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Anita Sæbø Hovedfagsoppgave I Statsvitensk Zambiske aviser i landets demokratiseringsprosess: - Bremsekloss eller katalysator? Anita Sæbø Hovedfagsoppgave i statsvitenskap Universitetet i Oslo, Institutt for statsvitenskap April 2007 FORORD Det er mange som fortjener en stor takk for å ha hjulpet og oppmuntret meg underveis med denne oppgaven: Tusen takk til veileder, Dan Banik, for utholdenhet og alltid like konstruktive forslag, innspill og tilbakemeldinger. Du er en stor motivator. Jeg kunne aldri ha skrevet denne oppgaven uten alle intervjuobjektene mine. Takk for at dere brukte så mye tid på prosjektet mitt, deltok i diskusjoner, foreslo materiell og ikke minst hjalp meg med å finne dette. Betty, David, Helene, N’gama, Norm og Zenzele, dere gjorde oppholdet mitt i Zambia helt spesielt. Jeg hadde to flotte måneder hos dere og lengter ofte tilbake. Tusen takk til alle dere her hjemme som har hjulpet meg: Mamma og pappa for oppmuntringer og ”skriveferier” med tipp topp service, Marthe og Isabel for vennskap, vertskap og humoristisk håndtering av alle oppgavefrustrasjoner og Rune fordi du alltid stiller opp for meg. Og til slutt en spesiell takk til Toril. Fordi du bryr deg om meg og mitt når det er så mye annet å tenke på. Oversikt over forkortelser AFRONET The Inter-African Network for Human Rights and Development AZP Agenda for Zambia Party CRC Constitutional Review Commission IBA Act The Independent Broadcasting Authority Act IMF International Monetary Fund MECOZ The Media Council of Zambia MISA Media Institute of Southern Africa MISA-Zambia Media Institute of Southern Africa Zambia MMD Movement for Multiparty Democracy MTF Media Trust Fund NAI Nordiska Afrikainstitutet NGO Nongovernmental Organisation NORAD Direktoratet for utviklingssamarbeid PAZA Press Association Zambia PF Patriotic Front PFU Pressens Faglige Utvalg UNIP United National Independence Party UNZA University of Zambia UPND United Party for National Development USAID US Agency for International Development ZAMCOM The Zambia Institute of Mass Communication ZAMWA Zambia Media Women Association ZANA Zambia News Agency ZANIS Zambia News and Information Services ZDC Zambia Democratic Congress ZIS Zambian Information Service ZNBC Zambia National Broadcasting Corporation ZNBC Act The Zambia National Broadcasting Corporation Act INNHOLDSFORTEGNELSE 1. INNLEDNING ..................................................................................................................5 1.1 Bakgrunn ......................................................................................................................6 1.2 Problemstilling..............................................................................................................9 1.3 Metode .......................................................................................................................10 1.4 Disposisjon .................................................................................................................20 2. DEMOKRATI, YTRINGS- OG PRESSEFRIHET ......................................................21 2.1 Demokratidefinisjoner ................................................................................................22 2.2 Demokrati og utvikling ...............................................................................................27 2.3 Ytringsfrihet ...............................................................................................................30 2.4 Demokrati og ytringsfrihet i Afrika.............................................................................34 2.5 Media og demokrati....................................................................................................36 2.6 Operasjonalisering ......................................................................................................49 3. LOVVERKET – Vern av hvem og hva?........................................................................53 3.1 Det juridiske systemet.................................................................................................54 3.2 Grunnloven.................................................................................................................56 3.3 Ærekrenkelser.............................................................................................................58 3.4 Ærekrenkelser av presidenten, statsråder eller parlamentmedlemmer ..........................61 3.5 Forbudt publikasjon ....................................................................................................63 3.6 Publisering av falske nyheter ......................................................................................64 3.7 Oppvigleri...................................................................................................................64 3.8 Rikets sikkerhet ..........................................................................................................65 3.9 Retten til informasjon .................................................................................................66 3.10 Journalistenes erfaringer ...........................................................................................69 3.11 The Media Council of Zambia...................................................................................75 3.12 Konsekvensene av en manglende offentlighetslov.....................................................77 3.13 Oppsummering .........................................................................................................82 4. EIERSKAP – Politikk eller profesjonalitet og presseetikk? .........................................85 4.1 Hvem er eierne?..........................................................................................................86 4.2 Eierskapets betydning for tilgang til ressurser .............................................................88 4.3 Bestemmer eierskap hvem som blir ansatt?.................................................................95 4.4 Hvem slipper til i de ulike avisene?.............................................................................99 4.5 Hvordan vinkles ulike saker i de ulike avisene?.........................................................103 4.6 Preger ulike eierskap mulighetene for samarbeid?.....................................................115 4.7 Oppsummering .........................................................................................................117 5. KONKLUSJON............................................................................................................119 Litteraturliste....................................................................................................................127 Oversikt over intervjuobjekter:.......................................................................................131 1. INNLEDNING Det er i stor grad akseptert at et demokratisk styresett er umulig uten frie medier og at mediene i neste omgang har en sentral funksjon i forhold til å styrke et lands demokrati. Media spiller en demokratisk rolle ved å overvåke maktorganer, spre alternativ informasjon og gjennom å være en arena hvor ytringsfrihet kan utøves. Frie medier kan også fungere som en katalysator for andre demokratiske reformer. I denne oppgaven ønsker jeg å se på medias, og særlig avisenes, rolle i et relativt nytt og økonomisk svakt demokrati, nemlig Zambia. Hvordan kan media spille en sentral demokratisk rolle i et land som bare har hatt flerpartivalg siden 1991 og som rangeres av FN som et av verdens fattigste land?1 Det kan virke usannsynlig at et land med begrenset demokratierfaring og utstrakt fattigdom skal ha gode, kritiske medier. Man kan se for seg at representanter for myndighetene fortsatt har det samme forholdet til åpenhet som da landet var ettpartistat og at det ikke finnes midler til en kritisk og analyserende journalistikk. Samtidig finnes det eksempler på at zambiske medier faktisk spiller en viktig samfunnsrolle, som da de i 2001 bidro til kampanjen for å forhindre at president Frederick Chiluba stilte til valg for en tredje og grunnlovsstridig presidentperiode. Formålet med denne oppgaven er å studere i hvilken grad zambiske medier fungerer som en katalysator eller bremsekloss i den zambiske demokratiseringsprosessen og hvilke forhold som fremmer og eller begrenser medias rolle i utviklingen av demokratiet. Selv om jeg først og fremst skal se på avisene i Zambia, vil denne studien også kunne si noe om zambiske mediers styrke og svakheter. Gjennom å studere media vil jeg også forsøke å si noe mer generelt om det zambiske demokratiet. Forhold som påvirker medias posisjon, er gjerne forhold som er av betydning for hele demokratiseringsprosessen. Den zambiske medieforskeren Fackson Banda (1997: 15), skriver følgende: 1 http://hdr.undp.org/statistics/data/indicators.cfm?x=23&y=1&z=1 Rangeringen tar utgangspunkt i prosentandel av befolkningen som lever på under 1 USD per dag. 5 For in the final analysis, media activity, state-owned or not, is aimed at enhancing the linkages between governor and governed in the political pact that is sealed at election time. Therefore, this provides the rationale for linking press freedom to the general debate about democracy in Zambia. Som borgere i et demokrati har man visse rettigheter. Media skal sørge for at folk har tilgang til informasjon og analyser som setter dem i stand til å vite om og utøve disse rettighetene. Media skal også være en arena hvor velgere og politikere kan møtes mellom valg. I de fleste land er den direkte kontakten mellom disse to gruppene av et relativt
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