamation' vve e.g. /EI Qg kEyEI/ [EIQ-gE-YEI] 'hide' evv e.g. /lou/ [lou] 'sago palm' /tEI/ [tEl] 'superlative' evve e.g. /nouQkol/ [nouQ-gol] 'arrow stiak' /touQ-ka / [touQ-ga] 'baak'

Syllables involving vowe l and consonant clusters

eev e.g. /tEplaLf/ [tE-plaL f] 'sky' /ep 1 i / [e-pl l] 'sun' eeve e.g. /nampIEf/ [nam-bl Ef] 'hole' /p len/ [plen] 'there' 12

CCVVC e.g. /plel�kLnLm/ [plel�-g Ln-LmJ 'inside' /fra l�-k�s / [fral�-g�sJ 'noise' ccvv e.g. /fr�u / [frauJ ·'quickZy'

Interpretation of the high vocoids [IJ [yJ and [uJ [wJ

[IJ [yJ is written /y/ when it immediat ely preceeds another vowel in the same vocoid cluster. /y/ is only found syllable initially . [uJ [wJ is written /w/ when it immediately preceeds a vowel in the same vocoid cluster. /w/ is found syllable initially apart from the cluster /tw/ . Word medially, it is often difficult to determine whether or not [yJ or [wJ are present , as if the final phoneme in the preceeding syllable is [iJ or [uJ, this carries over to t�e next syllable .

DISTRIBUTIONAL STATEMENT OF THE PHONEMES

A. Consonants. a. Single Syllable and word initial . All consonants except � . Syllable final , but not word final : /�/ . Word final . /f/,/s/,/m/,/n/,/I /,/r/. But not the stops or semi-vowels .

b. Clusters Only clusters of two consonants occur , and these only syllable initially .

c. List of Consonant Clusters Stop + Lateral /pl/, /tl/, /kl/ e.g. /plene/ 'there' Stop + Vibrant /pr/, /tr/ , /kr/ e.g. /aprl/ 'plant' Flat fricat ive + Lateral /fl/ e.g. /flou/ 'sweet' Flat fricat ive + Vibrant /fr/ e.g. /kafra/ 'a bird' Stop + Bi-labial semi-vowel /pw/, /tw/, /kw/ e.g. /twaoo/ 'froth'

Many consonant clusters occur between syllables, i.e. a syllable ends in a consonant , and the following syllable in the word commences with a different consonant. Almost any combination of consonants can be found in this position. e.g. /wLnke/ [wLn-geJ 'younger brother' /nLmpLI / [nLm-bLIJ 'buttocks' ItelmanLf/ [tel-ma-nLfJ 'beach' /yelpu/ [yel -puJ 'femur' 13

B. Vowels a. Single Syllable and word initial . All vowels Syllable medial and final . All vowels Word final . All vowels

b. Clusters Only clusters of two vowels occur in any one syllable . All vowel clusters end in either III or lui, and are as follows :

ILlI Occurs in all positions e.g. IdYLfl [Ll -YLf] '"light' leil Occurs in all posit ions e.g. lei 101 [ei-IoJ 'to ari8e' lail Occurs in all positions e.g. laltel [al-teJ 'to buy' loil Occurs in all positions e.g. loll)kei'l [oll)-geD 'h0l,e8' . luil Occurs word medially only e.g. Ikullpoul [ku i l-pouJ 'witd "limbom' luul Occurs in all positions e.g. /1uul [IUU J '8 ago' loul Occurs in all positions e.g. Ifouyell [fou-yeIJ 'vine' laul Occurs in all positions e.g. laulel [au-IeJ 'come'

A syllable division never occurs between any of the vowels listed in the clusters above when they are in the order shown .

LIST OF PHONEMES

Practical Technical Example Translation Orthography Orthography

p p pau '8mal,l, of back' t t topo '8 kin' k k ker a 'H ttl,e finger' f f flu 'white'

5 5 sioko ' arrow head' m m mampel '8 oon' n n niel 'fi8h'

I) ng sengke 'pig' 10m 'eye' i' r rerem 'evil, 8pirit8' w w weII ' fi re' y y ye 'you' I I Ifau 'wil,d fig tree' e etau 'l,i mbum 8heath' e e etef 'hand' a a alef '8 tring' u u uf 'vil,l,age' u 0 onwel 'to cHmb' 0 0 onom ' heart' McGregor, D.E. "A Phonemic Statement of the Olo Language". In McGregor, D.E. and McGregor, A. editors, Olo language materials. D-42:1-14. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1982. DOI:10.15144/PL-D42.1 ©1982 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative. A TENTAT IVE GRAMMAR STATEMENT OF THE OLO LANGUAGE

A. McGREGOR

MORPHOPHONEMICS

I. PHONOLOGICALLY DEFINABLE CHANGES

These are phonetically predictable changes which take place at Morpheme boundaries .

1. Wherever two like consonants or vowels come together there is re duction of one of them , resulting in the loss of a phoneme . e.g. Ki kewasi + ife roum KI kewa s ife roum 'I give to them' + i > i Ye + e pene i Ye pene i 'Wh ere are you going' e + e > e

Ife roum + me Ife roume 'You tluo go' m + m> m

2. concerning Phonological changes in Noun stems on Pluralisation

Class I Nouns . Where the only vowel of the stem is -0-, the vowel of the pluralising allomorphs {- fls} or {-ngkes} influences it , and there is non-cont iguous , regressive partial assimilation as to the point of articulation. e.g. wom 'aoaonut' wefes 'aoaonut8' 0 + e > e tom 'ba8ket' tengkes 'ba8ket8' o + e > e

Class II Nouns Section 1: Where the final vowel of the stem is -e- ( except when it preceeds -m) the glide of the pluralising morpheme {- ngkou} influences the final vowel of the stem, so that there is non-cont iguous regressive partial assimilation as to the point of articulation. e.g. yel ie 'ear deaoration' yel l ongkou 'ear deaoration8' e + ou > 0

Where the first vowel of the stem is -e- and the next is -i, the above does not apply and there is non-contiguous regressive partial

McGregor, A. "A Tentative Grammar Statement of the Olo Language". In McGregor, D.E. and McGregor, A. editors, Olo language materials. D-42:15-80. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1982. DOI:10.15144/PL-D42.15 ©1982 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative. 16

assimilation as to the point of art iculation and the final vowel of the stem becomes -e- with pluralisation. e.g . em lo 'bone' eml engkou 'bones' o + OU > e

Where the only vowel in the stem is 0 there is non-contiguous regres sive partial assimilation as to the point of articulation . e.g. 01 'seed' ongkou 'seeds' o + OU > 0 topo 'skin' topongkou 'skins' o + OU > 0

Section 2: When the final vowel of the stem is e or -0 there is non contiguous regressive as similat ion as to the point of articulation and the following changes occur with pluralisation : porel 'a nut tree' porongku 'nut trees' e + U > 0 yorofo l 'a pimple' yorofongku 'p1-mples' o + U > 0

When the final vowel of the stm is - 1 - , the above does not apply . e.g. nlel 'fish' nlengku 'fishes'

N.B. Sometimes and with some speakers the -ng- of the pluraliser causes the preceeding -1- to become a glide. e.g . tesi 'road' tesl engku 'roads'

Section 3: When the final vowel of the stem is u, it is influenced by the velar -ng of the pl uralising morpheme and the following occurs : panu 'tap root' panengke 'tap roots' u + ng > e

Also when the pre final vowel is -0-, there is non-contiguous regres sive partial assimilation as to the point of ariculation on pluralisation . . e.g. sonu 'breadfruit' senengke 'breadfruits' o + e > e fomu 'axe handle' femengke 'axe handles' o + e > e

Class III Nouns If in the stem 1 does not follow 0, ou , e, 0 there is non-contiguous regressive partial or complete assimilation as to the point of art icu lation with pluralisation and the following changes occur : wolu 'sago' we lel 'sago' 0+ e > e olou 'wrist bone' elel 'wrist bones' o + e > e oru 'hair' erel 'hairs' 0+ e > e toungkoulou 'baak bone' toungkelel 'baak bones' ou + e > e kol pou 'ton tree' kelpel 'ton trees' o + e > e fonkotu 'sleeping apartment' fenketel 'sleeping apartments' o + e > e

When these internal vowel changes in the stem do not take place, there is non-contiguous , progressive partial assimilation as to the point of articulation and the fo llowing change in the pluralising allomorph occurs on pluralisation : 17

kopou 'green coconut' kopo I 'green coconuts' e > 0 nompou 'thumb' nompo I ' thumbs' e > 0

Class IV Nouns When the stem ends in the glide el there is assimilation to the nearest pOint of articulation and reduction of the final vowel. e.g. wa re l 'cordyline' wa rem 'cordylines' el + m > e

Class V Nouns When the final vowel of the stem is 0, there is non-contiguous regressive complete assimilation as to the point of articulation.

e.g. yamko l 'knee' yamkere 'knees' o + e

The allomorphs of the pluralising morpheme are phonologically predi ctable in two instances only :

Class I Nouns Section 3 owes > awes only when singulariser -af is used e.g. kenkaf 'left hand' kenkawes 'left hand s'

Class III Nouns Section 2 el > 01 when in the stem -u- remains unchanged. nompou e.g. nompou 'thumb' nompo I ' thumbs'

Because of this the singular and plural of every noun is given in the dictionary .

3. Concerning Phonological Changes oc curing when adding the various Object Pronouns to Verbs

a. Change in Verb Stem.

1ST PERSON SINGULAR/2ND PERSON SINGULAR, DUAL, PLURAL (Pronoun to be added . )

Stems ending in i add e i ( to stem ) Ye ores i nempe 'You shoot the tree' Ye ores iei ki 'You shoot me'

Stems ending in e > e i Le letere nempe 'He scrapes the tree' Le letere i ki 'He scrapes me'

Stems ending in a > a i Le lila nengke 'He lifts up a child' Le lilai kl 'He lifts up me'

Stems ending in u add el ( to stem ) Le mongkotu nengke 'He covers the chi�' Le mOngkotuei kl 'He covers me'

Stems ending in 0 add el ( to stem) Le rapo nempe 'He splits wood' Le rapoel ki 'He splits me' 18

1ST PERSON DUAL, PLURAL (Pronoun to be added.)

Stems ending in I add ou (to stem) Ye esi pele 'You ho� the dog' Ye es lou ku 'You ho� us'

Stems ending in e > ou Le letere nempe 'He scrapes the tree' Le leterou ku 'He scrapes us'

Stems ending in a > au Le 1 ila nengke 'He Zifts a chi�' Le lilau ku 'He Ufts us'

Stems ending in u add ou (to stem) Le mongkutu nengke 'He covers the chi�' Le mOngkotuou ku 'He covers us'

Stems ending in 0 add ou (to stem) Le rapo nempe 'He spUts wood' Le rapoou ku 'He spZits us'

3RD PERSON SINGULAR, DUAL, PLURAL (Pronoun to be added.)

Stems ending in te > s He kete fouyou 'She puZZs the vine' He kesel (fouyou) 'She puZZs it'

(Other endings , no change )

b. Change in Pronoun (applies when adding 3rd person only )

3RD PER�ON PRONOUN

Singular Dual Plural See

masc . fern. masc . fern. masc . fern. EXarrple

Stems ending in I or u take 01 ene engke om epe 1 and 2 Stems eooing in e take el ene engke em epe 3 Stems eooing in a or 0 take 1 ne ngke m pe 4 and 5

Example l. Ki kolu nafele 'I Zook at the bird' Kl kol uom ' I Zook at her' 2. Le lorsl nafle 'He shoots the bird' Le lors lol 'He shoots it' 3. Kl kete fouyou 'I puLl the vine' Kl kesengke 'I puLl them' 4. Kl klla nengke 'I carry the chi �, Kl kl lal 'I carry him' 5. Ye aspo wel l 'You Zight the fire' Ye aspol 'You Ught it'

4. Concerning Phonological Changes oc curing when the Possessive Indicator -f and certain Pronouns are added to the Verb

When the Possessive Morpheme {- f} and either the 3rd Person Singular Masculine {-ol} or the 3rd Person Dual Feminine {-om} are added to verb 19

stems ending in -e , there is non-contiguous regressive partial assimi lation as to the point and manner of articulation. e.g. He kete fouyou 'She puZZe (tightens) the vine' e + 0 > 0 He keto fol fouyou 'She puZZe (tightens) hie vine'

Kl ke ipel 'I tighten (puZZ) it' e + 0 > 0 Ki ke ipofom fouyou 'I tighten (puZZ) their vine'

- el only follows verbs with -e final vowel - see above .

5. Concerning Phonological Changes Occuring with Internal Pronominal Changes

When with internal pronominal changes 1 is followed by -r in juxta position, there is reduction of one of the con�onants resulting in the loss of the Phoneme /1/. e.g. Ki ka lref l Ie > Kl karefl Ie 'I detain him' Ye alrl wapeno > Ye arl wapeno 'You pZant taro'

II. MORPHOLOGICALLY DEFINABLE CHANGES

In 010 the Noun Stems are divided into six main classes made up of those stems which take the same Allomorph of the Pluralising Morpheme . The pluralising Morpheme is in effect the Noun Class Marker . Within the six main noun classes there are further sub-divisions . The pluralising Allomorphs (and also the singularising allomorphs ) are only Morphologically definable, and this being the case, both the singular and plural form of each noun will be indicated in the dictionary , as the forms are unpredictable. There is a tendency for certain phonetic changes to take place with allomorphic change , although they are not always binding and do not really follow any strict pattern of change . The following is a chart of examples of the various noun stems and their pluralising allomorphs which occur in regard to their different classes . 20

CHART OF NOUN CLASSES

Class I

Section 1. Section 2. Section 3. Examples of noun stems Examples of noun stems Examples of noun stems which occur with the which occur with the which occur with the Pluraliser Pluraliser Pluraliser _so -es * -Owea"'awe5

tefa- 'bananas' yo1- 'shoulders' 1ep- 'lips' ne1 pe- 'teeth' mer- 'betel nuts' kenk- , left hands ' nongko- 'fingers' yef 'fleas ' te1p- 'right hands' too- 'leaves' yefau- 'feathers' 1e 1- 'banana leaves' kat i- 'pandanua' wengki- 'bamboos' ya ip- 'arm deaoration'

Section 4. Section s. Section6. Examples of noun stems Exarrples of noun stems Examples of noun stems which occur with the which occur with the which occur with the Pluraliser Pluraliser Pluraliser -pes -ses -os

nafe1e- 'birds ' e- 'hands' yongk- 'sheU of sago 1 i- 'gardens' palms' pa- 'saars' you- 'leaves' 1ap- 'ribs' you 1a- , large bats' ke- 'blaaks' a1- 'strings' tenpei- 'flies' ma- 'farnal marks' 1- 'eyes'

Section 7. Section 8. Section 9. Examples of noun stems Examples of noun stems Examples of noun stems which occur with the which occur with the which occur with the Pluraliser Pluraliser Pluraliser -os -fes -ngkes

yonk- 'speaies of wild nori - , speaies of nuts' e1a- 'knives' fi gs' we- 'aoaonutB' te- 'string bags' wo1- 'grasses' e- 'hearts' mOngk- 'aaves'

* This becomes -awes when the singulariser is -af

Class II

oto- , ariakets ' tesl- 'roads' pane- 'taproots' 51- 'tho:rns' nie- 'fishes' sene- 'breadfruit' e1ma- , saorpions' yorofo- 'pimples' tau1e1pe- 'hibisous' fa 10- 'forehead' poro- 'spernes of nuts' tu1ei- 'male ahildren' topo- 'skins' fe1i- 'wings' ere- 'mountains ' 21

Class III Class IV

Section 1. Section 1. Ex�les of noun stems Ex�les of noun stems which occur with the which occur with the P1uraliser Pluraliser -el -m ya l- 'firewood ' wa ll; 'witd bush fow ts ' taor- 'stars ' tepe 'sptinter ' yef- 'adbomens ' mel engki , speeies of birds ' fenket- 'ashes ' koungkele , speeies of birds ' we l- , eooked sago ' neme- 'head tiee '

Section 2. Ex�les of noun stems which occur with the P1uraliser Class V *-el"'-ol Section 1. wapen- 'taro ' �les of noun stems kelp- , Pometia trees ' which occur with the yen- 'branches ' P1uraliser fouy- 'bush vines ' -re toungke l- 'baek bone '

Section 3. ema 'mothers ' yamke 'fruit ' �les of noun stems toungka 'baeks ' which occur with the fomnongke 'd:r>ains ' P1uraliser mongka- 'husbands ' -al p- 'baek ' lofel- 'eye tids ' 'stones ' er- Class VI soiy- 'bush rat'

�les of noun stems which Section 4. have no pluralising change Ex�les of noun stems which occur with the Pluraliser tef 'ground' nef 'rain ' -weI tepe 'water ' epl i 'sun ' nempe f ' steam ' you- 'taits ' lou- 'sago patm '

* This becO!Tes -0 I when in the stem -0- remains unchanged . 22

GRAMMAR

INTRODUCTION

There are several salient features which become apparent during the study of this language . The first is that all nouns fall into one of six classes. These classes are determined by the pluralising morpheme - morpheme s being the minimal units of meaning of which the language is compri sed. However the classificat ion of nouns has no further bearing on the Grammar structure . All verbs are divided into classes by means of their function , and also by the occurrence or non-occurrence of the morpheme {f} which occurs stem finally. This morpheme modifies the sentence by one of three meanings depending on the verb class it is used with. This is explained ful ly in the ensuing stat ement . Another point of interest is the fact that in rapid speech many verbs may be abbreviat ed drastically , often to the confusion of the foreign listener . Conversely , repetit ive action is demonstrated in the repetition of the verb stem or it s main syllable . In compiling this statement , the principle followed is that of taking first , the simplest grammatical structure , and adding to that in su ccessive layers , the gradually expanding construction and explaining the relationship of one with the other in terms of the Valence unt il the language is viewed as a whole.

Special Symbols used in this Section

/ compri ses a sentence [ ] comprise s a construction < > which is a type is pre suppo sed by presupposes neither is presupposed by the other presupposes both (each is presupposed by the other)

CHAPTER 1. EXCLAMATIONS, NAMES AND TITLES AND SIMPLE COMMANDS

This is the construction which has been chosen as the basic gram mat ical form in the 010 language , as it is the simplest utterance or constitute existing as a complete sentence. This construction falls into three sub-divisions :

A. Exclamations - / sentenc e Exclamations , of which yel is a type , are used in response to fear , pain or surprise, as an ejaculation of annoyance , as a cry for help , 23

or when a minimal utterance is used as a query or in reply to one . The following are some of the forms which fall into this class :

mi 'who ' 10 'yes ' fe i 'finished ' yei 'ouch ' ( as when one is pricked with a pin) 010 'no.' so 'go on ' k I 'me '

B. Names or Titles

/ sentence The name s or titles of people such as mother., father, etc . may be used as a single and complete utterance, as for instance when it is des irous of attracting one 's attention . If the person to be called is a distance away the affix -0 may be added to the name or title . Words ending in -e , -a , -0 take the affix -10. Examples of the above are as follows :

Olye > Olyel0 Sel k I > Sel kio names of people Akon > Akono ama > amalo 'mother ' ya l > ya lo } ' father ' wlngke > wlngol0 ' bro ther '

With the addition of the suffix the intonation also changes and a higher pitch is used on the syllable immediately preceeding the suffix .

C. Simple Commands. Imperative Construction / sentence As the Imperative Construction another very important minimal construction is now introduced. It consists of the stem ( i.e. a word base to which affixes may be added ) of a certain group of words in the language , and is marked by a falling intonat ion pattern. Stems which are suitable in this position , will be called Verbs in accordance- with known terminology . The Imperative Construction is used when directing another person or persons to do something, usually immediat ely, but sometime s later on . It is used in all situations which require quick response to any given direction in play, friendly situations, in an emergency, or when a leader or supervisor is giving instructions . The louder and the higher thepitch of the voice, the more imperat ive is the desire of the speaker that his wishes be complied with. 24

As will be seen from the Grammar Outline at the be ginning of this analysis , 010 has several differences in the Verbal Structures giving rise to a number of Verb Classes. The Stems only , of a few words in several of the se classes, are sufficient to form a command , and some of these are listed below . However, in the maj ority of instances, when using the Imperative Construction, it is indicated that the command is addressed to one or more persons, and sometimes concerning one or more things', and that indication is incorporated in the command con struction. Therefore , it follows that the only distinction between a command and a statement is marked by intonation . The command is often repeated in quick succession . These varying forms as they occur within the different Verb Classes will be described in subsequent chapters . As mentioned , the following is a list of Simple Commands which use the stem only :

ompetel 'run'

au 'come' efel 'sit' pes 'be quiet' enwe l 'go up'

CHAPTER 2. THE INTRANSITIVE STATEMENT (with Subject Pronoun)

fSubject Pronoun Indicator + Intransitive Verb . � Stem}] In this language , there are some verbs which are used when it is desired to make a statement about what a person , or persons , is or are doing, or will do . The action is Subjective only , and can never be Objective , that is, the action is never carried over by the actor to some other thing or person . Therefore this type of verb will be called an Intransitive Class A Verb . This construction , as the above formula indicates, consists of the Subj ect Pronoun and the Intransitive Verb Expression .

1. Th� Subject Pronoun

This term make s reference to the person or thing doing the action , and deals with th at group of words wh ich occur in this construction in the first pre-verb expression position . The following is a list of the different forms . 25

THE SUBJECT PRONOUN

Singular English 1st Person kl 'I' 2nd Person ye 'you ' 3rd Person (Masculine ) I e* 'he ' 3rd Persoll (Feminine ) ne 'she '

Dual 1st Person ku 'we ' 2nd Person (Masculine ) Ife roungke '" Ise roungke (E) 'you ' 2nd Person (Feminine )** Ife roum '" Ise roum (E) 'you ' 3rd Person (Masculine ) te 'they ' 3rd Person (Feminine )** me 'they '

Plural 1st Person ku 'we ' 2nd Person Ife '" ise ( E ) 'you ' 3rd Person pe 'they '

* This form is homophonous with the commonly used abbreviat ed verb Ie 'he goes ' (for lell). ** In referring to mixed groups of a man and a woman , feminine forms are used .

2. The Intransitive Verb Expression

This contains a Subj ect Pronoun Indicator plus the verb stem of any word in the Class A Intransitive group of verbs.

a. The Subject Pronoun Indicator This indicator is a bound form in that it cannot occur by itself. It always occurs initially in the Verb Expression . A Chart of Subject Pronoun Indicators follows on the next page . 26

CHART OF SUBJECT PRONOUN IND I CATORS

Subject Subject PronOIm, Subject PronOIm Pronoun Indicator and (vert> aule Indicator Verb Stan 'aome ')

Singular 1st Person kl k- kl kaule 'I aome ' 2nd Person ye QI- ye aule 'You aome ' 3rd Person (Masc . ) Ie l- Ie laule 'He aomes ' 3rd Person (Fern.) ne n- ne naule 'She aomes '

Dual 1st Person ku w- ku wau le 'We aome ' 2m Person Ife roungke y- Ife roungke yaule 'You come ' (Masc . ) 'V ise roungke (E) 2nd Person Ife roum y- Ife roum yau le 'You come ' (Fern. )* '" seI roum (E) 3rd Person (Masc . ) te t- te taule 'They come ' 3rd Person (Fem.)* me m- me mau le 'They come '

Plural 1st Person ku m- ku maule 'We aome ' 2m Person ife 'V Ise (E) y- Ife yau le 'You aome ' 3rd Person pe p- pe pau le 'They come '

* In referring to mixed groups of a man and a woman , feminine forms are used.

It will be noted that the 2nd Person Singular Subject Pronoun Indicator is a Zero Morpheme {QI -} . It is by the usage of this Person , that a check may be made on the verb to determine whether or not the initial phoneme of the verb expression is really a Subject Pronoun Indicator, or just the first letter of a verb stem which drops the Subj ect Pronoun altogether (as is sometime s the case ) thus determining the true stem. e.g. 1st Person Dual : ku wel fengkes 'We (two) are tired ' 2nd Person Singular : ye wel fengkes 'You (sing. ) are tired '

As in the above examples , the 1st Person Dual w- is really the first phoneme of the verb stem, and not the 1st person dual subject pronoun indicator as one may be led to believe without further checking . 27

There is always complete agreement between the subj ect pronoun and the subj ect pronoun indicator . Because of this it is not always necessary to actually quote the subject pronoun , and it is often only included to specify or clarify the subject . As has been intimated however, in quite a few irregular instances, and for no particular reason the Subj ect Pronoun Indicator prefixing certain verbs is excluded f�om the verb expression and unless it is understood from the context , the subject pronoun mu st then be used . These instances of irregularity will be noted in the dictionary entry . Apart from the above exceptions the subject pronoun indicator always occurs in all constructions in the first pre-verb stem position .

b. Class A. Intransitive Verb Stems As before mentioned, these stems are only used subjective ly and occur finally in the verb expression in this construction and are used when desiring to talk about someone or something doing something . Apart from the occasional use of some of these verbs in the simple command form, the stem can never be used in isolation.

A Note on Tense

In 010 there are two tenses - narrative , referring to the moment of speaking and also to anything prior to the moment of speaking; and future , which refers to anything due to take place in the future . If it is intended that the hearer should think about something in the past , then often a word is used , such as the equivalent of 'yest erday! , etc ., to proj ect him into the right period of time and then the speaker continues on in the narrative tense . Quite frequently however , the speaker relies on the subject matter under discussion , and the fore knowledge of the hearer, and does not bother to indicate any period of time at all . This is also permissab le when something in the future - particularly the immediate future is referred to . Whereas there is a future tense indicator there is nothing at all to mark the narrative tense . The future tense indicator is sometime s an affix of the verb expression and sometimes of the subj ect pronoun and sometimes an affix of other types of words, and can thus occur in several different places in the sentence according to the construction used. Because of this, this statement of the 010 grammar will be confined to the narrat ive tense , until more complex constructions are dealt with in later chapters , and the use of the future tense indicator can be fully explained . 28

3. Valence

Valence , or relationship between the subject pronoun and the intran sitive verb expre ssion in this construction is carried by position in that the subject pronoun always occurs in the first pre-verb expression position , and by the agreement of the subject pronoun and the subject pronoun indicator.

4. Examples

ki kenoungkele 'I beLch ' Ie I a 'He dies ' ne ne II0 'She arises ' Ie wel fengkes 'He is tired ' k i kainou 'I am sick ' Ie loungko 'It breaks ' Ie lawo 'It spLits '

It is possible to expand this construction by the addition of one or more verb expressions . e.g. Ie lello lorou lel l lete l lato 'He gets up, runs away, sLeeps, and remains '.

CHAPTER 3. THE INTRANSITIVE STATEMENT (with Subject Noun)

Subj ect Subject Pronoun Indicator + Intransitive Verb stem rr + { Q (optional)Noun} pU This construction has two immediate constituents - a Free subject noun (i.e. one that is not bound to the verb expression and can occur in isolation) plus an intransitive verb expression . It is used when it is desired to make a statement about what an animal (s) or thing(s) is (or are ) doing; has (or have ) done ; or will do .

1. The Free Subject Noun

The term 'noun ' is given to that class of words which can occur as either the object or as in this construction, the subject of the verb and which take the class markers of the pluralising morpheme . As the subject noun, this class of words specifies the instigator of the verbal action , and takes the 1st pre-verb expression position and can be used in place of the subject pronoun . There are six main noun classes in the 010 language , with many various subdivisions contained therein . These classes are determined by the different allomorphs , (or in other words, the variant forms of the morpheme ) of the pluralising morpheme , and the nouns are grouped according to their occurrence with various pluralising class markers. 29

The Pluralising allomorphs (and also the allomorphs of the singu larising morpheme ), are only morphologically, that is grammat ically definable , and this being the case both the singular and plural form of each noun will be indicated in the dictionary , as the forms are unpredictable . Both forms occur as bound form suffixes and cannot stand in isolation. The noun classification has no further bearing on the grammatical construction of the language . There is a tendancy for certain phonetic changes to take place with allomorphic change s although the se are not always binding . The following chart and accompanying notes portray the above information in a concise form .

NOUN CLASSES

Section Allarorrhs of Allarorphs of �les Pluralising Singularising N\.rri:)er M:>rpheme M:>rP:'leme Singular Plural

1 -5 Zero morpheme tefa tefas 'banana' katl kat is 'pandanus '

2 -es -ef"'-en"'-of"'-ef wengklef wengkles 'bamboo ' yol ef voles 'shoulder ' meref meres 'betel nut ' yefen yefes 'flea ' topof topes 'stags head ' (fern)

H 3 "'owes"'awes -ef"'-af"'-of"'-of llpef llpowes 'Up' III kenkaf kenkawes 'left hand'

�u ya i pof ya l powes 'arm band '

4 -pes -ofTfV-nfVZero nafele nafel epes 'bird ' morpheme 110m I ipes 'garden ' pam papes 'sore '

5 -ses -tef ketef keses 'bZaak '

6 -os -ef'\.-om alef alCis 'string ' llim los 'eye '

7 -os -0 I 'V-oll)'V-of yomkof yomkos 'lJ1ild fig ' yongkol nongkos 'oane ' wo lom wo los 'grass '

"'-owes > -awes when the singulariser -af is used .

Continued ••.••• 30

AllCJlDqils of Allaroqils of Ex.aIrples �on Pluralising Singularising NUlber � �rrheme Singular Plural

8 -fes -i:ini\.-m norlam nori fes 'nut ' (species) **wom wefes 'coconut '

9 -ngkes -f'V-m elaf elangkes 'knife '

-- **tom tengkes 'string bag ' .J c: 0 Exanples of Irregulars u '- ya l ya i res 'father ' H melef menges ' c lay saucepan ' (/.I onom enkes 'heart ' � fourene foures 'seed ' yengkel yongkos ' arrowhead ' neref nurus 'finger naU '

1 -ngkou - I 'V- n'V-m'V otol otongkou 'cricket' zero JlX)rpherre 51 slngkou 'thorn ' elman elmangkou 'scorpion ' wenem �nangkou 'house '

H 2 -ngku -1"'Zero tesl tes i ngku 'road ' H JlX)rpherre (/.I nlel niengku 'fish '

�u 3 -ngke zero morpherre lulu lul engke 'chin '

Exanples of Irregulars yufle yufloungkou 'hornbiH ' sengke songkou 'pig ' orou erengke 'mountain'

1 -el -u ya lu yalel ' firewood ' tauru tau reI 'star '

2 *-el'V-ol -ou wapenou wapenel 'taro '

H nompou nampol 'thwnb ' H H 3 -a l -au pau pal 'back ' � 4 -weI zero JlX)rpherre you youwel 'taiL ' Exanples of Irregulars lamfelau lofelal 'eye Hd ' I fau I faurel 'a food tree '

Continued ••••••• 31

Section A11CJ'lDrFhs of A11CJlO�s of Exanples Plurali sing Singularising Nurber M:>rpheste M:>�eme Singular Plural

1 -m -1'V-n'V-ne wa lel wa lem 'bu8h forv Z ' zero ITOrpherre · tepene tepem 'pangaZ 8trip ' � mel engken mel engkem 'bird ' (spec .) koungkele koungke lem 'bird ' (spec .) �u Exanples of Irregulars line ilem 'brother '

1 -re -1'VZero ama amare 'mother ' ITOrpherre . **yamkol yamkere 'fruit' (spec . ) :::- Ul Exanples of Irregulars Ul � oyen oyengker 'hoZe ' U tesangkoloi tesangklengke re 'road junction '

1 zero ITOrpherre zero ITOrpherre 'lhese nouns fom a large group and when it is desired to express plurality the � number concerned usually follows the Ul noun , or else it is expressed by woru e.g. uf 'a vilZage ' 'many '. All abstract nouns and �u uf wO ru 'many vi ZZage8 ' generic tenns are included in this class .

* -e I becanes -0 I when in the stem -0- remains unchanged . ** Phonological change in stem.

Notes Concerning Phonological Changes in Noun Stems on Pluralisation

Class I Nouns Where the only vowel of the stem is -0-, the vowel of the pluralising allomorphs {- fls} or {-ngkes } influences it , and there is non-contiguous, regre ssive partial assimilat ion as to the point of articulation . e.g. wom 'coconut ' 'coconut8 ' tom 'ba8ket ' tengkes 'ba8ket8 '

Class II Nouns Section 1. Where the final vowel of the stem is -e- (e.xcept when it preceeds -m) the glide of the pluralising morpheme {. ngkou } influences the ·final vowel of the stem , so that there 1s non-cont iguous 32

regre ssive partial assimilation as to the point of articulation . e . g . yel ie ' ear decoration ' yel longkou 'ear decorations ' e + OU > 0

Where the first vowe l of the stem is -e- and the next is -i , the above does not apply and there is non-cont iguous regressive part ial assimilat ion as to the point of art iculation and the final vowel of the stem become s -i- with pluralisation . e.g. eml,o 'bone ' eml engkou 'bonea ' o + OU > e

Where the only vowel in the stem is 0 there is non-contiguous regres sive partial assimilation as to the point of articulation . e.g. 01 'aeed ' 5ngkou 'aeeda ' o + OU > 5 topo 'akin ' top5ngkou 'akina ' o + OU > 5

Section 2. When the final vowel of the stem is e or -0 there is non-contiguous regre ssive assimilation as to the point of art iculation and the following changes occur with pluralisation : porel 'a nut tree ' por5ngku 'nut treea ' e + u > 5 yorofol 'a pimple ' yorof5ngku 'pimplea ' o + U > 5

When the final vowel of the stem is -i-, the above does not apply . e.g. niel 'fiah ' n i engku 'fiahea '

N.B. Sometime s and with some speakers the -ng- of the pluraliser causes the preceeding -i- to become a glide . e.g. tes i 'road ' tesiengku 'roada '

Section 3. When the final vowel of the stem is u, it is influenced by the velar -ng of the pluralising morpheme and the following occurs : panu 'tap root ' panengke 'tap roota ' u + ng > e

Also when the pre final vowe l is -0- , there is non-contiguous regres sive partial assimilation as to the point of articulation on plural isat ion . e.g. sonu 'breadfruit' senengke 'breadfruita ' o + e > e fomu 'axe handle ' femengke 'axe handlea ' o + e > e

Class III Nouns If in the stem I does not follow 0, ou , e, 5 there is non-contiguous regressive partial or complete assimilat ion as to the point of articu lation with pluralisation and the following changes occur : wo lu 'aago ' (sing. ) we tel 'aago ' 0 + e > e olou 'tJriat bone ' elel 'tJriat bonea ' 0 + e > e 5ru 'hair ' erel 'haira ' 0 + e > e toungkoulou 'back bone ' toungkelel 'back bonea ' ou + e > e k51 pou 'P9metia tree ' kelpel 'Pometia treea ' 0+ e > e f5nkotu 'aleeping apartmenta ' fenketel 'aleeping apartmenta ' 0 + e > e 33

Class IV Nouns When there is a glide stem finally there is reduction of the final vowel on pluralisation.

e.g. wa r E!! 'tanket ' warem 'tankets ' ei + m > e

Class V Nouns When the final vowel of the stem is 0, there is non-cont iguous regressive · complete assimilat ion as to the point of articulation. e.g. yamkol 'knee ' yamkere 'knees ' o + e > e

The allomorphs of the pluralising morpheme are phonologically predictable in two instances only. e.g. Class I Section 3. -owes > -awes only when the singular1 ser -af is used . kenkaf 'Left hand ' kenkawes 'Left hands ' Class III Section 2. -eI > 0 I when in the stem - u- remains unchanged . nampou 'thumb ' nampol 'thumbs '

2. The Intransitive Verb Expression

This is as has already been described in the previous chapter . It consists of the subj ect pronoun indicator, and the class A intransitive verb stem . The following note concerns the Subject Pronoun Indicator . As we ll as indicating the sex and number of persons or animals , the subject pronoun indicator also determines the size and number df all other things which may be considered to be the 3rd person subject of the verb . e.g. loungko 'it (a Large tree) breaks ' noungko 'it (a smaLL tree) breaks ' moungko 'two (smaH trees) break ' toungko 'two (Large trees) break '

Thus the feminine gender relates to comparat ively small things and the masculine to larger things . If the size of a thing is unimportant , then the masculine subject pronoun indicator is most often used .

3. Valence

The relationship between the two constituents in this construction is carried by position in that the subject noun always occurs in the 1st pre-verb expression posit ion . 34

4. Examples

nempe lawo 'the tree splits ' fouyou kere 'the vine breaks ' nempe loungko 'the tree breaks ' sengke na 'the pig dies ' nengke Ie i 10 'the boy gets up '

CHAPTER 4. THE INTRANSITIVE STATEMENT (with or without Subject Noun or Pronoun) plus PREPOSITIONAL MARKER and DIRECT OBJECT PRONOUN

SUbject Noun SUbj ect Pronoun Intransitive PrePOSitional Object NOun or Pronoun -+- Indicator -.. Verb Stem .- Marker -++ r Pronoun (optional) } { (Class B) } t � <-f->

�

The three constituents of this construct ion are the subject noun or pronoun, and the intransitive class B verb expression , plus the object noun or pronoun . It has been found in 010 that certain intransit ive verbs may be made transit ive by the addition of a prepositional marker -f word finally and an object noun or pronoun in the first post verb expression position . This group of verbs has been called Intransitive class B verbs .

1. The Subject Noun or Pronoun

These have been described in previous chapters .

2. Intransitive Class B Verb Expression a. Subject Pronoun Indicator Described previously.

b; Intransitive Class B Verb Stern In their true Intransitive state these verbs function the same as the intransitive Class A verbs described in Chapter 2 and in this construction occur in the same position in the verb expression .

c. The Prepositional Marker <-f> This phoneme occurs in three instances word finally at the end of a verb expression. However it is only when it is used in conjunction with the intransitive Class B verbs that it se rves the definite purpose of a prepositional marker . The other two instances of its usage will be dealt with subsequent ly . Although occuring in the first post verb stem position these suffixes in this construction will be called Pre-positions as this is a fami liar English term wh ich deals with a similar grammatical feature . The areas 35

of meaning are not entirely equivalent to English preposit ions but they approximate to the following : 'by ' or 'beside ' 'into ' 'to ' 'wait for ' 'about ' or 'concerning ' 'after ' or 'foZZow after ' or 'repeat ' or 'imitate ' , for ', 'at '

N.B. Some instances of their usage seem to be intranslatable into English (see examples at the end of this chapter ).

3. The Object Pronoun or Noun a. The Object Pronoun <01> ± This is the term given to that class of words , which in this con struction occur in the immediate post verb expression posit ion . They indicate the person , animal or thing which has been acted upon by the subj ect of the verb . The following chart makes clear these different forms :

THE OB JECT PRONOUN

The Object Promun Exarrples

Singular 1st Person ki ye au lef kl 'You come to me ' 2nd Person ye kl kaulef ye 'I come to you ' 3rd Person (Masc . ) 01 ki kaulofo l 'I come to him ' (Fern. ) ene kl kaulefene 'I come to her ' Dual 1st Person ku ye aulof ku 'You come to us ' 2nd Person ife roungke '" ise (Masc . ) roungke (E) ki kau lef Ife roungke 'I come to you ' (Fern. )* i fe roum '" ise roum (E) ke kaulef lfe roum 'I come ' to you ' 3rd Person (Masc . ) engke kl kau lef-engke 'I come to them ' (Fern. )* om kl kau lef-om 'I come to them '

Plural 1st Person ku ye aulof ku 'You come to us ' 2nd Person ife '" ise (E) ki kau lef lfe (i se E) 'I come to you ' 3rd Person epe kl kaul efepe 'I come to them '

* In referring to mixed groups of a man and a woman , feminine forms are used . 36

It will be noted from the above , that in all instances except the 3rd person the forms do not differ from the corresponding person and number of the subject pronoun . The 3rd person bound object pronoun <-01> as listed , only occurs when the object pronoun immediately follows the verb expression . If it is separated from it , the object pronoun form becomes the same as the 3rd person subject pronoun . When it is des ired to use the 3rd person , singular , masculine , or the 1st person dual or plural ; or the 3rd person dual feminine , if the verb stem does not end in -0 there is a non-contiguous regressive partial or complete assimilation as to the point of articulation . Also all verb stems ending in the glide -ei are subject to the loss of the final vocoid with the addition of <-f>.

e.g. ki kompetei ki kompetefene ei + f > e 'I run ' 'I run to her ' k i koro ki korofene o + e > 0 , I dance ' 'I dance to her ' kl kaule ki kaulofol e + 0 > 0 , I come ' 'I come to him ' ki kerautue k i kerautuofom e + 0 > 0 'I rejoice ' 'I rejoice with you two women ' k i kel e kl kelofol e + 0 > 0 'I stand ' 'I stand waiting fo r him '

For some indefinite reason it is permissable with the 3rd person object pronoun to also add the same as of the 3rd person subject pronoun in the immediate past obj ect pronoun position . This form thus used refers back in agreement of person and number to the object pronoun and not the subject pronoun and is a type of object pronoun . It seems to serve no other purpose than to perhaps add rhythm to the sentence or a certain vague emphasis to the object pronoun . e.g. ki kelofol Ie 'I stand waiting for him '

Examples

Singular Mascul ine kl kau lofol Ie , I come to him ' Feminine kl kaul efene ne 'I come to her ' Dual Masculine kl kaulef engke te 'I come to them ' (two men) Feminine kl kaul ofom me 'I come to them ' (two women) Plural Masculine and kl kau lef epe pe , I come to them ' Feminine 37

The object pronoun patterns the same as the subj ect pronoun when it comes to determining the size and number of all things which may be considered to be the 3rd person object of the verb .

b. The Object Noun Nouns have already been described in Chapter 3 and as the obj ect noun they can occur in the same position and instead of the obj ect pronoun . In slow speech and before a noun the prepositional marker -f sometimes become s -fi.

4. Valence

The mutual dependance in this construction between the object pronoun and the verb expre ssion is carried by the prepositional indicator -f and by the posit ion of the object pronoun in the 1st post verb expression position.

5. Examples

ki kel fef ye , I go to you ' ye mongkof ki 'You reply to me ' pe pa ilo fol 'They all call out to him ' nef nanpofol 'The rain detained him ' ye aulof ku , You come to us ' ki koutetef sengke 'I am afraid of the pig ' ye aulef wenem 'You come to the house ' Ie lengketef ma iene 'He fee ls the earthquake ' ku me ratef we li 'We sit by the fire ' ku meratofo l 'We remain waiting for him '

CHAPTER 5. THE INTRANSITIVE CLASS B VERB EXPRESSION and the SIMPLE POSSESSIVE OBJECT PRONOUN

Subject Subject Intransitive PrepoSitional posseSSive rObject Noun or + Pronoun + Verb stem + Marker + Pronoun or -{ Noun Pronoun} Indicator Class B { Noun } } 1 <-f> ! � <-n-> -- �

Because the *homophonous morpheme -f and its various areas of meaning play such a large part in the determining of the different verb classes, as has been mentioned in the introduction , it has been decided to carry the intransitive verb through to the use of the pronoun in the simp le possessive sense before turning to the other types of verb classes . By so doing, it is hoped the issue will be a little clearer when the simp le

* A Homophone is a morpheme having the same phonetic form as another morpheme but with a different meaning. possessive form is dealt with in the other classes which incorporate -f word finally , but not as a prepositional marker. This construction consists of the subject noun, the verb expression, the possessive (object ) pronoun and the object noun .

1. The Subject Noun or Pronoun

Nouns and pronouns have been described previously .

2. The Intransitive Class B Verb Expression

This is described in Chapter 4.

3. The Possessive Pronoun

This is recognised as having the same form as the object pronoun . It always occurs immediately before the object noun possessed . Thus the object noun now take s the second post verb expression position . It is possible for another noun to take the place of the possessive pronoun .

4. The Object Noun

Nouns have been described previously .

5. Valence

The dependence between the possessive noun or pronoun and the noun possessed is carried by position in that the possessive pronoun or noun always occurs in the immediate prepossessed noun position .

6. Examples

nengke lerautuef ye nengke 'The chiLd rejoices with your chiLd ' sengke korofol olweles 'The pig squeaLs for his fo od ' moto naulef ki wenem 'The woman comes to my house ' pele laulof ku 1 iom 'The dog comes to our garden ' nengke lampolouf ki mongke 'The chiLd Lied to my husband ' pele naulef mol I wenem 'The dog comes to the white man 's house '

CHAPTER 6. TRANSITIVE CLASS A VERB EXPRESSION and DIRECT OBJECT NOUN OR PRONOUN (optional) with or without SUBJECT NOUN OR PRONOUN

Subject Noun Subj ect Pronoun Verb stem Object Pronoun Direct Object or Pronoun + Indicator + Class A + Indicator � Noun or (optional ) } { Transitive } { Pronoun � <-1-> �

Thi s construction consists of a subject noun or pronoun expression (optional ) plus the verb expression , plus obj ect noun (optional ). 39

1. Subject Noun or Pronoun

Explained previously .

2. Transitive Verb Expression a. Subject Pronoun Indicator Described previously.

b. Transitive Class A verb stem with infixial 3rd person object Pronoun Indicator A certain type of verb which is used by the speaker when desiring to talk about a happening which inextricably concerns both a subj ect (in all persons ) and an object (in the 3rd person only), has a direct object pronoun indicator incorporated infixially in the verb stem . These verbs have been called Transitive Class A verbs and concern a relatively large number of words . It is not necessary to use either a subject noun or pronoun , or object noun if the context of the sentence or the foreknowledge of the hearer are sufficient to supply that informat ion . The object pronoun indicators are essentially bound , and can never occur in isolat ion , nor apart from the transitive Class A verb stems . They bear a resemblance in form to the subj ect pronoun indicators, and also determine the size as well as sex and number . The following is a list of the transitive Class verb Object Pronoun Indicators .

Singular 3m Person (Masculine ) - 1 - ki ka l J 'I get (him) , (or, one large object ) 3m Person (Feminine ) - n - ki kanJ 'I get (her) , (or, one small object )

Dual 3m Person (Masculine ) -ut- ki kauti 'I get them ' (or, two lar� objects) 3rd Person (Feminine ) -m- ki kamJ 'I get them ' (or, two small objects)

Plural 3rd Person (Masculine or -p- ki kapJ 'I get them ' (or, three or lJX)re objects) Feminine )

3. Object Noun or Pronoun

If it is necessary to clarify meaning , then an obj ect noun or pronoun occurs in the 1st post verb expression position . Nouns have been de scribed previously . 40

As described in Chapter 4, it is permi ssable in this construction also to use the same form as of the subject pronoun immediately following the verb expression . It then refers back to the direct object and not to the subj ect . For examples , see 5.c.

4. Valence

The valence between the immediate constituents is carried by posit ion and also by the 3rd person obj ect pronoun in dicators occuring verb stem infixial .

5. Examples a. Transitive Verb Expression (with Subject Noun or Pronoun Optional) kani (as a command ) 'Get it ' eletei (as a command ) 'Block it up !' alue (as a command ) 'Spear him! ' ne nalue 'She spear8 it ' ki kapue 'I spear them ' moto kall 'The woman gets him '

b. Transitive Verb Expression (with or without Subject Noun or Pronoun) plus Object Noun metene 1 apte 1 tel es 'The man plaaes the panggal' ka lue yute 'I spear the abaess ' na 1 te I youtef 'She sends a Zettel" pe popnol wef 'They aount the things '

c. Verb Expression (with or without Subject Noun or Pronoun) plus Pronoun ka 11 1 e 'I get it (or him) ' 1 e 1 opno i pe , He aount8 them ' me ma ltetel Ie 'They (two women) aha8e it ' kanou l ne 'I aut it ' ku maplo1 pe , We eat them '

N.B. Although this type of verb , by its very form , can only essentially be concerned with the 3rd person obj ects, in some instances it is possible to trace some type of resemlance to the stem of a verb with the same meaning , belonging structurally to another class, which deals with obj ects in the 1st and 2nd person . 41

CHAPTER 7. TRANSITIVE CLASS A VERB EXPRESSION plus QUALIFYING NOUN AND THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUN

Subject NOun Subj ect Pronoun Verb Stem Object Pronoun possessive or Pronoun + Indicator ..... Class A + Indicator ... Indicator (optional) } { Transitive } � <-1-> <-f>

3m pe�� Pronoun { _ Possessive Obje ct J } or a name ± Pronoun ± Noun 1 1 or a noun } �

When using a verb of the class described in the previous chapter and if desiring to say that something happens to anything possessed by someone or some thing , a Possessive Pronoun may be used , and the con struct ion is as described hereunder.

1. Subject Pronoun or Noun

Described previously.

2. Transitive Class A Verb Expression a. Subject Pronoun Indicator De scribed previously .

b. Transitive Class A Verb Stem with infixial Object Pronoun Indicator Described previously .

c. Possessive Indicator <-f> When this phoneme occurs immediately after the stem of a Transitive Class A Verb , it indicates that the following object pronoun is in pos session of the object of the verb . When a noun is used in place of the Possessive Pronoun , <-f> sometime s becomes <-fi>, particularly when the speech is slow .

3. Possessive Pronoun

This is as described in Chapter 5. A noun may take the place of the Possessive Pronoun , and if this is done the Obj ect noun then follows immediately . It is also possible for a possessing pronoun and noun to occur together .

4. Third Person Pronoun or the Possessor 's Name

It is permissable to use the 3rd person pronoun immediately after the Possessive pronoun . It here refers back to the Possessive pronoun or noun and not the obj ect pronoun (Indicator) as it does when the Possessive form is not included in the construction (see previous 42

chapter). Its use places slight emphasis on the Possessor . If desired a noun or the Possessor 's name or title may be inserted instead of this pronoun, if the speaker goes on to include the object noun .

5. The Ob ject Noun

This constituent has been described before .

6. Valence between Constituents

The re lat ionship between the Possessive Pronoun (or noun) and the object possessed is carried by the Possessive Indicator <-f> ; the position of the Possessive pronoun (or noun) occuring 1n the first Post Verb expression position , and the optional use of the 3rd Person Pronoun or the Possessor' s name ; and the direct object in the second and third post verb expression position .

7. Examples a. Verb Expression (with or without Subject Noun or Pronoun) plus Possessive Pronoun mota nalulfol 'The woman cuts his ' k i kal efene 'I get hers ' me tene 1 enanet k i 'The man cracks open mine ' sengke kapof ku 'The pig gets ours ' kanelefol 'I pick his '

b. Verb Expression (with or without Subject Noun or Pronoun) plus Possessive Pronoun and/or noun , plus Object Possessed ka 1 efo 1 sengke 'I get his pig ' ki kaplofol metene olweles 'I eat the man 's food ' kaplofl metene olweles 'I eat the man 's food ' Ie lalulfol nengke yute 'He spears the chiZd 's abcess ' Ie laluefi nengke yute 'He spears the chiZd 's abcess ' sengke kapefl pe le olweles 'The pig gets the dog 's food ' sengke kapofol pe le olweles 'The pig gets the dog 's food ' kl kaplofol olweles 'I eat his food '

N.B. kl kapl ouwi , I eat them ' k i kap I 'I get them '

c. Verb Expression (with or without Subject Noun or Pronoun) plus Possessive Pronoun , plus Pronoun or owner's name , with or without Object Possessed k i ka l etol 1 e 'I get his ' 1 e lanelefene ne 'He picks hers ' kl kal efol 1 e sengke 'I get his pig ' 43

Ie lanelefene ne worn 'He piak8 her aoaon ut ' k I ka IUo I SELK I sengke 'I get Si Lki '8 pig ' ki kal efo l Ie sengke 'I ge t hi8 pig ' Ie lane l efene SERAI worn 'He piak8 Serai '8 aoconut '

N.B. A few Transit ive Class A verbs have -f or -fl included stem finally and will be listed accordingly in the dictionary . These form the obj ective possessive in a slightly different manner as the valence is carried by the position only . The 3rd person pronoun following the verb expre ssion is merely the obj ect of the verb . e.g. ki ka lefi Ie , I aha8e him ' kl ka lefi Ie nengke 'I aha8e hi8 chi Ld '

CHAPTER 8. TRANSITIVE CLASS B VERB EXPRESSION (with or wi thout Subject Noun or Pronoun) plus OBJECT NOUN OR PRONOUN

In 010 , when it is desired to use verbs other than those of the type already mentioned , and if the action is to be carried over from the instigator or su bject to some other person , animal or thing (the object ), verbs of the Transitive Class B group may be used . This group falls into three divisions . The first two will be de scribed in this chapter and the third in Chapter 9. The formula for Transitive Class B.l. verbs is as follows :

SUbj ect Noun Subject Pronoun Verb Stem Obj e NOUn ...... j �; u or Pronoun Indicator Class B.lo ... (optional) } { � Transitive } 1 Pronoun }U This construction consists of:

1. The Subject Noun or Pronoun

De scribed previously.

2. The Tra nsitive Class B.l. Verb Expression a. Subject Pronoun Indicator Described previously .

b. Verb Stern This has no particular form . All verbs of this type can take an Obj ect noun . Some of them take all forms of the Object pronoun , others can take the 3rd person object pronoun only . Thi s is more or less determined by the meaning of the word . (They cannot be used intran sitively. If it appears to be able to be used intransitively , it most likely conveys a different meaning .) 44

c. Object Noun or Pronoun Described previously .

4. Valence between Co nstituents

This is carried by position .

5. Examples

Oiye larou laplap 'Oiye fo lds the lap lap ' kl kiarou 01 'I fo ld it' kl ketere nempe 'I chip a tree ' ki keterel 'I chip it' Ie leterel kl 'He scratches me ' ye es iou ku , You hold us ' Ie lesl elwel 'He holds the sweet potato ' k i kenya Ii nengke 'I laugh at the chi ld '

The formula of Transitive Class B.2. verbs is as follows :

SUbj ect Noun Subj ect Pronoun Verb Stem Object or Pronoun + Indicator + Class B.2. ± Noun U (optional) { Transitive � } } { }U This construction consists of:

1. Subject Noun or Pronoun

Described previously .

2. Verb Expression a. Subject Pronoun Indicator Described previously .

b. Verb Stem This has no particular form . Verbs of this type can take Obj ect Nouns only and can not take any Object pronouns . By omitting the Obj ect noun the verb is used in an Intransitive sense .

3. Object Noun

De scribed previously.

4. Valence

This is carried by posit ion . 45

5. Examples

k i konwe i meref 'I climb the beteL nut tree ' ki konwe i 'I climb ' or 'I go up ' k i ka le 1 iom 'I cLear a garden ' k i kale 'I cLear ' ki kamnu wengkem 'I open a door ' ki kamnu 'I open ' 1 e lapopo tepem 'He pLaits the blind ' 1 e lapopo 'He pLaits '

CHAPTER 9. TRANSITIVE CLASS B.l. and 2. VERB EXPRESSION plus the POSSESSIVE PRONOUN

Subj ect NOun Subj ect Pronoun Verb Stem possessive POSSessive or Pronoun + Indicator + Class B Indicator + Pronoun or (optional) } { Transitive <-f> } { Noun } � <-n->

± 3rd Person Name or NOun + object + Pronoun or il { (Possessor) } - { Noun D When desiring to state possession of something which is the object of this type of verb the Possessive Indicator <-f> is used and the construction is as follows :

1. Subject Noun or Pronoun

Described before .

2. Verb Expression a. Subject Pronoun Indicator b. Verb All described previously . c. Possessive Indicator <-f> t

3. Possessive Pronoun All as 4. 3rd Person Pronoun or Possessor 's name or a noun . described in 5. Object noun Chapter 7. 6. Valence

7. Examples a. Verb Expression plus Possessive Pronoun ± Object Noun ki kiaroufo l 'I fo Ld his ' ki keterofol nempe 'I scrape his tree ' ki kes ifol 'I buiLd his ' ki kes ifol wenem 'I buiLd his house ' 46

b. Verb Expression plus Possessive Pronoun plus pronoun ± Object Noun k i kes ifol Ie 'I buiZd his ' kl kes ifol Ie wenem 'I bui ld his house ' ki kenya liHol Ie 'I laugh at his ' k i kenyalefol Ie nengke 'I laugh at his child ' k i klaroufol Ie 'I fo ld his '

c. Verb Expression plus Possessive Pronoun plus OWner 's name plus Object Noun ki kenya lefol Selkl nengke 'I laugh at Si lki 's child ' ki kes ifol Selkl wenem 'I build Silki 's house ' ki kiar oufol Oiye laplap 'I fo ld Oiye 's laplap '

d. Verb Expression (minus Possessive Pronoun) plus owner and plus Object Noun ki kenyalefi Selki nengke 'I laugh at Si lki 's child ' ki kesef Selki wenem 'I build Si lki 's house ' Ie lonwef Wa lsi meref 'He climbs Waisi 's betel nut palm ' kl kontolowef sengke eplel 'I care for the pig 's offspring '

Transitive Class B.3. Verbs

Some verbs of the Transitive Class B group have -f � -fl included finally in the verb stem. The se form the Third Division of this class . Unless this is noted, confusion of meaning would arise if the foreign speaker thought the stem final -f was the Possessive Indicator as described in this chapter .

The formula for Subj ect + Verb Expression + Object/Construction is the same as described in Chapter 8 under Transitive Class B.l. (with the -f included finally in the Verb Stem) . Examples ye laf ki 'You are angry with me ' ki kepafi we i i 'I blow the fire ' kl kenafo l 'I call out to him ' Ie keref Selki 'He fe tches Si lki ' ki komprafepe 'I chase them out '

When it is desired to speak of the simp le Objective Possessive , the formula is the same as described earlier in this Chapter except that there is no Possessive Indicator in the Verb Expression, as the -f is really the final phoneme of the Verb stem and the Valence between constituents is carried by position only . 47

Examples pe penafol Ie mote 'They call out to his wife ' ye laf ki nengke 'You are angry with my chi ld ' ki kelafol Ie 'I am angry with him ' Ie keref Sel ki mote 'He fe tches Si lki 's wife ' ki kepafol we i i 'I blow his fire '

N.B. A very few of these verbs may be used intransitively . Examples k i komtefi 'I sme ll (i t) , ki komprafi 'I give chase ' k i mol fo 'I give coverage ' k i kenafi 'I call out ' k i koruwetefi 'I detain '

SUMMARY

A summary of the salient points of the various verb classes is now included. Intransitive Class A The se verbs can never take an object . e.g. I e I a 'he dies '

Intransitive Class B The se Intransitive verbs can become Transitive by the addition of the Preposit ional Indicator <-f> suffixially to the Verb stem plus an object. e.g. ki koutetei 'I am afraid ' ki kouteref sengke 'I am afraid of the pig '

Transitive Class A These verbs have the object pronoun indicator stem infixial . They form the simp le Objective Possessive by the addition of the Possessive Indicator <-f> suffixially to the verb stem, followed by the Possessive Pronoun . e.g. Ie lanlou i onom 'He cuts the heart (piece of meat) , Ie lanloufol onom 'He cuts his heart '

N.B. A very few Transitive Class A verbs have f � fi included stem finally and the 3rd Per�on Obj ect Pronoun following the verb expression is the object of the verb . These verb s form the objective Possessive in a different manner (described in Chapter 7). e.g. kl ka lefi Ie , I chase him ' 48

Transitive Class B.l. Most take all object pronouns . (A few take 3rd person only .) The se Class B.l. verbs cannot be used intrans itively. e.g. ki kenpe i ye , I kiak .you '

Transitive Class B.2. These take object nouns but do not usually take any object pronouns . They can be used intransitively by leaving off the object noun (if it makes sense to do so). e.g. ki kale 110m 'I aZear a garden '

Transitive B.l. and B.2. verbs form the simp le objective possessive by the addition of -f suffixed to the verb stern . e.g. ki kenpofol pe le 'I kiak his dog ' ki ka lefl ye 110m 'I aZear your garden '

Transitive Class B.3. The main feature of these verbs is that -f is included stern finally . (A very few may be used intransitively) . e.g. ye laf ki 'You are angry with me '

Transitive B. 3. verbs form their simp le objective possessive in the same manner as B.l. and B.2. verbs except that the valence is carried by position only as the -f is included finally in the stern and is not therefore the possessive indicat or . e.g. ye laf ki nengke 'You are angry with my boy '

CHAPTER 10. AUXILIARY VERB

[(Subject) + + (Verb Expression)]

When a speaker wishes to stress or elucidate the verbal action of an utterance in a certain way , he uses the Auxiliary verb in con junction wit h the Verb Expression . usually occurs immediately before the verb expression and between it and the Subject Noun or Pronoun if the latter is used . It occasionally occurs immediately before the Subj ect . It ca n occur apart from a verb expression only when used in conj unction with the negative 010 'no '. It can have the following meanings : 'wiZZ' (as expressive of the will ), 'must ', 'aan ', 'want to '. Examples k I ma ke 1 i , I witt go ' ife ma yaule 'You aZZ aan aome ' ma lete l 'He wants to sZeep ' nengke ma lenyal l 'The ahiZd wiZZ Zaugh ' ne ma noutl 'She wants to ary ' 49

CHAPTER 11. SUBJECT COMPLEMENT CONSTRUCTION

Subj ect comPlement Subj ect Noun or pronoun + j U } + another noun } � 1 � Another type of sentence which is used in 010 is that type of statement which is made using one noun or noun expre ssion or Pronoun to complement another noun or noun expression or pronoun .

1. Nouns and Pronouns have been described previously.

2. Valence between constituent s is carried by position only .

3. Examples

Ie doktabo l 'He is a medical assistant ' k i mota 'I am a woman ' Ie pe le 'It is a dog ' ne nafele 'It is a bird ' pe wenangkou 'They are houses '

CHAPTER 12. INDIRECT OBJECT TO SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION

SUbj ect Noun � verb Expression Direct + Indirect Obj ect U Transitive B.I. + + Object �{ (�p��) } { } { } { }U In this vernacular two nouns or a pronoun and a noun may occur fol lowing a single verb expression . The first one , that is the one immediately fo llowing the verb is the one which expresses the person to or for whom the action is being done . The second indicates the Direct Object . The first will be called the Indirect Object and may be distinguished as being that noun or pronoun which occu rs between the verb expression and its Direct Obj ect . It seems to occu r with only certain verbs wh ich are the fo llowing :

wasi 'give ' ka i t u 'to ask for ', 'to demand ' kofla 'show ' k ita I 'to teach ' 50

N.B.

Singular Dual Plural 1st Person ye wa k I ye wa ku ye wa ku

2nd Person Ie lewasl ye k I kewas Ife roungke kl kewas Ife kl kewas Ife roum

3rd Person k I kewa tol kl kewa tengke k I kewa tepe k I kewatene kl kewa tom

Examples of this construction are : kl kltalel nampa 'I teaah him numerals ' kl kewasl wof lu olweles 'I give the fow ls fo od ' ne newatol olweles 'She gives him food ' Ambl kofla moto laplap 'Ambi shows the woman a lap lap ' Ambl kofl ape laplap 'Ambi shows them a lap lap ' kl ka ltu mo l l resa 'I ask the European for a razor '

As in other constructions the pronoun may be used to give emphasis to the Object Pronoun , as follows : ne newatol Ie 'She gives him ' Ie koflape pe 'He shows them all'

The Indirect Obj ect to sentence construction may alternatively be formulated in the following manner .

Subj ect Noun Indirect Direct Obj ect + l + lVerb Expression + l L1 [J } or Pronoun } } Obj ect } [1 1 1 1 � Examples

olweles kl kewasl wof lu 'Food I give to the fowls ' resa KI ka ltu mol l 'A razor I ask of the European ' laplap Amb l koflape 'A lap lap Ambi shows them '

The Valence between constituents in both instances is carried by pOSition .

CHAPTER 13. ADVERB CONSTRUCTION

{ Adverb --- sentence} Adverb --- Verb

When it is desired to indicate in what manner of place , or at what time , or for what reason a certain event is taking place , it is expres sed by a class of words which will be called Adverbs. 51

Adverbs may refer to the whole sentence or else they may refer expre ssly to one particular verb , in which case they usually follow it . Adverbs are amongst those kinds of words listed in Chapter 1 which may be used in isolation - as answers to queries, or else as commands. e.g. lepe , (over) there !' frou 'quickly ! '

Thi s applies as we ll to Adverbs of Interrogation . e.g. pene l 'where ? ' olomen 'how? ' polomen 'how many?' wem men 'what time?'

When Adverbs of Interrogation are used in a sentence they apply to the sentence as a whole and occur finally . e.g. ye e pene l 'Where are you going? ' ye nengke polomen 'How many sons have you? ' me ntene la wem men 'When did the man die ?'

Adverbs are of several types. 1. Those which are stems only - (some of which are nouns functioning as adverb s of place ). e.g. we lfe 'before ' songko l 'long ago ' nempes 'yesterday ' wa I ntoumu 'tomorrow ' frou 'quickly ' ma lyef 'softly ', 'gently ' fe I 'now ' (sentence initially only ) mampel , soon ', 'afterwards '

2. Those (Adverb s of Place ) which take a Subj ect Pronoun Indicator word initially in agreement with the Subj ect of the verb .

e.g. ' Here ' , There ' , Over there ' (E) ( E) I e I I I es I lepe I Ie lepe flemtel ne I I ne s I nepe nle nepe flemtel te I I tes l tepe tie tepe flemtel me I I mesl mepe mle mepe fi emte I pe I I pes l pepe pie pepe fiemtel

3. Those which verbalise their form to incorporate a pronoun word finally . Thi s pronoun however refers to the Subj ect of the verb under considerat ion . 52

e.g. k I keratel tengkene 'I am well' (HI stap gut) kl ke-ratel tengkenetel 'I am very well' (HI stap gut tumas) k I kele yausene 'I am here for nothing in particu lar ' (HI sanap natlng)

These Adverbs can take a comparat ive degree as in English. This is done by adding the suffix -tel word finally . tengkene 'good ' tengkenetel 'very good '

4. Those nouns and noun expressions which may also be used as adverbs : e.g. wem ne lie 'once ' (one time ) wem wengkes 'twice ' (two times) wem wo ru 'many times ' wem songko l 'a long time ago '

Adverbs in 010 may occur sentence initially (time or place), sentence medially between Subj ect and verb (manner ), or sent ence finally (place or manner ).

Valance

These positions are meaningfully significant , for each posit ion signals a different relationship dependence, as is portrayed by the following for mulas and examples .

1. Sentence Initial

[(Adverb ) + (Sentence)]

When the Adverb occurs before the Subj ect it modifies the whole sentence . e.g. mo llpou longketel towa 'At nigh t he heard the evil spirit lororo Ie dancing as he went ' fel kl ke l I uf 'Now I go to the village ' froufrou au 'Come qu ickly' mampe l kl kolu ye 'Soon I will see you ' nempe s ne na 'Yesterday she died '

2. Sentence Medially

[(Subject ) + (Adverb ) + (Verb Expression) ]

That is, between the Subj ect and the Verb Expression . In this position the Adverb relates to both the Subj ect and the verb expression . e.g. Ie nou kan tepene 'He again took the little splinter '

3. Sentence Finally

[(Subj ect) + (Verb Expression ± Indirect Obj ect ± Direct Obj ect) + (Adverb )]

That is, it oc curs after the Verb Expression when no Indirect or Direct Object is present . 53

e.g. Ie lello lorou lei I lete l 'He got up and ran away and went and I a to I 10m sZept and stayed in the ga rden ' Ie nou letel wen em 'He again sZept in the house ' lei I lele lfHe 'He went and stood up here ' Ie ratel uf 'He stay ed in the vil lage ' kl kompetei ma lye f , I run soft ly '

A sentence may contain adverbs in all three positions , or else in only one or two of these positions .

CHAPTER 14 . ADJECTIVE CONSTRUCTION

Noun + Adj ective I is an expanded Noun Expression

In this language there is a class of words which serve s the purpose of qualifying the members of the noun class. These will be called Adj ectives. Adj ective s always follow immediately after the noun they qualify , and serve to distinguish one person or thing from another, or to out line what type of a person or thing is being referred to . Examples of members of the Adj ective class are : ketef 'black ' flu 'white ' kerau 'short ' kompu 'tittle ' u I u I 'big ' ululne 'long '

Wherever a noun is used , either in the subj ect position , or subj ect complement position , or direct Obj ect position , or wherever else it may be used , an Adjective may be used to qualify that noun . More than one adjective may be used to qualify the same noun . If this is done the order of usage is usually , numerical adj ective s first , those of size or shape or quality next , and adj ectives of colour last . If any two adj ectives are of the same type , then their order of occur rence is arbitrary . When two or more adj ectives occur there is usually a slight pause between each one . The usual order is denoted in the following formula :

Adj ective of size , Adj ective of Noun + Numerical Adjective quality or shape colour

e.g. pusl kompu nafotel flu na 'The ZittZe fa t white cat dies ' bal ulul ketef lato 'The big bZack baZZ is there ' sle wengkes tafotel 'Two very fa t green grasshoppers namen tello jump up ' 54

There are certain types of Adj ectives which while having the true function of Adj ectives, at the same time take on a form of verb pat terning as well . There are two types : 1. Those which incorporate word initially a pronoun indicator referring to the noun under description . This Pronoun Indicator then goes on to agree with the Subject Pronoun Indicator of the verb if this noun is the Subj ect . e.g. pus i nafo tei nato 'A very fa t oat is there ' sie tafotei te ilo '(Two) very fat grasshoppers jump up ' metene lafotel la 'A very fa t man dies '

2. The other type incorporates word finally a pronoun re ferring to and agreeing with the noun under description . e. g. pus I tengkene na ' A good (tittLe) oat dies ' nengke tengkel letel 'A good boy sLeeps ' ki kalol olwell tengkepe 'I eat good food '

Adjectives of this group can also be adverbs if their usage is as described in the previous chapter. They can also occur in isolat ion without the pronouns , sometime s as exclamations and also as adj ectives. e.g. tengki 'good ' uf tengki , good viHage '

There may be a certain tendency to think that adverbs are in fact adj ectives adverbialised . This may have originally been the case with some words, but present actual usage denies this . All adj ectives can take a comparison of degree . This is denoted by the suffix <-tel> which is added to the Adj ective . Examples fiu 'white ' flute l 'very white ' u I u I 'big ' u I ul te I 'very big ' telJgkene 'good' tengkenetel 'very good ' fankes 'muddy ' fankeste l 'very muddy ' lafo 'fat ' lafotel 'very fat '

However N.B. kompu , LittLe ' kompus 'very LittLe ' kompustei 'very very LittLe '

Other groups of words which may be used to qualify nouns and thus make up an expanded noun are those which in English would be called ; numerals; other substitut ional items like 'other ', 'many ', 'no', and also the Demonstrative pronouns 'this ', 'that ', etc . 55

1. Numerals These can occur wherever other adj ectives may . The numerals in 010 originated from the method of count ing things by the fingers and toes . The actual numerals are : nel ie 'one ' and wengkes 'two ' and combin nat ions of these two . 'Five ', 'ten ', 'fifteen ' and 'twenty ' refer to groups (or literally 'a fistfuL here '). Figures between five and ten are sometime s re ferred to but rarely between ten and twenty (apart from fifteen). Many folk have learned to count in Tok Pisin . When it is de sired to count anything of a small nature or pertaining to the feminine gender, a feminised set of figures up to and including four is used . Masculine Feminine 'One ' ne IIe nenpeye 'Two ' wingkes wlem 'Three ' wingkes ne IIe wiem nenpeye 'Four ' wingkes wingkes wlem wiem

2. Indefinite Numerals

These specify number of some kind without saying precisely what the number is: e.g. mete woru 'many men ' mete 010 'no men '

Some adj ectives may be repeated to give emphasis to comparison e.g. mete wo ru 'many men ' mete wo ru wo ru 'many many men ' mete wo ru woru woru 'many many many men '

3. Demonstrative Ad jectives When it is desired to show which or what thing is meant , a group of words called Demonstrat ive Adj ectives is used . The se can be : a. Those which take a Pronoun Indicator initially :

'This ' 'That ' 'This ' 'That ' (further away ) (distance )

Singular Masculine lepe i lepe lefe 1efe fiemtei Feminine nepe i nepe nefe nefe flemtei Dual Masculine tepe l tepe tefe tefe fiemtei Feminine mepel mepe mefe mefe flemtei Plural Masculine and pepel pepe pefe pefe fiemtei Feminine 56

b. Those which take a Pronoun Indicator internally (see Chapter 6) 'other ', 'another '.

Singular Dual Plural Masculine nele noute nemp le Feminine nenpe neme

e.g. metene nele 'the other man ' moto nenpe 'another woman ' pusl nefe 'that eat '

c. The words for 'some ' take a Pronoun Indicator word finally .

Singular Dual Plural Masculine IIe 1 Ilengke Ilepe Feminine IIene Ile m

e.g. mete IIepe paule 'some men come ' nlmoure Ilem mau 'some women (two) come '

The foregoing can also stand in isolation as Demonstrative Pronouns , and the following construction is worthy of note . (Compare with Chapter 11). lepe metene 'This is a man ' nepe pusl 'That is a cat ' nele I enya II 'The other man is Laughing ' ku merepef nemp le 'We wiH aH taLk with (each) other '

Valence

This is carried mainly by position, and also with certain types by the pronoun or Pronoun Indicator word initially , medially, or finally which all agree with the noun under description .

CHAPTER 15. EXPANSION OF PRONOUN EXPRESSION

sUbject or Object + Pronoun Reflexive I.f { and }� � Noun or Pronoun } Indicator Pronoun �

There are three different suffixes which may be added to Pronoun Indicators to give them meanings equivalent to the English Reflexive or Emphat ic Pronouns . As the term implies the suffixes give the Pronouns a certain emphatic value . The distinction between the usage of the three is not over clear apart from the meanings listed below with the various forms . Reflexive Pronouns may follow either nouns or pronouns . 57

a. <-et iye> Approximate meaning - 'I alone ', etc .

Singular Dual Plural

1st Person k i ket iye ku wetiye ku metlye

2nd Person (Masc .) ye etlye I fe roungke yetlye I fe yet lye (Fern . ) 1 Ife roum yet lye

3rd Person (Masc .) Ie letlye te tetlye pe pet lye 1 (Fern.) ne net iye me metlye

Examples k I ket lye ke I I 'I alone go ' te tetlye taploi 'They two eat alone ' k I rna ku luol Ie letlye 'I aan look at him alone ' ne net lye naule 'She alone comes ' ku we t lye woutl 'We two cry '

b. <-te l> Approximate meaning - 'I myself ', etc .

Singular Dual Plural

1st Person k i ketel ku kutel ku kutel

2nd Person 2 (Masc .) ye yetel Ifetel roungke Ife te I (Fern . ) 1 I fete I roum

3rd Person (Masc .) Ie I e I teI te I e I te I pe pe I te i (Fern . ) ne ne I te I me me ltel

Examples kl kete l ku luene 'I myse lf look at her ' kl kuluol leltel 'I look at he himself' pe pe ltel pe ll 'They th emselves go ' ifetel roungke rna yetel 'You yourselves wi ll sleep ' ne ne ltel mas na 'She herself will die '

l In referring to mixed groups of a man and woman , feminine forma are used. 2 ye ye tel 'You yourself' ye etel 'You sleep ' 58

c. <-na> Approximate meaning - 'My o�n', etc .

Singular Dual Plural

1st Person kl kina ku kona ku kona

2nd Person (Masc .) y e ena Ifna roungke Ifna 1 (Fern.) Ifna roum

3rd Person (Masc . ) Ie lena t e tena pe pena 1 (Fern. ) n e nena me mena

Examples il k ina ' My own z.anguage � wenem I et I kona 'Our own hou8e ' kl kulu wenangkou pe pena 'I Z.ook at their own hou8e8 ' nengklo lfna roum na 'Your own daughter die8 ' metene leti nena 'Her own man '

CHAPTER 16. ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENT CONSTRUCTION

[(Subject Noun or Pronouns) ++ (Adj ective Complement )]

In 010 , members of the Adj ective class may be used as a complement to a noun or pronoun to form a complete statement . The Valence is carried by the position of the constituents and also by the Pronouns and Pronoun Indicators as ment ioned in the previous chapter.

Examples k i is 'I am aoZ.d ' e pi i we I I tel 'The 8un i8 very hot ' tefa olelt el 'The banana i8 very bad ' tes I fankes 'The road i8 muddy ' metene ke rau 'The man i8 8hort ' Ie lafotei 'He i8 very fat '

CHAPTER 17 . EXPANSION OF SUBJECT NOUN EXPRESSION

[(Possessive Pronoun) + (Subj ect Noun Expression)]

The use of the Possessive Pronoun in the Simple Objective Possessive has already been explained .

l In referring to mixed groups of a man and woman , feminine forms are used . 59

The Va lence be tween constituents in the simp le Subj ective Possessive is carried by posit ion only. When the Subject Pronoun occurs immediately before a noun in the Subject position it become s a Possessive pronoun .

Examples k I moto na 'My wife die8 ' 1 e pe le lompetel , Hi8 dog run8 ' pe nengke lou t I 'Theil' 80n arie8 ' te nafele kompu nual0 'Theil' ZittZe bird fa ZZ8 down ' ne feres ya 1 e I 'Her 8kirt i8 red '

N.B. A noun cannot take the place of the Subj ective Possessive Pronoun in this construction .

CHAPTER 18. POSSESSIVE FORMS

As intimated in previous chapters, there are many and various ways of forming the possessive by means of three possessive morphemes. The se will be allotted a chapter each in which will be described the variants of each form . When the se methods of forming the possessive are used the Possessive Indicator <-f> is omitted from the Verb Expression . N.B. The word-final <-f> is of course retained with Transitive Clas s B.3. verb s. is a type of posse ssive pronoun with its form bearing a resemb lance to ordinary pronouns . The construction containing it can be used in three ways as the subject or object of any class of verb as it is an expanded Noun Expression . has a pronoun Indicator word initial which must agree in person and number and size with the thing possessed . When re ferring to nouns of singular number but of feminine gender being possessed by the 1st Person, the plural is very often used . The position of the Adj ective (numeral or otherwise ) is not always regular so this will also be included in the formula although it s use is optional . EXPanded a. ± + (Subject or Object Noun ) ± (Adj ective ) + Noun (Possessor) (thing possessed) (Possessor) �Expression

Examples kl ka loul nengke lei ye 'I aut the ahi Zd be Zonging to you ' kl ke ltefl nengke lelel 'I a8k it of hi8 ahi Zd ' kl kale 110m ulul pe lel , I a Zeal' the big garden be Zonging to them ' nengke kompu lelel leltef kl 'His young ahiZd a8ks me ' wonangkou wu ru pe lel tengkepe 'Theil' many hou8e8 are good ' moto pe l kl na 'My wife dies ' wen em wengkes tou ku 'Our two hou8e8 ' 60

b. SUbj ect or Obj ect Noun ) + r< ± (Adj ecti ve L (thing possessed ) (possessor) � Examples wenem tene wengkes teratel 'Her two houses remain ' kl kolu wenem talpe ulul 'I LooK at their two big houses ' nengkio me i kl moutl 'My two daughters are crying ' ye olu wenang kou pei ki 'You LooK at my many houses ' Ie lolu nempes pe lel wu ru 'He LooKs at his many trees ' c. (Subj ect or Obj ect Noun ) r + ! (Adjective � possessor) (thing possessed ) J Examples pelel wenangou wu ru peratei 'His many houses remain ' ne lfe wenem nenpeiye ratel tes i 'Your one LittLe house is by the road ' nelel moto na fe l 'His (LittLe) woman died ' me ife eplei wiem moutl 'Your two chi Ldren cry ' lelpe sengke nel Ie la 'Their one pig dies '

N.B. See accompanying chart . Note division of 1st Person Possessing Pronoun in some instances.

POSSESSIVE CHART

tef 'Land ' (No p1ura1ising change )

One piece One smaLL Two pieces Two smaLL Three (or more) of Land piece of of Land pieces of pieces of Land Land Land Large or smaLL

Singular 1st Person tef lei kl tef nel ki tef tel ki tef me l ki tef pe i ki 'My ' kl tef lei ki tef nei ki tef tel ki tef mei kl tef pel ki lei tef ki ne l tef kl tei tef ki me i tef kl pel tef

2nd Person tef lei ye tef nei ye tef tel ye tef mel ye tef pe i ye 'Your ' ye tef lei ye tef ne l ye tef te l ye tef me i ye tef pei ye lei tef ye ne i tef ye tel tef ye me l tef ye pe l tef

3rd Person tef lelel tef nelel tef telel tef me lel tef pe lel Masc . 'His ' Ie tef lelel Ie tef nelel Ie tef telel Ie tef me lel Ie tef pe lel lelel tef ne lel tef telel tef me lel tef pe lel tef

Fern. 'Her ' tef I ene tef nene tef tene tef mene tef pene ne tef lene ne tef nene ne tef tene ne tef mene ne tef pene lene tef nene tef tene tef mene tef pene tef 61

One piece One small T!.lo pieces T!.lo small Three (or more) of land piece of of land pieces of pieces of land land land large or small

Dual 1st Person tef lou ku tef nou ku tef tou ku tef mou ku tef pou ku ku tef lou ku tef nou ku tef tou ku tef mou ku tef pou ku lou tef ku nou tef ku tou tef ku mou tef ku pou tef

2nd Person tef leife tef neife tef tei fe tef melfe tef pei fe Masc . 'Your ' roungke roungke roungke roungke roungke ife roungke Ife roungke I fe roungke ife roungke ife .roungke tef leife tef ne ife tef tei fe tef me ife tef pe ife ife roungke i fe roungke Ife roungke Ife roungke ife roungke lelfe tef neife tef tel fe tef me i fe tef pel fe tef l Fem . ,your ' tef lelfe tef neife tef tei fe tef me ife tef pe ife roum roum roum roum roum Ife roum ife roum Ife roum ife roum ife roum tef lelfe tef nelfe tef tei fe tef me ife tef pei fe Ife roum Ife roum I fe roum ife roum Ife roum leife tef ne ife tef teife tef me ife tef pe ife tef

3rd Person tef lenke tef nenke tef tenke tef menke tef penke Masc . 'Their' te tef lenke te tef nenke te tef tenke te tef menke te tef penke lenke tef nenke tef tenke tef menke tef penke tef l Fem. 'Their' tef lelpe tef nelpe tef telpe tef me l pe tef pelpe me tef lelpe me tef nelpe me tef telpe me tef me lpe me tef pelpe lelpe tef nelpe tef telpe tef me lpe tef pe lpe tef

Plural 1st Person tef ku lefe tef ku nefe tef ku tefe tef ku mefe tef ku pefe 'Our' ku tef I efe ku tef nefe ku tef tefe ku tef mefe ku tef pefe ku lefe tef ku nefe tef ku tefe tef ku mefe tef ku pefe tef

2m Person tef leife tef nelfe tef telfe tef me i fe tef pe ife 'Your ' ife tef Ife tef Ife tef Ife tef ife tef leife ne i fe tei fe me ife pei fe lelfe tef ne ife tef te rfe tef me ife tef pe lfe tef

3rd Person tef lelpe tef ne lpe tef telpe tef me lpe tef pelpe Masc . and pe tef lelpe pe tef nelpe pe tef telpe pe tef me lpe pe tef pelpe Fern. 'Their' lelpe tef nel pe tef telpe tef melpe tef pe lpe tef

N.B. It is permissab le for an adj ective , numerical or otherwise to occur immediately following the noun , or else construction finally . l In referring to mixed groups of a man and woman , feminine forms are used. 62

CHAPTER 19. EXPANDED NOUN EXPRESSION (POSSESSIVE

Subj ect or Obj ect Noun ) (Noun or Pronoun ) f< + (thing possessed) + (Possessor ) ± L This Expression can occur wherever any other noun may occur , and can be used as the Subject or Object of any class of Verb . The Possessive Marker has a Pronoun Indicator word initial which must agree in person and number and size with the thing possessed . However the plural pet l is sometime s used when singular feminine nouns are referred to - specially women folk when possessed by the 1st person .

Examples ki kal� 110m letl Ie lelel 'I clear the garden belonging to him ' nengk!o net ! k! pel nouti 'The child belonging to me i8 crying ' moto net ! Ie ka lno 'The wife belonging to him i8 8ick ' ye lafl nengke letl k! 'You are angry with the 80n belonging to me ' kl kesi wOnangou pet l pe 'I build the hou8e8 belonging to them ' moto pet i kl ka lno 'The wife belonging to me i8 8ick '

See the following in chart form illustrated in conj unction with the 1st Person Singular Pronoun .

One piece One 8maH Two piece8 Two 8maH Three (or more) of land piece of of land piece8 of piece8 of land land land large or 8maH

Singular 1st Person tef lett kl tef netl kl tef tetl ki tef metl kl tef pihl kl

N.B. It is permissable for as per chart on p.60 and 61 to occur expression finally .

CHAPTER 20. EXPANDED NOUN EXPRESSION (POSSESSIVE

Subject or Obj ect Noun ) + (Pronoun) f< ±

This construction can also occur where a noun expre ssion does, but must occur in a clause or sent ence containing a verb expression .

Examples nengklo fe i kl nel noutl 'My girl crie8 ' nengke fe l Ie lelel la 'Hi8 little boy die8 ' wenem fel ne ratel 'Her hou8e i8 there ' 63

pe le fe l pe pe lpe pa 'Their dogs die ' moto fel ye nompetel 'Your wife runs '

N.B. It is permissable for < 1 e 1 e 1 > as per chart on p.60 and 61 to occur expression finally.

CHAPTER 21. EXPANDED NOUN EXPRESSION (POSSESSIVE <101»

(Object Noun ) Verb Expression and Possessor) +

The meaning of <101> is not very clear , but it seems to function as a type of pronoun to give emphasis to the Obj ect Noun po ssessed and is used in conj unction with the Possessive morpheme <-f>. It is used with singular obj ects and has a dual or plural form lepe . The Obj ect noun may be exclu ded if it is understood by the hearers.

Examples k I ka l efepe 110m 101 'I cLear their garden ' k I kesefepe wenem 101 'I buiLd their house ' pe pesefo l 1 e wenem 101 'They buiLd his house ' ne nunwe l Wa IsI meref 101 'She cLimbs Waisi 's bete L nut tree ' k I kesefepe 101 'I buiLd theirs ' kl kolofol wenem 101 'I Look at his house ' k I kolofol wenangkou lepe 'I Look at his houses '

CHAPTER 22. TENSE

So far in this Grammar Statement , the Verb Tenses have been confined to the Narrative Tense which, as was previously ment ioned has no Tense Indicat or. When speaking in the Narrative Tense , and if desiring to make a statement about an action that has been completed , it is possible to insert the word after the Verb Expression - sentence finally (or clause fin ally). , if used sentence finally, or in isolation , e.g. as an answer to a query , with the context or circumstances being sufficient to signify meaning is equivalent to 'finished ' or 'comp Leted ', or implies a Perfect Past Tense . 64

Examples fel kl kel l uf 'Now I go to the village ' fe l Ie towa lell 'Now the evi l spirit goes ' fel nengke loutl 'Now the child cries ' fel kl kaplol 'Now I eat ' nengk e loutl fel 'The child has stopped crying ' kl kaplol fe l 'I have finished eating ' towa I e I I fe I 'The evil spiri t has gone '

N.B. , if used sentence initially or in isolation, e.g. as an answer to a query with the context or circumstances being sufficient to signify meaning , means 'now ' or implies an Immediate Present Tense . Examples above . The Future Tense has to do with any time which happens from the moment of speaking onwards, (almost an Initiating aspect Indicator) and to indicate this a Tense Indicator is used. The actual position of the Indicator in the sentence is determined by the construction in use by the speak er. N.B. used in conjunction with the Future Tense , sentence initially, implies the Immediate Future . The various possible construction formulas incorporating the future Tense Indicator ~~and examples of same are now given .~~

~~1. Future Tense to Verb Expression~~

r( Future Tense In dicator + Verb Expression L ] Examples srnelfe 'We wi ll go ' ('We are beginning to go now ') srnaule 'We will come ' ('We are beginning to come now ') sorn petel 'You will run ' (A command )

~~2. Subject Pro noun plus Verb Expression~~

(Subj ect Pronoun + Future Tense Indicator) Verb Expre" ,o (or Subject Pronoun ± Auxiliary Verb ) [ '] Ex�ples KI s kel l , I will go ' I es I a 'He is going to die ' Ife roungkes youtl 'You (two) are going to cry ' nes nela eplel 'She is going to give birth to offspring ' 65

~~ifes yaulef wenem 'You (three) wi Lt come to the hou8e ' k I rna5 ke 11 'I mU8t go ' ne mas nela eplel 'She wi tt 8ure ty give birth to off8pring '~~

~~N.B. If the Auxiliary Verb is used , the Future Tense Indicator become s a suffix to it rather than to the Subj ect Pronoun .~~

~~3. Subject Noun plus Verb Expression rcsUbject Noun) + (Auxiliary Ve rb + Future Tense Indicator) ... Verb ExpressioJ L <5> J or~~

�Subject Noun ) + (�ifying Subj ect Pronoun + Future Tense Indicator) ... Verb l L . <5> Expressio� It will be seen from the above that the Future Tense Indicator does not become a suffix to a noun but rather to the Auxiliary Verb which may follow directly after the noun , or else as a suffix to the Qualifying Subj ect Pronoun which may also follow immediately after the Subj ect Noun .

~~Examples metene 1 es 1 a 'The man i8 going to die ' metene mas 1 a~~

~~moto nes nela eplel } 'The woman wi tt give birth to chitdren ' moto mas nela eplel } fe i mete pes pompete �} 'Now the men witt run ' fe i mete mas pompetel~~

~~fe i nengke mas lout i 'Now the chitd witt cry ' fei nengke les louti pele les laulef w nem} � } 'The dog witt come to the hou8e ' pe le mas laulef wenem~~

~~4. Adverb Construction a. Adverb Sentence Initial~~

~~[ Adverb + Future Tense Indicator ) ... sentenc� <5> or AdVerb ) ... ( Subject Pronoun + Future Tense Indicat or) ... Verb l (or noun + Qualifying <5> Expressio � subj ect Pronoun ) J 66~~

~~SUbject pronoun AUXiliary Future Tense Verb + or Noun + Verb + Indicator + Expression 1 } { <5> } j~~

Examples mampe 15 k I ke I I u f 'Afterwards I will go to the village ' mampe I k is ke I i uf 'Afterwards I wi ll go to the vil lage ' mo i lpou les lengke tei 'At night he will hear the evil spirit towa lororo Ie dancing as he goes ' mo ilp ou Ie mas lengketel 'At night he wi ll hear the evil spirit towa lororo Ie dancing as he goes ' mampe i pe le les lompetel 'Soon the dog will run '

~~b. Adverb Sentence Medially~~

(Subj ect Pronoun + Future Tense Indicator) - (Adverb ) + (Verb E> [ Subject Pronoun) or J subj ect NOun AUXiliary Verb + Future Tense ++ Verb } + { } {Adverb} + { q� or Pronoun Indicator Expression�

~~Examples pele mas nou ratel uf 'The dog will again remain in the village ' Ie mas nou ratel uf 'He will again remain in the village ' les nou kantepene 'He will again get the little splinter '~~

~~5. The Adjective Construction~~

~~Subj ect + QJalifying Subject + Future Tense Indicator Verb �{ } {Adj ective} + { } + 1 � Noun Pronoun <5> ExpressiO� or~~

Examples pus I kumpu nes na 'The litHe cat wi n die ' bal ulul ketef les lato 'The big black ball will be there ' metene singke les laplol 'The strong man will eat ' mota olene nes noutl 'The old woman will cry ' mota olene mas nouti 'The old woman must cry ' nengklo feres nes noutl 'The girl ohild win ory ' pus i kompu mas na 'The titHe cat mus t die ' 6 7

6. Possessive Pronoun to Subject Noun Expression FUture Tense + i ing + Verb possessivel + subjectl Qual fY Indicator + l Pronoun J { Noun J { Subject Pronoun <5> } ExpreSSiO U� J or FUtureTense possessivel + Subjectl + AUXiliaryVerb + Verb 1 Indicator + Pronoun J { Noun J { <5> } Expressio U� j Examples k i moto nes na 'My wife will die ' Ie pe le I es lompetei 'His dog will run ' pe ep I e I pes pouti 'Their chi ldren will cry ' te nafele kompu nes nualo 'Their little bird will fa ll down ' ne feres nes yalei 'Her skirt wi ll be red ' k i mote mas na 'My wife wi ll surely die ' ne feres mas ya lei 'Her skirt must be red '

~~7. Possessive Marker to Subject plus Verb Expression FUture Tense Verb 1 Indicator + Expressio <5> } j or~~

+ FUture Tense Possessivel JAUXiliary Verb + + Verb 1 Indicator constituentJ l <5> } ExpresSiO U{ j Examples nengke letl ki les louti 'The child belonging to me will cry ' mote net i Ie nes ka ino 'The woman belonging to him will be sick ' wenangkou pet l pe pes pualo , The houses be longing to them wi ZZ fa ZZ down ' pe le leti ku les la 'The dog belonging to us will die ' ya i leti ki les lenya l i 'The father belonging to me will laugh ' ya i leti kl mas lenya li 'The fa ther belonging to me wi ll surely laugh '

~~8. Possessing Pronoun to Subject plus Verb Expression FUture Tense Possessive + QualifYing + + Verb 1 Constituent } Subject Pronoun Indi �� t or } Expressio � { < j 68~~

V< + + Future Tense Possessive AUXiliaryVerb + erb constituent Indicator Expression � } { <5> } � Examples nengke lelel les leitef ki 'His chi ld wi 1.1. ask me ' nengke lelel mas leltef ki 'His child wi 1.1. sure ly ask me ' wenem lelel les we i i lol l 'His house wi 1.1. burn ' pele lene les lompetel 'Her dog wi 1.1. run ' pus I I enke mas na 'Their cat wi 1.1. die ' If a qualifying Adverb is used, it is not obligatory to use the Future Tense Indicator <5>. If used, <5> almost alwa�s occurs immediately before the Verb Expression. N.B. This word is most often, if not always used in isolation. It can occur as an affirmative answer to a query where permission has been sought to do something or as a brief farewell: 'You go now ' . It can mean 'go ahead ', 'go on ', 'yes, you can', 'you go now ' and is then usually fol lowed sooner or later by the action that the speaker has sought permission for. The reason it is mentioned in this chapter is that very occasionally and in slow speech, it sometimes seems that the Future Tense Indicator is an abbreviation of this word. <-ye> Word Finally Most if not all verbs used in an Intransitive Sense may take the particle <-ye> word finally, the meaning of which is not over clear. It could be said to be used where an English speaker would italicize, or underline , or emphasize by intonation, a certain utterance. It also seems sometimes to indicate a Tense equivalent to the English Present Continuous. More correctly it occurs where Pidgin speakers use this same particle word finally. It is sometimes also used noun finally. It may be a carry-over from Tok Pisin, but if that is so, then it is now completely assimilated into the vernacular and certain vowel endings change phonologically to accommodate it. Examples Ie la 'He dies ' '> Ie lalye 'He dies now' 010 'No ' > oloye 'No! ' nempe loungke 'The tree breaks ' > nempe loungkoye 'The tree breaks now ' ki we l fengkes 'I am tired ' > kl wel flngkesye 'I've had it! ' pa lus naule 'The plane comes ' > palus naulelye 'The plane is coming now! (I can hear it) , 69

CHAPTER 23. NEGATIVE CONSTRUCTION In our expanding constructions, we now come to a modifier of the Sentence known as the Negative Construction. There are several negativisers of varying importance in the 010 language. These are listed below with examples and descriptions of their usage. 1. <010:> The main negativiser and the only one to stand in isolation. Occurs also when used as an Adjective; and after a noun or pronoun when following the Auxiliary Verb ; when used with the construction described in Chapter 11 but is not used in an utterance containing a Verb Expression. Examples ki mas 010 'I mU8t not ' k i 010 'I didn 't' or 'I haven 't ' wapinou 010 'No taro ' 010 'No '

~~2. kolo: (Sentence +~~

wo lo: This seems to occur only occasionally and the exact area of meaning is not very clear. It can occur as an adjective as <0 10> does, or else can negate a statement that occurs sentence initially. e.g. ya lel wolo 'No firewood ' lontol I wo lo 'He did not look '

3. yef: Clause -+- Direct Quotation / Sentence This is used in isolation as in Direct Quotation. Always follows the Verb Stem -ere '8aid ' . N.B. Not however the Intransitive form erepel which uses- the negativiser in place of . 70

~~Examples k I kere yef 'I said "No '" ki ma keref Susan yef 'I win say to Susan "No '" kl mas kerefol yef 'I wi n say to him "No '" nere yef 'She said "No '"~~

4. na : Subject + Negativiser + Verb Expression / Sentence Occurs sentence medial always between the Subject and Verb it negates, and usually when negativising a statement. Examples (Denotes negative permission) pe na pengketei 'They did not hear (beaause they may not) , k I na kaplol 'I do not (aan not) eat ' ye na alte tefa lepe l 'You may not eat this banana ' ye na ratel 'You may not sit down '

5. moronom: Subject + Negativiser + Verb Expression / Sentence Occurs as above but usually when negativising a command. and may replace each other but do not as a rule complement each other although this is possible when desiring to give great emphasis. They denote negative permission: 'may not ', 'aan not ', 'unable '. Examples ye moronom elele kol pou 'You may not fe n the Pometia tree ' ye mo ronom aite tefa lepel 'You may not au t this banana ' k I moronom ratei 'I aannot sit down '

6. pato: Sentence +- Occurs sentence finally usually when desiring to negate a command. and may replace each other but not complement each other. Examples ye ratel pato '(You) do not sit down ' outl pato , Stop arying ' ye alte tefa lepe l pato '(You) do not aut this banana ' It seems that can replace any of the other negativlsers except <010> and . Apart from they can all complement each other in the one sentence or else stand alone in the sentence (except for which can only be used as already described). Examples pe na pengketel kolo pe na pengketel pato 'They hea r not ' pe moronom pengkete l 7 1

pe moronom pengketei pato pe na pengkete i pe mo ronom pengketei 'They hear not ' pe pengketei ko lo pe pengketei pato pe na mo ronom pengkete i pato N.B. It is also possible when negativising all the above sentences to put the Direct Object sentence initially in all constructions. This is not permissible at any other time except when the Indirect Object is also used. Examples yuri porsi epe ko lo 'They did not shoot any bush animats ' tefa lepei ye aite pato '(You) do not cut off this banana ' kol pou ye mo ronom elele 'You can not fe ZZ the Pometia tree ' tefa lepe i ye na aite 'You may not cut off this banana ' olweles ki kewate wo f lu ko lo 'I did not give the fowts any food '

7. + sentence This is more of a negative exclamation which sometimes preceeds a negative statement . It cannot stand in isolation. Examples you k i kap i ko lo 'No, I didn 't get it ' you k i ke Ii Wewak ko lo 'No, I didn 't go to Wewak ' you k i na kengketei ko lo 'No, I am unab Ze to hear ' you k i 010 'No, not me! ' you k i kaploi kolo 'No, I have not eaten ' « konei:> is used in isolation in answer to a query and means 'I don 't know ', 'I am not sure ', 'I couZdn 't say'. )

CHAPTER 24 . QUESTION CONSTRUCTION There are two basic question types in this language . 1. Straight Questions, requiring no Interrogative Adverb, Pronoun or Adjective . 2. Questions which require Interrogatives.

1. Straight Questions These may themselves be of three types: a. Intonation pattern only indicating a query . This is practically the same as for queries in English - the voice rising on the last but one syllable and then dropping again. 72

t;I' 'finished?' ----- tepe lonwe l 'the watep 's boiling? ' (The above from someone who has been told the water is boiling but who did not hear the statement .) b. Those which form the query with the suffix -am sentence finally. (am > 10m after words ending in -e , -0 , -a .) (Sometimes in rapid speech it is shortened to -0) . This suffix may occur at the end of any sentence construction to form a question. Intonation is also quite marked. The voice rises on the morpheme or sometimes syllable immedi ately before the suffix and then drops again. ------e.g. balus naule-lom 'Is the plane coming?' � ye entafene-lom 'Did you find hep? '

1� enya 1 I -om ' Is he laughing?' �� nengke leti ki loutl-om 'Is my boy cpy ing? ' � ye ulu p uk-om 'Did you look at the book? ' N.B. When the query incorporates a true negative statement the answer is given in the affirmative . e.g. ba lus naule ko lolom 'Isn 't the plane coming?' ye entafene ko la-10m 'Didn 't you fi nd hep? ' lenyal i ko la-10m 'Isn 't he laughing?' nengke leti ki louti ko la-10m 'Isn 't my baby boy cpying? ' ye ulu puk kola- 10m 'Didn 't you look at the book? '

The answer to all of the above would be 10 'yes ' (meaning 'Yes, -- I didn 't find him, etc. ') c. Introducing Alternatives . Only intonation and the alternative 'op ' indicates that the construction is a query. (In rapid speech the final vowel may be dropped.) The voice rises on syllable before nante, and then drops on remainder of construction. ------e.g. ye ulu kl nant 010 'Did you see me or not? ' ------�,------�- nef naule nante 010 'Is the pain coming op not? ' ye---- ulu�----- sonu�� ------nante --tep--�l e 'Ape you looking at this species of bpeadfpuit op that species of bpeadfruit?' � nengke nante nengklo 'Boy 01' gipl? ' ------�,------� Ie rata i nant 010 'Does he undeps tand op not? ' 7 3

2. Questions requiring Interrogatives Only When the Interrogative Pronoun is the Subject of the Verb, it occurs Sentence Initially. When the Interrogative Pronoun is the Object of the Verb it occurs sentence finally. a. Sentence Initial e.g. mi nele 'Who is there?' men lato , What is there? ' polomen pato 'How many are there?' mi nemple pratei 'Who are they sitting down?'

~~Interrogative Pronouns mi 'who? ' men 'what? ' pol omen 'how many?' penei 'where ? ' wem men 'when? ' (time what) olomen 'how ? '~~

h. Sentence Final e.g. ye entaf mi 'Whom are you tooking for? ' ye !!ntaf men 'What are you searching for?' ye eplel pol omen 'How many chitdren have you? ' ife ye Ii Lumi wem men 'When did you go to Lumi ?' ye e penei 'Where are you going?' ye es i 0 I olomen 'How are you making it? '

CHAPTER 25. SUBORDINATE CLAUSES A Clause is a Verb Expression with or without subject or object or other various parts of speech which can go �o make up a sentence. Some sentences may have more than one clause. This chapter deals with Subordinate clauses which are dependant on the Main clauses in the sentence for their result. In 010 they can be of three main types. 1. Conditional Clauses a. Positive . [Subordinate Clause + Main Clause] The only means of distinguishing this type of sentence from two transitive statements in juxtaposition is by means of the intonation pattern. ----�--�� e.g. ye olu ya ite i ye mas erepefkl 'If you see your fa ther you must teU me ' ------ye el i stua y� aite tin pi� 'If you go to the store, you buy a tin of fish ' 74

.-/ "- e.g. kl kell Wewak ki mas ka isel laplap lett ye 'If I go to We�ak I �i ZZ buy - a Zap Zap for you ' -:-...... Ie lel l Mi l iom Ie ma lualo tes l 'If he goes to MiZiom he �iZZ fa ZZ down on the road '

b. Negative . [Main Clause + <0 10 lepe> + Subordinate Clause] In this construction the Main Clause is followed by the Negative Conditional phrase <010 lepe> 'If not '. e.g. kl ke l i Wewak 010 lepe 'I go to Wewak if not I stay at Lumi ' ki kratei Lumi ki ma kefe i 010 lepe kl 'I must sit do�n if not I wi ZZ fa ZZ mas kua lo down ' kl ma kaploi 010 lepe 'I must eat if not I �iZZ be' sick ' ki mas ka ino ki kenya l i 010 lepe ki 'I Zaugh, if I don 't, I'ZZ cry ' kouti Ie ma letel wenem 010 'He wants to sZeep in the house, if lepe Ie letel towa he doesn 't he wiZZ sZeep in the bush '

2. Temporal Clauses . [ + Subordinate Clause + Main Clause] In this construction, the Subordinate Clause is preceeded by 'when ' and then followed by the main clause. e.g. wem ye i laf ki ye na 'When you he Zp me you may not sit ratei down ' wem ye onwe i meref ye ma 'When you cZimb the bete Z nut tree, rota ua lo mind you don 't fa ZZ do�n ' wem ki kel i Wewak kl mas 'When I go to Wewak I wiZZ buy a ka i s e I I a p I a p Zap Zap ' wem Ie lefe i Ie ma laploi 'When he sits down he wiZZ eat ' wem ne nouti pato ne netei 'When she stops crying she wi ZZ sZeep '

3. Consequential Clauses a. [Main Clause + + Subordinate Clause] This type of sentence begins with the main clause and ends with the Subordinate Clause which is preceeded by 'because '. e.g. yurl pors l epe ko lo leti 'They did not shoot any bush animaZs towa laploi because the EviZ Spirit ate them '

b. r(Interrogative Pronoun) ... Subordinate Clause + Main Claus� L In this construction the Subordinate Clause which precceds the Main Clause is itself preceeded by an interrogative pronoun 'who ', 'whoever '. e.g. ml na lol tepe lepe ma 'Whoever drinks this water wi tt be lefe i tengkeltel we ZZ ' ml neme ma lol fape ma ma 'Whoever drinks this poison �i ZZ die ' mi leslepe lere kelau Ie 'Whoever works wett gets food ' kap olweles ml neme melafepe ma ma 'Whoever gets angry wi Zt die ' 7 5

CHAPTER 26. NOUN CLAUSE AS COMPLEMENT OF VERB Main Clause Noun Clause / Sentence In 010 a full clause may frequently function as a complement of a verb. For example, when quoting what someone says or thinks or hears, etc: the quotation follows after the verb in the Direct Object position as a Noun Clause. Examples pe ponpos i pe tengkepe 'They think they are good ' Ie lerape i ki mas ketei kolo 'He said I must not sleep ' ki kengketei palus nau le 'I hear the plane is coming "

~~CHAPTER 27 . ALTERNATIVE SENTENCE CONSTRUCTIONS~~

1. Subject � ++ Examples ki kauro ke l i uf 'I travelling (level ground) go to the village ' ye antu aule 'You coming down come ' k i kongkra kefe i 'I bending sit down ' ki ketapi kell 'I going down go '

2. Subject � ++ A very common construction and one in constant use, occurs when the equivalent of the verb 'to put ' is used. It consists of the juxta position of a verb (meaning 'it remains ') to the first Verb Expression. In some instances other parts of speech may intervene between the two verb expressions and it is possible also to use either one of them in isolation. These verbs change in form depending on where exactly the object has been put or placed. Also, the form of the verb meaning 'to take away ' or 'to lift up ' from the various positions in which the object has been placed, also undergoes change. These different verbs are incorporated in the following chart .

'I hang it up, it remains hanging up ' , I take it down (from hanging up ) , Singular Masculine k i ka ltei I u I te i k i kar el Feminine k i kante i nu I te i kl karene Dual Masculine k i kautel tu I te I k i karengke Feminine ki kamtei mu ltel k i karom Plural k i kaptei pultel k i karepe 76

'I put it, it remains inside ' 'I take it out (from being inside) , Singular Masculine k I ka I fo lafo kl kotuwol Feminine k I kanfo nafo kl kotuwene Dual Masculine ki kautfo tafo kl kotuwengke Feminine k i kamfo mafo ki kotuwom Plural k i kapfo pafo kl kotuwepe

'I put it to be Zeft Zeaning up against' 'I take it Cl1JJay' Singular Masculine k i ka lsi I a I teI k I ka II Feminine k I kans i naitel k I kan i Dual Masculine k i kautsl ta i te i kl kauti Feminine ki kams l ma ltel k I kaml Plural kl kapsl paI te i k I kapi

'I put it to be Zeft sitting (on the ground) ' 'I take it up ' Singular Masculine kl ka ltel *Iratel kl ka II Feminine k i kantel nratel k I kanl Dual Masculine ki kautel tratel k I kautl Feminine ki kamte l mratel k I kaml Plural k i kaptel pratel k I kapl * before r Pronoun Indicator is not .always pronounced.

'I put it to be Zeft Zying (on something) ' 'I take it up ' Singular Masculine k i keltalo Ilwo k I ka II Feminine kl kentalo n Iwo kl kani Dual Masculine ki kautalo tlwo k I kautl Feminine kl kemtalo mlwo k I kaml Plural k I keptalo piwo k i kapi 77

'I put it to be Left sitting (on something) ' 'I take it up ' Singular Masculine k I ke I te i lefe i k i ka l I Feminine k i kente i nefe i ki kanl Dual Masculine k I kaute i tlHe I k i kaut l Feminine kl kemtei mefe i ki kaml Plural k i keptei pefe i k i kapi

'I put it to be Left standing (on the ground) ' 'I take it up ' Singular Masculine k I ka ltei leie k I ka Ii Feminine k i kantei nele k i kani Dual Masculine k i kautei tele kl kautl Feminine k i kamte i me le k i kami Plural k I kapte i pe le k I kapi

'I put it to be Left Lying (on the ground) ' 'I take it up ' Singular Masculine k I ka ltel lato k i ka Ii Feminine k I kante i nato ki kanl Dual Masculine k i kautei tato k i kau t i Feminine k I kamtei mato ki kami Plural k i kaptei pato ki kapi

'I pLaae it to be Left tzoating on top of (or in) tzuids ' Singular Masculine k i kolto lolto Feminine k I konto nolto Dual Masculine k i kouto tol to Feminine kl komto mo lto Plural k i kopto pol to 78

CHAPTER 28. THE JOINING TOGETHER OF TWO CLAUSES , PHRASES OR PARTS OF SPEECH When the joining of more than one clause is desired in the forming of a sentence, the clauses are placed one after the other with their juxtaposition being the only relating valence. Although it often is the case, it is not necessary that all the verbs in the sentence be of the same verb class. Examples lei i liHel la 'He went (and) sat down (and) died ' pe kani pesan ne ratel 'They got it (and) threw it down (and) it remained ' Ie lele lontol i nu lau 'He stood up and looked and came back and kotuene komtefene Ie pulled it out and sme lt it and tasted it ' lentane lei I Ie Iisal letei lato 'He went and left him and he slept and remained ' Ie leipel laule leletel 'He pulled it and came and blocked up (the tulem elpese hole) there from before '

a. Joining of Numerals . 'and ' When counting by reduplication of numerals it is common to use the conjunction as a connecting link thus: wengkes tena wengkes tena wengkes tena wengkes Two and two and two and two

~~wengkes wengkes pena wengkes wengkes Four and four In rapid speech tena > te, pena > pe N.B. Note change in Pronoun Indicator to denote plurality.~~

b. Joining of Nouns and/or P�onouns . !Noun or + + Noun 0;] L:ronoun PronounJ These can be joined with the conjunction <-re> which occurs finally as a suffix to nouns or pronouns. It can mean 'and ', 'toge ther with ', 'also ', 'too '. It specially means either of the latter two if it occurs after the final noun or pronoun of a group. Examples l. ki kere Ie 'I and he ' 2. pen nere pensel 'Pen and pencil ' 3. onkes-re telues-r e 'Blood and pus too ' 4. kl kerem me mratel 'I and they (two women) sit down together ' 7 9

5. Susan spon-re 'Susan 's spoon too?' 6. Ie kapi fai-r e parei 'He got abica and some greens and came lau laptei peratei and put them att on the ground ' It will be seen from example 4. that the conjunction undergoes a vowel change when accommodating the pronoun indicator of the following pronoun . Also, when nouns are under consideration a qualifying pronoun with the conjunction as a suffix follows the preceeding noun. (See example 2. )

c. Things Inextricably Joined Together. oun -+- + � 'and ' When one wants to speak of two things, which are inextricably con nected one with the other, then the verb having the root meaning of 'to tean up against ' or 'to fas ten to ' is used. The Pronoun Indicator occuring initially refers to the subject of the main verb of the sentence. Examples ki ko lu nempe ka lsi orou 'I see the tree and the mountain ' ki kanpo merio kansi tepal 'I hit the mosquito and the tab te ' ki kaploi wapene ka lsi sengke 'I eat taro with pig meat ' ki ka loi tepe kans i nemer 'I drink water and mi tk ' Ie loluei ki leisi fel fem pepe 'He trod on me together with these bananas ' leisi is the form of this verb used when relatively large things such as persons or animals are referred to. McGregor, A. "A Tentative Grammar Statement of the Olo Language". In McGregor, D.E. and McGregor, A. editors, Olo language materials. D-42:15-80. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1982. DOI:10.15144/PL-D42.15 ©1982 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative. ENGLISH - OLO NOUN DICTIONARY

~~D.E. McGREGOR~~

This dictionary contains most of the commonly used 010 nouns in the Lumi, Yebil and Eretei dialects, glossed in both English and, in some cases, Tok Pisin (TP). In the second column are recorded the 010 nouns in the singular, and the plural forms are in the third column. As far as possible the three dialects are recorded. Where the Yebil and Eretei dialects differ from the Lumi one, they are recorded in each entry. The first listed is that spoken at Lumi . If Yebil differs from Lumi, it is recorded underneath with a (y) following it . If Yebil is the same as Lumi, no ment ion is made. Similarly, if Eretei differs from Lumi, it is recorded underneath again, with an (E) following. These changes may occur in either the singular or the plural, in which case usually only the one is listed. If the change occurs in both the singular and plural the (E) or (Y) is written after the plural only. All recorded data to date is listed, but there are many more nouns not yet tabulated. New words could be listed either on the back of these pages or on new sheets which may be inserted. It is suggested that the words be checked with a native from your area before learning, then it is most important to continually check your pronunciation.

McGregor, D.E. "English - Olo Noun Dictionary". In McGregor, D.E. and McGregor, A. editors, Olo language materials. D-42:81-116. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1982. DOI:10.15144/PL-D42.81 ©1982 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative. 82

~~A GU IDE TO PRONUNC IATION~~

Vowels as in feet e as in sit or air e as in �gg or C!!t a as in car u and 0 are very difficult indeed for the 'English ear' to identify. Practise saying and hearing these pairs: uf 'viHage ' katl of 'pandanus soup '

~~yuf ' sme Z Z of pig, eta. , yof 'wind '~~

~~kul pou 'Pometia ' kol pou 'wiZd Zimbum ' (species of) o as in saw or cot~~

Consonants p t as In English but with hardly any aspiration. k } as in English r single, double or treble roll m as in English n as in English n9 as in English si�i� (but n9 is always followed by k) 5 as in English f as in English w as in English y as in English

~~D:i:pthongs e i e I a I ou ou au 0 I 83~~

Singular Dual or Plural abdomen stomach and 'yofo intestines afternoon 3 p.m. to 6 p.m. nengklef nengkll (E) ant tefer tefres (Y) anus nempel namplef mom nemp l (y) nempe l namp le (E) aran (TP) see pandanus arm includes hand etef eses etl es I (E) arm band pas pas (TP) ya lp�f ya l poes ya ipo ya lpol (E) arm pit eflengkes es l engke (y) neflengke (E) armpit hair eflengkes tuplus es l engke tupl us (Y) neflengke tapl l (E) arrow 1. nUEn !¥I I (E)

~~2. sloko~~

~~3. same as nuel yengkel sago point tungka (E)~~

4. tapes tape (E) arrow stick noungke l noungkou ashes we I I fonkotu weI I olfom (E) aupa (TP) ( green vegetable ) fene fene l fonou fene (E) aze tomolye tomolyongkou aze handLe fomu aze-stone 1. used by present omka l omka 11engke people's ancestors tomolye arau tomo l yongkou erau (E)

~~2. used by ances mongkerus tors 84~~

Singular Dual or Plural baby daughter see also nengklo feres epele re'Uztionships epele (E) Both nengklo and feres can be used on their own . nengklo means daughter. Both words carry the feminine. epelel means children. There is no plural for nengklo fe res . baby son (Both nengke and nengke tulel epelel tulel can be used on their epele (E) own. ) nengke means son , tulei means baby boy . See also relationships epelel means children bachelor literally 'he sits lefe i yausel pefel yausepe nothing ' (not a true lefe i yaui pefe i yaupe (E) noun ) back of animal , man, toungka toungkare house, etc.· toungkam (Y) toungkalem (E) bald head yom notepo bamboo 1. includes all oru erel kinds erl (E)

~~2. wengklef wengkles wengkle wengklem (E)~~

~~3. kur kurlengke (Y)~~

~~4. small kind with temen temenlengke long leaf used for tapel tapes (Y) making spears temenl temenl (E)~~

~~5. dry - all kinds nongkol nongkos nongko nongko (E)~~

6. used for making ma l pengko ma l pengkelem arrow heads . Leaf ma l pongko ma l pengkere (Y) same as kur bamboo chopper used for melel melem chipping sago mela melangkl (E) bamboo node buk (TP) 1. part seen outside olou elengkere

~~2. part inside taurengko taurengkere olou elengkes (y) taurengkelem (E) bamboo shoot edible napongko 85~~

~~Singular Dual or Plural~~

~~Banana 1. all species tefa tefas tefa (E)~~

~~2. wild fel fel fel fem fel fl (E)~~

~~3. wild , same as polmo pol mom fel fel~~

~~4. wild trufela truflangkou truflam (E)~~

~~5. an eating variety, ur also ta lmo~~

~~6. a large eating yelmef variety yelml (E)~~

~~7. eating, small rlkel rlkl (E)~~

~~8. very similar to 9. morarl morari lengke~~

~~9 . cooking yefatuo yefater yeforowa yeforowangke (y) yapatowo yapater (E)~~

~~10 . ponto pontol engke ponto (E)~~

~~11 . cooking ume l umellengke umen umen lengke (y) umelengkl~~

~~12. cooking nouke noukelengke nouke (E)~~

~~13. cooking, short fempe le fempe lengke and fat - soft good fempelem (E)~~

~~14. cooking elepef elepeflangke epelef epe l ewongkou (Y) elepe elepem (E)~~

~~15. cooking yowo yowolengke yowo (E)~~

~~16. cooking peros l or tangkone peros llengke, tangkone l engke keros l keros llengke (Y) kors l kors I (E)~~

~~17 . cooking wesel I we sel llengk e wasile (y) wasel I (E)~~

~~18. cooking olmo olmongkou~~

~~19 . cooking foul l ngko foul l ngkolengke foul 10 foull ngko (Y) foulongko foulongko (E) 86~~

~~Singular Dual or Plural banana 20 . cooking ke ikei ke ikellengke ke lkel (E)~~

~~21 . cooking werapa l werapa ilengke wa rapa l warapa llengke (y) werapa i (E)~~

~~22. cooking, same as tefa yof ele tefa yofelengke kokomo (TP) and milk, nemer nemerlengke (y) breast yofole yofolengkl (E)~~

~~23. cooking toulau tou lau taulau taulaulengke (Y)~~

24 . cooking eiemlengke eitim (E) banana leaf tefa lelef tefa lelues tefa lelwongkou tefa yout i tefa yousi or leluwi (E) bandicoot see rat bark of tree , skin topo topongkou base used for trees , etc . pa l also figuratively base of anything, e.g. il pal ratei onom lelel - the ORIGIN of all knowledge is in his heart

~~basket 1. kind worn on arm pora porangkou (E)~~

~~2. tom tengkes~~

~~bat 1. large youla you l apes you l apem (E)~~

~~2. mol pongko molpongkerem molpongkere (y)~~

~~beach sand telmanef telmaneflengke telmane telmane (E)~~

~~bed panggal (TP) telef teles tel l till (E)~~

~~betel lime tor torlengke tor (E)~~

~~betel nut 1. meref meres mere merl (E)~~

~~2. leaf of pepper tenkarou tenkare l tenkarou (E)~~

~~bird generic term nafle naflepe 87~~

~~Singular Dual or Plural bird 1. ka l angar (TP) me l engken mel engkem plengkel plengkeper (y) melengki melengkem (E)~~

~~2. koki (TP) cockatoo kafra kafrangkou many villages use (white kefera keferam (E) with yellow crest ) (nangkio nangkiere) (yefketa yefketer)~~

~~3. kokomo (TP) yufele yufelem yufel ongkou (y) yufelengki~~

~~4. nambawan ba lus (TP) solpon solpom ma lpol ma lpOm (y) ma lpo ma l pOm (E)~~

~~5. nambatu ba lus (TP) fongkofen fongkofem fongkofel (y) fongkoi fongkoi (E)~~

~~6. guria pisin (TP) welpe we lpem goura pigeon~~

~~7. tarangau (TP) hawk me lkau me lkaul engke~~

~~8. small brown - calls koufai koufa i pes out in the morning koufa ilengke (y)~~

~~9. black breast and kaungkoru kaungkerel white head , small , riro rerepem (E) calls out in the morning. Call is similar to N.Z. bell bird (or tui )~~

~~10 . a small black bird tefele teflongkou wh ich the people claim tefele tefel ongkou (y) can speak their language tefelem (E) and say the names of people. Often kros (TP) with people.~~

~~11 . small nasem nasemlengke sengkel em sengkelem (y)~~

~~12 . orefle orefl ongkou orefl engke (y) oreflem (E)~~

~~13. black with yellow koungke le koungkelem neck and tail or black koungkou (y) with red comb and koungkele white tail~~

~~Bird of Paradise kumu (TP) ke iko keikor ka iko ka ikolengke (y) kaiko ka iker (E) 88~~

~~Singular Dual or Plural black colour ketiH keses or ketefl engke arefes ( Y ) aroro ( see charcoaZ) arongkou (E) or mongkonem blood 1. telues te lui (E)~~

~~2. clotted telu alpef telu aple (E) boil 1. yute yutelengke yetel yutelengki (y)~~

~~2. core of. or you youlengke carbuncle core fangko fangkere (Y ) you lengkl (E) blue colour ma l kom~~

~~nu norlengkl (E)~~

~~emio brain also spinal column founef founeflengke (bone marrow) foune founelengki (E)~~

~~branch onou enel onou ene (E)~~

~~breast udder. milk neme r neme rlengke~~

~~brother 1. see also line elem relationships apa apares apare (E)~~

~~2. see also omo re Lationships~~

~~broum colour ponkol walo (E)~~

~~bundLe nek pas (TP) fiyef flyengke fiyef flyengki (E)~~

~~bush 1. same form as for towa towa lengke spirit, work mingko (Y ) towa lengki (E)~~

~~2. which is not melafu me lafu l engke frequented or belongs tant ipe (y) to no particular melaful engki (E) village or is excep tionally thick~~

~~3. particularly under mamnel mamnelengke growth - new bush - mamne mamnelengki (E) Yebil word has a slightly different area of meaning 89~~

~~Singular Dual or Plural buttoak8 nempe l nelem nemp i nemp i lengki buttre88 of tree ki l bi long panu panengki diwa i (TP)~~

~~c aaZZ a highpitched one neiyu neiel always preceded by verb nei (E) ere aa880wary yono yonongkou aat, dog pe le pelem aave8 mOngos aha1'aoaZ 1. we I i aroro we li arongkou~~

2. around a taro nolef nol ewongkou or noleflengke or banana after it nole (E) has been cooked in the fire ahiZdren nengklo (fem. ) epelel nengke (mas. ) epele (E) ahin lulu lelengke lelengki (y) aZear pZaae usually on top alep nemen alepowengkou nemen of a ridge. Plateau , small alepe nemen (E) area of ground with nothing on it a ZaviaZe tula tulalengke tulam (y) tulem tulengki (E) ahe8t tep lengke tep l engkes teplengki (E) aZi!! alu wanketel alulengke wanketel foi nam (y) aZoud more correctly , sky teplaef teplaflengke teplal teplai (E) aoaonut wom punkol - drai (TP) wom wefes worn namen - ku lau (TP) with wefe (E) white flesh worn kopou - kulau (TP) without white flesh aoaonut Zeal bombom (TP) ofl ongko wefof l ongkos oflongko (E) 90

~~Singular Dual or Plural comb see also arrow 4. tapes tapes lengke tape tape (E)~~

~~creek etengki etongkus otongku (E)~~

~~D dance particular kind - has wa l pem to do with dewe l pi s (TP) wel pem (E)~~

~~daughter see reLationships~~

~~decorations 1. e.g. kl ka ite yen i yeni I buy decorations ki kere yeni I decorate~~

~~2. ear yelye yelyongkou~~

~~3. things , rubbish wef weflengke~~

~~derris root poison, rop (TP) fape~~

~~dew wo los orengkes wo lo orongko (E)~~

~~dirt small particles of tOwen towes rubbish towene towes (y) towi towi (E)~~

~~dog and cat pele longkowo (f) pele pelem peIe epen (m)~~

~~door wengke or wl ngkem~~

~~dust niyef~~

~~drum 1. hand kundu (TP) angke lpe~~

~~2. slit log aiyef~~

~~ear mengkel mengkem mengki (E)~~

~~ear decorations yelye yelyongkou~~

~~earthquake ma iene ma lenel engke~~

~~edge 1. immediate edge lonkol lonkere e.g. of road , top edge ronko (E) lonkelem (E) of box , river 's edge , etc. 91~~

~~Singular Dual or Plural edge 2. see 1. - a little mengkor mengkere further away than mengko mengko (E) lonkol side edge of box egg 1. ball , testicle yolom yel fes yel fi (E)~~

~~2. of large wild bush wa i 10m fowl e'lbow 1. kopo~~

2. etef wengkafom eye 10m los lotepe (E) eyebrow lonkol edge lonkol tuplus lonkos tuplus tuplus a'l'l hair on body lonko tlpl I (E) apart from that on head eye'laah 10m tuplus los tuplus lotepe tipl i los tlpl i (E) eyeUd lofelal 10m felau los felau eye pupil- 10m nengke los epel e l lotepe nengke lotepe epele (E)

~~F face matef mas is mati masl (E) fa t 1. lump of raw fat nangkes~~

2. grease teml ief teml iongkou fa ther see re 'lationships fe ather yiHawe yefawes fel i ngko fel l ngko (E) fe athers down , small feathers femur orou yelpu orou yelpengke fe nce 10m lomlengke finger 1. etef nongko etef nongkere eses nongkere etl nongko es l nongko 92

~~Singular Dual or Plural fi nger 2. first etef tupef etef tupuwongkou etl tupu esl tupuwongkou (E)~~

~~3. middle (Eretel , etef toplela etef toplelangkou middle and fourth) etl olnemen esl olnemen (E)~~

~~4. fourth and fifth etef kera etef kerangkou (Eretel , fifth only ) etl kera es l kerangkou (E) finger-nai 'L etef neref eses noros or etef noros etl nerl esl nora (E)~~

~~fi re we I I~~

~~firewood 1. wh ile being ya lu yalel carried, stored nangkel nangkou (y) or burnt ya l i (E)~~

~~2. dry ya lu nangke yalel nangke nangke ponkol nangkou panko I (y) yalu yefe (E)~~

~~3. that which has we ll pongkof we I i pongkoer been partly burnt we ll nlmou we ll amarengke (y) we I i pongko weI I pongkol (E)~~

~~fi sh nlel ningko nl nlngko (E)~~

~~f'Loor tul lCim tul lCimlengke tul uom (E)~~

~~fLower tafes tafesl engke tafe (E)~~

~~fLy 1. tenplCim tenpei pes tenplom templ iCim (y) tenp lom tenp I per (E)~~

~~2. yanplom yanpei pes yalplom ya lpipes (y) ya lplom yanplper (E)~~

~~3. March fly yaro yarongkou yaros (y)~~

~~food scraps wauwes wauweslengke wa l wauwes wa lwauweslengke (y) wauwe (E)~~

~~foot print of man and yepes animals - same form as yepe (E) tired lalk slip (TP)~~

~~fork e.g. tree fork angkoloi angkaleingkere nempe angkolol angkolei angkaloingki (E) road junction tes l angkoloi~~

~~fro th foam twamou twamou lengke twamou (E) 93~~

~~Singular Dual or Plural fow l 1. wof lu wef lel~~

~~2. large wild bush fowl wa lel friend 1. actually means the porewane two have eaten gal ip (TP) . See gal ip~~

~~2. wa i ngkel l wa i ngkelwane (E)~~

~~3. wofu~~

~~4. actually means meref betel nut , the two have eaten betel nut fr og 1. nelepe nelpoongkou nel pengke (y) nelepe (E)~~

~~2. kikel ine or puprlne klkelem kiker ine klkerim (E) fu ZZ moon anene yaro wCi lpu ane yaro wCilpu (E)~~

~~G gaUp (TP) 1. (Canarium tree) porel porelengke poref porel engke (y) poren poren (E)~~

~~2. (Canarium tree) noriCim norofongku noriom nor i fes (y) norlom(E) garamut made from yoponho aiyef aiyes tree ai ai (E) garden 1. I iom I i pes llpe (E)~~

2. ( old ) tues garden stake for beans , yam, lal las mami , to climb yereri yer iwongkou (E) gourd for holding burnt tounu tounengke lime touyongku (Y),(E) grass wolom also means a wo lom wo los river pool wo lef wo les (y) wolo wo lo (E) 94

Singular Dual or Plural grave l. shingle nengkerangkes nengkerangke (E) grease of a fish: the wo lu 'grease' on the skin which makes it slippery . Same form as hat wara (TP) green namen ground 1. put on body for ualoflepe singsings lualoflepe man with ground nualoflepe woman with ground

~~2. earth, down tef~~

~~3. soft tef tou lel tef toulelel tef toul i toulel i (E)~~

~~4. hard grey, semi kilam ki lais stone alOm alfos (y) ki lai (E)~~

~~5. wh ite kind, wh ite nalol nal ongkou paint na lo (E)~~

~~hair 1. on head - also head oru erel plural form same as erl (E) for sisters~~

~~2. of pig, mu ruk (TP) - elef tefengko when worked into an yonoele (E) ornament~~

~~hardIvood tulei tuleingke tuleingke (y) tuleingki (E)~~

~~head 1. see also hair 1. falol erel fa l engkere oru and falol much falo fa l ongkou (E) the same~~

~~2. of palm trees, fiu fiel same form as white fl (E) e.g. lou fiu sago top meref fiu bete l. nut tree top~~

~~3. of tree panko ponkere N.B. ponkol means dry ponko ponkelem (E) 95~~

~~Singular Dual or Plural~~

~~headache 1. oru loyei oru rapopo (y)~~

~~2. fa lol loyei fa lol lelei (E)~~

~~3. lonkol loyei lonko pe iel (E)~~

~~head decorations selam 1. a dewe l pis (TP) mask that is put on the head~~

~~2. a dewe l pis (TP) tepl teper mask that is put on tepl tepi (E) the head~~

~~3. a dewe l pis (TP) niel ningko mask that is put on ni ningko (E) the head~~

~~heart 1. seat of emotions onom enkes enke (E)~~

~~2. of trees fi lef fi I i ngko file fllengki (E) heel- asiel as ingko asel asi ngko (y) asi asingko (E) hol-e 1. see note on 2. oyen or yo i oengker or ya i res oi oingker (E)~~

2. oyen and namplef are namplef namplos mostly interchangeable nample namplongko (E) but 2. refers mostly to ye lme yelmengkere (y) a hole through something, e.g. laplap, wall, etc ., wh ereas 1. refers mostly to a hole in something e.g. hole in ground

~~3. in tree minef mlnuwongkou mini (E) hou8e 1. wenem wenangkou~~

~~2. small , which is tarou tarengke often built at the tongkolpe tongkol pem (E) gardens. Word usually preceeded by wenem hU8band mCingke mCingkare mCingkarem (E) 96~~

~~Singular Dual or Plural insect l. grasshopper sie sies siem (E)~~

~~2. beetle mOngkihuo 1 engke mOngketuwom (E)~~

~~3. cicada rangko rangklngko~~

~~4. Mason bee mel fengke me l fengkerem melfengkem (E)~~

~~5. cricket otol otongkou~~

~~6. blow fly yanperengki ya lpiom erengki ya lplpeserengkl (y) yanpiom yanperengkl (E)~~

~~7. fire fly towanemp lel towanempleingkl mOmplei nempleingke (y) nemplel nempleingko (E)~~

~~8. March fly yaro yarongkou yarol yaros (Y)~~

~~9. mosquito merio merengkou~~

~~10. grub - eaten na l nangkou~~

~~11 . Praying mant is siepolowengke slepolowengkere temne temnelengke (y) feru lem ferulem (E)~~

~~12. white ant sereple serep lengkou serepel serepl ongkou (y) kerewe l kerewe l (E)~~

~~13. formation left mou mou l engke by white ant popom popomlengke (y) mourengki (E)~~

~~14. scorpion elman po lyu elmangkou po lyu (y) (poiyu = red or pink) el aforu elaferel pe le pel em (E)~~

~~15. centipede elman elmangkou~~

~~insect bite same word as palef paloes for Uver yepale yepal uwongkou (E)~~

~~intestine nelemlengke ne lem (E)~~

~~irritants all kinds nungkues nungku i (E) 97~~

~~Singular �l or Plural jaw 1. of birds and animals vas also tamango shoots and leaves~~

~~2. lulu lelengkes lelengkl (y) lelengki (E) joint arm, knuckles etef olou eses elengkere et l olou esl elengke (E)~~

~~K kanda (TP) ( rattan ) nongko l nongkos or nongkere nongko nongkelem (E) kapiak (TP) 1. Breadfruit sonu species~~

~~2. teple kapiak Zeaf fa l nompof fa I nompOwongkou kaukau (TP) ( sweet potato ) yelewe l kepuZ (TP) ( possum, cuscus ) 1. flu fiel fiu~~

~~2. male, no female of selongkou this colour , reddish 5elol selongkou wh ite~~

~~3. yo lel yolepes yolelengke (y) yo l! yol ipem (E)~~

~~4. memnef temnef temneflengke (y) memn l memn i (E)~~

~~5. striped pelef pe leflengke tangkol tangkol (y) tuo tuo (E)~~

~~6. black tangkone tangkone (y) selker (E) knee yamkol yamkere yamko (y) yamko yamkelem (E) knife 1. large elaf elangkes ela elangki (E) aimene (y)~~

~~2. small elafnongkol elafnongkere alme kOmpO almelengke kOmpe lel (y) elanongko elanoungkelem (E) 98~~

~~Singular Dual or Plural knife 3. back edge of e1af popingko e1af toungka (y) e1 a toungka (E) knot 1. in a tree or rope e1pef e1powongkou tla1pef tla1pos (y) e1pe e 1 pe 1 engkl (E)~~

~~2. kopou kopou1engke kopou 1engkl (E) kuZau (TP) (green coconut ) worn kopou worn kopou 1 kopou1engkl (E)~~

~~Zake pool. A deep pool in tu1epe tu1epengke a river is wo1om tu1ep1e tu1ep1engkl (E)~~

~~Zanguage 11tel or 11 i 1 (E)~~

~~ZapZap (TP) 0101 olongkou~~

~~Zaeoo wi wlngkos wlngke1em (E)~~

~~Zeaf 1. of trees tuo tuos tuof tuos (y) tuo (E)~~

~~2. used to cover terl teringki objects, e.g. tomatoes , etc .~~

~~3. tefa 1e1ef tefa 1e10w0ngkou tefa 1e1e tefa 1e1owongkou or 1e1owi (E)~~

~~4. sa1at used as a nangke nangkes counter-irritant . nangkes (y) Also word for name nangke nangke (E) or dry firewood~~

~~5. paper , large leaves youtef youses only. Small leaves youtl yousi (E) tuo~~

~~Zeft hand kenkaf kenkauwes kenkapowongkou (y) kenka (E) kenka~~

~~Zeg 1. human orou ere1 ere (E)~~

~~2. of insects o rom erlHes erefi (E) 99~~

~~Singular Dual or Plural~~

~~Zeg band fa lem~~

~~Zight 1. sunshower , rainbow , el lngkes an insect giving light erengkl (El~~

~~2. early morning . Completely light is eiyefu lul~~

~~Zightning lit . 'cZoud teplalyef welele Ughts up ' teplaiyef wenlele (yl nes I mel (El~~

~~Zimbum general name and poyu also name of a species~~

~~Zimbum 1. wild yatef vases yate yasem (El~~

~~2. wild fo lyol foiyongkou foiyel~~

~~3. wild loupo~~

~~4. wild awOm awomlengke~~

~~Zimbum box efau efal ofau ofal (y) ofau efal (E)~~

~~Ups 1 ipef 11pow ongkou nemef topo nemes topoungkou (y) 1 ipe llpengki (E)~~

~~Uver same as scar, insect palef pa l ues bite palos (y) palu (E)~~

~~Zouse 1. in human hair~~

~~2. found on dogs yefes yofos (y) yef I (E)~~

~~3. found on pigs nemne nemem or yofos (X) nemem (E)~~

~~Zump painless swelling on kopou kopolengke body, also word for kopolengki coconut~~

~~Zung twatef twases tetef tutu 1 (y) tewate twas I (E) 100~~

~~Singular Dual or Plural mami a root vegetable tamtel tamtem tamte (y) temt i tamt i (E) man 1. metene mete~~

2. a real human in metene wape mete wa lem comparison to a tambaran (TP) mango tree nueple neuplengke ueple uepef (Y) nueplengkl (E) mase�ai (TP) evil spirit rerel rerem ri ri rirem (E) masher wakopou wakopol meat 1. wild - all yuri inclusive name korofas (Y) 5 iye (E)

2. wild - e.g. rats, wo tu opossums , mumut, kapul (TP), etc. medicine also borer ho�es yenpenel metenenlmou (E) men collective term used wi ngke or wlngkete when referring to a group or men mid-day epl l nernen mid-night wem nemen mi�k breast , udder nemer nemerlengke mist nompom nopom (E) moon 1. (month as well ) anene anongkou ane

~~2. nolai nolalngke~~

~~morota ( sago thatch ) 1. tungkepef tungkeke or tungkelem takor takor (E)~~

~~2. sewn up wene takor (E)~~

~~morning 1. early. Sun has lfulul risen. Completely Ifill (E) light in distinction from darkness 101~~

~~Si.ngular Dual or Plural~~

~~morning 2. sunrise unt il mu l mu lengke about 10 a.m. Also means day after tomorrow~~

~~mosquito see insects~~

~~mother see reLationships~~

~~mountain orou erengke erengkes (y)~~

~~mouth nemef nemes neml nem i (E)~~

~~mud l. kefau kefaulengke kofau kofau lengke (y) kofau (E)~~

~~2. fankes fankes lengke fanke fanke (E) mumut (TP) see rat~~

~~mushroom l. tallnga (TP) fel fel angkou selal selangkou (y)~~

~~2. new growth kopou kopo l~~

~~name nangke nangkou~~

~~namesake yeta i 1 engke yiha i~~

~~neck back of opoi opoilengke opolngke (E)~~

~~nest tongkelofou tengkelefe tengkel efe 1 (y) me l ! me lem (E)~~

net te imeref te lmeriwongkou tai merewongkoi (y) teimere te imerewongkou (E) new 1. (many ) obj ects yeflel yeflepe and news . Not worn yefl l yefl ipi (E) il yeflepe recent news wenem yeflel new house

~~2. objects only , may memnel have been used but still new 102~~

Singular Dual or Plural new 3. man or woman recently wa i yos married tengkine (y) night dark mOl poutei • mOlpou mO lpoul engke very dark mol pousene mu l pou (E) hap nait (TP) nipp Ze Omkerlengke noise 1. eplef epleflengke epl i (E)

2. of garamut (TP) pel pes pel pes l engke pel pi (E) nose ml mlngkos mlnopOngko (y) mingkelem (E) nose ornament senarorou senarerel senare senarawongkou (E) nostril mi namplef or mlngkos namplos mi wengklef mlngkos wengkles mi ye lme mi wengkl i (Y) mi wengkle ml wengkle or ml namplongko (E) nwneraZs one mas . nel iye fem. nenplye mas . neleye (Y) fem. nenplye (y) mas . nel leiye (E) fem. nenpieiye (E)

~~two mas . wingkes wingkes fem. wiem wiem~~

~~three mas . wingkes nel lye fem. wiem nenp iye mas . wlngkes neleye fem. wiem nenpleye (Y) mas . wi ngkes nel lelye fem. wiem nenplelye (E)~~

~~four mas . wi ngkes wingkes fem. wiem wlem~~

~~five mas . or pere etef plene fem. pere et l plen (E)~~

~~six mas . or pere etef plene kera fem. pere etef plene nel iye or nenpiye (y) pere et i plen kera (E)~~

~~seven mas . pere etef plene karangkou wlngkes fem. pere etef plene karangkou wlem~~

~~J 103~~

~~seven mas . pere etef plene wingkes fem. pere etef plene wiern (Y) pere etl plen 01 nernen (E)~~

eight pere etef plene toplele pere etef plene wi ngkes nel iye or nenpiye (y) pere etl plen 01 ne·rnen wingkes (E) nine pere etef plene pau pere etef plene tupef mas . pere etef plene wingkes wingkes fem . pe re etef plene wiern wiern (y) pere eti plen pau pere tupu (E) ten pere etef plene pere etef plene pere et i plen pere etl plen (E) or preses plen preses plen preses plen plen preses plen pau preses plen pretef plen pau pretef plen pere etef plen plen eleven (ten ) + orou kera (ten) + orou nel iye (y) twelve (ten ) + orou karangkou wingkes (ten) + orou wlngkes (y) (ten) + orou 01 nernen thirteen (ten) + orou toplela (ten ) + orou wingkes neliye (y) (ten) + orou 01 nernen wingkes (E) fourteen (ten ) + pau pere orou tupef (ten ) + pe re orou wingkes wingkes (y) (ten ) + pau pere orou tupu (E) fifteen (ten) + pau pere orou plene (ten) + pau pere orou p I en (E) sixteen (ten) + pau pere orou plene pere orou kera (ten) + pau pere orou plene pere orou nel iye (y) (ten) + pau pere orou plen pere orou kera (E) or orou plen kera (E) seventeen (ten ) + (five) + pere erel plen karangkou wingkes (ten) + (five) + pe re erel plen wi ngkes (y) (ten ) + (five) + pere 01 nernen (E) eighteen (ten ) + (five ) + pere orou plene to plela (ten) + (five) + pere orou plene wl ngkes nel iye (y) (ten ) + (five) + pere 01 nernen wingkes (E) nineteen (ten ) + (five) + pere orou plene tupef (ten) + (five) + pere orou plene wlngkes wlngkes (y) (ten) + (five) + pere tupu (E) twenty pere etef plene plene pau pere orou plene plene pere etl plen plen pere orou plen plen (E) 104

~~Singular Dual or Plural ocean sea per lal perlall engke offspring 1. male, pig nalengko nalengkere nalongko (Y) na l engkelem (E)~~

~~2. male - all epen epem animals , birds except pigs~~

3. female - all longkouwo longkouwer animals and birds longkouwor (E) oZd garden tues tues 110m tangku llpes tangkupu (Y) tue tue (E) oZd man metene olel mete olepes metene 01 1 mete olpe (E) oU woman mota olene nlmoure olepe moto one nlmoure olpe (E) orange ( colour ) onom opossum see also kapuZ peles

~~P paint black for decorations mangkeni mangkenel sangkenl sangkenilengke (Y) mangkeni (E) paZai (TP) ( lizard) 1. all yefle yeflepes species yeflepe (E)~~

~~2. small naraple narapl engke naraplengkl (E)~~

3. yefle namparu yafle namparouwongkou yefle nangkes yefle nangkes (Y) loungkepe loungkepem (E) pandanus 1. aran (TP ) . katl kates There are at least kati (E) fourteen different species . Also man's name

~~2. aran (TP) . tel I awe tel I awe 1 engke Those who are forbidden to say kat i ( see above ) because of name tabu must say tel iawe pandanus pips nel nel pepe 105~~

~~S :IDJu].ar Dual or Plural panggat (TP) 1. strips' used for btinds~~

~~2. teles tills (y) t 11i (E)~~

~~pelpeiyou or pe lpeJyal papeJyau pelpeJyangkou (Y) pape iyau papayangkou (E) pig 1. around villages sengke songkou~~

~~2. wild morou sies or siem siem (E)~~

~~3. male. See also nal engko nal engkere offspring na l ongko nal engkelem (E)~~

~~4. female longkouwo longkouwer longkouwor (E) pimpte yorofoJ yorofongko yoforom yoforongko (Y) yoro.n yoro.n (E) pink poyu tengke poyu nengke (Y) ,(E) pitpit 1. stick of yaf yas nituyaf nitelyas (Y)~~

2. or otd garden tues tue (E) ptaaenta we Jef wel uwes we li wO lowi (E) ptant 1. Hibiscus toulelpe or toulelpengke (Lumi ) tauteJpe tautel pengke (Maui ) tauteJ pe tautel pengke (y) taulelpe taulelpengki (E)

~~2. grass - kumu (TP) tafengko tafengkos ta J ngko tai ngkelem (E)~~

~~3. mami tTP) - wild kwatu or tolou kwa tel or tolel waskorou waskerel (Y) tulo tol i (E)~~

~~4. top of sugarcane yelem temafe (for planting) yelem yaf (Y) (yelem me flengkes yelem fiu (E) Out e)~~

~~5. tanket (TP) wa ri warem yul i ngko yul ingkere (y) yulongko yul engkelem (E) 106~~

Singular Dual or Plural p1.ant 6. taro - wild wolpongko wolpongkos wol pongkere (y) wo lpongko wo l pongkel em (E) plate wild I imbum used wa lfele wa lfelengke or wa l felongkou for serving food wa i fel engk i ( E) possessions rubbish wef weflengke wefrengke (y) wef (E ) possum see kapu1. precipice steeper than alol wanketei alolengke wanketei cliff - alu wanketel foinamtei foi namtel (y) punga fern terl ongkou pus onkls onkislengke onku enkl (E)

~~R rat 1. house wotu net I wenem wete l weti ( E)~~

~~2. bush pemt l ngko pemt ingkere pemt ingkelem (E)~~

~~3. mumut ( TP ) (bandicoot ) soyau soya l soyaulengkl (E) rafter foref fores fore fori ( E) rain 1. nef neflengke nef ( E)~~

2. sun shower nef elengkes red ya lei ya lellengke we li we llrengke (y) relationships There are few English equivalents to the Wape relationship terms . For an understanding of the terms see P. 137 . Little more than the various Wape relationship terms are here listed.

~~1. lVife moto nlmou re or nimoures~~

~~2. husband mongke mangkare mOngkarem (E ) 107~~

~~Singular Dualor Plural reZationships 3. fa ther (one's own ) ya l ya i res eiya ya l re (E)~~

~~4. father (when referring ya itel ya i res to another 's)~~

~~5. daughter (pl.) really nengkio epelel means children epele (E)~~

~~6. son (has other meanings nengke epelel as well ) epele (E)~~

~~7. mother (one's own ) em or ema or ama amares (has other meanings ) emare (E)~~

~~8. mother (another 's) nimou arares ama re (E)~~

~~9. son-in- ZOLJ yenene ye rem yene (E)~~

~~10 . daughter-in- ZOLJ yenklo ye rem~~

~~11. a man 's younger pa liene pa l iel brother 's sons (has pal ie (E) other meanings )~~

~~12 . a man 's younger pa l io pa l iel brother 's daughters pa l i e (E) (has other meanings )~~

~~13 . a man 's own elder apa apares brother apare (E)~~

~~14. another man 's elder line elem brother (has many other meanings )~~

~~15 . a woman 's own e Zder apa apares sister (has many other apare (E) meanings )~~

~~16. another woman 's eZder I io erem sister (has other meanings )~~

~~17.a man 's younger brother wengke wengkem (has eight or more other meanings )~~

~~18. a man 's sister oru erel~~

~~19. a woman 's brother 01110 mopem (one's own )~~

~~20 . simiZar to brother-in-ZOLJ une olmouem~~

~~21 . simiZar to another 's unete l olmouem brother-in-ZOLJ 108~~

~~Singular Dual or Plural 22. simitar to a sister V i vo yemter in- taLJ~~

~~23 . a certain kind of leI pes niece and nephew (has other leI pi (E) meanings )~~

~~24 . a certain kind of uncle ya i .• kOrnpe or ya I yal res kempO or enares or ena yal re (E)~~

~~(another's) ya l tel kempO~~

~~25. a kind of aunt ema or ema kOrnpe ema res kempe emare kompo (E)~~

~~( another ' s) nlmou kempo~~

~~26 . another kind of uncle faf~~

~~27 . another kind of aunt eta res (one's own ) etare (E)~~

~~28. another kind of aunt etatei eta res (same as above but erare (E) referring to another 's)~~

~~29 . grandfather, or man l mantres fu rther back (one's own ) euwa ouwarengke (y) (also has other meanings ) mantre (E)~~

~~30. grandfather, or mante l mantres further back (another's) angkres (Y) mantre (E)~~

~~31. grandmother, or wau wau res fUrther back (one's own ) wau re (E)~~

32. grandmother (another 's) wautei waures waure (E) rib lapef lapes lape lapi (E) ridge also tai l you youel or youwe l you i (E) ridging of house tupe tupelengke tupelengkl (E) right hand also a species telpef tel pefl engke or of pa I pa I (TP ) tepowongkou (y) tepowongkou (E) ring ma l mangkou or mole river wof wofrengkl (E) wouwef wouwes or wouwes (y) road tesi ngke tes l rengke (y) 109

~~Singular Dual or Plural~~

~~rocky area pIes nogut (TP) wingkoes wingkees lengke with many holes and stones wingkos wingkesrengke (Y) wi ngki wingkelem (E)~~

~~root 1. root hairs na lem~~

~~2. large pa lol paeengkere pa lo pa lengkelem (E) rope strong. Kind alef ali:is obtained from nulef ale ale (E) tree~~

~~1'U8t nampringke nampringkere nempr i ngk is (y) nampri ngke (E) rubbish tues~~

~~s sago 1. cooked in bamboo loom leufes leufe (E)~~

~~2. hat wara (TP) wolu we lel weI i (E)~~

3. not yet broken for 100m alpef leufes alpungku either loom or wo lu wo lu alpef we lel alpungku loom alpe leufe alpungku (E) wo lu alpe well alpungku . (E) sago bark and coconut bark topof tepees for washing and carrying topo tepei (E) sago sago flower louyal li:iuyas sago palm lou loue l loui (E) sago pith sawdust , before taf taflongkou and after washing tafrongkou (Y) taf (E) sago shens the trunk after yengkel yengkes the sago has been chipped yengki yongke (y) out yengki sago spZit Zeaves used in ninai nlnaingke doorways and in women 's ninaingke (Y) skirts ninai sago strainer made from wom uplu worn ep lel or wefes ep lel coconut fibre wefe ep II (E) sago washing bench frame tonkongkos tonkongko (E) 110

~~Singular Dual or Plural sago water used for washing ope pes sago opopo (E) saior 1. fruit yomkof yCimko yCimkos (y) yomko yCimko eE )~~

~~2. tree Ifau Ifaures I faules ty ) I fau (E) sand telmanef telmane (E) saucepan 1. made from earth menkis menko l (E)~~

~~2. part of, broken me lef alol menkis alongkou me li alo menkl alongkou (E)~~

~~also folngkol alol fa i ngkere alolongkou scar pam palef pam pa l ues scratch a mark urus noros (y) uru (E) sea perlal seed 1. fourene foures fouri (E)~~

2. 01 ongkou shadow sonel soni sonengki soni son i (E) sheLf up in roof only slale sialongkou eraple erapl ongkou (y) shieLd paraku parakel panu panengki (y) parakl (E) shoot 1. of all plants wh en 001 ongkou the new shoot comes through the ground

~~2. new, of bamboo opol~~

~~3. white shoot flyu fiel fl (E) eipika (TP) shoots fa l fiel fl (E) shouLder yolef voleS yol i yo 11wongkou (E) 111~~

Singular Dual or Plural skin topo topongkou skirt pu lpul (TP) of women feren feres ferem (y) ferl feri (E) sleeping compartment fonkotu fenketel in house sme ll 1. not necessarily teperef teperewongkou good or bad - just teper i (E) any particular thing

~~2. good , perfume wopef wopoes wopo wopo (E)~~

~~3. bad nanef nanewongkou nane (E)~~

~~4. of Mango tree molongkou smoke usually preceeded by twangkes twangkleslengke we I i fi re twa ngke twangke (E) snake 1. general term totol totongku toto totongko (E)~~

~~2. me lnau io me inau l ongkou~~

~~3. taikoro taikorolengke sore pam papes pape (E) spear 1. also used for word nuel nuem for kind of arrow nul nu i (E)~~

~~2. wem i wem i lengke we iom (E)~~

3. efleftapes tapewe lpo (E) spinal column brain founef founuwongkou foune foune (E) spine toungkolou toungkelel toungeleingke ( E) spinster not a real noun nefe i yausene mefe i yausem pefe i yausepe nefei yaune mifei yaume (E) plfei yaupe (E) spittle 1. tunkus tunku ( E )

~~2. dribble nemtengkele~~

~~3. of betel nut tom 112~~

Singular Dual or Plural stalk of pitpit , suga rcane , yaf vas new shoots of tul ip (TP): chin of some animals star taurou tau rei kaurou kaurel (y) tauri tauri (E) stick 1. for planting a.fongko afungko vegetables aufi ngkl aufungku (E)

~~2. for turning ye lem yelemlengke hat wa ra (TP) stomach 1. yofu yefel yefl~~

~~2. fangko fangkere fangkelem~~

3. of beetles mom mOmlengke mOfes (y) mOml elngkl (E) stone erau eral era erape (E) story tepepes sugar (cane ) yelem yeleml engke ye lem (E) sugar head this is planted ye lem flyu ye lem fiel yelem eflel yelem efleingke (y) ye lem fl (E) sun ep\ l epi llengke epl i (E)

~~8weat telenkes lenke (E)~~

~~T tai l 1. of animals, you youe l also ridge youwi (E)~~

~~2. of birds , tail nopongko nopongkere feathers nOpOngkelem (E) tambaran (TP) evil spirit , towa towas same as bU8h, work towa (E) tanket (cordyline) warem taro 1. wapenel wapene (E) 113~~

~~Singular Dual or Plural~~

~~taI'O 2. wild wolpongko wol pongkos wolpongkere (Y) wo l pongko wol pongkelem (E)~~

~~teaI'S lotepe~~

~~teat nipple ooker omker lengke omkor ookorlengke ookor ookor (E)~~

~~teeth 1. nel pe nelpes nelpel nel pel nel pem (E)~~

~~2. of pig - made into nungklue wefe nungl ues ornament nungklu nungklui (E)~~

3. of dog - made into roupem roupes ornament nelpe (y) nel pes (y) roupem (E) tendon tofor toforlengke pen i ngku pen i ngku (Y) pinungku pinungkelem (E) thorn 51 singko thwnb etef nompou eses nompo l etef oru eses noopo l (Y) eti noopou es i noopeleingkl (E) thunder fra i ngkos is teplaef noungko fraingkos optional teplal noungko (E) timber short pieces of sempo li ef I efes diwa i (TP) used for sempol i lapes (y) making a trap - sempol i sempol i lapl (E) timber end furu ferengki tobacco sauke or sauke lye kapasa (y) sauke iye (E) toe The various toes have orou the same name as fingers. See fingers toe nail. orou neref erel noros erel noro (y) orou nerl ere norongko (E) tomorrow wa intoumu nolowl (E) ton (TP) (Pometia Tree) kol pou kelpel keple (E) tongue nonel nonongku nonl non l (E) 114

~~Singular Dual or Plural~~

~~trap made of sticks and sempol l sempo lem stones~~

~~tree 1. large , soft wh ite otongko otongkere sap. Borers eat it . otongkos otongkos lengke (y) otongkelem (E)~~

~~2. leaves of this tree wereme ref weremerewongkou used as toilet paper . soroupo soropongkl (E) weremeref youses its leaf, weremeref fa lus its Leaves~~

~~3. nulef nuluwongkou lulem lel efes (y)~~

~~4. pal pa l (TP) koropei korope ingke klrepe i ki repeingke (y) torowa l torowai lengki (E)~~

~~5. ga llp (TP) (i) noriOm norofongku nor i fes noriom noriom~~

~~gal lp (TP) (ii) porel porelengke poref porelengke (y) poren poren (E)~~

~~6. breadfruit (i) sonu senengke kapiak tewa lou tewa lel (y)~~

~~breadfrui t (11) teple sent (E)~~

~~7. hardwood lying in lopongko lopongkere bush lopongkel em (E)~~

~~8. we laran ye iyef~~

~~tree heart fi lef fllengko nempel ne lem (Y) fi le fi lengki (E)~~

~~tree sap the water , also fa l fallengke means eipika (TP) fa l rengke (y)~~

~~tree stump or sawn-off end furu ferengke ferengkl (E)~~

~~tree trunk also a walking n�pe tefengko nempes tefengkere stick nempe tengko nempe tengkelem (E)~~

~~tree wood timb er , dlwal (TP) nempe nempes general name for all species nempe (E)~~

~~tuLip (TP) (Gnetum tree ) nlmpa nlmpas nlmpa (E)~~

~~tulip seeds nelpe nelpepe~~

~~tuber nampal napongka nampa nampa (E)~~

~~twiLight (morning) nolowl mu l (y) 115~~

~~Singular Dual or Plural~~

~~ul'ine nampes nampe (E)~~

~~wnbi Uaal aord yoa yowa lengke ongkol ongkere (y) yowa lengki (E)~~

~~vein nongkefer nongkeferlengke pen ingko pen i ngkorengke nongkofor nongkofor (E)~~

~~vi Uage uf uflengke ufrengke (y) ufleingkf (E)~~

~~vine general term fouyou fouyel fouye (E)~~

~~vine l. tankol tankere tanka tanka (E)~~

~~2. yo lou yele or yelengke kfarou kiarel (y) yolou yolou (E)~~

~~3. not very stong nefl engke nef lengkem or durable nemp lefe nemp lefengke (y) naflengke nafe l engkem (E)~~

~~4. toponempe l toponelem oto ot i (E)~~

~~w water tepe l also used tepe tepe lengke for bad tal'O tepel (y) tepe tepe (E) water hole 1. or passage wolom we I ifes in river we lefes (y) wolwongkou (E)~~

~~2. small tepeingkom tepelngkomlelngke tepe ingkem tepe lngkem (E) whiskers tuf tuflengke lulu tuplus lulu tuplus (y) tef tef (E) whistle twenkes twenke (E) 116~~

~~Singular Dual or Plural~~

~~white fiyu~~

~~white hail' oru oles~~

~~whiteman moll mastalengke mol i rengke (y) mastaleingki (E)~~

~~wild pitpit noungkel noungkou~~

~~wind yof or yofnempef yofnemp i (E)~~

~~wing fel i fel ingko~~

~~witch doctol' laloiwopef nemefwopowes laloiwope nemiwopo (E)~~

~~woman 1. wife mote nimoure or nimoures~~

~~2. a real woman in moto wape nimoure wa lem contrast to a tambaran (TP)~~

~~3. collective term wipem used when referring to a group of women (used of humans only) me roum two women~~

~~yam kem kemrengke (y)~~

~~yeHow kaflaf kefla (E)~~

~~yesterday nempes~~

~~young man lainouwio lainouwongkou lainouwo lainowongkou (E)~~

~~D. Mc GREGOR~~

~~BODY PARTS~~

Singular Dual or Plural head falol fa l engkere hail' oru erel bald head yom notepo faae matiH mases lip Iipef lepowes mouth nemef teeth nelpe nelpes tongue n onel nonongkou jaw (ahin) I u I u lelengke nose mi nOB tri ls m! namplef or m!ngkos namplos m! wengklef m!ngkos wengkles mi yelme (y) ml wengkl i (Y) brain or founef founu wongkou spinal marrow } whis kers tuf tuflengke ear mengkel mengkem eye 10m los eyebrow lonkol tuplus lonkos tuplus eyelash 10m tuplus los tuplus eyelid lofelal eye pupil 10m nengke los epelel neak yef neak (baak of) opol

~~117~~

McGregor, D.E. "English - Olo Terms For: Body Parts, Body Fluids and Excretions and Colours". In McGregor, D.E. and McGregor, A. editors, Olo language materials. D-42:117-119. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1982. DOI:10.15144/PL-D42.117 ©1982 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative. 118

Singular Dual or Plural spine toungkou lou baak toungka ahest dip I engke breast nemer nemerlengke nipp Le omker omkerlengke ribs lapef lapos shouLders yol ef v oles aLaviaLe tula tulalengke smaH of baak pau buttoaks nempel intestines nelem nelemlengke heart onom Lung twatef twases abdomen yofo Liver palef pal ues bone emio emingkou vein or noungkefer noungke ferl engke bLood vesseL } umbi Liaa L aord yoa yoa lengke tendon tofor toforl engke pLacenta we lef we l uwes skin topo hail' (body) tuplus te8ticLe8 yolom anU8 nempe l namplef vagina yelme (Y) armpit eflengkes armpit hail' eflengkes tuplus hand etef eses Left hand kenkaf ken kauwes right hand te I pef tel powes wri8tbone olou e I e I eLbow etef wengkafom finger8 nongkos fingernaiL8 etlH neref eses noros thumb nompou inde x finger topef 8eaond finger laploerel third finger toplela LitHe finger kera arm mU8aLe etef faurene 119

Singular Dual or Plural l.eg orou erel l.eg muscl.e orou faurene femur yel pu heel. asiel asi ngko knee yamko l yamkere big toe orou nompou second toe orou topef third toe orou toplela fourth toe orou kerangkou wingkes fifth toe orou kera toe nai l. orou neref erel noros

BODY FLUIDS AND BODY EXCRETIONS bl.ood telues bl.ood (cZotted) telu alpef urine nampes mil.k neme r tear8 lotepe 8weat telenkes pU8 onkis 8pittZe tunkus 8pittl.e of betel. nut tom dribb l.e nemtengkele fr oth (bubb l.e8) twamou twamou-Iengke breath yef head Zice footprint yepes headache oru loye i fa lol loye i headache (behind the lonkol loyel eye8) core of boi l. you you lengke

COLOURS orange onom green namen bl.ack ketef ye ZZo., ka f I a f white fiyu brown ponkol red ya lei pink poyu tengki bl.ue ma l com McGregor, D.E. "English - Olo Terms For: Body Parts, Body Fluids and Excretions and Colours". In McGregor, D.E. and McGregor, A. editors, Olo language materials. D-42:117-119. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1982. DOI:10.15144/PL-D42.117 ©1982 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative. TEXTS

This is a collection of texts from different areas of the Wape people's life. The first is a well known lament. The second two are well known legends, and all of them have their own particular word order. Bystanders would not allow alteration of recognised word order by either of the speakers .. However a later Wape listener to the tape recordings commented that the true meaning of some sentences was not very clear - a fact that we had already noted! The fourth is a quietly told account of what a man had done the previous day. Then follows a selection of sentences recorded in isolated instances of village life . In the texts, sentence breaks are marked thus I As 010 translates, in mo st instances, more readily into Pidgin Cor Neo Melanesian) this translation is also given, as well as English and free English.

~~121~~

McGregor, D.E. "Texts". In McGregor, D.E. and McGregor, A. editors, Olo language materials. D-42:121-135. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1982. DOI:10.15144/PL-D42.121 ©1982 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative. 122

The following two stories 'Pe pratef anene ' and 'Yute laluwol ' were spoken very quickly, and especially in the second one , has resulted in abbreviat ion of many of the words , particularly verb constructions . The stories seemed to be well known amongst the group .

~~PE PRATEF ANENE Spoken by Serai, wife of Teni~~

~~Recorded at Lumi village 2 9 .4.59 by A. McGregor~~

~~pe pratef anene ne IIye / prat'H 01 I stap I was long mun 01 I was They aZZ stay (to hunt) moon one (they) stay (to hunt)~~

~~pe pe wo lo yurl pores lepe kolo I et I 01 I go nogat abus 01 i slutlm nogat bl long they go, No ! animaZs (they) shoot (them) No ! because~~

~~towa laplouw l / towa I ap I ef I tambaran em i kaikal im tambaran bl long kalkal lm eviZ spirit eats them. EviZ spirit, to eat them~~

~~I e I ape I e I neI leinel leinel I e I ne I lei ne I I e I ne I em i wok long raunlm raunlm raunlm raunim raunlm he chases (them) round round round round round round~~

~~pe pa i 10 pa llore pa II0 porou porou 01 I wok long slngaut 01 I slngaut yet 01 I ronewe They caZZ out caZZ out and caZZ out caZZ out run alJay~~

~~porou ye fal uf pesan nor 01 i ronewe nau kama p pies 01 I I ar 1m bunara run alJay nOlJ arrive at vi ZZage (they) Zeft bOlJS and arrOlJS~~

~~pratel / Ie I el l laungke kompu lepel 01 i stap em Igo em I ho I 1m pa s Ilk Ilk dlspela (they) remained. He goes to crush (them) ZittZe (one) this~~

~~I a I 0 i I a I 01 em l ngkou pratel / pe pel i em I kalkaim em bun tasol I stap 01 I go (he) eats (him) (he) eats (him) bones remain. They go~~

~~ponto ll wolo eml ngkou pratei towa I a I 0 I yu r I lukim Nogat bun tasol i stap tambaran I ka I ka IIm abus to Zook No! bones remain EviZ spirit eaten (him) animaZs 123~~

~~poresiepe kolo / fel / kerau 01 ino slutlm 01 nogat plnls IIk II k (they) shoot (them) no The end short one.~~

'One fu ZZ moon aZZ the peop Ze gathered to hunt. They went hunting but did not shoot any bush animaZs or birds beaause the eviZ spiri t ate them. The eviZ spirit wanting to eat them ahased them round and round and round and round and round and round. They aried out and ari ed out aried out and aried out (and) ran (and) ran and running away arrived at the viZZage Zeaving the bows and arrows behind. (The eviZ spirit) went and arushed (in his arms) this ZittZe (one). (He) eats and eats (him) onZy bones remain. They wen� to investigate but onZy bones remained. The eviZ spirit ate him. They did not shoot any birds or bush anima Zs . The end. A short one.

~~YUTE LOLUWOL Spoken by Birei~~

~~Recorded at Lumi village May , 1 959 by D.E. McGregor~~

Ki keneto l / lepe l yute loluwo l / mi blhainim bl longen dispe la buk I kamap long em I fo l.Zow after (it) This (one) abaess (he) looks (at it) rat uf moto nepleslfol ya lel wo lo stap long pies meri i wok long mek lm fa la longen fa lawut nogat remains vi l lage woman makes a fire (for him) firewood no na i lofepe / yalel wo ru wo ru pepl l em i kros long em fa iawu t plantl planti pin I 5 (she) is angry about (them) fi rewood muah muah finished ne na I I ef ya lei / na II0 nlafo l em i kros long fa l awu t em i kros em I kros long en she is angry about the firewood (she) is angry (she) is angry with (him)

Ie Ie 110 lorou I el l I ete I lato 110m / mu l pou em I kirap ronewe i go 5 IIp I stap gaden tudak He gets up runs away goes sleeps remains garden. night lengetel towa lororo .1 e / towa Ie I har I m Dewe l I slngslng I go Dewel (he) hears eviZ spirit (he) singsings gOBS The eviZ spirit 124

~~roro Ie manfem Ie komtef we 1 I teperef 1 e i singslng i go klostu em I smel lm fa la sme l bi 10ngen em 8ing8ing8 goe8 near he 8meZZs fire the 8men of He~~

1 ante I angkelpe nul tel I Ie lanpo tepene I I hanglm aplm kundu I stap em I tekewe panga l hang8 up hand drum (it) remain8 He pU n8 off a 8trip of pangaZ lanengkl I 1 anengk I ne laluwofol yute I I s I ub I m I slublm em I slublm bllongen buk (he) 8hove8 (it) (he) 8hove8 it (he) 8pear8 hi8 abce88 laluwofol yute noulelpene I I siublm buk em I pu IIm bek I kam (he) 8pear8 hi8 (the m n'8) abce88 (he) pUn8 it back leipenau komtefene ko lo lesan nato I em i pu 1 i m kam sme 1 i m em nogat em i trolmwe i stap (he) pUn8 8me n8 (it) No (he) throw8 it down it 8tay8

Ie nau 1 e i 10 kap selam lepletei em bak i k i rap em i kisim dewe l pis em I pat lm (long het) (he) get8 up back take8 the fi 8h ma8k put8 it on kar angkelpe I Ie lelt al0 yo 1 i!f k is i m kundu em I putlm long sol take8 down the hand drum He pUt8 (it) on 8houZder

1 e 1 a 10roro nou Ie naro wof I em ka rim singsing bek em kamap wa ra He carrie8 (he) 8ing8ing8 back he arrive8 river nomoru lato 1 e 1 e i pe l laule 1 e 1 ete i het b i long saksak i stap em i pu 1 i m i kam i pas lm (hul) Top of 8ago paZm remain8 he pUn8 (it) come8 (he) bZock8 up

tulum elpese I Ie kotu 1 el l wol0 teluere hap pIes bi long pasta im em wokabau t i go nogat blut na the part there before He wa Zk8 about goe8 no bZood and ongkes re 1 e 1 a I lato I towa wa ra na em 1 a i k i da i i stap dewe 1 pU8 and he die8 (he) remain8 yet The eviZ 8pirit

~~1 e 1 el i 1 e 1 e 1 e wo lele tes lye nauwl you i go go go go olsem em i sanap lon g rot bek i kam He goe8 goe8 goe8 goe8 unti Z (he) 8tand8 road come8 back~~

~~1 e nou lau lau lau lantei angkelpe na to I em bek i kam i kam I kam i put im kundu i stap He again come8 come8 come8 (he) hang8 up hand drum it 8tay8 there 125~~

~~Ie nou kantepene / nou lanengkl em I gen k I s 1m bek I I k I I k pangal gen I s I nbI m He again gets the pangal strip again (he) shoves (it)~~

~~I a I ue nomoru elpes ele I slut 1m hed bi long saksak b I long pasta lm I sanap (he) spears the top of the sago palm there before standing~~

~~lanengkl I a I ue lesane I el i I slnblm i s i ut i m ilarlm i go (he) shoves (it) (he) spears (it) (he) leaves it there (he) goes~~

~~leI e lefe lusye pato / lontol l wolo sanap hla ha l tasol I stap em i lukluk nogat stands up there eyes (they) remain (he) looks no~~

~~fi lfil 010 / I e leI e I onto Ii nou lau mek im na is nogat em i sa nap lukluk em i kam bek movement no He stands up looks comes back~~

~~kotuwene kumtefene Ie lentane / lentane kamau tim sme lim em I put lm (long tang) em i put lm takes (it) out sme lls (it) He puts (it) (he) puts (it)~~

~~I ano I lengketefene aaa / ker epe l wotu lesan i ka lkal emf f I IIm Ugh! ml tlngting a bus em llarlm eats (i t) tastes it Ugh ! thought meat (he) throws it away~~

~~nato / Ie kapl lepletel kar angkelpe / I stap em I k I s 1m em I putim long het I k I s 1m kundu it stays He takes (them) puts (them) on takes hand drum~~

~~Ie Ian loro I el l / nou Ie Ie Ie Ie em I klslm I slngs lng I go bek em I go go go He carries (it) singsings goes again He goes goes goes~~

~~naro pongku f lere wof letep l / kamap (nem bl long bus) wanta lm wara em I godaun arrives at Pongkuf together with river (he) goes down~~

lere Mer I letepl Ie Ie Ie Ie wantalm Mer I I godaun I go go go go together with Meri (a stream) (he) goes down goes goes goes goes naro 5 I pi / I e I I Ie IIsa I I ete I I ato / kamap 5 I pi I go em i I a rim em i slip i stap arrives at Sipi (river) (he) goes He leaves (him) sleeps remains

~~Ieil 0 mu l nou lorou I au em I klrap mon lngtalm bek I ron I kam (the man) (he) gets up morning back (he) runs (he) comes 126~~

~~1 e uf i go long pIes goes vi Z1.age~~

'I repeat (the story) . This one (is cal led) "He looks at an abcess ". In the vi l lage a woman makes a fire for a man . But there was no fi rewood so she makes a fu ss about it all. There had been a lot of fi rewood but it is all gone . She makes a fuss about the firewood. She makes a fuss and is angry with the man . The man gets up and runs away to sleep and stay in the garden. At night he hears an evil spirit sing singing as he goes. The evil spiri t singsings. as he comes near he smells the smell of fire. He hangs up the hand drum. He pu lls off a strip of panga l. He shoves it (and) shoves it (and) spears (the man 's) abcess . He spears his abcess and pulls back (the splinter) . He pulls it out and smells it. No good! So he throws it away . He gets back up

_ takes down the fi sh mask and puts it on and takes down the hand drum . He puts it on (his) shoulder. He carries it (and) singsings back again (and) arrives at the river. The top of the sago palm is still there . He (the man) pulls it and blocks up the hole that was there before . The man cannot walk - as there is blood and pus . He fe els he is near de ath. But he 's still there! The evi l spirit goes and goes and goes and goes until he stands on the road. so he comes back. Back he comes (and) hangs up the hand drum . He takes the pungal strip again and (he) shoves it (and) spears the top of the sago palm standing there from before . He shoves (and) spears it (the abcess) and leaves (the splinter) there. He goes and stands up there (at the hole) . (His) eyes only are there . He cannot see anything (and) there is no movement. He stands up to look and comes back and takes out the pangal strip. (He) smells it (and) puts it (on his tongue) . (He) puts it on his tongue and swallows it (and savours (it) . Ugh! (He says to himse lf) "I thought it was meat". He throws the splinter away . He takes the fish mask down and puts it on (and) takes down the hand drum. He carries it and singsings as he goes . Again he goes back and arrives at Pongkuf. the place where the river meets the vil lage bush and he fo llows it down . Also at the junction of the Meri (stream) he goes down and goes and goes and arrives at Sipi (the river) . He goes . He leaves (the man) to sleep and stay (in the garden) . The man gets up in the morning (and) runs back (and) comes to the village. 127

The following song or lament used often to be heard after a plane had taken some youths or young men away for work on a plantation . The words are divided fairly evenly into six stanzas , each one beginning with '(My ) Son --'and finishing with '-- My Son At the beginning of each stanza the tune starts on a very high tremulous note and descends slowly by semitones to the last quavering cry '-- My Son! ' It is very plaintive and appealing.

~~A lament , as sung by a mother about her son when he goes away to a plantation.~~

~~Sung by Oiye~~

~~Recorded at Lumi , August 1960 by A. McGregor~~

Ki nengke nengk e Ki kere ya I te I Pi kini n i bl long ml pi kin I n I ml wantalm papa bl long yu My 80n -- Son -- I together wi th your father we i i wefe i wa to Mau l fonanko l we I I wefe l i go slndaun i s tap Mau l ston I go slndaun we go we 8it down we 8tay Maui stone outcrop we go we 8it down wa to Lumi fonankol worafuwe i ye werei ye i stap Lumi ston sore long yu wantaim yu we stay Lumi 8tone outcrop . we feel for you together with you k i nengke pikinini bi long mi my son nengke ya i te i rota ye lalofi ye wef pi kini n i papa bi long yu i k i 5 i m bi long yu olgeda samt ing Son -- your fa ther co l lect8 for you thing8 thing8 u I u I laletef ye krutu mamnene wamu bi long yu b i long yu tasol saksak nupela saksak many to pre8ent to you 8ago (8pecie8) fre8h 8ago (8pecie8) mamnene kUlpou sonu mamnene meref ka t i mamnene nupe la ton kapiak nupela bua i aran nupe la fr esh Pometia breadfrui t fr e8h betel nut pandanu8 fr e8h

~~I antef i ye k i nengke bi long yu tasol pikininl bllong ml to present to you my 80n 128~~

~~nengke ki ama net i uf tes i kaule k i pi kin in i mi mama b i long dispe la pies rot mi kam ml Son - I am your mother of thi8 road vi Z Zage I aame I~~

~~1 I a i ye ka loufi ye yoa nangka ka rim yu katim b II ong yu rop nem gave birth to you aut your umbiZiaaZ aord name~~

2 lei ye leti ale aperi pato mo lpou b i long yu bilong kat i m plantlm i stap tudak your8 aonaerned with autting pZanted them they remain night so yau le ki nengke mas i kam plkininl bilong mi you (wiZZ/mu8t) aome my 80n - nengke mo l i I e I a i ye kolo I m lsi 5 I pi kini n i masta em I karim yu nogat m is i 5 Son - 'Ma8 ta ' he did (not) give birth to you No ! 'Mi8i8 ' ne I a i ye kalef ye yoa em i ka rim yu kislm bl long yu rop 8he did (not) give birth to you (or) take your umbi ZiaaZ aord nalouwi na f i ye ne t i tel syon ko lo katim slngautim yu b i long ste sln nogat (and) aut it or aaZZ out (your name) from the 8tation No ! rna ye nauwiyou ele k i nengke yu mas i kambek sanap pi kinI n I b i long ml you mU8t aome baak (and) 8tand (here) my 80n -

~~nengke ye ra tel i I epe II ye paule pi kini n i yu i stap long hap tok bl long yu i kam Son you stay/remain over there your word8 aome~~

~~3 youtef ye naule k i ke re ya i te I we ratel pas bilong yu I kam mi wan talm papa bi long yu i stap a Zettel' from you aome8 I together with your fa ther we remain~~

~~i I ye peliH ye youtef ye nelef ye tok bi long yu I go long yu pas bl long yu i go long yu word8/ta tk for you they go to you a Zettel' for you goe8 to you~~

~~k i nengke pikinini bi long mi my 80n - lA name is given by the mother at the time of birth.~~

~~2A reference to trees planted at the time of birth. 3 Li terally , Zeal' . 129~~

~~nengke ki kere ya itei we Ii wefei wato pi kini n i mi wa ntaim papa bilo ng yu i go i sindaun i stap Son - I together with your fa ther we go we sit we stay~~

~~Mau i fonankol we i i wefei wa to Lumi fonanko l Maui ston i go i sindaun i stap Lumi ston Maui stone outcrop we go we sit we stay Lumi stone outcrop~~

wo rafu we i ye we rel ye kl nengke sore long yu wa ntalm yu pi kin I n i b i long ml we fe el- for you together wi th you my son - My son, Son - Your fa ther and I go and sit down on the Maui stone outcrop . We go and sit down on the Lumi stone outcrop. We yearn for you, and you for us . My son .....

~~Son - Your fa ther gathers together many things to give you - Sago, fresh sago, fr esh Pometia fruit, fresh breadfruit, fresh betelnut, fresh pandanus fruit To give to you. My son .....~~

Son - I am your mother from this vi l lage by the road I bore you and cut your umbi lical cord and named you and planted your birth trees. They are still there. It 's dark. You mus t come to me . My son .....

~~Son - The white man did not give birth to you! The white lady on the Government Station did not give birth to you, or cut your umbi lical cord and name you. No! You must come back here. My son .....~~

~~Son - You stay over there and You send messages to us in a letter We stay here And we send mes8ages to you in a letter. My 8on .....~~

~~Son - Your fa ther and I go and 8it down on the Maui 8tone outcrop We go and 8it down on the Lumi 8tone outcrop We yearn for you, and you for U8 . My 8on ..... 130~~

~~Te xt , spoken by Silki~~

Recorded at Lumi on 11.7.57 by A. Mc Gregor nempes k I kaule ke repef Iferoum I I te I / k i nauwl you aste ml kam toklm yutupela tokples ml bek Yes terday I aame tal.ked to you two �anguage . I go baak ke Ii u f ka lol wapenou / ki ke I I kapotu meres / ki i go pIes ka ikai taro mi go klsim bua l mi vi � �age eat taro I go p�uak bete � nuts I ka ite nimpo / k i kononwe i Ifau ka l sene / kl k I s 1m tamanger ml goaplm sayor kislm mi piak 'tamanger ' I alimb up the wi ld fi g I get it I knamp I I teple ungkau kel ape kaule kolu pu I 1m kaplak kru ka rim (long han) I kam luklm pun them breadfruit shoots aarry them (I) aome �ook yelyef ko lo / k I kaule 110m kaperl teple 'welaren ' nogat ml kam garden plantim kaplak 'we�aren ' No . I aome garden (I) p�ant (them) breadfrui t

~~ungkau / nef nalolo kl kaule kongkongku / kl kaule kru ren I kam daun ml kam was was ml kam shoots rain aomes down I aome wash I aome~~

~~uf / mo lpou kl kaplol kl ketel / long pIes tudak ml kaI ka I ml s I I p (to the) vi nage night I eat I s�eep~~

~~e i fu I u I k I kau le kerepef Iferoum I I te I / t u I a I t ml kam toklm yutupela tok pIes ear�y morning I aome I tal.k (to) you two �anguage~~

'Yesterday I aame and tal.ked �anguage to you two . I went baak to the vi��age and ate taro. I went and piaked some bete �nuts (pl.). I piaked 'tamanger '. I a�imbed up the wi�d fi g and got some. I pu� �ed some breadfruit shoots and aarried them. I was going to aome and �ook at 'we �aren '. But I did not. I went to the garden and p�anted the breadfruit shoots. The rain aame down and I aame and had a wash. I aame to the vinage. At night I ate' (and) then s�ept. In the ear�y morning I aame (and) ta�ked �anguage to you two '. 131

~~Sentences , spoken by many different people~~

~~Recorded over a period of time in many places by D.E. Mc Gregor~~

~~l. k i kefei kengkariepe mi sindaun we t im 01 I sit down wait for them 'I sit down and wait for them '~~

~~2. ye efe l wes iauye yengkarielki mampe l k is yu slndaun 1 i k 1 i k ta im wet im mi ba l mi you sit down for a short time wait for me afterwards I~~

~~kau kam wi ZZ aome 'You sit down for a ZittZe whiZe and wai t for me and Zater on I wiZZ aome '~~

~~3. pe pentaro kl kengke tel ko l0 01 I tok tok ml ha r 1m nogat They taZk I do not hear (neg. ) 'They aZZ ta Zk but I do not hear '~~

~~4. ye e i ne i au el l k i kelnel kau ke 1 I ku yu raun i kam i go ml raun i kam I go mltupela you round aome go I round aome go we~~

~~werengkenoute ku wei i I bung wantalm i go together meet we go 'You go round there and I'ZZ go round here and we 'ZZ meet and go on together '~~

~~5. pe le lompetei lengkafi metene dok i ron i blhainlm man (a) dog runs after (a) man 'A dog is running after a man '~~

~~6. k I kapl01 wa penou pere sengke mi ka I ka l taro wanta lm plk I eat (them) taro together wi th pig 'I eat taro and pig '~~

~~7. mampe l ye oluwo l ya l 1 et I k i bihaln yu luklm em papa bi long ml afterwards you (wiZZ) see fa ther beZonging to me 'Later on you wi ZZ see my father ' 132~~

~~8. n eng 1 e f mo to p e 1 e 1 nap 1 I olwe 1 I aplnun merl bl long en kuklm ka lkal afternoon wife his cooks food 'In the afternoon his wife cooks food '~~

~~9. moto pel kl na mer I b I long ml I da I wife be�onging to me dies 'My wife di es '~~

~~10. nelfe wen em nenpelye ratel tes l wanpela 1 I k 1 I k haus b 11ong ml i stap long rot my house one litHe remains road 'My one litHe house is by the road '~~

~~II. leptalofl moto ma lalsene em I put lm em long mer I ba l em I ma rltlm em (he) puts them on woman he wiZZ marry her 'He puts (�ove spel7,s) on the woman he wi ZZ marry her '~~

~~12 . meraum tapene mere lulem tupela I sem wantalm kantere they two are shy (when) together with nieces and nephews 'The man and woman are shy in front of nieces and nephews '~~

~~13. ye posye mengketel penafl yu fas I m maus mipela ha rim 01 I slngaut you quiet we hear them caZZing out (to us) 'You be quiet then we can hear them caZZing out to us '~~

~~14. ye ele mampe l yu sanap b i ha In you wait afterwards 'You wait '~~

~~15. ye efel oporo yu slndaun gut you sit down proper�y 'You sit down proper�y '~~

~~16. wa lntoumu k I ma kopno l wef tumo ra ml mas kaunt lm 01 samtl ng tomorrow I wiZZ count things 'Tomorrow I wiZZ count things '~~

~~17. te roungke tenpel I ba 1 I tupela ki klm bo l the two (men) kick a baZZ 'The two are kicking a ba��' 133~~

~~18. fei sungko i k I kau le kratel nau bl long bipo ml kam i stap now before I came to stay 'I have been here a long time '~~

~~19. Onoko lalpo tues Onoko kl iarim olpela gaten Onoko prepares old garden 'Onoko slashes/prepares an old garden '~~

~~20. k i kantetel nengklo feres ml was lm pi kini n i me r i I wash baby girl 'I wash a baby girl '~~

~~2I. ife yoro wa tef Luml om yupela slngsing olsem Lumi you singsing same as Lumi interrogat ive 'Do you (people) dance the same as the Lumi (peop l e)?'~~

~~22. ye onwe i wa tef k I yu kirap 01 sem mi you climb up same as me 'You climb up the same way as I do '~~

~~2 3. ye re ml au yu kam wanta lm husat you with who come ? 'Whom did you come with?'~~

~~24. ye el i aite wo los yu go kat i m gras you go cut grass 'You go and cut the grass '~~

~~25. i fe kapl ya lei po lomen we.m wingkis nante yupe la klslm fa i awut haumas taim tupela no you (pI.) get firewood how many times two or~~

~~wingkis ne lle tripela tree? 'How many times did you get fi rewood? Two or three?'~~

~~26. kl kina kel i kamfo ro tungkelem mi yet ml go put im mo rota I myself go weave 'morota ' thatch 'I myself wi ll go and weave 'morota ' thatch ' 134~~

27 . morou nantesom me lal ep I e I pik goapim tupela me rip i k tupela i ka rim pi kin i n i pig impregnates (two fema les) they (two fema les) have piglets 'A pig impregnates two sows . They give birth to piglets '

~~28. k i kelte me tene ne I Ie mi pu I 1m wanpe la man I puH man one 'I puH one man '~~

29. k I nengklo feres nel napri yamkere nenterl neIi pikin I n I mer I b I long ml putlm lek bl longen i go my baby daughter (poss .) puts knees craw ls goes 'My baby dauther kneels down and craw ls away '

~~30. k I klnu ke I I yes mampel yes engkef k I ml pastaim I go yu blh aln yu blhalnlm ml I fi rs t go you (fut.) afterwards you ( fut .) fo How me , I'll go fi rs t and later on you fo How me '~~

~~3l. Ie lano l Ie nangku lengketefene me I ka I ka I 1m em i raunlm I pi I 1m He eats it he swal lows savours it 'He eats it and swal lows and savours it '~~

~~32. k I ke ketap kontol I mete wo lolo ml I go go daun I uk I m 01 man Nogat (repetitive ) I go down see men (neg. ) 'I go down to see the men but they are not there '~~

~~33. pe pes l tes i ne I Ie I epI lye 01 i wok long rot pin Is ye they make road one comp leted! 'They have fi nished making one road!~~

~~34 . we ife ye I I Yankok ka I I 'masket' yelal elfe blpo yu go Yankok k isI m masket kar I m I go before (you) went Yankok took gun carried (it) went~~

~~orsl naflepe 10m siutlm ba lus no nogat to shoot birds interrogative 'Before when you went to Yankok and took the gun did you shoot any birds ?'~~

~~35. moto pe I e I nap Ii olwel I mer i bl longen ku kim ka lkal wife his cooks fo od 'His wife cooks fo od ' 1 35~~

~~36 . k i ka ite Touf i lelfeflye mi seI 1m Toufi long yu I send Toufi he goes to you 'I send Toufi to you '~~

~~37. nempe lefe nangke lele men wanem nem long dispe la dlwa l tpee that name (possessive ) (interrogative pronoun ) 'What is the name of that tpee?'~~

38. mo to nefef we I I me r i slndaun long pa ia woman sits beside fi pe 'A woman sits by the fire ' McGregor, D.E. "Texts". In McGregor, D.E. and McGregor, A. editors, Olo language materials. D-42:121-135. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1982. DOI:10.15144/PL-D42.121 ©1982 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative. KINSHIP TERMS AMONG THE WAPE

~~D.E. McGREGOR~~

In village life , relationships are constantly referred to. A dis cussion with a group of people about 'who's who ' never fails to be a topic of conversation and to win interest . It is a way of showing that you are interested in them as persons and not just identities. When endeavouring to give sympathetic understanding to a marriage dispute , or any dispute for that matter , it is often impossible to follow the story without an understanding of the relat ionships involved . For these and other reasons an attempt has been made to define the areas of meanings of the twenty-four or so Wape relationship terms and to set them out in the manner which will be most easily understood . Needless to say there are very few exact English equivalents. A hypothetical 'family tree ' giving all significant comb inations but with no unnecessary duplication will be given in sections .

~~Code~~

~~M re�resents a male person F represents a female person 5 represents a person 's name . Numbers are used instead of name s to aid easy reference .~~

~~137~~

McGregor, D.E. "Kinship Terms Among the Wape". In McGregor, D.E. and McGregor, A. editors, Olo language materials. D-42:137-163. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1982. DOI:10.15144/PL-D42.137 ©1982 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative. 138

For example , in the above 'fami ly tree ' it would be said in English as follows : 1 says that 2 is his Wi fe (1 - 2 Wife ) 2 says that 6 is her Daughter (2 - 6 Daughter ) 6 says that 2 is her Mother (6 - 2 Mother) 1 says that 5 is his Son-in-law (1 - 5 Son-in-law )

~~Thi s me thod will be used to define and explain the Wape relationships.~~

~~Laws Concerning the Saying of Relations ' Names Dealt with in Section 1.~~

Frequently it is observed that a person is not allowed to say the names of certain relations . It seems that because of custom they are just ashamed to do so . Name taboos are indicated as follows : Numerals preceded by a bracket in columns A and B on the Wape relat ionship chart indicate that the persons , to whom the numbers refer , are not allowed to say the names of the persons , represented by numerals preceeded by a bracket , in the adj oining column . For example : (1 and (2 are forbidden to say the name s of (5 and (9. (3 is forbidden to say the name of (8. (4, (5, (8 and (9 are forbidden to say the name s of (2.

Thi s does not necessarily mean that (4, (5, (8, (9 are forbidden to say the name s of each other . It is to be noted that if A cannot say the name of B, then neither can B say the name of A. For example : (1 cannot say the name of (5, and neither can (5 say the name of (1. It always works this way .

~~The following laws should be learnt. Example A man and his wife do not say the name s of (1, (2 (4, (5 their Sons and Daughters-in-law and cannot (8, (9 eat with them.~~

~~Conversely , a man and a woman do not say (5, (4 (1, (2 the name s of their Mother and Father-in-law (8, (9 but can eat food with them .~~

~~An elder brother and his wife do not say the (3, (4 (8 name of a younger brother 's wife and cannot eat with them. /"~~

~~139~~

~~Example Conversely , a woman does not say the name of (8 (3, (4 her husband 's elder brother or his wife but can eat with them .~~

~~An elder sister does not say the name of a (6 (8, (9 younger brother 's wife , or , a younger sister's husband and cannot eat with them .~~

Conversely , the husband of a younger sister (8, (9 (6 does not say the name of an elder sister , and nor does the wife of a younger brother say the name of an elder sister but can eat food with them .

~~There is a partial taboo in this section . (5 (8 The husband of an elder sister may or may not say the name of a younger brother's wife . The converse does not apply ; she may say hi s name .~~

DEFINITIONS OF WAPE RELAT I ONSH IP TERMS USED IN SECT ION I Abbreviations : S Singular P Plural Own Term used when referring to one 's own relation Oth Term used when referring to someone else 's relation .

~~In cases where neither 'Own ' or 'Oth' are written after the relation ship, the term can be used both when re ferring to one 's own and to another 's relation . 140~~

English neaning (s) of the Wape term. Only Examples Wape the singular is given . See Relation Relationship ('!he tenrs 'man' and 'wc:man' are here used ship Olart term in sense of male and fenale) COlunns A & B moto S 1) A man 's WIFE 1 - 2 nimoure P { 2) A woman . Used without any reference to } a relationship . mCingke S 1) A woman 's HUSBAND 2 - 1 mCingkare p N.B. mCingke is the reverse relationship of } moto. Think of the two terms as a pair . nengke S 1) A man or woman 's SON 1, 2 - 3 epeiei p { 2) A man or woman' s Son-in-law . However 1, 2 - 5 } the term yenene may also be used . nengkio S f 1) A man or woman's DAUGHTER 1, 2 - 6 epeiei p } 1 2) A man or woman 's Daughter-in-law . 1, 2 - 4 However the term yenklo is also used. N.B. There is no Wape term for either Sons or Daughters : epeiei is used for either and both and means chiLdren.

Think of nengke and nengkio as a pair . Other maanings of the two words will be given in later sections . ema S � ema res 1) A man or woman 's IDlliER 3, 6 - 2 nimou : Oth } ya i S � ya i res 1) A man or woman's FATHER 3, 6 - 1 ya itei Oth : N.B. 'lh1nk of ema and ya i as a pair. } Other meanings of the two words will be given in later sections .

~~Continued •..• 141~~

Examples wapE; English nean.ing (s) of the wape tenn. �y See Relation Relationship the singular is given. ship Chart tenn COlums A & B apa S Own 1) A man's elder brother 7 - 3 1ine S Oth 2) A woman 's husband 's elder brother 8 - 3 apares p Own 3) A woman's elder sister' s husband 10 - 5 elem p Oth 4) A man's wife's elder sister's husband 9 - 5

N • B. '!he forms I I ne and e I em are tmsculine only . apa S Own 1) A woman 's elder sister 10 - 6 I io S Oth 2) A man'swif e's elder sister 9 - 6 apares P Own 3) A man' s elder brother's wife 7 - 4 erem P Oth 4) A woman 's rusband's elder brother's wife 8 - 4 N. B. The forms I 10 and e rem are feminine only . 'lhink of apa/I lne and apa/Ilo as a pair. In other words , the younger brother and his wife , both call an elder brother and his wife - apa . Others refer to the relationship as IIne if tmle , and I i 0 if fetmle . Likewise , the younger sister and her husband both refer to an elder sister and her husband as - apa. Others refer to the relationship as I I ne if tmle , and lio if fetmle . wenke S 1) A man's younger brother 3 - 7 wenkem P 2) A woman 's younger sister 6 - 10 3) A man's younger brother's wife 3 - 8 4) A woman 's husband's younger brother 's wife 4 - 8 5) A woman'syounger sister's husband 6 - 9 6) A man'swife 's y�r sister's husband 5 - 9 7) A man's wife's younger sister 5 - 10 8) A woman 's husband 's younger brother 4 - 7 N.B. wenke can be tmsculine or feminine . It is the reverse relationship of apa - both line and I io. In other words , the elder brother and his wife both call the younger brother and his wife wenke. Likewise, the elder sister and her husband both call the younger sister and her husband wenke . oru S 1) A man's (elder or younger) sister 3 , 7 - 6 erel P 2) A man 's wife's (elder or younger ) 5 - 4, 8 brother 's wife N.B. A feminine term but always in relation to a tmle - never in relation to another sister. Continued ..•• 142

~~Examples~~

~~Wape English meaning(s) of the Wape tenn. Only See Relaticn Relationship the singular is given. ship Chart tenn Column A & B~~

orno S 1) A woman 's (elder or young) brother 6 - 3 , 7 mopem P 2) A woman'shusband 's (elder or younger ) 8 - 5, 9 sister' s husband N.B. A masculine term but always in relation to a female - never in relation to another brother . omo is the reverse of oru. 'Ihink of them as a pair .

une S Own 1) A man's (elder or younger ) sister's 7 - 5, 9 husband olmouem P 2) A man's wife's (elder or youn�r) brother 5, 9 , - 7 unetei S Oth N.B. Thus it it seen that the reverse relationship bears the srure nama . A male term only .

yiyo s 1) A woman's (elder or younger) brother 's 6 - 4, 10 wife 2) A woman 's husband 's (elder or younger) 8 - 6, 10 sister N.B. Thus it is seen that the reverse relationship bears the same nama . A female term only . 'Ihink of une and yiyo as a pair.

~~yenene S 1) A man or woman 's son-in-law (daughter' s 1, 2 - 5, 9 husband ) yerem P N.B. It is also permissable to use nengke.~~

~~yenkio 1) A man or woman 's daughter-in-law (son's 1, 2 - 4, 8 wife ) yerem N.B. It is also permissable to use nengkio.~~

~~N.B. ema may also be said em or ama nimou re may also be said nimoures mongkare may also be said mongkares ema res may also be said amares apares may also be said apa re 143~~

~~APPROXIMATE WAPE EQUIVALENTS OF ENGLISH RELATIONSHIP TERMS~~

~~Singular Plural Singular Plural~~

~~Husband mOngke mOngkare Wife mota nimou res~~

~~Father ya i ya i res yaltei ya l res Mother ema emares nlmou emares~~

~~Son nengke epelel Daughter nengkio epelel~~

~~Brother may be apa apares line elem or wenke wenkem or omo mopem~~

~~Sister may be apa apares 110 erem wenke wenkem Has other lOOanings oru erel as well Brother-in-law may be une olmouem unete i or apa apares line elem or Omo mopem or wenke wenkem~~

~~Sister-in-law may be v i vo yemter or apa apares lio erem or oru erel or wenke wenkem~~

~~Section 1: This Deals with Husband and Wife, Their Children and Sons and Daughters-in-law~~

In the following Fami ly Tree and Chart , the numbers in Column A and B refer to persons in the Family tree . Column C gives the relationship term of the person(s) in Column B in connection with the person(s) in Column A. This will be expressed and refe rred to as the 'A - B relationship '. It is the relat ionship term actually spoken by the person(s) in Column A or B. In other words , it is the term used when the speaker refers to his own relation(s). Column D gives the relationship term used by persons other than in Column A and B to describe the A - B relationship . In other words , it is the term used when referring to someone elses relation . A blank indicates that the term to be used is the same as that in Column C. 144

~~WAPE RE LAT IONSHIP CHART~~

~~A B C D~~

A - B Relationship as A - B Relationship as Nurrbers refer Nurrbers refer referred to by A or B. referred to by others. to persons in to persons in (Tenns used when refer- (Tenns used when Family Tree Family Tree ring to own's own referring to another's relations . ) relation .)

~~(Exanple in Singular Plural Singular Plural English)~~

1 says that 2 1s his wife wives 1 says that 2 1s his moto nirnou res 2 says that 1 1s her mongke mOngkare 1,2 says that 3,7 1s his/her nengke epelel 1,2 says that 6,10 1s his/her nengkio epelel 1,(1 ,(2 (5,(9 1s his/her neng�e or epelel or yenene yerern 1, (1, (2 (4,(8 1s his/her nengkio or epelel or yenkio yerem 3,6,7,10 1 1s his/her ya i ya i res ya itei ya i res (4, (5, (8, (9 1 , (l 1s his/her ya i ya i res ya i tei ya i res 3,6,7,10 2 ema erna res nimou ema res 4,(5, (8,(9 2, (2 erna emares nimou erna res 3 7 wenke wen kern 3 6,10 oru erel 3 4 moto nimoures 3 5,9 une olmouern unetei olmouern (3 (8 wenke wenkem 4 3 mOngke rnongkare 4 6,10 yiyo yemter 4 5,9 omo mopern 4 7 wen ke wenkern (4 (8 wenke wenkern

~~Continued.... 145~~

~~A B C D~~

~~A-B Pelationship A-B Relationship (One's own relationsl (Another's relaticnsl~~

~~Singular Plural Singular Plural~~

5 says that 6 is his mota nlmoure 5 3,7 une olmouem unetei olmouem ( 5 4, (8 Partial oru erel taboo 5 9 wenke wenkem 5 10 wenke wenkem 6 5 mOngke mOngkar.e 6 3,7 omo mopem (6 4, (8 ylyo yemter (6 (9 wenke wenkem 6 10 wenke wenkem 7 8 mota nlmoures 7 3 apa apares line elem or apares

~~7 4 apa apares 110 erem or apares~~

7 5 ,9 une olmouem unete l olmouem 7 6,10 oru erel 8 7 mOngke mOngkare 8,(8 0 apa apares IIne elem or apares 8, (8 (4 apa apares 110 erem or apares 8 5 ,9 Omo mopem 8,(8 (6,10 ylyo yemter 9 10 mOngke mOngkare 9 3,7 une olmouem unetel olmouem 9 4,8 oru erel 9 5 apa apares line elem or apares

~~9, (9 (6 apa apares 110 erem or apares 10 9 mOnge mOngare 10 3,7 Omo mopem 10 4,8 ylyo yemter 10 5 apa apares 11ne elem or apares~~

~~10 6 apa apares 110 erem or apares~~

~~A bracketed number e.g. 0, signifies there is a nane taboo involved with this relationship . 146~~

~~N.B. ema can also be said em or ama nlmoures can also be said nlmou re mongka re can also be said mongka rem ema res can also be said ama res apa res can also be said apare~~

~~Section II: This Deals with Nephews and Nieces , Uncles and Aunts and Grandfather and Grandmother~~

~~9 10~~

~~WAPE RELATIONSHIP CHART~~

~~Relationships already dealt with in Section I are not mentioned here .~~

~~A B C D~~

~~Nunbers refer Numbers refer A - B Relationship A - B Relationship to Family Tree to Family Tree (One's own relations) (Another's relations)~~

~~Singular Plural Singular Plural~~

~~NIECES AND NEPHEWS 3,4 15 pa llene pal lei 3,4 16 pa llo pa l lei~~

~~7,8 11 nengke epelel 7,8 12 nengklo epelel~~

~~3,4,7,8, 13,14,17 ,18 lulem lei pes 5,6,9,10 11,12,15,16 lulem lei pes~~

~~9,10 13 nengke epelel 9,10 14 nengkio epelel~~

~~5,6 17 pa llene pa l lei 5,6 18 pa llo pa l lei Cont'l-nued•••• 147~~

~~A B C D~~

~~A-B Relaticnship A-B Relationship (One's own relations) (Another's relations)~~

~~Singular Plural Singular Plural~~

~~lA'ICLES /lH) AUNTS 15,16 3 manl manres ma nte l man res 15,16 4 wau wau res wautel wa ures~~

~~11,12 7 ya l ya I res ya ltel ya l res ya l kompo kOmpo kOmpo kompo ena enares ena enares 11,12 8 ema ema res nimou emares ema kOmpo kompo kompo kCimpo~~

~~13,14,17,18 3,7 faf faf 13,14,17,18 4,8 eta eta res eta eta res tatel tares~~

~~11,12,15,16 5,9 faf faf 11,12,15 ,16 6,10 eta eta res eta eta res tatel tares~~

~~17 ,18 5 manl man res mantel manres 17,18 6 wau wau res wautel waures~~

~~GRANDFATl-ER • GRANDKlTI-ER 11,12,13,14, 1 15,16,17,18 manl man res ma ntel man res 11,12,13,14, 2 15,16,17 ,18 wau waures wautel waures~~

~~N.B. There are no name taboos in the above . 148~~

~~9 10~~

~~11 12~~

~~DEFINITIONS OF WAPE RELATIONSHIP TERMS USED IN SECT ION II~~

~~Exanples wape English rreaning(s) of the Wape tenn. Only See Relation Relationship the singular is given. ship Olart tenn COlumn A & B~~

pa l iene S } 1) A man's younger brother 's son 3 - 15 pa l iel P 2) A woman 's husband 's younger brother's son 4 - 15 3) A woman 's younger sister' s son 6 - 17 4) A man 's wife 's younger sister's son 5 - 17 In other words , the elder brother and his wife call the son(s) of the younger brother , pal iene, pa lie I. Likewise, the elder sister and her husband call the son(s) of the younger sister pa l iene, pa l iel . It is a male term.

pa l io 1) A man's younger brother 's daughter 3 - 16 pal iel 2) A woman 's husband 's younger brother 's 4 - 16 daughter 3) A woman'syounger sister's daughter 6 - 18 4) A man'swif e's younger sister' s daughter 5 - 18 In other words, the elder brother and his wife call the daughter(s) of the younger brother, pa I i 0, pa lie I. Likewise, the elder sister and her husband call the da ughter( s) of the y�r sister pa lio, pal iel . It is a female term. Think of pa I i ene and pa I i a as a close pair .

~~nengke 1) A man's elder brother 's son 7 - 11 epelel 2) A woman 's husband 's elder brother's son 8 - 11 3) A woman'selder sister's son 10 - 13 4) A man 's wife's elder sister's son 9 - 13~~

~~Continued ..•. Exarrples wapi:! English rreaning (s) of the wapi:! term. Only See Relation Relationship the singular is given. ship Chart term ColllllU1 A & B~~

In other words , the younger brother and his wife call the sones) of the elder brother nengke , epelel . Likewise , the younger sister and her husband call the sones) of the elder sister nengke , epelel . It is a male terM. nengkio This is the feminine term of nengke , and 7 - 12 corresponds with nengke in the same way as epel el 8 - 12 pa l io corresponds with pal iene . 10 - 14 9 - 14 ulem Brothers and their wives call the children 3, 4, 7 , 8 - of their sisters lulem, lelpes . 13, 14 , 1 , 18 lel pes 7 : } Likewise, sisters and their husbands call 5, 6, 9 , 10 - the children of their brothers lulem, lepes 11, 12 , 15 , 16 It can be used of a male or female . nengke , nengkio may be used instead of lulem, lelpes . ma ni or oua S 1) A man or woman's father 's elder brother 15, 16 - 3 manres or 2) A man or woman'smother 's elder sister's 17, 18 - 5 mangkres P Own} husband mantei S oth ouares P Own 3) A grandfather 13, 16 - 1 1) and 2) rrean, in other words, that children call their fathers elder brother mani , ma nres . Likewise , children call their mother's elder sister's husband mani . ma ni is a male term. It is the converse of pa 1 i ene , pa 1 i0, pa 1 i e 1 • It is a male term. wau 1) A man or woman's father 's elder brother 's 15 , 16 - 4 wife waures 2) A man or woman 's mother 's elder sister 17 , 18 - 6 wautei 3) A grandmother 13 , 16 - 2 1) and 2) rrean , in other words, that children call their father 's elder brother 's wife wau , waures . Likewise, children call their mother 's elder sister wau , wau res . wau , waures is a female term. Think of it and mani as a close pair. It is the converse of pa 1 i ene , pa 1 i o. Continued .... 1 5 0

~~1 2~~

~~11 12~~

Examples Wape English xreaning(s) of the Wape term. Only See Relation Relatiooship the singular is given. ship Chart term Column A & B ya l or ya l 1) A man or woman 's father's younger brother 11, 12 - 7 �ompo or ena S Own ya ires kompo 2) A man or woman' s mother's younger sister's 13, 14 - 9 or ena res P husband ya ltei kOmpo or ena S oth In other words , children call their father's younger brother ya i, ya I res . Likewise, children call their mother 's younger sister's husband ya l , ya lres . It is a male term.

ema or 1) A man or woman 's father 's younger brother 's 11 , 12 - 8 ema kompo S Own wife ema res kOmpo P 2) A man or woman's mother's younger sister 13 , 14 - 10 n i moukompo S oth} In other words , children call their father 's younger brother 's wife ema kompo . Likewise , children call their mother 's younger sister ema kompe. It is a female term. Think of ya I kOmpe and ema kempe as a close pair. It is the opposite of nengke , nengklo.

~~faf S,P Children call their mother's brothers faf 13, 14 - 3, 7 17, 18 Likewise, children call their father 's 11, 12 - 5 , 9 sister 's husbands faf . It is a male term. 15 , 16~~

~~Continued ..•. 151~~

~~Elca!rples wape English (s)meaning of the wape tenn. Only See Relation Relationship the singular is given, ship Chart term Coltml A & B~~

eta s Children call their JOOther' s brother's 13, 14 - 4, 8 wives e' ta. 17 , 18 eta res p Likewise , children call their father 's 11, 12 - 6, 10 etatei S Oth sisters eta . 15 , 16 P Oth } eta res It is a female term. faf and eta are the opposite of luI em .

~~APPROXIMATE WAPE EQUIVALENTS OF ENGL ISH RELATIONSHIP TE RMS~~

~~Singular Plural Singular Plural Own Own Oth Oth~~

~~Neprew nay be pa l iene pa l iel or nengke epelel or lulem leI pes~~

~~Niece nay be pa l io pal leI nengkio epelel lulem leI pes~~

~~Uncle llRy be man i man res mantei manres or ya i kompo ya i res kompos ya itei kompo ya i res kompo or faf faf~~

~~Aunt may be wau wau res wautei wa ures or ema kompo ema res kCimpo nlmou kompo emares kompo or eta eta res eta/etatei etares/etares~~

~~Grandfather ma ni man res ma ntei man res Grandfather wau waures wautel waures~~

~~Suggestions for learning ,~~

Learn thoroughly one section at a time , One become s muddled if one tries to learn it all at once . With one finger on one member of the 'fami ly tree ' go in turn to all the other members of the 'family tree ' saying as you do the relat ionship . Then move the finger to another member and likewise move over all the 152

other members, unt il you have called the relat ionships of all possible comb inations . Say the Wape relat ionship terms for your own relat ions . Study the Wape Relat ionship Chart , and the Definitions of Wape Re lationship Terms , together .

~~Section III : This Deals with Cousins~~

~~WAPE RELATIONSHIP CHART~~

~~A B C D~~

~~Numbers refer N\I!1bers refer A - B Relaticnship A - B Relationship to Family Tree to Family Tree (One' s om relations ) (Another 's relations)~~

~~Singular Plural Singular Plural~~

~~11 13,14,17 ,18 !u!em !elpes 11 15 wenke wenkem 11 16 oru ere!~~

~~12 13,17 nengke epe! e! 12 14,18 nengklo epe!e! 12 15 omo mopem 12 16 wenke wenkem~~

~~13 17 wenke wenkem 13 18 oru ere!~~

~~14 17 omo mopem 14 18 wenke wenkem~~

~~Continued .... 153~~

~~A B C D~~

~~Numbers refer Numbers refer A - B Relationship A - B Relationship to Family Tree to Family Tree (One 's CMI1 relations) (Another ' 5 relations)~~

~~Singular Plural Singular Plural~~

~~13,14 11,15 faf faf 13,14 12,16 ema kompo ema res nimou ema res kompo kompO kompo~~

~~15 11 apa apares 1 ine elem 15 12 oru erel 15 13,17 ,14,18 lUlem leI pes~~

~~16 11 omo mopem 16 12 apa apares 1 io erem 16 13,17 nengke epelel 16 14,18 nengkio epelel~~

~~17 11,15 faf faf 17 12 ,16 ema kCimpo ema res nimou ema res kompo kompo kCimpo~~

~~17 13 apa apares 1 ine elem 17 14 oru erel~~

~~18 11,15 fa f faf 18 12,16 ema kCimpo ema res nimou ema res kompo kCimpo kompo~~

~~18 13 orno mopem 18 14 apa apares 1 io erem 154~~

~~9 10~~

~~11 12~~

~~DEFINITIONS OF WAPE RELAT IONSHIP TERMS USED IN SECTION III~~

~~ExaIlples Wape English meaning(5) of the Wape term. Only See Relation Relationship the singular is given. ship Chart term ColU1l1l A & B~~

~~1) A man's father 's sister's children 11 ,15 - 13 ,14 17 ,18~~

~~Used of males and fenales. S,P The opposite of faf (nearly) . faf 1) A man or woman's rother's brother 's sons 13,14 - 11,15 17 ,18 A nasculine term only .~~

ne�gke 1) A woman's father 's sister's sons 12 ,16 - 13 ,17 . s} epe lel SP Male term only . nengkio P } 1) A woman's father 's sister's daughter 12 ,16 - 14 ,18 epelel S Own}Fenale term only . ema kompo 1) A man or woman 's mother 's brother's 13 ,14 - 12 ,16 P Own daughter's 17 ,18 ema res kompo Fenale term only . S Opposite of nengke , nengkio nimou oth kompo

wenke 1) A man's father 's yo�r brother's son 11 - 15 wenkem 2) A woman 's father's yo�r brother's 12 - 16 daughter 3) A man's mother 's yo�r sister's 13 - 17 4 ) A woman 's rother's younger sister's 14 - 18 daug)'lter Cont1-nued•••• 155

~~ExaIrples wapEi English xreaning(s) of the wapEi term. Only See Relation Relationship the singular is given . ship Chart term Colunn A & B~~

apa 1) A man's father 's elder brother's son 15 - 11 apares 2) A man's mother' s elder sister's son 17 - 13 1 i ne P oth ) elem ) apa sOwn:: 1) A woman 's mother 's elder sister's 18 - 14 daughter apares 2) A woman 's father 's elder brother 's 16 - 12 1 oth io ; daught er erem p oth

~~oru s 1) A man's father 's brother 's daughter 11 - 16 15 - 12 ere 1 p 2) A man's mother 's sister's daughter 13 - 18 } 17 - 14~~

~~Omo S 1) A woman 's father 's brother 's son 16 - 11 12 - 15 mopem P 2) A woman's mother 's sister's son 18 - 13 } 14 - 17 oru is the feminine term, Orno the masculine . 'llie two are a pair .~~

All the above terms mean a cousin in English. There are no name taboos in this section . McGregor, D.E. "Kinship Terms Among the Wape". In McGregor, D.E. and McGregor, A. editors, Olo language materials. D-42:137-163. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1982. DOI:10.15144/PL-D42.137 ©1982 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative.