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THE CONCORD REVIEW I am simply one who loves the past and is diligent in investigating it. K’ung-fu-tzu (551-479 BC) The Analects Knights Templar Chetan Singhal United World College of Southeast Asia, Singapore Nullification Crisis Edward R. Mahaffey St. Albans School, Washington, DC Sesame Street Isabel Ruane Hopkins School, New Haven, Connecticut Sinking of the Lusitania Rujul Zaparde Lawrenceville School, Lawrenceville, New Jersey Near v. Minnesota Alexander Q. Anderson Eagan High School, Eagan, Minnesota Charge of the Light Brigade Erynn Kim Polytechnic School, Pasadena, California Jozef Pilsudski Piotr Dormus Lester B. Pearson United World College, Victoria, British Columbia Failure of Perestroika Lo Man Chuen Adrian Li Po Chun United World College of Hong Kong Anglo-Afghan War Eric Keen Homescholar, Bethesda, Maryland Confucian Influence Hyoung Ook Wee Korean Minjok Leadership Academy, Gangwon, South Korea The Needham Question Jonathan Lu Chinese International School, Hong Kong A Quarterly Review of Essays by Students of History Volume 21, Number Four $15.00 Summer 2011 Editor and Publisher Will Fitzhugh E-MAIL: [email protected] WEBSITE: http://www.tcr.org/blog NEWSLETTER: Click here to register for email updates. The Spring 2011 issue of The Concord Review is Volume Twenty-One, Number Three. Partial funding was provided by: Subscribers, the Consortium for Varsity Academics®, and the Carnegie Corporation of New York ©2011, by The Concord Review, Inc., 730 Boston Post Road, Suite 24, Sudbury, Massachusetts 01776, USA. All rights reserved. This issue was typeset on a Macintosh quad-core, using Adobe InDesign, and fonts from Adobe. EDITORIAL OFFICES: The Concord Review, 730 Boston Post Road, Suite 24, Sudbury, Massachusetts 01776 USA [1-800-331-5007] The Concord Review (ISSN #0895-0539), founded in 1987, is published quarterly by The Concord Review, Inc., a non-profit, tax-exempt, 501(c)(3) Massachusetts corporation. Subscription rates: $40 for one year online. Orders for 26 or more subscriptions (class sets) will receive a 40% discount. Subscription orders must be paid in advance, and change-of-address information must be sent in writing to: TCR SUBSCRIPTIONS: P.O. Box 476, Canton, MA 02021-0476 USA [781-335-3622]; Fax: 781-828-8915; email: [email protected] The Editor will consider all manuscripts received, but can assume no respon- sibility regarding them. All submitted manuscripts become the property of The Concord Review for one year from the date of receipt. Essays may be on any historical topic, should generally be 4,000-6,000 words or more, with Turabian (Chicago) endnotes and bibliography, may be submitted in hard copy and in RTF format in Microsoft Word, with a submission form and a check for $40 (or through PayPal). Essays in the Review are the sole property of the Review and, as provided by Article One, Section Eight, of the Constitution of the United States, “to promote the progress of the useful arts,” may not be republished, photo- copied, or reproduced without the express written permission of The Concord Review, Inc. Authors will be notified the month before their essay is published. THE CONCORD REVIEW Volume Twenty-One, Number Four Summer 2011 1 Chetan Singhal Knights Templar 37 Edward R. Mahaffey Jackson & the Nullification Crisis 51 Isabel Ruane Sesame Street 67 Rujul Zaparde Sinking of the Lusitania 83 Alexander Q. Anderson Near v. Minnesota 101 Erynn Kim Charge of the Light Brigade 115 Piotr Dormus Jozef Pilsudski 135 Lo Man Chuen Adrian Failure of Perestroika 155 Eric Keen Anglo-Afghan War 183 Hyoung Ook Wee Confucian Influence in South Korea 209 Jonathan Lu The Needham Question 256 Notes on Contributors ® VARSITY ACADEMICS Since 1987, The Concord Review has published 934 history research papers, averaging 6,000 words, on a wide variety of historical topics by high school students in thirty- nine countries. We have sent these essays to our subscribers in thirty-two countries. This quarterly, the only one in the world for the academic work of secondary students, is tax-exempt and non-profit, and relies on subscriptions to support itself. The cost of a yearly subscription is $40. Orders for 26 or more [class sets] will receive a 40% discount. Schools in California, Connecticut, Georgia, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, Singapore, Thailand, Vermont, and Virginia now have class sets, and we hope you will consider ordering one. We are listed with the major subscription services, and you can also place your order for issues online through them. Please send your pre-paid orders, with your name and address, to: TCR SUBSCRIPTIONS -POST OFFICE BOX 476 CANTON, MA 02021 U.S.A. [visit our website/blog at http://www.tcr.org/blog] We are a 501(c)(3) tax-exempt Massachusetts corporation. Donate TCR is the only quarterly journal in the world to publish the academic research papers of secondary students. A dona- tion now in any amount will help us recognize exemplary academic work. Click here to contribute. Copyright 2011, THEThe Concord CONCORD Review, REVIEW Inc., all rights reserved 1 AN ENQUIRY INTO THE CHARGES AND MOTIVATIONS OF THE CAPETIAN MONARCHY BEHIND INSTITUTING THE FALL OF THE ORDER OF THE TEMPLE Chetan Singhal The Templars were a religious military Order, founded in the Holy Land in 1119. During the 12th and 13th centuries they acquired extensive property both in the crusader states in Palestine and Syria and in the West, especially in France, and they were granted far-reaching ecclesiastical and jurisdictional privileges both by the Popes to whom they were immediately responsible, and by the secular Monarchs in whose lands their members resided. They also functioned as bankers on the large scale, a position facilitated by the international nature of their organization. But most of all they bore a large share of the responsibility for the military defence of the crusader state in the East, to which they owed their origin, and on account of which they had become so famous and powerful. However, the start of the 14th century marked the downfall of the Order of the Temple. Even a quarter of the century hadn’t come to pass, and the organization of the Knights Templar had been completely annihilated from the face of earth. From the untouchable holy crusaders, they had been reduced into ashes in history. Chetan Singhal is a Senior at the United World College of Southeast Asia, in Singapore, where she wrote this IB paper for Mr. Doug Wills in the 2010/2011 academic year. 2 Chetan Singhal On September 14, 1307, King Philip IV of France issued a letter to his seneschals, ordering them to arrest the members of the Order of the Temple. The letter listed the “crimes” supposedly committed by the Templars. Brothers of the Order of the knights of the Temple…in the habit of a religious order vilely insulting our religious faith…When they enter the Order and make their profession, they are confronted with His image, and…deny Him three times and spit in his face three times. Afterwards, they remove the clothes they wore in the secular world, and naked in the presence of the Visitor or his deputy, who receives their profession, they are kissed by him first on the lower part of the dorsal spine, secondly on the navel and finally on the mouth, in ac- cordance with the profane right of their Order…By the vow of their profession they are unequivocably bound to accept the request of another to perform the vice of that horrible, dreadful intercourse… This unclean tribe has abandoned the sources of living water, has exchanged its glory for the likeness of the Calf and made offerings to idols.1 By June 1308, some 127 charges had been drawn against the Templars, the major ones accused them of denying Christ three times, and spitting in His face three times during induction cer- emonies. Further, they were accused of stripping naked during their reception ceremonies in the presence of the Visitor of the Temple or his deputy, and being kissed by him on the lower part of the spine, on the navel and on the mouth. They were also accused of practicing institutionalised homosexuality, making offerings to idols and adoring a cat. The actual arrests took place in the early hours of the morning of Friday, 13 October 1307,2 when all the Templars in France, much to their great surprise, were arrested. The Order of the Arrests also instructed the officials to hold the Templars, “captive to appear before an ecclesiastical court”3 and “determine the truth carefully…and put their depositions in writing to be witnessed.”4 This was a turning point in history. James of Vitry, Bishop of Acre between 1216 and 1228, in his “History of Jerusalem” described the Templars as: THE CONCORD REVIEW 3 Lions in war, mild as lambs at home; in the field fierce knights, in church like hermits or monks; unyielding and savage to the enemies of Christ, benevolent and mild to Christians.5 Less than a century later, Philip IV had these men labeled heretics and brought to trial to try to prove their innocence as good Christians. Their rapid fall was an enigma to behold for those who lived during those times and even to this date, nearly seven centuries later, for modern historians, as they investigate the reasons behind the demise of one of Europe’s most power- ful quasi- religious-military Orders. At first sight, the accusations against the Templars do seem incredible and impossible; yet, in the face of the huge number of detailed confessions extracted by the inquisitors in France, many have since felt obliged to harbour doubts. The events of 13 October provoke a range of fundamental questions: most obviously, why were the Templars arrested, and what motivated the parties involved? Such questions inevitably lead to consideration of the state of the Order and its situation in 1307: were the Templars actually guilty of all or some of the heresies and transgressions of which they were accused or, even if the accusations were wide of the mark, was the Order nevertheless in a decadent state? These questions perplexed contemporaries as much as ourselves, but as we are looking at the trial through a longer perspective, we have raised further questions, perhaps less evident to those who lived through it.
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  • WHAT WAS the SIGNIFICANCE of LAY SUPPORT for the SUCCESS of the MILITARY ORDERS DURING the CRUSADES? ALEXANDER JAMES COATES a Th

    WHAT WAS the SIGNIFICANCE of LAY SUPPORT for the SUCCESS of the MILITARY ORDERS DURING the CRUSADES? ALEXANDER JAMES COATES a Th

    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by University of Huddersfield Repository WHAT WAS THE SIGNIFICANCE OF LAY SUPPORT FOR THE SUCCESS OF THE MILITARY ORDERS DURING THE CRUSADES? ALEXANDER JAMES COATES A thesis submitted to the University of Huddersfield in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters by Research. The University of Huddersfield January 2018 Contents 1 List of Figures 4 2 Copyright Statement 5 3 Abstract 6 4 Introduction 7 i. Introduction 7 ii. Historical Setting 8 iii. State of Current Research 9 iv. Primary Material Used 12 v. Overview of Thesis 13 5 Chapter 1 – Circumstances of the Establishment of the Military Orders 14 i. Introduction 14 ii. Early European Context 15 iii. Development of the Idea of Crusade and Holy War 17 iv. Ideas Allowing the Formation of Military Orders 21 v. The Military Orders 25 1. What was a Military Order? 25 2. Establishment of the Templars 26 3. Establishment of the Hospitallers 28 4. Recruits 31 vi. Papal Privileges 32 vii. Conclusion 33 6 Chapter 2 – History of Monasticism 34 i. Introduction 34 ii. Early Monasticism 34 iii. Rule of St Benedict and the Carolingian Empire 36 iv. The First Religious Order and the Gregorian Reforms 38 v. Centuries of Reform 41 vi. Founding of New Orders 42 1. Canons Regular 44 2 2. The Cistercians 45 3. Mendicant Orders 46 vii. Conclusion 47 7 Chapter 3 – Forms of Lay Association 48 i. Introduction 48 ii. Forms of Lay Association 49 iii.