STONE WORKING IN ANTIQUITY GENERAL TECHNIQUES AND A FRAMEWORK OF CRITICAL FACTORS DERIVED FROM THE CONSTRUCTION OF SOLOMON’S TEMPLE IN JERUSALEM by Anne Marie Smith submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the subject Religious Studies (Biblical Archaeology) (90044-BAR) at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: Prof M Le Roux February 2020 i Figure 1-1: Plinth in two parts, depicting stonemason tools, Rome, 1st century AD (De Nuccio & Ungaro 2002: 502-503). ii Declaration Name: Anne Marie Smith ________________________________________________________________ Student number: 31063543 ________________________________________________________________ Degree: Doctor of Philosophy Religious studies (Biblical Archaeology) (90044-BAR) ________________________________________________________________ Exact wording of the title of the thesis as appearing on the electronic copy submitted for examination: Stone working in antiquity, general techniques and a framework of critical factors derived from the construction of Solomon’s Temple in Jerusalem. I declare that the above thesis is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. I further declare that I submitted the thesis to originality checking software and that it falls within the accepted requirements for originality. I further declare that I have not previously submitted this work, or part of it, for examination at Unisa for another qualification or at any other higher education institution. 14th January 2020 SIGNATURE DATE iii Abstract The focus of this thesis is on the most commonly used types of stone, the methods of quarrying stone, stone working, the tools developed and used for that purpose, and the ways in which stone was transported and hoisted into place. This is starting from the earliest times in which large temples or buildings were constructed, namely the Neolithic, up till the time of the Roman Empire. Besides being a kind of compendium of most aspects of stone working, which could be found, also attention is given to the ideal conditions under which the construction of a large temple or monument could take place. The framework, which is developed from the description of the construction of Solomon’s Temple in Jerusalem in I Kings 5 and I Chronicles 28, is used to analyse the construction of a number of other temples in different times, places and settings, and with the use of different materials, to test if the framework is applicable in all these situations. Moreover, also other aspects of stone working, such as mosaics and the manufacturing of stone vessels in Jerusalem are described and analysed as to their origins and uses. The intention is to give an overview of the many ways in which stone has been used, so that the reader can get an idea of how large temples and monuments were built and to gain an understanding of what kind of technical know-how and ingenuity existed in antiquity. Key words: Stone working, stonemason, sandstone, limestone, marble, slate, basalt, granite, sanding, polishing, transport of stone, mosaics, restoring mosaics, stone vessels, Temple of Solomon, I Kings 5, I Chronicles 28, Göbekli Tepe, Orkney Islands, Temple of Karnak, Black Pharaohs, Parthenon, Herod’s Temple Mount, low chronology. iv Acknowledgements This thesis is dedicated to the stonemasons in my family: - to my great-grandfather, Johan Huibert Buddingh, who started his own business in 1879, now 140 years ago, in Wageningen, the Netherlands in the garden of his in- laws. This happened with encouragement from the customers of his former employer, as the latter had gone bankrupt - to my grandfather, Dirk Buddingh for whom the business in Wageningen with his father and brother had become too small, so he started his own business in the nearby town of Veenendaal before WW I - to my father, Johan Huibert Buddingh, who took over his father’s business after the ravages of WW II, and who built it up from 3 employees and two rickety machines to 30 employees working in a well-equipped and robust company. Besides this he also re-united the two companies, when his uncle in Wageningen died without a successor - to my brothers, Diederik and Gerard Buddingh, who joined the business in the late 1970’s and have worked hard to keep it going, as well as managed to keep it afloat during the recession of 2009 and who have now brought it to new prosperity my admiration is for you all. My profound thanks are to the following persons: - to my supervisor, Prof. Magdel Le Roux, for her advice and her patience with my slow progress and the long-term loan of the book by Kotsanas - to Nick Card, Senior Projects Manager of the Orkney Research Center for Archaeology (ORCA) for generously sharing information about the Ness of Brodgar excavations - to Doctor Roland Enmarch for generously sharing the preliminary results of the excavation of the hauling track in the alabaster quarry at Hatnub - to Doctor Evert Van Dijk for the book by Carpenter about the Parthenon v - to The Hillside Tavern in Lynwood, for the long-term loan of the book by Casson, which was part of the decoration of their establishment - to Henk van der Vis for his hospitality and conversation about stone working - to Anne and Anke Krikke for their warm reception and information about stone working - to my husband of 35 years Neil Smith, for his continued support, and assistance with all matters of computer systems and problems, his superb editing skills, being my sounding board, and his endless supply of cups of tea - to my children, Eric and Monica Smith for their ongoing encouragement. vi Table of Contents DECLARATION…………………………………………………………………………...iii ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………......iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS…………………………………………………………………v TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………………………vii LIST OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………....xix LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………………..….xxvi CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND……………………………………………………………..…1 1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS………………2 1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES………………………………………………………3 1.4 METHODOLOGY AND STRUCTURE………………………………………4 1.4.1 Approach………………………………………………………………………4 1.4.2 Structure……………………………………………………………………….6 1.5 HYPOTHESIS………………………………………………………………….8 1.6 MOTIVATION FOR THE STUDY…………………………………………....8 1.7 LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………………………….……9 1.7.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………...……9 1.7.2 Primary sources………………………………………………………...……9 1.7.3 Secondary sources……………………………………………………...…..9 1.7.4 Tertiary sources…………………………………………………….………13 vii 1.8 LIMITATIONS………………………………………………………….……..14 1.8.1 Scope of the thesis…………………………………………………………14 1.8.2 Assumptions………………………………………………………………...14 1.8.3 Constraints…………………………………………………………………..14 CHAPTER TWO PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, HARDNESS, COMPOSITION OF STONE AND STONEWORKING TOOLS 2.1 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………..17 2.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF STONE…………………………………….17 2.2.1 Igneous rock…………………………………………………………………17 2.2.2 Metamorphic rock…………………………………………………………..19 2.2.3 Sedimentary rock…………………………………………………………...21 2.3 HARDNESS…………………………………………………………………..22 2.4 COMPOSITION OF STONE………………………………………………..26 2.5 WEIGHT OF STONE………………………………………………………...27 2.6 TOOLS………………………………………………………………………...27 2.6.1 Development of tools……………………………………………………....27 2.6.2 Use of flint and obsidian to make tools………………………………...30 2.6.2.1 Flint…………………………………………………………………………… 30 2.6.2.2 Obsidian………………………………………………………………………31 2.6.3 Copper and bronze…………………………………………………………33 2.6.4 Iron…………………………………………………………………………….35 2.6.5 Hammers……………………………………………………………………..36 viii 2.6.6 Other tools…………………………………………………………………...40 2.6.6.1 Drills…………………………………………………………………………...40 2.6.6.2 Saws…………………………………………………………………………..40 2.6.6.3 Measuring tools………………………………………………………………42 2.6.6.4 Compass, divider and caliper……………………………………………….45 2.6.6.5 Further development of hammers and chisels……………………………46 2.7 CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………..48 CHAPTER THREE QUARRYING, TRANSPORT AND HOISTING; STONE VESSELS AND MOSAICS 3.1 INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………..49 3.2 QUARRYING METHODS IN ANCIENT TIMES…………………………..49 3.2.1 Use of field stones………………………………………………………….49 3.2.2 Use of squared stones……………………………………………………..50 3.2.3 Opening up a quarry……………………………………………………….52 3.2.4 Types of quarries…………………………………………………………...52 3.2.4.1 Hillside quarries………………………………………………………………54 3.2.4.2 Pit quarries……………………………………………………………………55 3.2.4.3 Underground quarries……………………………………………………….55 3.2.4.4 Trenches, adits and tunnels…………………………………………………58 3.2.5 Quarrying methods…………………………………………………………61 3.2.5.1 Quarrying limestone blocks…………………………………………………65 3.2.5.2 Quarrying granite…………………………………………………………….67 ix 3.2.5.3 Quarrying materials which are layered…………………………………….73 3.3 TRANSPORT METHODS…………………………………………………..75 3.3.1 Tumbling……………………………………………………………………..75 3.3.2 Wooden sledges on rollers……………………………………………….76 3.3.3 Sledges on tracks…………………………………………………………..77 3.3.4 Levering or ramps………………………………………………………….78 3.3.5 Ramps with steps…………………………………………………………..81 3.3.6 Transport with ships……………………………………………………….85 3.3.6.1 Transport of stone in Egypt…………………………………………………85 3.3.6.2 Transport of stone for Stonehenge………………………………………...88 3.3.6.3 Transport of stone in the Greek era………………………………………..89 3.3.6.4 Transport of stone in Roman times………………………………………...91 3.3. Transport with wheels……………………………………………………..92 3.4 HOISTING…………………………………………………………………….95 3.4.1 Hoisting in Egypt……………………………………………………………95 3.4.2 Hoisting in Greece………………………………………………………….96