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Notes and Comments Notes and Comments In these notes, books and articles are mentioned by their titles and the names of authors (or editors). For details of the publisher, year and place of publication, see the list of References, beginning on page 283. Chapter 1: English – The Working Tongue of the Global Village Many of the references in this and the following chapters draw on the following sources: The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language by David Crystal and The Oxford Companion to the English Language edited by Tom McArthur. We have also made use of books for the general reader, such as: The Story of English by Robert McCrum, William Cran and Robert MacNeil; Mother Tongue: The English Language by Bill Bryson; and The Adventure of English: the Biography of a Language by Melvyn Bragg. General works on English language (not particularly historical) are English in Use by Randolph Quirk and Gabriele Stein and A Survey of Modern English by Stephen Gramley and Kurt-Michael Patzold. A lively introduction is provided by David Crystal’s The English Language. p. 1 Marshal McLuhan introduced the expression ‘global village’ in his book Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. p. 2 Braj Kachru explained his ‘three circles’ diagram in ‘Standards, codification and socio- linguistic realism: the English language in the outer circle’ (p. 12) and it has appeared in print many times since. p. 3 Estimates for the number of speakers in Inner Circle countries are based on David Crystal’s English as a Global Language (pp. 62–5) and have been updated by him for this second edition of our book. Figures for the Caribbean refer to populations of nations and associated states belonging to the Commonwealth of Nations – for example, including Jamaica but excluding Haiti. p. 6 For a description of current editorial procedures, see John Simpson, Edmund Weiner and Philip Durkin, ‘The Oxford English Dictionary Today’. p. 7 The claim about the use of English in Russian business is by the Russian linguist Vladimir Neroznak – quoted in Newsweek (1 July 2002, p. 30). The permeation of EU institutions by English is discussed by Alan Forrest in ‘The Politics of Language in the European Union’. 263 264 English – One Tongue, Many Voices p. 9 Quotations are from David Crystal in English as a Global Language (p. xii) and Melvyn Bragg in The Adventure of English (p. 128). Chapter 2: The First 500 Years Covering the ground of this and the following four chapters are a number of good his- tories of the English language. We often make reference to Albert C. Baugh and Thomas Cable’s A History of the English Language and N. F. Blake’s book of the same title. Other books worth consulting are: Charles Barber, The English Language: A Historical Introduction; Jeremy Smith, An Historical Study of English: Function, Form and Change; David Burnley, The History of the English Language: A Source Book; Dennis Freeborn, From Old English to Standard English; Thomas Pyles and John Algeo, The Origins and Development of the English Language. Other books taking a fresh angle on the history of English are David Crystal, The Stories of English, and Richard Watts and Peter Trudgill, Alternative Histories of English. The multi-volume, multi-author The Cambridge History of the English Language (General Editor: Richard M. Hogg) has set a new standard of detail and scholarly depth in the historical study of English. p. 14 This section draws on Albert C. Baugh and Thomas Cable, A History of the English Language, and Gerry Knowles, A Cultural History of the English Language. F. M. Stenton’s Anglo-Saxon England is a good standard history of the period. p. 15 Regarding the number of present-day speakers of Celtic languages, Tom McArthur in The Oxford Companion to the English Language gives the figure of 1.2 million (p. 202). On the nomenclature of United Kingdom, British, etc., see Sidney Greenbaum and Janet Whitcut’s Longman Guide to English Usage (p. 235). p. 17 For archaeological evidence, see The Oxford History of Britain, edited by Kenneth O. Morgan (p. 62). p. 18 On endangered languages (including Celtic languages), see David Crystal, Language Death. On the mixing of Celtic and Germanic sources of vocabulary, see Loreto Todd, ‘Where have all the Celtic words gone?’. p. 19 This section is partly based on Otto Jespersen’s Growth and Structure of the English Language (pp. 37–44), C. L. Wrenn’s The English Language (pp. 38–41) and John Ayto’s Dictionary of Word Origins, as well as other books mentioned at the beginning of this chapter’s notes. p. 22 The section on the Viking influence is largely based on Julian D. Richards’ Viking Age England, Peter Sawyer’s (ed.) The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings and John Ayto’s Dictionary of Word Origins. Notes and Comments 265 p. 23 For Alfred’s ‘crash programme in education’, see N. F. Blake, A History of the English Language (p. 83). p. 24 The map of Viking place-names is based on that in Robert McCrum et al., The Story of English (p. 68). p. 25 The quotation on thrive, ill and die is from Otto Jespersen’s Growth and Structure of the English Language (p. 74). p. 27 For more on Old English, see Albert C. Baugh and Thomas Cable’s A History of the English Language (pp. 48–9), N. F. Blake’s A History of the English Language (pp. 3, 20, 75–104) and Gerry Knowles’ A Cultural History of the English Language (p. 38). p. 29 The runes in Figure 2.5 are from Dennis Freeborn, From Old English to Standard English (p. 22). p. 32 The Old English text is from Fr. Klaeber (ed.), Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburg; the phonetic transcription is from Randolph Quirk and C. L. Wrenn, An Old English Grammar. p. 33 The first modern English translation is by John Porter, Beowulf. Text and Translation, and the second by Seamus Heaney, Beowulf: A Verse Translation. A reading by Seamus Heany of his translation of Beowulf can be heard at http://www.openculture.com/2013/08/ seamus-heaney-reads-his-exquisite-beowulf-translation.html A reading of Beowulf in Old English from the University of Virginia is available at http://faculty.edu/OldEnglish/ Beowulf.Readings/Prologue.html. The quotation on Scandinavian influence on English syntax is from Joseph Embley Emonds and Jan Terje Faarlund, The Language of the Vikings (p. 154). Chapter 3: 1066 and All That The chapter title comes from a classic of British humour, 1066 and All That: A Memorable History of England by W. C. Sellar and R. J. Yeatman (1930). This chapter, like the last, draws extensively on standard histories of the English language, especially N. F. Blake’s A History of the English Language. p. 34 The contribution from The Oxford History of Britain can be found in John Gillingham’s chapter, ‘The Early Middle Ages’ (p. 124). 266 English – One Tongue, Many Voices p. 36 The figure of ‘no more than 5 per cent’ for native speakers of French is given by N. F. Blake in A History of the English Language (p. 107). The quotation (spelling modernized) from the London Company of Brewers is taken from Simon Schama, A History of Britain (p. 228). p. 37 The list of words from French includes because, although only the second half of the word (cause) is actually from French. The first part is the Old English preposition be, modern English by. Ranulf Higden, a Benedictine monk of St Werburg’s in Chester, wrote his history Polychronicon in 1352; it was translated from Latin into English by John of Trevisa in 1387 and printed by Caxton in 1482. The text is from Norman Davies, The Isles: A History (p. 429). The modern English translation of John of Trevisa is from Charles Barber, The English Language: A Historical Introduction (p. 143). p. 38 The comparison of hearty welcome (from Old English) and cordial reception (from French) can be found in Simeon Potter, Our Language (p. 37). p. 39 The Law French terms are from Tom McArthur (ed.), The Oxford Companion to the English Language (p. 591); see also Albert C. Baugh and Thomas Cable, A History of the English Language (p. 170). p. 40 The quotations come from Sir Walter Scott’s Ivanhoe, 1845 edition (p. 38) and from Robert Burchfield (ed.), The New Fowler’s Modern English Usage (p. 18). p. 41 The details about the pronunciation of harass are from J. C. Wells, Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. p. 42 The quotation ‘because the French tongue … is much unknown’ occurs in the Statute of the Realm I.375. pp. 43–4 The text is from F. N. Robinson (ed.), The Works of Geoffrey Chaucer. The phonetic tran- scription of the ‘Prologue’ is based on Helge Kökeritz, A Guide to Chaucer’s Pronunciation (p. 20). See also Alan Cruttenden (ed.), Gimson’s Pronunciation of English (pp. 73–4). The modern rendering is by Nevill Coghill in Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, a translation into modern English verse. Professor Jess B. Bessinger Jr., one of the foremost experts on early English poetry, reads the General Prologue from The Canterbury Tales at https://archive. org/details/P_CHA_GEO_01. p. 45 The first two books Caxton printed in English were Recuyell of the Historyes of Troy (1475) and The Game and Playe of Chesse (1476). On Caxton’s publications, see N. F. Blake, Notes and Comments 267 Caxton and His World (especially pp. 224–39) and George H. McKnight, The Evolution of the English Language (p.
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