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A LIFE ON THE OCEAN WAVE DEATH AND DISEASE IN NELSON’S NAVY
Stephen Mortlock tells of the gonorrhoea, hernias and deadly splinters that were a way of life at sea.
amuel Johnson (1709-1784) seamen, punishment could range from observed: “Being on a ship is “starting” (a strike across the back with being in jail with the chance a rattan cane), “running the gauntlet” of being drowned.” And (usually reserved for thieves), “flogging”, although the British navy “hanging” to my personal favourite was probably one of the most “keel-hauling” (tying a sailor to a line that formidable armed forces in is looped beneath the vessel, throwing the world in the time of them overboard and dragging them under Nelson, life aboard ship was for many the ship’s keel). Most died. Ssailors a miserable experience. Then of course there was the They were often pressed into possibility of military action. service, malnourished, worked Between 1799 and 1815 Great hard and in some cases Britain was at war with France subjected to brutal, arbitrary under the leadership of discipline by sadistic captains. Napoleon Bonaparte and If the ships boys (the youngest there were a series of sea boy at the battle of Trafalgar battles, the most notable was just eight years old) were being the Battle of caught up to mischief they Trafalgar in 1805. But, might be made to “kiss the as with all service life gunner’s daughter”, which during this time, the would mean being bent over a majority of deaths were
IMAGES: GETTY/ISTOCK cannon and caned. For the able not caused by battle but SCIENCE THE BIOMEDICAL The big story SCIENTIST 31
Right. Samuel Pepys was an administrator of the navy of England and also a Member of Parliament Below. Peter Durand was a British merchant credited with receiving the first patent for the idea of preserving food using tin cans
by diseases. In the casualty list of 1810, 50% which included oranges and lemons; one of deaths were caused by illnesses, 41.7% by was fit for duty again after only six days. accidents or injuries, compared to only In 1667 Samuel Lind was hesitant to recommend the use 8.3% killed due to enemy action. of oranges and lemons as they were Pepys first expensive, but in 1795 Blane put into Diet, drunkenness and Blane practice the issue of lemons, limes and The distribution of tobacco and alcohol regularised naval fresh vegetables as routine stores for was considered important to help vessels of the British navy. Personal alleviate the tedium of life at sea. The rations through cleanliness was also ordered, and soap men were entitled to a gallon of beer and was made available, the cost being a half pint rum ration per day. However, the introduction deducted from each man’s pay. A this resulted in a certain amount of of a varied and calculation was submitted costing the drunkenness that may have contributed illness due to uncleanliness as 10 times to the large number of floggings. nutritious diet that of the cost of soap. It is also probable that the amount of alcohol available must have been a Diseases contributory factor to the number of men Large numbers of men dying of individual accidents. Given the accommodated in work they did in dangerous conditions, cramped and damp falling, crush injuries and being drowned conditions with were almost unavoidable consequences inadequate nutrition and for the unwary sailor. In addition, the water provided a fertile physician to the Fleet from 1779-1783, Sir breeding ground for Gilbert Blane (1749-1834) thought that disease, especially typhus. To cases of insanity were seven times more physicians like John Woodall common among sailors. (1570-1643), sin was the primary In 1667 Samuel Pepys (1633-1703) first that the British naval diet had remained cause of disease. He believed that aside regularised naval rations through the virtually the same for over three hundred from living a moral life the best way to introduction of a varied and nutritious years. Change finally came with the stay healthy was to avoid stinking diet. Documents maintained by the widespread use of canning in the early vapours and cemeteries whenever “Victualing Board” dispel the widespread 1800s. Unfortunately the first practical possible. Although the noxious fumes perception that Georgian-era sailors can opener was only developed 50 years emanating from bilge water probably ran barely scraped by on hardtack biscuits and later. The inventor of the canning process, a close second. The bilges of ships had rancid gruel. True, they ate hardtack – Peter Durand (1766-1822), had been guilty previously been full of sand and shingle with the obligatory added Weevil larvae of an incredible oversight. as ballast, which at the end of a voyage protein – but they also drank beer every It was also the introduction of fruit and was a stinking cess pool, but towards the day and consumed beef or pork four times vegetables that helped to revolutionise end of the 18th century the loose ballast a week, which was often a more varied the diet of the British sailor. The work was replaced with iron bars which helped diet than their land-based counterparts. carried out by James Lind (1716-1794) was to remove this infected mass in the lower Naval vessels also carried dried peas, a good example of a controlled clinical parts of the ship. Ventilation of the lower oatmeal, butter, cheese and sometimes trial to investigate the condition of decks was also improved by running brass even livestock for slaughter. Records scurvy. He selected twelve patients tubes from the upper decks to the bilges show that three men were gored suffering from scurvy with similar as channels for fresh air. in the groin by young bullocks symptoms, putrid gums, spots, By far the largest category of the and one man, John Brimmer, lassitude, and with weakness reported diseases were the fevers, sustained serious pelvic of the knees and fed them subdivided into continued and trauma. But, a study in 2009 different diets and recorded intermittent, and some of these were which looked at the bones of the outcome. The most tropical diseases, such as yellow fever and sailors from the British warship dramatic effects were shown in malaria, which would strike down ships
IMAGES: JOHN HAYLS VIA PUBLIC DOMAIN/ISTOCK/REX IMAGES: JOHN HAYLS Mary Rose, sunk in 1545, suggests two patients who received a diet crews when they were stationed in the THE BIOMEDICAL SCIENCE 32 SCIENTIST The big story
Right. Vintage engraving of showing Admiral Nelson and HMS Victory at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805.
West Indies. The Brunswick went out to the West Indies in 1801 and was almost immediately hit by yellow fever with 287 men on the sick list, while the Hannibal lost 200 men in six months. With sailors living in such close proximity, infectious diseases like smallpox, measles and tuberculosis were still very common. A large number of sailors were afflicted with “Flux”, this could be referring to either a haemorrhage but more likely to be bloody diarrhoea. There were also cases of kidney stones. This could be related to that required balance, timing, and Most surgeons took pride in the speed the sailors’ diet, which was high in strength. Michael Chris, a 28-year-old with which they could perform an protein, and salt, and possible limited sailor, fell down a ladder joining decks amputation. Amputation was then the access to sufficient fresh drinking water. and landed heavily on his perineum. His only treatment considered for limbs Outbreaks of venereal disease were scrotum swelled to a huge size and, by the smashed by splinters or cannon balls. common while the ship was in port. It time he presented to the surgeon, it had In the midst of a battle, the loblolly was divided into gonorrhoea and lux begun to ulcerate. He was treated with men as the surgeons’ assistants (not the venereal (also known as lues or the French bed (or rather hammock) rest and a surgeons’ mates, who were more skilled) pox), which was syphilis. Twenty-three- scrotal support as well as various were called, could easily fill a tub with year-old Able Seaman Jason Darling, of poultices. During a battle, apart from the severed limbs. Complicated surgical HMS Albion presented to the ships obvious dangers of warfare, other major procedures on abdominal wounds were surgeon with chancres of the glans and injuries were caused by wooden splinters impossible, even on shore, in the prepuce and a swelling in the groin. These – a cannonball slicing through the eighteenth century. Infections were symptoms appeared 10 days after “seeing wooden structure of the ship sent a almost inevitable. And these sorts of a girl” and he was having difficulty deadly spray of oak splinters, some over a wound were often fatal. walking. He was treated with lunar foot long, flying across the decks. caustic, a mercury based ointment. Mr The number of compound fractures Conclusions Parry, surgeon to HMS Adventure, noted and traumatic avulsions of limbs Watching the newest ship of the that chancre and buboes were always made naval surgeons adept at fleet HMS Queen Elisabeth sail symptoms of the pox and should be amputation. The common past HMS Victory into treated with mercury, but this should not practice when treating Portsmouth harbour, it is not be used with gonorrhoea. Gonorrhoea was amputations was to tie off the difficult to imagine the treated with bed rest and a cooling arteries and veins with contrasts between life in the regimen. This required not eating or ligatures and leave them hanging navy now and in the time of drinking anything to inflame or heat the free from the wound, to be removed Nelson. The combination of an body such as wine, spices, onions, or when it had healed. The red hot cautery improved diet, better working conditions meat. Instead sufferers were given barley technique had been discontinued and medical intervention have helped to water or milk. In The Marine Practice of following criticism by James Yonge decrease the number of deaths in the Physic and Surgery, published in 1770, (1646-1721) in his Currus Triumphalis, navy caused by diseases, which allow our William Northcote also warned against, published in I679, but the ligature method service personnel to fulfil their duties. “amorous dalliance with women, obscene had the unfortunate consequence of books and whatever inflames the fancy”. allowing infection easy access to the Stephen Mortlock is Pathology Manager wound. Many men who survived at Nuffield Health Guildford Hospital. Medical intervention amputation succumbed later to bacterial He would like to thank Dr Erica Charters Trauma, ruptures and hernias were infections. Surgery was rudimentary, and for a fascinating talk on welfare in the 18th commonplace, but this is not surprising few effective medicines were available. century Royal Navy, and the pathology as the sailing of these vessels was a Until 1804, surgeons were expected to staff at the Guildford Hospital for their
IMAGES: ISTOCK constant manual labour with skilled work provide their own drugs and equipment. professionalism, dedication and support.