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Historical Linguistics.’ H Graham Thurgood, American Anthropologist L 212 eup Campbell_119558 eup Historic Linguistic 23/07/2012 14:41 Page 1 THIRD EDITION ‘Campbell has done an exemplary job of providing a modern introduction to T HIRD E DITION historical linguistics.’ H Graham Thurgood, American Anthropologist L This state-of-the-art, practical introduction to historical linguistics – the study of I I language change – does not just talk about topics. With abundant examples and N S LYLE CAMPBELL exercises, it helps students learn for themselves how to do historical linguistics. G T Distinctive to the book is its combination of the standard traditional topics with O others now considered vital to historical linguistics: explanations of why languages U change; sociolinguistic aspects of linguistic change; syntactic change and I grammaticalization; distant genetic relationships (showing how languages are R related); and linguistic prehistory. In addition, this third edition contains: two new S chapters on morphological change and quantitative approaches; a much expanded I T HISTORICAL chapter on language contact with new sections on pidgins and creoles, mixed C languages and endangered languages; new sections on the language families and I A language isolates of the world; an examination of specific proposals of distant genetic C relationship; and a new section on writing systems. L S With its clear, readable style, expert guidance and comprehensive coverage, Historical LINGUISTICS Linguistics: An Introduction is not only an invaluable textbook for students coming to the subject for the first time, but also an enlightening read both for specialists in the field and non-specialists alike. Key Features • Practical hands-on approach to the subject, including exercises in each chapter, many newly written for this edition • Concepts and methods illustrated with examples taken from a wide range of languages, including numerous non-Indo-European languages • Engaging writing style combined with insightful coverage make this an engrossing introduction L • Established textbook author, who is a highly regarded scholar in this field Y Lyle Campbell is Professor of Linguistics at the University of Hawai’i at Manoa. He L is the author of several books, including American Indian Languages: The Historical E Linguistics of Native America (1997) and Historical Syntax in Cross-Linguistic Perspective (1995, with Alice C. Harris) – both winners of the prestigious Linguistic C Society of America’s Leonard Bloomfield Award for the best book in linguistics. A M ISBN 978-0-7486-4594-7 P B E 9780748645947 L L This common Mayan glyph comes from Palenque's Temple XIX bench, dating to the early 8th century AD. Its individual components have the values i-u-ti , which is how the Classic Maya spelled i-uht- i-Ø, ‘then it happened’. This ‘spelling’ is sufficient to distinguish different branches of Mayan languages. The Yucatec Maya cognate is ú:č (č = IPA t ) ‘to happen,’ with long vowel, high tone, and final č instead of t. Thus, this glyph, like most others, was written in a Cholan languʃage, not in Yucatec Maya. Cover and interior illustrations of Maya writing (in Chapter 15) by Marc Zender, Department of Anthropology, Tulane University. Cover design concept: Fionna Robson N NTRODUCTION Edinburgh A I Historical Linguistics An Introduction CCAMPBELLAMPBELL 33rdrd eedndn 99780748646012780748646012 PPRINT.inddRINT.indd i 227/11/20127/11/2012 009:339:33 CCAMPBELLAMPBELL 33rdrd eedndn 99780748646012780748646012 PPRINT.inddRINT.indd iiii 227/11/20127/11/2012 009:339:33 Historical Linguistics An Introduction THIRD EDITION Lyle Campbell CCAMPBELLAMPBELL 33rdrd eedndn 99780748646012780748646012 PPRINT.inddRINT.indd iiiiii 227/11/20127/11/2012 009:339:33 © Lyle Campbell, 1998, 2004, 2013 Edinburgh University Press 22 George Square, Edinburgh EH8 9LF First edition published by Edinburgh University Press 1998 Second edition published by Edinburgh University Press 2004 Typeset in Times by Servis Filmsetting Ltd, Stockport, UK, and printed and bound in Great Britain by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon CR0 4YY A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978 0 7486 4601 2 (hardback) ISBN 978 0 7486 4594 7 (paperback) ISBN 978 0 7486 7559 3 (webready PDF) ISBN 978 0 7486 7560 9 (epub) ISBN 978 0 7486 6395 8 (Amazon ebook) The right of Lyle Campbell to be identifi ed as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. CCAMPBELLAMPBELL 33rdrd eedndn 99780748646012780748646012 PPRINT.inddRINT.indd iivv 227/11/20127/11/2012 009:339:33 Contents List of Tables x List of Figures and Maps xii Preface xv Acknowledgements xvii Phonetic Symbols and Conventions xix Phonetic Symbols Chart xxi 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 What is Historical Linguistics About? 3 1.3 Kinds of Linguistic Changes: An English Example 5 1.4 Exercises 8 2 Sound Change 14 2.1 Introduction 14 2.2 Kinds of Sound Change 14 2.3 Non-phonemic (Allophonic) Changes 16 2.4 Phonemic Changes 17 2.5 Sporadic Changes 23 2.6 General Kinds of Sound Changes 23 2.7 Kinds of Common Sound Changes 28 2.8 Relative Chronology 39 2.9 Chain Shifts 40 2.10 Exercises 46 3 Borrowing 56 3.1 Introduction 56 3.2 What is a Loanword? 56 3.3 Why do Languages Borrow from One Another? 58 3.4 How do Words get Borrowed? 59 3.5 How do we Identify Loanwords and Determine the Direction of Borrowing? 61 CCAMPBELLAMPBELL 33rdrd eedndn 99780748646012780748646012 PPRINT.inddRINT.indd v 227/11/20127/11/2012 009:339:33 vi Contents 3.6 Loans as Clues to Linguistic Changes in the Past 66 3.7 What Can Be Borrowed? 68 3.8 Cultural Inferences 72 3.9 Exercises 75 4 Analogical Change 91 4.1 Introduction 91 4.2 Proportional Analogy 92 4.3 Analogical Levelling 93 4.4 Analogical Extension 95 4.5 The Relationship between Analogy and Sound Change 96 4.6 Analogical Models 97 4.7 Other Kinds of Analogy 99 4.8 Exercises 105 5 The Comparative Method and Linguistic Reconstruction 107 5.1 Introduction 107 5.2 The Comparative Method Up Close and Personal 109 5.3 A Case Study 128 5.4 Indo-European and the Regularity of Sound Change 135 5.5 Basic Assumptions of the Comparative Method 142 5.6 How Realistic are Reconstructed Proto-languages? 144 5.7 Exercises 144 6 Linguistic Classification 159 6.1 Introduction 159 6.2 The World’s Language Families 159 6.3 Terminology 172 6.4 How to Draw Family Trees: Subgrouping 174 6.5 Exercises 185 7 Models of Linguistic Change 187 7.1 Introduction 187 7.2 The Family-tree Model 187 7.3 The Challenge from Dialectology and the ‘Wave Theory’ 188 7.4 Dialectology (Linguistic Geography Dialect Geography) 190 7.5 A Framework for Investigating the Causes of Linguistic Change 192 7.6 Sociolinguistics and Language Change 193 7.7 The Issue of Lexical Diffusion 195 8 Internal Reconstruction 198 8.1 Introduction 198 8.2 Internal Reconstruction Illustrated 198 8.3 Relative Chronology 201 CCAMPBELLAMPBELL 33rdrd eedndn 99780748646012780748646012 PPRINT.inddRINT.indd vvii 227/11/20127/11/2012 009:339:33 Contents vii 8.4 The Limitations of Internal Reconstruction 209 8.5 Internal Reconstruction and the Comparative Method 211 8.6 Exercises 212 9 Semantic Change and Lexical Change 221 9.1 Introduction 221 9.2 Traditional Considerations 222 9.3 Attempts to Explain Semantic Change 232 9.4 Other Kinds of Lexical Change – New Words 238 9.5 Exercises 245 10 Morphological Change 247 10.1 Introduction 247 10.2 Change in Allomorphs 248 10.3 Boundary Changes 250 10.4 Change in Morpheme Order 252 10.5 Morphological Levelling 253 10.6 Morphological Loss 253 10.7 Suppletion 254 10.8 Morphological Change and Grammaticalization 256 10.9 Change from One Kind of Morpheme to Another 257 10.10 Exaptation 261 10.11 Morphological Conditioning 261 10.12 Directionality in Morphological Change 263 10.13 Typological Cycles and Directionality 266 10.14 One Form, One Meaning 267 10.15 Morphological Reconstruction 268 10.16 Exercises 272 11 Syntactic Change 273 11.1 Introduction 273 11.2 Mechanisms of Syntactic Change 273 11.3 Generative Approaches 278 11.4 Grammaticalization 281 11.5 Syntactic Reconstruction 285 11.6 Exercises 292 12 Language Contact 298 12.1 Introduction 298 12.2 Areal Linguistics 298 12.3 Pidgins and Creoles 309 12.4 Mixed Languages 315 12.5 Endangered Languages and Linguistic Change 317 13 Explanation 322 13.1 Introduction 322 13.2 Early Theories 323 CCAMPBELLAMPBELL 33rdrd eedndn 99780748646012780748646012 PPRINT.inddRINT.indd vviiii 227/11/20127/11/2012 009:339:33 viii Contents 13.3 Internal and External Causes 325 13.4 Interaction of Causal Factors 326 13.5 Explanation and Prediction 333 13.6 Myths and Misconceptions about Linguistic Change 336 14 Distant Genetic Relationship 346 14.1 Introduction 346 14.2 Lexical Comparison 348 14.3 Sound Correspondences 349 14.4 Grammatical Evidence 351 14.5 Borrowing 352 14.6 Semantic Constraints 353 14.7 Onomatopoeia 353 14.8 Nursery Forms 354 14.9 Short Forms and Unmatched Segments 354 14.10 Chance Similarities 355 14.11 Sound–Meaning Isomorphism 355 14.12 Only Linguistic Evidence 356 14.13 Erroneous Morphological Analysis 356 14.14 Non-cognates 356 14.15 Spurious Forms 358 14.16 Methodological Wrap-up 358 14.17 Some Examples of Long-range Proposals 359 14.18 Exercises 366 15 Writing and Philology: The Role of Written Records 373 15.1 Introduction 373 15.2 Writing and the History of Writing Systems 373 15.3 Philology 391 15.4 The Role of Writing 396 15.5 Exercises 400 16 Linguistic Prehistory 405 16.1 Introduction 405 16.2 Indo-European Linguistic Prehistory 406 16.3 The Methods of Linguistic Prehistory
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