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A Comparative Analysis of Tok Pisin and Jamaican Patois Diplomarbeit Katharina Schweighofer FROM SIMPLIFIED ENGLISH TO COMPLEX LANGUAGE: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF TOK PISIN AND JAMAICAN PATOIS DIPLOMARBEIT zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Magistra der Philosophie Studium: Lehramtsstudium UF Englisch / UF Geographie und Wirtschaftskunde Alpen-Adria-Universität Klagenfurt Fakultät für Kulturwissenschaften Begutachter: Postdoc-Ass. Mag. Dr. Nikola Dobrić MA Institut: Anglistik und Amerikanistik Mai/2016 i Klagenfurt, 12.05.2016 ii Dedication I dedicate this thesis to my wonderful and amazing fiancée Dominik. You have always been there for me, even in times when I did not believe in myself. Thank you for your incredible support. I love you. Acknowledgments I would like to thank my mother Beate and my father Karl for their unconditional love and care for me throughout my life. I do not know what I would have done without them. Special thanks needs to be given to my supervisor Postdoc-Ass. Mag. Dr. Nikola Dobrić MA. With the help of his advice and instructions, I could always keep a clear head and stay on track. iii Table of Contents 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1 2. Pidgins and creoles ........................................................................................................................ 4 2.1. Development of pidgins .......................................................................................................... 5 2.2. Development of creoles ......................................................................................................... 10 2.3. Various pidgin and creole types ............................................................................................ 13 2.4. Different theories of origin .................................................................................................... 15 3. Tok Pisin ....................................................................................................................................... 19 3.1. History of Tok Pisin .............................................................................................................. 20 3.2. Present-day use and future prospects of Tok Pisin ................................................................ 23 3.2.1. Linguistic development of Tok Pisin................................................................................. 25 3.3. Grammatical aspects of Tok Pisin ......................................................................................... 28 3.3.1. Word order ........................................................................................................................ 28 3.3.2. Noun phrase ....................................................................................................................... 29 3.3.2.1. Plural markers ................................................................................................................ 30 3.3.2.2. Personal pronoun system ............................................................................................... 32 3.3.2.3. Preposition and possession ............................................................................................ 34 3.3.3. Verb phrase and predicate marker ..................................................................................... 35 3.3.3.1. Negation ........................................................................................................................ 37 3.3.3.2. Tense, aspect and modality markers .............................................................................. 38 3.3.4. Dependent clause constructions ........................................................................................ 42 3.3.5. Conjunctions and questions ............................................................................................... 44 4. Jamaican Patois ........................................................................................................................... 46 4.1. History of Jamaican Patois .................................................................................................... 46 4.2. The creole continuum ............................................................................................................ 49 4.3. Recreolisation ........................................................................................................................ 52 4.4. Views of Jamaican Patois ...................................................................................................... 53 4.5. Grammatical features of Jamaican Patois .............................................................................. 55 4.5.1. Word order ........................................................................................................................ 55 iv 4.5.2. Noun phrase ....................................................................................................................... 56 4.5.2.1. Plural marker ................................................................................................................. 58 4.5.2.2. Personal pronoun system ............................................................................................... 60 4.5.2.3. Possession and preposition ............................................................................................ 61 4.5.3. Verb phrase ........................................................................................................................ 63 4.5.3.1. Negation ........................................................................................................................ 64 4.5.3.2. Tense, aspect and mood marking .................................................................................. 65 4.5.4. Dependent clause constructions ........................................................................................ 69 4.5.5. Conjunctions and questions ............................................................................................... 70 5. Similar grammatical features in Tok Pisin and Jamaican Patois due to English .................. 72 5.1. Form, position and use .......................................................................................................... 72 5.2. Position and use ..................................................................................................................... 74 5.3. Use ......................................................................................................................................... 80 6. Conclusion and future outlook ................................................................................................... 83 References ............................................................................................................................................... v References for figures ......................................................................................................................... viii Table of figures .................................................................................................................................... viii List of tables ......................................................................................................................................... viii 1 1. Introduction “Language is a process of free creation; its laws and principles are fixed, but the manner in which the principles of generation are used is free and infinitely varied. Even the interpretation and use of words involves a process of free creation” (Chomsky 2003, 402). Language creation takes place in situations in which groups of human beings with different cultures and, consequently, diverse languages have to converse with each other, even though no mutual language is accessible. The result of this is the development of common, though linguistically reduced mixed speeches defined as pidgins and creoles (Bakker 1995, 25). Although such languages are highly significant today and are thus found all over the world, as Figure 1 and 2 indicate, they have not always been seen in a positive way (Kaye and Tosco 2003, 10-11). This negative attitude was mainly due to the fact that pidgins and creoles have adopted numerous words from other languages, in particular European languages such as English, imperfectly and thus, were considered by many scholars as inferior forms of their source languages, which were often termed as “broken English” (Holm 2000, 1). However, this view changed after recognising the potential of the grammatical system of the pidginised and creolised languages. Since the linguistic systems are individually formed and, consequently, differ widely from the ones of their input languages, they are today regarded as new and properly structured speeches (Holm 2000, 1). In addition to this, it has been found that research on pidgin and creoles can aid in to further discover how natural languages are actually developed and acquired in the human brain (Kaye and Tosco, 8), mainly because of the fact that most of them originated in a time frame of 350 years to the present and can therefore be retraced (Wekker 1996, 139). Two of these developed languages are the creoles Tok Pisin and Jamaican Patois. Tok Pisin, a creole that has English as its lexifer (Holm 2000, 95-96), is applied to many different private and communal purposes all over Papua New Guinea in the Pacific Ocean 2 (Mühlhäusler 2003, 1-2) and is now attained as
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