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Persian Period Prophetic Perspectives

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Persian Period Prophetic Perspectives The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School College of the Liberal Arts RECONSTRUCTING JERUSALEM: PERSIAN PERIOD PROPHETIC PERSPECTIVES A Dissertation in History by Kenneth A. Ristau © 2013 Kenneth A. Ristau Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy August 2013 The dissertation of Kenneth A. Ristau was reviewed and approved* by the following: Gerald N. Knoppers Edwin Erle Sparks Professor of Classics and Ancient Mediterranean Studies, Religious Studies, and Jewish Studies Dissertation Advisor Co-Chair of Committee A. Gregg Roeber Professor of Early Modern History and Religious Studies Co-Director of Max Kade German-American Research Institute Co-Chair of Committee Baruch Halpern Chaiken Family Chair in Jewish Studies Professor of Ancient History and Religious Studies Ann E. Killebrew Associate Professor, Classics and Ancient Mediterranean Studies, Jewish Studies, and Anthropology Nina Safran Associate Professor of History Ken Hirth Professor of Archaeological Anthropology Paul B. Harvey Associate Professor of Classics and Ancient Mediterranean Studies Head of the Department of Classics and Ancient Mediterranean Studies *Signatures are on file in the Graduate School ii ABSTRACT This study identifies and examines the earliest layers of archaeological and textual evidence concerning the reconstruction of Jerusalem in the Achaemenid Persian Period (550 – 330 BCE) to illuminate the historical and ideological processes by which the city regained its prominence after its destruction in 587 BCE. The centrality and importance of Jerusalem within Yahwism was not a given at the time. In fact, a multi-centric and international religion appeared to be developing in the aftermath of the conquest of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah. In light of the destruction of the city in 587 BCE, the study first presents the development and history of the physical site with particular attention to indications of its socio-political status. Data from over a hundred years of archaeological excavations is presented and interpreted, revealing a slow process of recovery with evidence for administrative consolidation in the late fifth century and a more stable, urban population emerging in the fourth century. In four subsequent exegetical chapters, an ideological and cultural-historical approach to early restoration era prophetic texts is used to situate historically and explicate the way in which their authors and tradents addressed encumbrances to reconstruction. The chapters focus on Isaiah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi and show how the authors and tradents, employing native and imperial traditions, reaffirm, promote, and even mandate Jerusalem as the sacred center of Yahwistic life and cult, especially vis-à-vis the developing Torah that did not explicitly identify Jerusalem as this sacred center. The study concludes by providing new insights on the utility of the Jerusalem traditions as a powerful symbol for survival and revitalization in the Persian and Early Hellenistic periods, and by connecting the prophetic work to the continuing importance of the site in the territorial and theological discourse of the Graeco-Roman period. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures ................................................................................................................ vi Abbreviations ................................................................................................................. ix Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................ xi Chapter 1. Introduction .................................................................................................. 1 Reconstructing Jerusalem: Outline, Method, Scope ....................................................... 2 The Rise and Fall of State Ideology in Judah ................................................................. 9 Problems in Post-Collapse Judean Society ................................................................... 12 Chapter 2. “No Houses Had Been Built”: The Archaeology of Persian Period Jerusalem ............................................................................................................. 19 The Settlement .............................................................................................................. 20 Summary of the Evidence ......................................................................................... 22 Absence of Evidence: The Case of the Ophel ........................................................... 29 Absence of Evidence: The Case of the Southern Crest ............................................. 32 Evaluation of the Evidence ........................................................................................ 33 Fortifications ................................................................................................................. 34 The Eastern Ridge Wall............................................................................................. 35 Reuse of the Iron II Walls ......................................................................................... 61 The Persian Period Fortifications .............................................................................. 76 Epigraphic Evidence ..................................................................................................... 78 Burial Site and Significant Material Remains .............................................................. 84 Interpretations and Regional Context ........................................................................... 88 Chapter 3. Recreating Jerusalem: The Isaianic Perspective(s) ................................. 92 Reconstruction in Deutero-Isaiah ................................................................................. 96 The International Context: Isaiah 40–48 ................................................................... 97 The Return to Zion: Isaiah 49–55 ............................................................................ 105 Reconstruction in Trito-Isaiah .................................................................................... 110 The Theological Foundation of the City ................................................................. 112 The Ethical Dimension and the Sabbath ................................................................. 115 Re-Creation and Rebirth .......................................................................................... 119 The Statement of Claim ........................................................................................... 123 Conclusions ................................................................................................................. 128 Chapter 4. Revitalizing Jerusalem: The Perspective of Haggai .............................. 133 The Date and Organization of the Work ..................................................................... 135 The Temporal Frame and Sitz-im-Leben .................................................................... 138 The Nature of the Restoration ..................................................................................... 142 Reconstruction as a Covenant Imperative .................................................................. 148 The Temple as Bourse ................................................................................................ 153 Zerubbabel as Hoffnungsträger for the Temple’s Reconstruction .............................. 156 Conclusions ................................................................................................................. 160 iv Chapter 5. Reconsecrating Jerusalem: The Perspective of Zechariah 1–8 ........... 164 The Composition of the Text ................................................................................... 167 The Structure of the Vision-Oracle Complex (1:8–6:15) ........................................ 170 Jerusalem in the Divine Combat Cycle ................................................................... 172 The Temple and the Community in the Divine Combat Cycle ............................... 183 The Prose Frame (1:2-6; 7:2–8:23) ......................................................................... 199 Conclusions ................................................................................................................. 206 Chapter 6. Reforming Jerusalem: Synchronic and Diachronic Perspectives from Zechariah 9–14 and Malachi .............................................................................. 209 The Explicit and Implied Imperial and Regional Context(s) ...................................... 213 The Persians and the Fifth Satrapy in Zechariah 9–14 ............................................ 214 Persians and Edomites in Malachi ........................................................................... 217 Judean Leadership and the Community ...................................................................... 221 Judah and David in Zechariah 9–14 ........................................................................ 221 Priests and Policy in Malachi .................................................................................. 226 The Status of the City and the Temple ....................................................................... 230 The Temple in Zechariah 9–14 ................................................................................ 231 The Sacred Precinct in Malachi ..............................................................................
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