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Journalism, Justice and the Transnational Community

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Journalism, Justice and the Transnational Community Beyond Mediated Conflict: Journalism, Justice and the Transnational Community Slavko Gajevic A thesis submitted in total fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy July 2012 School of Culture and Communication The University of Melbourne Abstract This research explores how journalists understand, interpret and construct the notion of justice while commenting on armed conflicts. The study argues that journalists perceive justice not only as members of the journalistic community, or as representatives of nation-states directly involved in armed conflicts, but also as members of the transnational community emotionally, morally, politically and economically affected by these conflicts. More precisely, the effects of armed conflicts on the transnational community turn the argumentation of newspaper editorials into a specific mediator of transnational public reasoning. This research shows that newspaper editorials on armed conflicts conceptualise the notion of the transnational community as a discursive community. The transnational community is understood as a community that arises in times of conflict to protect civilian lives and liberty and therefore serves as an authority of normative criteria for justice. The discursive nature of the transnational community enables members of different national or local communities to join the transnational community in an active deliberation of justice in times of conflict, and to retreat to the routine of their lives as members of a particular national or local community when the deliberation has concluded. This PhD research argues that it was the Yugoslav conflicts of the 1990s in particular that gave birth to this modern notion of the transnational community. This study also demonstrates how newspaper editorials on armed conflicts involve not only information and arguments related to a particular conflict, but employ and reinforce collective memories related to that conflict. The research found that the analysed editorials routinely employed collective memories to convince the readers that the newspapers’ argumentation of justice was firmly grounded within a historically proven continuity of similar events and their meanings. Therefore, to make their argumentative claims plausible to their audiences, these editorials continuously employed collective memories of historical events and personalities, or collective memories of procedures and institutions such as those which constitute international law or the international community. This research also argues that editorials on armed conflicts i approach the concept of justice as a notion that is understood differently following changes in a wider social context. These issues are discussed through the analysis of argumentation strategies employed by two newspapers in their editorials about conflicts in the former Yugoslavia: the American The New York Times and the Serbian Politika. This research demonstrates that both newspapers discursively situated these conflicts within the wider globalising forces of the 1990s. In this context the research approaches the newspapers’ language as an element of the discursive standardization of globalising social processes. Particular lexical items such as ‘globalization’ or ‘illegal bombing of Serbia’, were employed by the newspapers’ editorials on the conflicts in the former Yugoslavia as discursively constituted objectivities to support arguments about these conflicts. Acts of justice or injustice committed by the various parties involved in the former Yugoslavia’s conflicts were consequently argued and represented in the newspapers’ editorials as commonsensical consequences of these discursive objectivities. ii This is to certify that (i) the thesis comprises only my original work towards the PhD except where indicated in the Preface, (ii) due acknowledgement has been made in the text to all other material used, (iii) the thesis is less than 100,000 words in length, exclusive of tables, maps, bibliographies and appendices. ---------------------------------------------- Slavko Gajevic iii Acknowledgments I am very grateful to my supervisors Ingrid Volkmer and Carolyne Lee for their support and for their guidance during my PhD research. Without their help and support this research would not have been possible. Ingrid, thank you for your time and for many helpful discussions and suggestions. Your knowledge and your support were invaluable for my research. I would also like to thank my dissertation committee members for their guidance and suggestions. I want to acknowledge that my research has benefited enormously from discussions with academic staff members at Birkbeck University of London and Cardiff University where I had the opportunity to work while writing my PhD. Above all, I am thankful to my sisters Borka and Zorka, to their families, and to my wife Verica for their support and for their love. I am indebted to my friends Zarko and Mima, who gave me a refuge in their home in New Zealand, which saved me and my PhD. I am particularly thankful to Helen Barney and Sadhbh O’Dwyer for their meticulous proofreading. iv Table of Contents Abstract i Declaration iii Acknowledgments iv Table of Contents v List of Tables viii Introduction 1 Chapter 1: Transnational media, armed conflicts and memories without borders 8 1.1 The news media and the formation of collective memories 8 1.2 Changing memories of armed conflicts and fixed ‘memory templates’ 11 1.3 The Holocaust, war reporting and the formal concept of justice 14 1.4 A Balkan discourse and the construction of a ‘frozen identity’ 17 1.5 Yugoslavia in contexts of globalization and the nation-state 20 1.6 News discourses as standardization of social processes 24 1.7 Transnational media and an emerging transnational public sphere 27 Chapter 2: Conflict reporting and the question of justice 33 2.1 Conflict as a transition from Communist to post-Communist societies 33 2.2 Conflict as a dominant force of news values 36 2.3 From conflict in news text to a state-citizen dialogue 38 2.4 The journalistic field and conflict as a de-historicized current news event 43 2.5 Conflict reporting and journalistic struggles for autonomy 47 2.6 Reconsidering the notion of objectivity through war reporting 51 2.7 A discourse of justice from topic to social contract 53 2.8 Journalistic practices and the formal concept of justice 55 2.9 The concept of justice as a ‘confused notion’ and as fairness 57 2.10 Justice, sovereignty and the transnational community 60 v Chapter 3: From contested ideas of Yugoslavism to wars as memorized media events 63 3.1 Contested ideas and disputed consequences for Yugoslavia’s future 64 3.2 Yugoslavia’s nations, geopolitics and wars over borders 66 3.3 The beginning of the Yugoslav wars and the return of history 68 3.4 A stable international order vs. the issue of justice: echoes in the media 71 3.5 Dynamics of the Yugoslav conflicts and changes in politics and discourse 74 3.6 The Yugoslav wars and the three crucial transnational media events 78 3.6.1 The publication of photographs of ‘Serb-run concentration Camps’ in Bosnia in 1992 79 3.6.2 The beginning of the US-led NATO war against Serbia in 1999 81 3.6.3 The declaration of the independence of Kosovo in 2008 86 Chapter 4: Methodology 90 4.1 Critical discourse analysis and editorials as a manifestation of social action 91 4.2 Newspapers as representatives of different media systems 99 4.2.1 The New York Times and Politika: backgrounds and perspectives 102 4.2.2 Editorials in American and Serbian journalistic practices 104 4.3 Sample and the method of analysis of editorials applied in this research 108 4.3.1 The model of newspaper editorials analysis applied in the study 110 4.3.2 The procedure of newspaper editorials analysis applied in the study 117 4.3.3 The resonance of the visual in memory and the importance of consistent methodology 121 Chapter 5: The notion of justice and the semantic field of the Holocaust 125 5.1 Justice and memories in The New York Times in 1992: The return of the Holocaust 128 5.2 Justice and memories in Politika in 1992: the Holocaust as a news story fabricated to serve a global militarism 141 Chapter 6: The notion of justice and the semantic field of the just war 153 vi 6.1 Justice and memories in The New York Times in 1999: the return of the just war 156 6.2 Justice and memories in Politika in 1999: just war as an excuse for colonization 174 Chapter 7: The notion of justice and the semantic field of sovereignty 196 7.1 Justice and memories in The New York Times in 2008: human rights vs. sovereignty 199 7.2 Justice and memories in Politika in 2008: human rights and globalisation as a cover-up for Western hegemony 209 Discussion 223 Globalization and the transnational community in The New York Times and Politika editorials on the Yugoslav conflicts 224 Collective memories in The New York Times and Politika editorials on the Yugoslav conflicts 227 Editorials’ arguments about justice and semantic fields of terms ‘the Holocaust,’ ‘just war’ and ‘sovereignty’ 230 Conceptualising editorials and arguments about justice in times of armed conflicts 232 Editorials as the public deliberation of justice in times of armed conflicts 233 The modern notion of the transnational community as deliberative community 236 The transnational community as a deliberative just authority in times of armed conflicts 240 Transnational memories as the crucial element of arguments about justice 244 References 251 vii List of Tables: Table 1. Model of editorial 112 Table 2. Model of argument 114 Table 3. Basic categories of the two models 116 Table 4. Model of the analysis of newspaper editorials applied in this research 119 Table 5. Analysed editorials on ‘Serb run concentration camps’ in 1992 128 Table 6. Argumentation of justice in The New York Times in 1992 129 Table 7. Argumentation of justice in Politika in 1992 143 Table 8.
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