Family Language Policies for Indigenous Language Maintenance and Revival
A research report prepared for the Office for the Arts, Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet.
Petter Næssan, Paul Monaghan and Peter Mühlhäusler
Discipline of Linguistics University of Adelaide
October 2010 Contents pages
Acknowledgments x
1. Plan of this report 1
2. Overview of the family language policies for language maintenance
and revival project 2
3. Introduction:
Background to the study 3
3. 1. Language endangerment 3
3. 2. Language endangerment and
language vitality in Australia 3
4. Family language transmission 5
5. Methodology 7
5. 1. Scope of the study 7
5. 2. Adelaide 8
5. 3. Port Pirie 9
5. 4. Ceduna 10
5. 5. The methodology of random sampling
and its rationale 11
ii
5. 6. The development of the questionnaire:
pilot study 12
5. 6. 1. Demographic data 13
5. 6. 2. Geographic mobility: rationale 13
5. 6. 3. Exogamy: rationale 13
5. 6. 4. Communicative competence
and language use 16
5. 6. 5. Language attitudes: rationale 17
5. 6. 5. 1. Commitment 17
5. 6. 5. 2. Family focus versus school/government focus 18
5. 6. 5. 3. Speakers’ perceptions on children’s attitudes 18
5. 6. 6. Social network (peer group) questions:
rationale 19
5. 7. Problems with the questionnaire design 20
5. 7. 1. Unfortunate wording 20
5. 7. 2. Social desirability bias 20
6. Research procedure 22
6. 1. Payment to participants 23
7. Analysis sheets – Adelaide data 24
7. 1. Gender and age 24
7. 2. Place of birth 25
7. 3. Question 3: Do you speak this/
these language(s)? 26
7. 4. Question 4: Do or did any of your parents
speak this/these language(s)? 27 iii
7. 5. Question 5: Do or did any of your grandparents
speak this/these language(s)? 29
7. 6. Question 6: Do or did your grandparents
speak language to you? 29
7. 7. Question 7: Do or did your parents speak
language to you? 30
7. 8. Question 11: Do you live in the area
associated with your language group(s)? 31
7. 9. Question 12: Do most of your friends
belong to the group you identify with? 32
7. 10. Question 13: Does your spouse/partner
belong to your group? If ‘NO’, what group
does she/he belong to? 34
7. 11. Question 15: If ‘YES’ to any of the above,
do you speak language to them? 36
7. 12. Question 16: Do they speak back to you
in English? 38
If they speak back to you in English, why
do you think they do it? 38
7. 13. Question 17: Are you concerned that
the language will disappear? 40
7. 14. Question 19: Whose responsibility is it to keep
the language alive, the Government’s,
the school’s, families’ or others?
Please explain. 41
7. 15. Question 20: Would you be prepared to
give money (for learning materials,
courses, etc.) or time to strengthen
the language? 48
7. 16. Question 21: Do you want (your) children iv
to be speakers of the language? 49
7. 17. Question 27: If you have young children or
other younger relations would you like them
to speak Aboriginal English and would you
teach them/encourage them to learn it? 50
8. Analysis sheets – Port Pirie data 52
8. 1. Gender and age 52
8. 2. Place of birth 53
8. 3. Question 3: Do you speak this/
these language(s)? 53
8. 4. Question 4: Do or did any of your parents
speak this/these language(s)? 54
8. 5. Question 5: Do or did any of your grandparents
speak this/these language(s)? 54
8. 6. Question 6: Do or did your grandparents speak
language to you? 55
8. 7. Question 7: Do or did your parents speak
language to you? 55
8. 8. Question 11: Do you live in the area associated
with your language group(s)? 55
8. 9. Question 12: Do most of your friends
belong to the group you identify with? 56
8. 10. Question 13: Does your spouse/partner
belong to your group? If ‘NO’, what group
does she/he belong to? 58
8. 11. Question 15: If ‘YES’ to any of the above,
do you speak language to them? 59 v
8. 12. Question 16: Do they speak back to you
in English? 60
If they speak back to you in English, why do you think they do it? 60
8. 13. Question 17: Are you concerned that
the language will disappear? 62
8. 14. Question 19: Whose responsibility is it to keep
the language alive, the Government’s,
the school’s, families’ or others?
Please explain. 62
8. 15. Question 20: Would you be prepared to give
money (for learning materials, courses, etc.)
or time to strengthen the language? 64
8. 16. Question 21: Do you want (your) children
to be speakers of the language? 64
8.17. Question 27: If you have young children or
other younger relations would you like them
to speak Aboriginal English and would you
teach them/encourage them to learn it? 65
9. Analysis sheets – Ceduna data 67
9. 1. Gender and age 67
9. 2. Place of birth 68
9. 3. Question 3: Do you speak this/
these language(s)? 68
9. 4. Question 4: Do or did any of your parents
speak this/these language(s)? 69
9. 5. Question 5: Do or did any of your grandparents
speak this/these language(s)? 69 vi
9. 6. Question 6: Do or did your grandparents speak
language to you? 70
9. 7. Question 7: Do or did your parents speak
language to you? 71
9. 8. Question 11: Do you live in the area associated
with your language group(s)? 72
9. 9. Question 12: Do most of your friends belong
to the group you identify with? 73
9. 10. Question 13: Does your spouse/partner belong
to your group? If ‘NO’, what group does she/
he belong to? 76
9. 11. Question 15: If ‘YES’ to any of the above,
do you speak language to them? 77
9. 12. Question 16: Do they speak back to you
in English? 78
If they speak back to you in English, why
do you think they do it? 79
9. 13. Question 17: Are you concerned that
the language will disappear? 80
9. 14. Question 19: Whose responsibility is it to
keep the language alive, the Government’s,
the school’s, families’ or others?
Please explain. 81
9. 15. Question 20: Would you be prepared to give
money (for learning materials, courses, etc.)
or time to strengthen the language? 84
9. 16. Question 21: Do you want (your) children
to be speakers of the language? 85
9. 17. Question 27: If you have young children or
other younger relations would you like vii
them to speak Aboriginal English and would
you teach them/encourage them to learn it? 85
10. Summary and comparative outline
of key findings 87
10. 1. Gender, age and place of birth 87
10. 2. Language competence and exposure 88
10. 2. 1. Respondent’s self-reported language
competence 88
10. 2. 2. Reported language competence of
respondent’s parents and grandparents
and exposure to language by parents
and grandparents 88
Table
10.2.2A. Reported language competence of
respondent’s (X) parent(s) and
grandparent(s) and exposure to language
by parents and grandparents, Adelaide 89
Table
10.2.2PP. Reported language competence of
respondent’s (X) parent(s) and
grandparent(s) and exposure to language
by parents and grandparents, Port Pirie 90
Table
10.2.2C. Reported language competence of respondent’s
(X) parent(s) and grandparent(s) and exposure to
language by parents and grandparents, Ceduna 91
10. 2. 3. Discussion 92 viii
10. 3. Indications of opportunities for exposure
to language and for language use 93
10. 3. 1. Extent of residence within own language
group’s area 93
10. 3. 2. Peer group/social network/friends 93
10. 4. Extent of speaking language
to younger relatives 94
10. 5. Younger relatives responding in English when
spoken to in language 95
10. 5. 1. Perceptions on why the younger relatives
answer in English 95
10. 6. Extent of exogamy 96
10. 7. Language attitudes 97
10. 7. 1. Concern about language endangerment 97
10. 7. 2. Degree of commitment 98
10. 7. 3. Attitudes towards children’s language
acquisition and communicative competence 99
10. 7. 4. Attitudes towards Aboriginal English 99
10. 7. 5. Family focus versus school/government focus
as key factors of language planning 100
10. 8. Concluding remarks: patterns of family language
transmission 102
11. Family language planning
recommendations 103
11. 1. Responses to the draft recommendations 106
ix
Bibliography 107
Appendices 113
Appendix 1: Remoteness map 1, South Australia 114
Appendix 2: Remoteness map 2, South Australia 115
Appendix 3: Patterns of language shift map 116
Appendix 4: Consent form 117
Appendix 5: Information sheet 119
Appendix 6: Statement for cash 120
Appendix 7: Questionnaire 121
Appendix 8: Adelaide data 131
Appendix 9: Port Pirie data 252
Appendix 10: Ceduna data 317
Appendix 11: Murray Bridge data 387
Appendix 12: Plain English literature review 419
x
Acknowledgments
The Family Language Policies for Indigenous Language Maintenance and Revival Project (2009-2010) has been funded by the Australian Government Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts (Maintenance of Indigenous Languages and Records Program).
Project manager: Professor Peter Mühlhäusler
Finance manager: Dagmar Theil
Project officer: Dr Petter Næssan
Research consultants: Dr Paul Monaghan, Dr Rob Amery and Dr Mary- Anne Gale
Research assistant (Adelaide fieldwork): Sarah Pearce
Editorial assistant: Catherine Amis
The project would not have been possible without the support of Indigenous/First Nation people in Adelaide, Port Pirie, Ceduna and Murray Bridge and the project team would like to extent its heartfelt thanks and appreciation to all the participants.
The assistance and support of the following people have been greatly appreciated:
Professor Roger Thomas (Wilto Yerlo, Adelaide)
Camille Dobson (Wilto Yerlo, Adelaide)
Estelle Miller (the Far West Languages Centre, Ceduna)
Duane Woods (SA Health, Community & Allied Health Services Division, Port Pirie)
Ulrike Maria (Port Pirie TAFE)
Wanda Rainsford (Port Pirie TAFE)
Silke Damson (Australian Bureau of Statistics)
Terri Jacobs
Elsa Jacob-Naessan
1
Report on the Family Language Policies for Language Maintenance and Revival Project
1. Plan of this report
Following a summary of the key processes and outcomes engaged in and achieved throughout the course of the project (section two below), the background to the study will be outlined, with an emphasis on language endangerment in Australia (section three). The treatment will be brief, considering that much research is available within the area and the topic matter is fairly well known. Section four deals with family language transmission by means of introducing the issue and demonstrating the need for the present research. Section five explains the methodology employed. Each of the key localities selected - the scope of the research - will be introduced briefly, before a justification of the random sampling technique. The development of the questionnaire and a pilot study is described, and then justifications for the main questions are provided (with reference to previous research when relevant). Some problems with the questionnaire are also discussed, and then the research procedure is outlined. Sections 7-9 contain the analysis, which is summarised in section 10. The recommendations resulting from the project and responses to these will be presented in section 11.
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2. Overview of the family language policies for language maintenance and revival project
The family language policies for language maintenance and revival project, the first of its kind in Australia, started in September 2009, and some initial work was devoted to the ethics application to the Human Research Ethics Committee of the University of Adelaide. The project was approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee in *late October 2009. As part of the application process, an information sheet, consent form and a questionnaire have been developed. A pilot study involving 15 people was conducted in October 2009 in Adelaide, and subsequently a revised questionnaire was the basis of further research during November 2009, and March-April 2010 in Adelaide. The data collection in Port Pirie was conducted in February 2010, whereas the Ceduna data was collected in February and March 2010. All of this research – which resulted in a combined number of 135 respondents providing data - was conducted by means of random sampling, and in virtually all cases the respondents were not co-workers in language projects or otherwise known by the linguists conducting the research. A complementary study using different (non-random) sampling techniques was also commissioned for Murray Bridge and these data were available at the end of May 2010. Due to the difference in sampling methods from the other research, the Murray Bridge data are not comparable; nevertheless the raw Murray Bridge data from 10 respondents have been included in this report (appendix 11).
Data from the 135 questionnaires (see appendices 8, 9, and 10) and/or interviews have been analysed with a main view to document patterns of language transmission in Indigenous families residing in Adelaide, Port Pirie and the Ceduna region. Due to time constraints, it has regrettably not been possible to analyse all the data collected. In total, there are data from 145 questionnaires in the appendices. These data are valuable in and of themselves and it is expected that they will constitute a resource for further research. A plain English literature review has also been completed as part of the booklet with suggestions for family language planning. The literature on family language transmission used in the plain English review (appendix 12) was ultimately selected based on whether it was documenting activities or highlighting challenges that would be useful in the context of family language transmission and maintenance. Most of the suggestions or recommendations (see part 11 of this report) contained in the booklet have been developed following discussions in the project team from June 2010 onwards, and further based on consultation with community members (throughout August and September 2010).
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3. Introduction: background to the study
3. 1. Language endangerment
The literature on context-induced extensive language change - linguistic endangerment, linguistic loss, or language death - is quite extensive. Since this is a well-known issue internationally (in part reflective of the global scale of this phenomenon), a comprehensive overview of the sources and their theoretical significance is not intended here. Instead, an introduction of a cursory nature will be attempted.
Sources aimed at a general readership and with a more or less global focus include Nettle & Romaine (2000), Crystal (2000) and Dalby (2003). Other important contributions are Dorian‟s (1981) work on East Sutherland Gaelic, Schmidt‟s (1985) study of young people‟s Dyirbal, and Lee‟s (1987) analysis of changes to the Tiwi language. Robins & Uhlenbeck (1991) is a collection of essays dealing with endangered languages on a continent-by-continent basis, whereas Hyltenstam & Viberg (1993) contains detailed analyses of language attrition and regression from various areas and situations. Taylor (1992) is focused on Native American contexts, which also constitute the focus for the majority of Grenoble & Whaley‟s (1998) papers. Notable other sources include Mühlhäusler‟s (1996) critical treatment of linguistic colonialism in the Pacific, and Amery‟s (2000) detailed study of the history and contemporary revitalisation of the Kaurna language of the Adelaide Plains. Tsunoda‟s (2005) contribution is mainly an overview of various theoretical perspectives involved in the analysis of language endangerment, drawing on a wide collection of sources from various languages.
3. 2. Language endangerment and language vitality in Australia
The main surveys conducted on Indigenous language endangerment and vitality within an Australia-wide scope are Schmidt (1990), McKay (1996), Henderson & Nash, (1997), McConvell & Thieberger (2001), and the 2005 National Indigenous Language Survey (NILS, 2005). The Family language policies project also builds on Mühlhäusler‟s (2005) summary, conclusions and recommendations concerning language planning for Indigenous languages in South Australia.
4
Schmidt (1990) estimated that only one-third (about 90) of the original indigenous languages in Australia were still „living‟, and „only 20 of these (8% of the original 250) are in a relatively healthy state; in other words are being actively transmitted to and used by children‟ (Schmidt, 1990: 1). In a total Indigenous population of approximately 300,000, only 10% (30,000) spoke an Indigenous Australian language.
Schmidt stresses that all surviving indigenous Australian languages are under threat (ibid: 3). She outlines the following recurrent features conducive to language loss in Australia: a radical reduction in the number of speakers, the dormitory system and social upheaval, patterns of resettlement, breakdown in isolation, urbanisation, increased intermarriage, changes in economy and values, the media, a relative lack of Aboriginal language literature, the education system, intense assimilatory pressure, and speaker attitudes (ibid: 11-20).
Schmidt (1990) found a striking correlation between urbanisation/ white population density and indigenous language loss, which was especially widespread in the south and southeast where white population density is high. The Indigenous languages of South Australia and adjacent regions correspond to the pattern of reduction of linguistic diversity in areas colonised by Euro-Australians. Indeed, in South Australia there appears to be only two relatively „strong‟ Western Desert Languages left as Indigenous primary means of communication with all (or at least all major contemporary) domains covered. These two, Pitjantjatjara and Yankunytjatjara, are mainly spoken in the predominantly rural north-west of the state (see Næssan, 2010 for a recent discussion).
McConvell & Thieberger (2001), drawing mainly on 1996 census material, found that the number of „strong‟ languages (20) from 1990 had become 17, since three of the previously considered „strong‟ languages ought to be considered „endangered‟ in 1996. „Endangered‟ languages were those who had speakers aged 20 and above, but where the age group 5-19 did not speak the language (McConvell & Thieberger, 2001: 54). Furthermore, the authors document that the number of indigenous languages spoken as well as the percentage of people speaking these languages have continued to decrease from 1986-1996, and this decrease has accelerated in this period (ibid: 2):
„Overall the trend remains towards a decline and eventual loss of perhaps all Indigenous languages, a tragic result for Indigenous people and the heritage of Australia‟ (ibid: 96).
5
4. Family language transmission
Schmidt holds that:
„in contrast [to pidgins] language death involves an extinction process that results from one of the two contact languages dominating and gradually replacing the less prestigious language over its entire functional range‟ (Schmidt, 1985: 217).
The point about gradual replacement contrasts with Dorian‟s (1981: 51) „language tip‟, a „sudden tip‟, after which the demographic tide flows strongly in favour of some other language‟, evident when the children of fluent parents are semi-speakers or non-speakers of their parents‟ minority language.
Dorian maintains that „the home is the last bastion of a subordinate language in competition with a dominant official language of wider currency‟ (Dorian, 1981: 105, in Maguire, 1991: 168).
The family as a key site of language transmission (and to some extent, of language change) has been described in several works, although the research is somewhat limited in amount compared to works dealing with language change and revitalisation within the educational and other realms. Kaplan & Baldauf (1997), Hinton & Hale (2001) and Spolsky (2004) all contain some discussion of language planning relevant to the family site and associated processes.
Castonguay (1982), Salmons (1983), and Stevens (1985) discuss the effects of exogamy on linguistic minorities in Canada (Castonguay, 1982) and the United States. More recently, Yamamoto‟s (2001) detailed sociolinguistic analysis of language use – drawing on a large corpus of data - in Japanese-English families in Japan has added significantly to the research within this field.
Furbee, Stanley & Rogles (1993) describe the retraction of the Chiwere language via a development of family-specific lects. Edwards & Newcombe (2005) focus on Welsh language planning, specifically Welsh transmission in the family whilst Maguire (1991) details the remarkable development of the family-based revitalisation of Irish in Belfast from the 1960s to the late 1980s. In the Australian context, Döpke (1992) and Lambert (2008) are important book-length studies on migrant language transmission in the family. An important survey of Maori language use in the family was conducted in Aotearoa/New Zealand (Te Puni Kokiri, 2001). However, a questionnaire-based approach towards family
6 language transmission of Indigenous languages in Australia has, to the best of our knowledge, not been conducted before.
In this section, we have established that there is a gap in the available research concerning Indigenous family language transmission in Australia and this provides an important rationale for the study. It is hoped that the research contained in this report will be useful for Indigenous language maintenance – however, the single most important factor in this report is without any doubt the actual data, the opinions of the Indigenous people who participated in this study.
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5. Methodology
5. 1. Scope of the study
The central foci are two: Indigenous/First Nation origin and location.
Within the Australian Commonwealth legal framework, three criteria have been specified for anyone to be Aboriginal: the person identifies as Aboriginal; is recognised as such by the Aboriginal community, and is Aboriginal by way of descent, judicially interpreted to mean genealogical ancestry (de Plevitz & Croft, 2003). We do not see the need for, and have consequently not applied any testing measurements as to the First Nation status of the people concerned. All the people that were interviewed and/or have filled out forms (with one exception, a Maori woman residing in Port Pirie) identified as being Aboriginal, Indigenous Australian, or belonging to an Indigenous of First Nation, were seen as such by other First Nation Australians in the different locales, and we have no doubt that all the respondents are Indigenous or First Nation Australians. Concerning „families‟, although in many Indigenous Australian communities all community members are seen as more or less closely related, no consistent definition is necessary, except for the fact that the members see themselves as related and are part of a child-rearing unit (typically children, parents and grandparents).
This study is location-specific rather than targeting particular languages. Three main locations have been selected in South Australia: Adelaide, Port Pirie and Ceduna.
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5. 2. Adelaide
Adelaide Major Statistical Region, SA. (© Commonwealth of Australia & PSMA Australia 2007)
According to the classification of the Australian Bureau of Statistics (henceforth ABS), Adelaide is a Major City. It is the capital of South Australia and a major metropolitan centre. In 2006 (the most recent population figures available), the population of Adelaide was 1,105,840, of these 12,460 were of Indigenous (Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander) origin (ABS, 2007: Cat. No. 2001.0, Adelaide MSR, table B01). This group constitutes 1.12% of the total population. 11,518 of the Indigenous people were Aboriginal people; 685 were Torres Strait Islanders and 257 had both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander background (ibid). Out of the group of 11,518, 685 people in Adelaide spoke an Australian Indigenous language at home (ABS 2007:Cat. No. 2001.0, Adelaide MSR, table B12).
9
5. 3. Port Pirie
Port Pirie and Districts Local Government Area, SA. (© Commonwealth of Australia & PSMA Australia 2007)
Port Pirie is classified as situated within Outer Regional Australia by the ABS. The Port Pirie population in 2006 was 17,142; of these 396 people were Indigenous. In other words, 2.31% of the Port Pirie population is Indigenous. Within this group, 21 spoke an Indigenous language at home whereas 362 spoke only English at home (ABS, 2007: Cat. No. 2002.0, Port Pirie City and Dists, table I01). 20 people in Port Pirie spoke one or more (although this is not specified in the data) Indigenous language and English „very well or well‟ (ibid).
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5. 4. Ceduna
Ceduna Local Government Area, SA. (© Commonwealth of Australia & PSMA Australia 2007)
Ceduna is classified by the ABS as within Very Remote Australia. In 2006, Ceduna had a population of 3,574, 862 of these were Indigenous. 856 were Aboriginal, whereas 6 were of both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander background (ABS, 2007: Cat. No. 2001.0, Ceduna (DC), table B01). 24.11% of the total population is Indigenous. In Ceduna in 2006, 66 people were listed as speaking an Australian Indigenous language at home and 766 using only English at home (ABS, 2007: Cat. No. 2002.0, Ceduna Indigenous Area, table I06). Of the total Indigenous population, 53 people spoke an Indigenous Australian language and English „very well or well‟ (ibid).
In sum, the people interviewed and/or sampled by means of the questionnaires are Indigenous (First Nation) people who at the time of this research were residents of the Adelaide, Port Pirie and Ceduna regions. Each of the places is different from each other. Rephrasing the ABS classification mentioned above, and drawing on the 2006 census, Indigenous people in metropolitan Adelaide constitute 1.12% of the total population. Indigenous people in rural Port Pirie constitute 2.31% of the total population, whereas Indigenous people in the remote Ceduna region constitute 24.11% of the total population. Having been
11 unable to locate specific data from the Adelaide MSR region on the extent to which Indigenous people in Adelaide use English only at home, we have nevertheless arrived at an approximate percentage by subtracting the number of people speaking an Australian First Nation language at home from the Indigenous population, which results in 94.05% of the Indigenous population of Adelaide using only English at home. 91.41% of Indigenous Australian people in Port Pirie spoke only English at home, whereas 88.86% of the Indigenous population in the Ceduna region spoke only English at home.
Two central characteristics worth bearing in mind are that in all the three locations Indigenous or First Nation people constitute a minority and over 85% of the Indigenous population in all localities speak only English at home.
5. 5. The methodology of random sampling and its rationale
The technique used throughout is administering questionnaires and conducting structured interviews by means of random sampling. By random sampling we mean a method by which:
„a sample of n elements is selected from a population of N elements using a sampling plan in which each of the possible samples has the same chance of selection‟ (Mendenhall, Beaver & Beaver, 2009: 256).
Any Indigenous or First Nation(s) person who wanted to was able to fill out a questionnaire and/or be interviewed, regardless of whether they were fluent speakers of any Indigenous language or not, and regardless of age, gender, occupation or the specific Indigenous Australian language group they belong to. Moreover, in virtually all instances, the respondents and the researchers did not know each other.
The Indigenous people many linguists work with are likely to be very interested in working with the language in question and to be very committed to these matters. In addition, many of these people are seniors – as is is often the case in so far as fluent speakers of Indigenous languages are concerned, and many Indigenous communities have a principle of seniority operative so that seniors are considered to be more knowledgeable and to have the right to teach outsiders about the culture and language. Overall, these people may be said to constitute a very specific group, not only (potentially) in terms of its high degree of motivation but certainly also demographically. Based on the 2006 census, the median age of the Indigenous Australian population is 21 years (37 years is the
12 median age for the non-Indigenous Australian population); 38% of the Indigenous population are below the age of 15, and only 3% of the Indigenous population are over 65 years of age (Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs, 2009: 10). Taking into account the fact that a highly significant proportion of the Indigenous population consists of young people, there is an obvious need to expand the scope in order to get data from a broader range of people. At the same time, the method of random sampling does not necessarily produce data that are statistically representative of the larger population. Using the random sampling method, we have attempted to avoid the overrepresentation of any particular subgroup and have avoided the associated potential bias involved in the systematic selection of such a subgroup.
5. 6. The development of the questionnaire: pilot study
A pilot questionnaire was developed by Petter Næssan and Professor Mühlhäusler during September-October 2009. In October 2009 a group of students and staff at Wilto Yerlo in the University of Adelaide filled out a total of 15 questionnaires. The Indigenous people involved were mainly younger people and came from a wide range of ethnolinguistic backgrounds, but all were residents of Adelaide at the time of the data collection. The pilot questionnaire of 22 main questions was expanded to include an additional question (question 23), asking for any thoughts and opinions the respondent might have about her/his language(s) not covered in the preceding questions. In addition, questions concerning Aboriginal English (questions 24-27 inclusive) were added following suggestions from Paul Monaghan.
A total of 27 questions are listed, attempting to clarify language attitudes, language awareness, intergenerational language transmission and related matters. It should be noted here that the use of „language‟ in the questionnaire corresponds to how most Indigenous people use the term – language, as generally used by Indigenous people does not mean English, Japanese or any other non-Australian language but denotes one or more Indigenous language(s).
The study combines qualitative and quantitative data in that the questionnaire has both open-ended questions and yes/no questions that are easily triangulated. In the following section, the rationale behind the main questions asked will be outlined in so far as they have not been covered in the above outline of family language transmission research.
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5. 6. 1. Demographic data
The demographic questions are not specifically dealing with family language transmission in the family but demographic data provide important sources for the identification of more or less specific patterns. These data are fairly straightforward to measure up against other data – for example, in order to find out whether differences in age or gender correlate with different responses to questions.
Question 1 aims to ascertain age, gender, and place of birth of the respondent, the answer to question 2 identifies the language group(s) the respondent identifies with. The remaining demographic questions concern the extent to which the respondent is living away from the area associated with the relevant ancestral language(s) (question 11); exogamy (question 13); whether the respondent has children (question 14), or whether the respondent has younger relatives (also question 14). Two of these, question 11 and 13 are very important and will be justified below.
5. 6. 2. Geographic mobility: rationale
An important motivation behind question 11 is the assumption that geographic mobility across linguistic areas increases exposure to other languages and reduces the number of interlocutors one can interact with in one‟s own community language.
5. 6. 3. Exogamy: rationale
Exogamy or endogamy is asked about in question 13. The question is not targeted towards any particular „ethnic‟ group but simply asks whether the respondent‟s partner/spouse belongs to the respondent‟s group.
Concerning linguistically mixed families, some of the available research shows that „interlingual marriage itself functions as a factor for promoting language shift among minority language-speaking families‟ (Yamamoto, 2001: 20). In their 1997 analysis of Australian census data, Clyne & Kipp found that rates of language shift tend to be higher in exogamous than in endogamous families, a finding similar to Pauwels‟ (1985) study of Dutch-born migrants to Australia (in Yamamoto, 2001: 12-13). In her comparative study of Greek and Italian
14 communities in Pittsburgh, USA, Paulston (1994: 18 in Yamamoto, 2001: 13) holds that exogamy „typically necessitates language shift for one partner, at least within the family‟ and that the shift mainly is done by the minority language speaker.
Salmons (1983: 190) notes that „Texas German‟ spoken in Gillespie County in Texas has „little power of assimilation‟ so that Texas German speakers switch to English whenever a non-German speaker is present, and there is a clear impact of language shift from Texas German to English in that „from linguistically „mixed‟ marriages alone the number of English-speaking homes increases geometrically across generations‟.
An analysis of the 1976 national Survey of Income and Education in the United States found that „in multilingual societies such as the United States which are dominated by one language, mother-tongue shifts favor the dominant language‟ (Stevens, 1985: 75). Over 90% of the children from linguistically heterogamous backgrounds were monolingual English speakers (ibid: 79), leading Stevens to the conclusion that „non-English languages are disappearing through mother-tongue shift in large part because of ethnic intermarriage‟ (ibid: 81).
On the other hand, Castonguay (1982) finds correlations between exogamy and language shift to English among French speakers in Canada but cautions against the use of exogamy as an explanatory (causal) factor. „A language shift as reported on the census questionnaire can quite possibly have occurred before, and not after, intermarriage: in such cases the mixed marriage may well be viewed as an effect, rather than a cause, of the language shift‟ (Castonguay, 1982: 267).
The extent to which intermarriage is an effect of language shift will not be considered here, due to the difficulty of ascertaining the problem further.
However, it is worth noting that a key finding of Yamamoto‟s (2001: 127) study of 111 nuclear and 7 three-generation linguistically mixed (Japanese and other language) families in Japan is that
„potential bilingual children in such [linguistically mixed] families are highly influenced by the language of the mainstream society, and that, rather than towards active bilingualism, this influence directs them towards passive bilingualism, if not total monolingualism in the mainstream language. Under such circumstances, it is unlikely that active bilingualism will be achieved naturally and spontaneously; it must be actively cultivated.‟
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Generally, „the more that the parents use the minority language and the less that the minority language parent uses the mainstream language in speaking to the child, the greater likelihood that the child will use the minority language to the parent who is a native speaker of it‟ (ibid).
Given the topic of language transmission, it seems important to point out one important aspect of the Indigenous Australian families in question – in contrast to the situation in the USA, where less than ten per cent of African Americans have partners from a different ethnic group; Australian Indigenous people are highly exogamous (Heard, Khoo & Birrell, 2009: 4). Analysing census data from 2001 and 2006, Heard, Khoo & Birrell (2009: 5) find that in an Australia-wide sense, the trend is towards greater intermarriage, and that according to the 2006 census, the majority of Indigenous persons:
„were partnered with non-indigenous [sic] persons: 52% of indigenous males were partnered with non-indigenous females, while 55% of indigenous females were partnered with non-indigenous males‟.
The most extensive exogamy is found in metropolitan centres: in Adelaide, 71% of Indigenous males and 74% of Indigenous females were in exogamous relationships (this concerns 2006 data, which has been applied throughout). In the rest of South Australia, Indigenous males in exogamous relationships is 38%, and for Indigenous females 41% (ibid: 4). In Darwin, in the Northern Territory, 51% of Indigenous males and 58% of Indigenous females were in exogamous relationships; whereas in the rest of the Northern Territory, only 4% of Indigenous males and 8% of Indigenous females were in exogamous relationships – these are the lowest percentages in Australia. In the areas adjacent to South Australia to the west – the data is from the entire state of Western Australia, excluding Perth – and concludes that 23% of Indigenous males and 27% of Indigenous females were in exogamous relationships. Thus, in rural and non-metropolitan areas of Western Australia, Northern Territory and South Australia, there was actually a majority of endogamous marriages (ibid).
There is a correlation between the above data and data from the ABS 1996 and 2001 censuses, and from NATSIS 1994. A map produced by DCITA in 2006 („Patterns of Language Shift‟) incorporating the said data shows that the strongest languages are spoken in Central Australia, rural Western Australia, Northern Territory, and the north-western parts of South Australia (DCITA, 2006). This concurs with one of Schmidt‟s (1990:3) major findings, namely a striking correlation between urbanisation (or, „white‟ population density) and
16
Indigenous language loss.
In other words, the metropolitan areas in the eastern and southern parts of Australia exhibit:
• high non-Indigenous population density; • widespread language loss, and • very high levels of exogamous partnerships in so far as the Indigenous population is concerned.
Heard, Khoo & Birrell, (2009: 5) note that in Sydney, „82% of indigenous [sic] men and 83% of indigenous women were partnered to non-indigenous persons. Similar levels of exogamy were recorded in Melbourne, Brisbane and Hobart‟.
Any realistic language planning concerning Indigenous Australian languages needs to take into account that the majority of Indigenous people now live in more or less culturally and linguistically mixed families (although it should also be noted that this is not the case in all areas of Australia).
5. 6. 4. Communicative competence and language use
The respondent‟s communicative competence is asked about in question 3, and in 3.1. The parents‟ communicative competence is asked about question 4, whereas the grandparents‟ communicative competence is asked about in question 5.
Exposure to the language(s) by the respondent‟s grandparents is asked about in question 6, and exposure to the language(s) by the respondent‟s parents in question 7. In addition, exposure to the language(s) by the respondent‟s other family members (question 8) is included in the questionnaire.
Questions are asked about the frequency of the respondent‟s language use (question 9); the relevant interlocutors (question 10), and the extent to which the respondent uses language when speaking to younger family members (question 15). The above questions should be in no need of explicit justification, since they are all attempting to guide the identification of salient patterns of language use and transmission - in the most basic terms they are about whether parents and grandparents knew or know the ancestral language(s) in question, and who uses which language to whom.
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5. 6. 5. Language attitudes: rationale
Language attitudes are dealt with in the following questions – 3.2, 18, 19, 20, 21, 23, and 27 (the last mentioned concerning Aboriginal English), and indirectly in question 16.
„Language attitudes‟ are broadly conceived to mean any attitudes related to Indigenous languages (inclusive of mixed instrumentalities not necessarily named but sometimes referred to as Aboriginal English) and Indigenous language policy. During the course of the research it was found that question 18 („do you feel that language is less important than English?‟) ultimately was less than helpful, since the answers were unrealistically uniform in terms of expressions of positive language attitudes (possibly due to social desirability bias as discussed in the methodology section above). Attitudes are of course by their very nature extremely difficult to measure, since one has to rely on expressions of assumed underlying attitudes. Added to that is the problem of what (if any) impact language attitude have – one could probably expect the actual existence of very positive language attitudes to calibrate into linguistic viability; on the other hand, these attitudes could be expressions of a much more general outlook, very positive towards the language(s) in principle but not necessarily connected to actual commitment towards using or learning the language(s) in question.
5. 6. 5. 1. Commitment
Question number 20 was initially thought to have particular importance, and was motivated by one of Tsunoda‟s (2005) findings, namely that in order for minority language maintenance to succeed, „the people concerned have to be determined, committed and dedicated to the cause, and prepared to make a sacrifice, if necessary‟ (Tsunoda, 2005: 192). However, this question (about the respondent‟s willingness to set aside time and money for language maintenance or revival) may either seem irrelevant to fluent speakers or be highly prone to social desirability bias (see below).
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5. 6. 5. 2. Family focus versus school/Government focus
Question 19 concerning whose responsibility it is to keep the language alive may be interpreted in at least two main ways – one moral, where the argument would be that the Government is morally responsible. The other interpretation is more along the lines of what key sites and factors would be helpful in a more practical sense.
The assumption behind question 19 is that a focus on the family as a key site of language transmission implies Indigenous agency to a very large extent.
Schools have been important mediums for linguistic oppression of minority languages; sites of power wherein teachers have meted out punitive measures against pupils who dared use words from the local vernaculars (concerning Basque; Canadian Government and mission schools in the early twentieth century, and many Australian mission schools during the early and mid-twentieth century, see Luke, McHoul & Mey, 1990: 28-29). In their review of Indigenous Australian school attendance in the contemporary setting, Burke, Rigby & Burden, (2000: 53) conclude that „while there are many children attending schools regularly, a significant number of Indigenous students are unhappy with their school and its teachers, and, are avoiding attending whenever possible‟ (see also Department of Families, Housing, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs, 2009). The school is commonly considered an important site for language planning (e.g. Spolsky, 2004: 46-49). One important aspect of having minority language programs established in schools is that it is likely to raise the prestige of the language, both for speakers and non-speakers. Noting that the inclusion of minority languages within the school system has its place within status planning, one needs to keep in mind Fishman‟s (1991: 34) finding that school programs for threatened languages are insufficient in themselves.
5. 6. 5. 3. Speakers’ perceptions on children’s attitudes
Question 16 aims to get data on the extent to which children answer back in English when spoken to in language, and the respondent‟s thoughts on why they do this. This question is in part a communicative competence question (a more general indicator of English usage among younger family members), but is also included to find out what attitudes speakers have about the motivations underlying children‟s language use or about restraints limiting the children‟s linguistic choices.
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Hockett (1950) emphasised the importance of the peer group in childhood language socialisation in most societies, although admitting to situations in which children would have very few peers and predominantly learning from their parents – Hockett mentioned small Tarahumara family groups of northern Mexico and Cree family bands in Canada as examples. For many hunter-gatherer groups foraging in small family groups for at least most of the year, a child would at most have a peer group consisting of one or more siblings, a very small group, and linguistic and other knowledge would to a very large extent come from adults – parents, or perhaps grandparents. This, in Mead‟s (1970) terminology would be a „postfigurative‟ culture. In „cofigurative‟ cultures, on the other hand, adults as well as children would learn from their peer groups, whereas people in a „prefigurative‟ culture would learn from their parents or other elders, from their peers, and from their children.
The predominant focus on youth in contemporary popular culture and the increased agency attributed to children is arguably an important part of the context of family language transmission. At least to some extent, this context is composed of „cofigurative‟ cultural traits. Harris‟ claim (Harris 1995, discussed in Spolsky, 2004: 45) concerning immigrant situations is that „the child‟s peer group is more influential than the home in passing on social values‟, and a key finding of Tuominen‟s study (1999, in Spolsky, 2004: 45) of immigrant families in Seattle is that „the children usually decided the home language of the families‟. This situation is not restricted to immigrant families, indeed Luykx (2005) found children in Quechua and Aymara-speaking communities of Bolivia to be actively socialising adults in terms of linguistic choices. Thus, the role of children‟s agency in any community should definitely be accredited some weight.
5. 6. 6. Social network (peer group) questions: rationale
We have already mentioned question 11 concerning the extent of migration, which is related to the following discussion. One aspect of the respondents social network (peer group) is covered in question 12. This is a simple yes/no question which aims to clarify whether the respondent tends to interact with members of her/his own group or not. A „no‟ answer – all other things being equal - has the implication that the respondent would be less likely to use the heritage language(s) with peers outside the family (or with peers in general, whether family or not).
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5. 7. Problems with the questionnaire design
On August 27th, during Naessan‟s consulting with Camille Dobson (Arrernte) of Wilto Yerlo, she suggested a different template for a possible future questionnaire, in which questions were less targeted towards getting specific answers but were more holistic, or dealing with language maintenance issues in a broader sense. The questionnaire used in our survey was felt to not give people enough opportunity to say what they want to do.
5. 7. 1. Unfortunate wording
Overall the response to the questionnaire has been very positive but three Adelaide responses to the Aboriginal English question (question 24) indicate that the respondents/interviewees objected to the words used.
1) „These whitefellas got no shame asking us these questions‟ (added to question 24 by a019). 2) „Blackfella English‟ was crossed out by a065. 3) „Is this a bit offensive?‟ (question with arrow towards the term „Cattle Station English‟, inserted by a076).
Familiar with terms like „Blackfella English‟ and „Cattle Station English‟ from Anangu Yankunytjatjara and Pitjantjatjara he has worked with, Naessan included these in an attempt to exemplify the term „Aboriginal English‟ – not all Indigenous people recognise the term as descriptive of their own English, and the other terms (as well as „Nunga English‟) were added with this in mind. No disrespect was intended, and an apology is given to all who felt that the words were offensive. If similar questionnaires are to be used again, the wording of question 24 will obviously need to be revised.
5. 7. 2. Social desirability bias
Social desirability „reflects the tendency on behalf of the subjects to deny socially undesirable traits and to claim socially desirable ones, and the tendency to say things which place the speaker in a favourable light‟ (Nederhof, 1985: 264).
Social desirability bias, whether resulting from „self-deception‟ or a more conscious impression management in order to avoid being evaluated
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(negatively), is an important form of bias discussed in the literature (Nederhof, 1985; Fisher, 1993; Fisher & Katz, 2000). The questions in the questionnaire most likely to be subject to social desirability bias are questions 3, 3.1, 3.2, 9, 15, 20, and 21. Not having independent data for each of these questions that could be used to measure the answers, we cannot reduce an element of uncertainty regarding answers to these questions.
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6. Research procedure
A pilot study involving 15 Indigenous staff and students at Wilto Yerlo, Adelaide was conducted in October 2009. The questionnaire seemed to be useful both as a starting point for discussion and also providing reasonably good data in and of itself (i.e. when being filled out individually by respondents).
Further data were collected during November 2009, and March-April 2010 in Adelaide. The key Adelaide locations wherein data collection took place were Wilto Yerlo at the University of Adelaide (the pilot study and data collection in March 2010); the Adelaide Hills (November 2009), and Le Fevre High School (April 2010).
The data collection in Port Pirie was conducted in February 2010, taking place chiefly at the Port Pirie TAFE campus; the Tarpari Centre; the Community Health Centre and the Aboriginal Community Centre. The Ceduna data was collected in February and March 2010. All of the Ceduna data were collected during in-depth interviews using the questionnaire as a template from which to ask structured questions. The Port Pirie data and the Adelaide data were collected by means of individual responses to the questionnaire, by interviews, and a mixed mode where the filling out of the questionnaire and questioning from the researcher overlapped. In some cases the participants asked questions about the questionnaire and the researcher clarified what the question was about. Data from Murray Bridge (situated in Inner Regional Australia, ABS, 2003: 34) were available at the end of May 2010 and are included in this report.
Anonymity has been guaranteed throughout the process, and any recording of names and addresses has only occurred when filling out statement of supplier forms concerning payments to participants and the filling out of consent forms (where this was appropriate) – all of this information has been kept separate from the questionnaires, wherein no personal names have been recorded.
As soon as a batch of questionnaires and notes had been assembled, each questionnaire was given a reference code. The Adelaide questionnaires have been given an „a‟ prefix (thus, persons in the Adelaide data are recorded as „a001‟, „a010‟, etc.); the Port Pirie data have been prefixed with „pp‟ (thus, persons in the Port Pirie data are recorded as „pp001‟, „pp010‟, etc.), and the Ceduna data have been prefixed with „c‟ (consequently persons in the Ceduna data are recorded as „c001‟, c010‟, etc.). The Murray Bridge data have been prefixed with „mb‟ (persons in these data are recorded as „mb001‟, „mb010‟, and
23 so on).
The focus for analysis has been on the 135 questionnaires resulting from random sampling in the three key localities outlined above, primarily attempting to understand patterns of intergenerational language transmission within families.
Based on the findings of the literature review and in the data, 11 key recommendations have been developed by the project team and associated consultation with Indigenous people in Ceduna has taken place during August 2010 by Paul Monaghan; Petter Naessan has consulted with various people in Adelaide during August-September 2010 and in Port Pirie during September 2010. Responses to the recommendations will be presented in chapter 11 below.
6. 1. Payment to participants
It has been decided that each informant be given $20-50 for their time and effort involved in filling out the questionnaires and/or being interviewed, the sum depending on the length of time spent and the depth of the interview. As per the suggestion of Dagmar Theil, Finance Officer and finance manager of the project at the Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Adelaide, a document (see Appendix six) has been prepared to simplify the payment process, so that the investigator in question may pay in cash directly. Thus, the informant signs the required statement of supplier form to the effect that the payment is made in the course of an activity that is a private recreational pursuit or hobby; moreover, the informant signs a document stating that the supplier form has been signed and that money has been received for involvement in the family language project. This had been done to avoid unnecessary (and quite time consuming) work sending out individual cheques to people who in some cases may have moved or may otherwise be hard to locate. The said document also functions as a straightforward proof of the transaction. Not all of the Indigenous people interviewed or filling out the questionnaire wanted the money. Among these were some Kaurna people in Adelaide who wanted the sum in question to go to Kaurna Warra Pintyandi, a Kaurna language group which holds regular meetings at the University of Adelaide.
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7. Analysis sheets - Adelaide data
7. 1. Gender and age:
Out of a total of 76, 64 submitted information on date of birth – the question marks signify the instances in which the age or date of birth was not given but when an approximate age was arrived at by the researcher.
Concerning a006, a008, a012, a013, a029, a035, a044, a049, a050, a053, a061, a067, age information was not given and age information was not otherwise available. However, these 12 respondents supplied information about gender, which is summarised in the table below:
Gender but unspecified age/DOB: Females (7) Males (5) a006F, a029F, a035F, a044F, a050F, a008M, a012M, a013M, a049M, a067M a053F, a061F
The 64 remaining respondents may be grouped as follows (with reference to date of birth, grouped into sections of nine years):
Gender and age: Age bracket Female Male 1920-1929 a060F (1 total; 1 female) 1930-1939 a038F, a064F a002M, a063M (4 total; 2 females, 2 males) 1940-1949 a001F, a015F, a016F, a004M (6 total; a059F, a065F 5 females, 1 male) 1950-1959 a036F, a046F, a051F, a003M, a014(?)M, (11 total; a052F, a054F, a056F, a037M 8 females, a058F, a066F 3 males)
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1960-1969 a019F, a076F a021(?)M, a040M, a042M, (6 total; a062M 2 females, 4 males) 1970-1979 a028F, a039F, a045F, a055M, a057M (7 total; a047F, a075F 5 females, 2 males) 1980-1989 a011F, a017F, a018F, a005M, a007M, a009M, (17 total; a033F, a034F, a074F a010M, a023M, a024M, 6 females, a026M, a030M, a031(?)M, 11 males) a043M, a048M
1990-1999 a020F, a032F, a041F, a022M, a025M, (12 total; a068F, a070F, a071F, a027 (?)M, a069M, a073M 7 females, a072F 5 males)
In the Adelaide data (n 76), there are 43 females (56.5%) and 33 males (43.4%).
The largest age group consists of Indigenous/First Nations people born 1980-1989 (inclusive). Only a total of five (5/64 or 7.8%) of the respondents are within the 1920-1939 age brackets (1920-1929, 1930-1939). On the other hand, 29/64 are within the 1980-1999 age brackets (1980-1989, 1990-1999), amounting to 45.3% of the available data.
The largest group of combined age and gender variables consists of males born 1980-1989 (11 in total). The second largest group of combined gender and age variables consists of females born 1950-1960 (8 in total); whereas the third largest group of combined gender and age variables consists of females born 1990-2000 (7 in total).
7. 2. Place of birth
No information on place of birth was given concerning a006, a008, a012, a049, a073. The remaining 71 have been grouped into three main categories:
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Adelaide a005, a009, a010, a011, a019, a022, a025, a028, a030, a031, a032, a039, a040, a041, Total: 30 a042, a043, a044, a045, a047, a048, a057, a058, a059, a062, a066, a067, a070, a071, a072, a075 Other South Australia a004, a007, a015, a023, a026, a027, a034, a035, a037, a038, a046, a052, a054, a056, Total: 20 a060, a061, a063, a064, a065, a076 Interstate NSW: a020, a021, a069 3 NSW; 8 NT; 1 TAS; 3 VIC; WA 4; 2 QLD. NT: a014, a016, a017, a029, a033, a055, a068, a074 Total: 21 TAS: a018
VIC: a024, a036, a050
WA: a001, a002, a003, a013
QLD: a051, a053
As seen above, 30/71 (42.2%) were born in Adelaide. The majority in the sample - 41/71 (57.7%) - are from outside Adelaide. Overall, 50/71 (70.4%) were born in South Australia and the rest (21/71 or 29.5%) were born interstate. Within the group of people from interstate (21 in total), the largest group (8/21)) were born in the Northern Territory.
7. 3. Question 3: Do you speak this/these languages?
Yes No a001, a002, a003, a006, a004, a008, a024, a041, a007, a009, a014, a016, a050, a053, a055, a056, a017, a018, a043, a065, a058, a059, a060,a061, a074 a069
(13 total) (13 total)
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Some/not fluently/some words a005, a010, a011, a012, a013, a015, a019, a020, a021, a022, a023, a025, a026, a027, a028, a029, a030, a031, a032, a033, a034, a035, a036, a037, a038, a039, a040, a042, a044, a045, a046, a047, a048, a049, a051, a052, a054, a057, a062, a063, a064, a066, a067, a068, a070, a071, a072, a073, a075, a076
(50 total)
Note that „Some/not fluently/some words‟ does include „yes, some‟ answers (a010, a011, a015, a038, a052, a067) as well as „no, some‟ answers (a045, a046). Assigning the above answers to a more unambiguous „yes‟ or „no‟ category would seem unwarranted, since none of the above simply state „yes‟ or no‟. Moreover, all of these may be grouped together with „some‟ answers because they all indicate limited language knowledge.
Those who indicated that they have some knowledge of the ancestral language(s) in question constitute the largest group, 50/76 or 65.8% of the entire sample. The rest of the answers are evenly distributed; 13/76 (17.1%) „no‟ and 13/76 (17.1%) „yes‟.
7. 4. Question 4: Do or did any of your parents speak this/these languages? If not, did they speak another language, if so, what language(s)?
Out of 76, two were excluded: a038 („not sure‟) and a046 (ticked „yes‟ and added „grandfather‟). The remaining 74 are distributed as follows:
Yes No a001, a002, a003, a005, a006, a007, a004, a012, a013, a022 (another a009, a010, a011, a014, a015, a016, language: „Italian‟ added), a017, a018, a020, a021, a023, a025, a024 another language: „English‟ a026, a027, a028, a029, a032, a035, added), a039, a042, a043, a044, a048, a051, a030 („My mum only speaks English‟ a052, a055, a056, a059, a060, a062, added), a063, a064, a065, a066, a067, a070, a031 („English + some language‟ a073, a074, added), a075 a033 (another language: „English‟ added), a034, a036 („Only English‟ added),
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a037 („Spoke elements of various language‟ added), a049, a053 („How would that be possible when colonialism / racism exterminated‟ added), a058 (another language: „English‟ added), a061 (another language: „English‟ added), a069, a071 ([but] „Aunty and cousins [speak language]‟), a072 (SP‟s notes: „Parents spoke bits and pieces of Narungga but not full, complete sentences‟).
(45 total) (18 total)
As seen above 45/74 (60.8%) answered „yes‟, whereas 18/74 (24.3%) answered „no‟.
However, a third category has emerged, wherein „some‟ is written, or wherein „yes‟ is ticked but with additional information indicating that the Indigenous language used is or was (much) less than the English used. Many if not most of these answers would seem to indicate that the language spoken to them by one or both parent(s) is or had some Indigenous features but that these occurred either within a predominantly English morphosyntactic frame, occurring in simplified form, or otherwise occurring as a few words with low frequency. In this sense, these answers do not really seem different from a072 („no‟) above.
Yes/some – ‘bits and pieces’, ‘not fluently’, etc: a008 („But only a little‟), a019 („some‟), a040 („A few words occasionally‟), a041 („A couple of words‟), a045 („Not fluently though‟), a047 („some‟ added to „yes‟), a050 („Mainly English, with a few words that Koori people used, Koori English‟), a054 („Speak only bits and pieces from two languages‟), a057 („Bits + pieces of what they remembered – names‟. Another language: „English‟ added), a068 (SP‟s notes: „Father is Kaurna and knows some words but not fluent‟), a076 („But not fluently‟).
(11 total)
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Those answering „yes‟ and „some‟ in total are 56/74 or 75.6%. Combining the „no‟ answers with the „some‟ answers gives some indication regarding the extent to which the respondents have reported little or no Indigenous language communicative competence from their parent(s) – these are 29/74 or 39.1% of the relevant respondent group.
However, it is clear that „speaking language‟ is a vague terminology and „yes‟ answers may cover infrequent or very little actual use of the Indigenous language(s) in question.
7. 5. Question 5: Do or did any of your grandparents speak this/these language(s)?
Out of the total of 76 respondents, a053 did not answer; a070 answered with a single question mark; a073 first answered „yes‟ then added „I don‟t know‟. These three have been excluded from further consideration here.
The remaining 73 are distributed as follows: as many as 60/73 or 82.2% of the relevant sample answered „yes‟.
8 people (a004, a012, a033, a036, a037, a040, a049 and a064) answered „no‟, amounting to 8/73 – 11% of the relevant sample.
5 people (a019, a041, a054, a057 and a076) answered „some/a couple of words/bits and pieces/not fluently‟, answers indicating that the grandparent(s) had limited communicative competence. These amount to 5/73 or 6.8% of the relevant sample.
7. 6. Question 6: Do or did your grandparents speak language to you?
Out of 76, one (a067) was withdrawn from further consideration concerning this question, since the answer dealt with uncles speaking language. The remaining 75 are distributed as follows:
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Yes No a001, a002, a003, a005, a006, a007, a004, a008, a010, a012, a013, a014, a009, a011, a015, a016, a017, a020, a018, a026, a030, a031, a033, a035, a021, a022, a023, a024, a025, a027, a036, a037, a038, a039, a040, a041, a028, a029, a032, a042, a043, a044, a047, a049, a050, a053, a054, a058, a046, a048, a051, a052, a055, a056, a059, a060, a061, a066, a068, a069, a062, a063, a070, a073, a074, a075 a072
(36 total) (31 total)
Yes and/or ‘sometimes’/’some’ (answers indicative of occasional or limited exposure): a019, a034, a045, a057, a064, a065, a071, a076
(8 total)
36/75 or 48% answered „yes‟. Combining the „no‟ answers with the answers indicative of occasional or limited exposure (7 of whom ticked „yes‟ and one, a065 who wrote „sometimes‟ without ticking either box) we find that 39/75 – 52% - indicated absent, limited or occasional Indigenous language exposure from grandparent(s).
7. 7. Question 7: Do or did your parents speak language to you?
Yes No a001, a002, a003, a005, a006, a007, a004, a008, a010, a012, a013, a022, a009, a011, a014, a015, a016, a017, a023, a024, a025, a026, a030, a031, a018, a020, a021, a027, a028, a029, a032, a033, a034, a036, a038, a039, a035, a037, a040, a042, a043, a044, a041, a045, a047, a049, a050, a053, a048, a051, a052, a054, a055, a057, a056, a058, a059, a060, a061, a064, a062, a063, a066, a067, a070, a073, a069, a071, a072 a074, a075, a076
(39 total) (33 total)
As seen above, there are 39 answering „yes‟ and 33 answering „no‟. A note should be added concerning a050, whose answer has been placed in the „no‟ category although the respondent did tick „yes‟ and added „in an Aboriginal English way‟. The reason for placing a050 within the „no‟ category is that SP‟s questions revealed that the interviewee „does not ever really recall hearing language
31 spoken‟, she was taken away (from her parents at age four).
An additional category was needed concerning those who answered „some‟, „sometimes‟ without ticking either „yes‟/‟no‟:
‘Some’/’sometimes’ a019 „some‟ a046 „sometimes‟ a065 „sometimes‟ a068 „sometimes‟
(4 total)
Some of the „yes‟ and „no‟ responses appear to be somewhat equivalent – for example, a038 („no‟) also explained to SP that her mother „did speak a little, but not much‟, whereas a045 („no‟) added „very few words‟, and a072 („no‟) indicated that the parents spoke „mostly English‟ to the interviewee. On the other hand, a037 („yes‟) added „remnants mixed with English‟; a040 („yes‟) added „few words‟; a054 („yes‟) added „bits & pieces‟, and a076 („yes‟) added „but not fluently‟. The extent and nature of Indigenous language input from one or more parent(s) is impossible to ascertain, especially since we lack independent evidence. What is possible to demonstrate from the available data is that some respondents/interviewees have seen occasional, fragmented and non-fluent language as belonging to the „no‟ category, others would seem to have interpreted any Indigenous language use as falling within the „yes‟ category.
It should be clear, then, that although the „some‟/‟sometimes‟ answers indicate some Indigenous language input, this is not to say that the „yes‟ or „no‟ answers can be seen as falling within entirely robust categories (which perhaps mainly is a function of the vagueness of the question asked). Having said that, we will add the four „some‟/sometimes‟ answers to the „yes‟ answers, which results in 43/76 (56.5%) „yes‟ and 33/76 (43.4%) answering „no‟.
7. 8. Question 11: Do you live in the area associated with your language group(s)?
Note that a001, a002 and a003 are reporting on the situation in Western Australia and thus not directly applicable to Adelaide, except that these people were visiting Adelaide at the time of the survey.
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Included in the „no‟ category are those who were studying in Adelaide at the time of the survey but came from elsewhere, and other more long-term or permanent residents of Adelaide living away from the area associated with their language(s). One that answered „yes‟ has nevertheless been placed in the „no‟ group – a017 indicated that the person lived in the area associated with the ancestral language only „during study breaks‟.
Yes No a003, a005, a008, a012, a016, a019, a001, a002, a004, a006, a007, a009, a021, a023, a026, a031, a032, a035, a010, a011, a013, a014, a015, a017, a036, a037, a038, a039, a040, a041, a018, a020, a022, a024, a025, a027, a042, a043, a048, a049, a052, a054, a028, a029, a030, a033, a034, a044, a057, a062, a063, a064, a066, a072, a045, a046, a047, a050, a051, a053, a076 a055, a056, a058, a059, a060, a061, a065, a067, a068, a069, a070, a071, a073, a074, a075
(31 total) (45 total)
From the above it is clear that 31/76 or 40.8% stated that they did live in the area associated with their language group(s). As many as 45/76 or 59.2% of the entire sample stated or otherwise indicated that they did not live in the area associated with their language group(s).
7. 9. Question 12: Do most of your friends belong to the group you identify with?
73 replies have been included. Concerning a055, no box was ticked, but the following added: „A mixture (many from Darwin – many from interstate also)‟. For a016, a060 no reply or other information was given.
33
Yes No a001, a002, a003, a004, a007, a011, a005, a006, a008, a009, a010, a013, a012, a014, a017, a018, a019 a015, a020, a021, a022, a027, a028, („+ family‟ added), a023, a024, a025, a029, a030, a031, a032, a033, a034, a026, a035, a036, a037, a038, a039, a041, a042, a043, a045, a046, a047 a040, a044, a048, a050, a051, a054 („some are‟ added), a049, a052 („only („some‟ added), a057 („family – family‟ added), a053, a056, a058, friends (Nar, Nga, Kaurna) – people a061, a062, a064, a065 („mixture!‟ from all over the place‟ added), a059, added), a067, a069, a072, a074, a063, a066, a068, a070, a071, a073. a075, a076.
Out of the 73 answers given, 34 answered „yes‟ (46.5%) - 18 females and 16 males. In other words, there does not appear to be any significant gender difference among those who answered „yes‟. 39/73 (53.4%) answered „no‟. Within this group of 39, 23 (58.9%) are females and 16 (or 41%) are males.
Considering that there are 43 females and 33 males in the Adelaide data, a larger proportion of females ticked „no‟ than „yes‟ – 23/43, that is, 53.4% of the females in the data answered „no‟. This may be compared to 16 „no‟ answers from the total of 33 males, resulting in 48.4% of the males in the Adelaide data answering „no‟. In contrast to the slightly larger amount of „no‟ answers within the females group, the „yes‟ and „no‟ answers are of identical size for males.
Concerning „yes‟ or „no‟ answers among those born in Adelaide and elsewhere in South Australia, a slight majority of „no‟ answers prevail within this group, consistent with the overall distribution of „yes‟ and „no‟ answers. The same pattern applies to people from interstate. As seen above, those born interstate but living in Adelaide amount to 21 of the respondents; three of these (a016, a055 and a060) have been withdrawn from the analysis (see above). One may remove a001, a002 and a003 from the 18 on the ground that these are not long-term or more or less permanent residents of Adelaide, consequently 15 remain. Thus, 7/15 or 46.6% of those born interstate and living in Adelaide answered „no‟. 8/15 or 53.3% answered „yes‟.
In sum, there does not appear to be any decisive pattern of distribution of „yes‟ and „no‟ answers in so far as gender and place of origin is concerned.
‘Yes’ by age group
The chart below shows the distribution of „yes‟ answers – each percentage concerns the amount of people in an age bracket (that is, the percentages do not
34 refer to percentages of the entire sample).
80.00% 70.00% 60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% 1930- 1940- 1950- 1960- 1970- 1980- 1990- 39 49 59 69 79 89 99 % of year group 75.00% 50.00% 63.64% 33.33% 28.57% 47.06% 41.67%
Within the 1930-1939 age group, 75% (3/4) answered „yes‟, and the second largest percentage within an age group is 63.6%, out of the 1950-1959 age group (7/11). The third largest group as a percentage of the age group is 50% (3/6), concerning the age bracket 1940-1949. As readily seen from the chart, the highest „yes‟ percentages of the age groups are to be found among those born between 1930 and 1959 (inclusive). The lowest „yes‟ percentages are to be found among those born 1960-1979 – only 28.5% (2/7) within the 1970-1979 bracket, and only 33.3% (2/6) of the 1960-1969 bracket. Apart from these two age brackets – the low percentages of which we cannot explain further – the overall pattern is as follows: the proportion of people who mostly have other Indigenous people as friends (whether these friends are speakers of an Indigenous language or not) are decreasing.
7. 10. Question 13: Does your spouse/partner belong to your group? If ‘NO’, what group does she/he belong to?
Out of the 76 respondents, five (a014, a016, a017, a035, a060) did not answer. For several others, the question was not applicable to them since they were single at the time of the survey. These 19 were a005, a008, a010, a019, a020, a024, a025, a026, a034, a038, a050, a056, a067, a068, a069, a070, a071, a072, a074. Thus, the 24 above are excluded from further consideration here.
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We are assuming that the remaining group of 52 had a spouse/partner at the time of the survey. Out of the remaining 52, 9 answered „yes‟, which means that 17.3% of those with a partner/spouse had a partner/spouse considered to be part of their own group.
The partner/spouse belongs to the respondent’s own group:
„Yes‟ a002, a007, a021, a036, a039, a040, a042, (9) a063, a073
The partner/spouse does not belong to the respondent’s own group but the partner’s/spouse’s group is unspecified:
„No‟, unspecified a006, a012, a018, a022, a023, a032, a037, (partner/spouse a041,a044, a046, a049, a053, a058, a059, a075 not identified) (15)
The partner/spouse does not belong to the respondent’s own group but partner/spouse is from another Indigenous group:
„No‟, other Indigenous a001, a003, a004, a013 a015, a027, a031, partner/spouse a047, a055, a057, a065 (11)
The partner/spouse does not belong to the respondent’s own group but the partner/spouse is from a non-Indigenous group:
„No‟, non-Indigenous a009, a011, a028, a029, a030, a033, partner/spouse a043 („Non-Aboriginal – no longer (17) together‟ added) a045, a048, a051, a052, a054, a061, a062, a064, a066, a076
36
It is clear from the above that 43/52 – or 82.7% of all that had a spouse/partner had (or in one case, a043, previously had) a spouse/partner from a different group. The smallest group consists of those with a partner/spouse from a different Indigenous group – 11/52 or 21.1% of those within the relevant category.
15/52 or 28.8% of those with a spouse/partner did not specify what group the spouse/partner belonged to, they nevertheless said that their partner/spouse did not belong to their own group. The largest group within the sample consists of people who have (had) a non-Indigenous partner/spouse – 17/52 or 32.7% of the ones with a partner/spouse. This is somewhat lower than expected – even when considering the 17 out of the 32 who have partner/spouse from a different group.
Potentially, out of the category of those that have a partner/spouse from a different group, 32/43 or 74.4% have non-Indigenous partners/spouses. However, the fact that the origin, linguistic background or ethnic group of the spouse/partner is not mentioned cannot be taken to be a firm indicator of the spouses/partners in question being non-Indigenous.
7. 11. Question 15: If ‘YES’ to any of the above, do you speak language to them?
This question comes after questions of whether the interviewees had children or any younger relatives. Out of the total 76, a004, a014, a015, a016, a052 and a069 did not answer, and a053 wrote „not applicable‟. These have been withdrawn from further consideration here. The remaining 69 are distributed as follows:
Yes a001, a002, a003, a005, a006, a007, a009, a010, a011, a013, a017, a018, a021, a023, a026, a027, a031, a033, a040, a043, a044, a048, a049, a054, a057, a065, a073, a076
(28 total)
Note that answers grouped under the „yes‟ category are either unspecified further or contain additional information –‟most of the time‟/„often‟/‟all the time‟ – indicative of more or less frequent use. It is interesting that a040 says language is used „when out and don‟t want other
37 people to understand‟ what is said. Similarly, a075 (below) says that she uses language to tell off her younger relatives and „don‟t want people to know what I‟m saying‟. This is an example of language used as a „cant‟ or in-group language where the most important motivation is to share information with in-group members only.
Sometimes a008, a012, a019, a020, a022, a024, a032, a029, a037, a038, a042, a051, a063, a067, a075
(15 total)
The „sometimes‟ category includes very occasional use like that of a022 (2-3 times a year) and other infrequent use associated with family gatherings and visits.
Some (occasional) words/mixed language and English a034, a035, a036, a039, a045, a047, a050, a055, a056, a062, a064, a066, a068, a070, a071
(15 total)
The above category consists of answers modified by „not fluently‟, „some words‟, „mixed with English‟ and so on. There are two examples indicative of use restricted to imperative speech acts – a034 says „when telling them to put something on or away‟, whereas a068 gives the following example: „go wash your maras‟ (mara, with a postalveolar rhotic, is „hand‟ in many Pama-Nyungan languages – in this case it is assimilated into an English morphosyntactic frame in part by means of the English plural –s).
No a025, a028, a030, a041, a046, a058, a059, a060, a061, a072, a074
(11 total)
The „no‟ category includes a028, who says the younger relative(s) in question are/is „too young‟. This may reflect the notion that children too young will not be able to understand language (which is unfortunate because it deprives children of extremely important early childhood exposure to language).
28/69 or 40.6% of the relevant sample answered „yes‟. 15/69 have been placed
38 in the category of occasional language use, whereas 15/69 use only some words, or a mixture of various language words and English. From the above, 30/69 answers are indicative of limited and/or occasional language use (limited in terms of amount and frequency of ancestral language use), amounting to 43.5% of the relevant sample. Thus, it is clear that a majority (84% of the relevant sample) use language to their younger relatives to some extent but the largest group of speakers consists of those with limited and/or occasional ancestral language use. 11/69 or 15.9% of the relevant sample answered „no‟.
7. 12. Question 16: Do they speak back to you in English?
Out of the total 76, a004, a014, a015, a016, a052 and a069 did not answer the previous question, and a053 wrote „not applicable‟ as the answer to the previous question. These have been withdrawn from further consideration here. The idea behind the question was to ascertain the extent to which children spoken to in language answer back in Standard Australian English, so a025, a028, a030, a041, a046, a058, a059, a060, a061, a072 and a074 have also been withdrawn from further consideration as they do not speak language to their younger relations.
The remaining 58 are distributed as follows:
Yes, all of/most of the time a006, a008, a012, a019, a031, a032, a034, a035, a037, a042, a051, a054, a063, a064, a066, a073, a075, a076
(18 total)
Yes, sometimes a001, a002, a003, a005, a007, a009, a011, a013, a017, a018, a020, a021, a022, a023, a024, a026, a029, a030, a033, a036, a038, a039, a040, a043, a045, a047, a048, a049, a050, a055, a057, a062, a065, a067, a068, a070, a071
(37 total)
No a010, a027, a044
(3 total)
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37/58 or 63.8% of the relevant sample answered „yes, sometimes‟, whereas 18/58 – 31% of the relevant sample – answered „yes, all the time‟ (or „yes, most of the time‟). Only 3/58 or 5.2% of the relevant sample answered „no‟ to this question.
If they speak back to you in English, why do you think they do it?
Out of the total 76, a004, a014, a015, a016, a052 and a069 did not answer the previous question, and a053 wrote „not applicable‟ as the answer to the previous question. In addition, a002 and a003 did not answer this question. The idea behind the question was to understand more about adults‟ thoughts, about what motivates or restrains children from answering in Standard Australian English when spoken to in language. Participants a025, a028, a030, a041, a046, a058, a059, a060, a061, a072 and a074 do not speak language to their younger relations and a017s answer has also been withdrawn from further consideration (a017: Other. „We speak to them in English so they learn more & can practise English too. So if we speak to them in English, they sometimes respond in English‟).
The remaining 55 are distributed as follows:
They don’t know enough language a005, a007, a008, a009, a010, a012, a018, a019, a021, a022, a028, a031, a032, a033, a034, a035, a036, a037, a039, a040, a042, a043, a045, a047, a048, a049, a050, a051, a054, a055, a056, a057, a061, a062, a063, a064, a065, a066, a067, a068, a070, a075, a076
(43 total)
Note that a067 answered the following under the „other‟ option: 1) Not all young people know all the Ngarrindjeri words. 2) We tend to use Aboriginal English. Based on the first part of the reply, it has been placed in the category of „they don‟t know enough language‟.
Some have offered statements to the effect that the answering in English does not have anything to do with a lack of will or a negative attitude: a019 explains that the younger relatives „wouldn‟t hesitate to reply in Kaurna if familiar with it‟, and a057 maintains that the younger relatives try to answer in language.
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They don’t know enough language and they don’t want to speak language a006, a011, a013, a020, a023, a024, a071
(7 total)
Three additional people gave the following answers under the „other‟ option: (a029): „I am not a full language speaker. They speak so they can make themselves understood to me‟; (a038): „They find it easier in English‟. In the case of a029 it is clear that the younger relatives accommodate the communicative competence of a029, whereas a038 describes English to be the language the children or youngsters are more at ease with (albeit the actual motivation or restraint operative is not outlined). Finally, a001 draws attention to context, specifically how children accommodate other children or other speakers: (a001) „when they meet up with children that speak English. My son speaks Ngaanyatjarra at Wiluna; his language is depending on where he is‟.
The largest group consists of those who answered „they don‟t know enough language‟ – 43/55 or 78.2% of the relevant sample.
Only two (a026 and a073) answered „they don‟t want to speak the language‟. These answers are similar to „both‟ answers in that they all place some emphasis on the attitudes and/or preferences of children and younger relatives. Combining these two categories results in 9/55 or 16.4% of the relevant sample.
7. 13. Question 17: Are you concerned that the language will disappear?
From the total of 76, a004 and a016 did not answer and a053 answered „has already disappeared‟. These three were excluded from further consideration here. The remaining 73 are distributed as follows:
Yes No a005, a006, a007, a008, a009, a010, a001, a002, a003, a012, a017, a021, a011, a013, a014, a015, a018, a019, a026, a027, a028, a040, a038, a048, a020, a023, a024, a025, a029, a030, a049, a057, a055, a060, a061, a062, a031, a032, a033, a034, a035, a036, a065, a067, a068, a073, a074, a075 a037, a039, a041, a042, a043, a044, a045, a046, a047, a050, a051, a052, a054, a056, a058, a059, a063, a064, a066, a069, a070, a071, a072, a076
(48 total) (24 total)
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Somewhat surprisingly (given the diversity of language backgrounds for many individuals in the data), only one respondent (a022) answered both „yes‟ and „no‟ with specific reference to which ancestral language the answers referred to. Thus, a002 ticked „No, I don‟t think it will‟ and added „Pitjantjatjara is strong‟. „Yes‟ was also ticked, with the addition „Jawoyn is dying out‟.
48/73 or 65.7% of the relevant sample answered „yes‟, whereas 24/73 – 32.8% of the relevant sample – answered „no‟.
7. 14. Question 19: Whose responsibility is it to keep the language alive, the Government’s, the school’s, families’ or others? Please explain.
Out of the total 76, a024 gave an answer that is hard to place within any category. The answer nevertheless provides valuable and important information in its own right: „When my Nation was put onto Mission by the Government, the language was outlawed. So my grandparents [were] the last of my people to learn it as first language. Still have the same stigma attached to handing it on‟.
Some additional respondents/interviewees did not answer – a016, a026, a059, and a060. Two additional answers had to be removed from consideration here; a061 („The families on the home lands speak the language‟) and a073 („I don‟t know‟).
The 69 remaining are distributed as follows:
Families/elders/Aboriginal people as first mentioned, primary or only category: a001: Families. a002: Families. a003: Families. a004: Families and communities. a005: Aboriginal elders, mother, father, family members. a008: Everyones responsibility, it‟s with us, though. a009: Family mostly, schools should be flexible. Mostly family. a012: It‟s the Tribal responsibility to keep the language alive. a015: I feel it‟s the Government, families and schools but mostly and firstly families to keep it going at school and at home. a017: School, community & most importantly family. I come from a remote community and growing up I always spoke in language. Lucky for me, our school teaches in language, also teaches you to read and write in
42
language. a020: It‟s everyone‟s. Everyone that knows some should pass it along to the younger generations or other people so it doesn‟t die down. a025: The people who speak it. We should be passing it on from generation to generation in order to keep it alive. a027: Families for the most. The Government needs to identify the use of languages in daily life with elders, because it‟s the elders of the language who use it on a day to day basis. In schools, language is slowly being taught as a subject. When this is taught as a subject besides language outside our nation, it generates interest with our own non-Aboriginal people. a033: Families. Because it is our language to remember and keep. a054: Families. [SP‟s notes: mostly families. Too hard to control in schools. Many Aboriginal parents are asking why kids are learning Japanese, etc. The situation is difficult because there are so many different groups, have to have the right language on associated country]. a063: Families. a069: Every Aboriginal person should try to keep their language alive. a074: Families and maybe schools because it preserves culture. a075: Schools and most importantly families.
(19 total)
One could just as well have placed a020 within the „all-inclusive‟ category except for the fact that the answer seems to have an emphasis on the agency of speakers or people with knowledge of the language so based on that, it has been placed in the category of answers that have family/Indigenous people as the main category.
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All-inclusive answers:
a011: All of the above, need to keep it strong. a013: All have a responsibility.. a018: All of the above, to keep the language and culture alive for future generations. a019: It should be a national, moral, cultural obligation but a collaborative effort – all parties. a030: I think that it is an active responsibility of everyone, we need to keep this going. a031: Everybody‟s, because if we don‟t keep speaking it nobody will know what it is and eventually it will fade away. a047: Everyone‟s. a053: All!! a065: All of us!!
(9 total)
Families/communities and schools as main factors a006: Families mainly but w/ teaching it in school would be great – plus the Government funding/programs to support revival of language. a010: Our and the Government‟s job. We need more language in our school system. So the Government needs to help with that. a014: The family should keep alive and teach the younger generation. Also the language should also be taught at school, an Indigenous education officer. a021: My family [illeg. „and‟/‟or‟?] I think the Government should have more input in putting it in schools. a023: Own culture. [also circled] „the school‟s, families‟, others‟. a028: Family. Govt – local culture + language should be taught in school. a035: It‟s important that the community/people continue to keep it alive, as well as in conjunction [?] with teaching it in schools. a038: Families. Government. [illeg.]. Schools. Teaching. [SP‟s notes: families first, then schools to continue. Government needs to provide funding] a042: In order of priority I would say family and the school and university, etc. [SP‟s notes: The field is heritage. There are two separate entities – KWP and the Kaurna Heritage Committee. Thinks it would be nice for stronger relations between various heritage + native title bodies. There is a
44
need for language to be supported by Government, needs to provide the financial aspect]. a049: Family. Background. Need to know their language. Young children need to [learn] the language. Yes, whole three areas. Gov, [illeg.] family. Because the school in Government Department to learn Kaurna language on site. a050: 1) Family (if there‟s anyone left to speak/teach it). 2) Government. a055: Family – clan groups. Schools – need kids to learn the „lingo‟ @ school (just like Indonesian!). a056: Governments of the past took our language away – we weren‟t allowed to speak it!! It‟s our Elders, + those who still have language responsibility to pass this on before they leave us. Governments should encourage & support those schools that still use language. a057: People of the country whose language it is. Also Gov/schools to preserve more than tidbits. Need cohesion between groups. a058: The parents/grandparents/family to keep the language and culture alive. The Government should introduce cultural language into the schools so as to educate the nungas in their own or other cultural language. a062: I think it is the responsibility of the Kaurna people, the Government, schools, families in partnership. As it should be kept alive as it belongs to the Adelaide plains region, it should be preserved for history so that people can learn the language of the traditional owners of this country. a070: Families & schools. It‟s important for you to learn from your family. a071: Families and schools. Families because it‟s their culture & schools to encourage it.
(18 total)
Government/schools and families a007: I believe that the schools, families should be teaching the young ones to learn their languages, so that they can speak and understand each other. a022: Governments and schools need to provide education of these languages, because, like myself, without tuition in Pitjantjatjara I would not be able to speak or know any language at all. Also families have a responsibility to pass down language to younger generations.
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a029: Governments need to make sure Aboriginal languages are taught in schools (especially Aboriginal schools). Parents and community also need to ensure languages are taught to the children. My dad wanted us to only learn English. This restricted our access to families and other traditional stuff. We couldn‟t communicate with our grandfathers. a032: The Government and the schools and families because these people have more authority to keep programs going to teach kids language. a036: Govt – needs to encourage more than Anglo culture/attitudes, + other Govt institutions. Schools need to have a policy of encouraging Australian languages. Families have an important role to create confidence + pride for language. a039: Governments. They are the ones who took our language away in the first place – supply more funding. Family – the older generation need to help the younger ones. a040: [SP‟s notes: Government has some responsibility. Authorities responsible for not wanting people to speak language – Gov., church. They took it away so responsible for return. Children taken away, resulted in... Only 2-3 generations ago trace back to traditional people. Older generations have more knowledge of culture/language. It‟s their responsibility to share because they have the knowledge, but it‟s up to the younger generation to encourage elder generation to share it. Possibly some older people won‟t pass on the language unless younger people are „worthy‟ of being passed on to. Therefore, young people MUST show an interest. Support for Government acknowledgment of past wrongdoings. Schools definitely have some responsibility but not sure in what role. Partnership agreement between Government and schools, working with parents and staff. Eventually parents, staff and communities will come together and work together. An agreement should be based on meeting the needs of children in terms of educational outcomes. The outcomes should not just be „whitefella‟ subjects like literacy and numeracy but also grounding in language and culture. If this takes place in schools one doesn‟t need to go searching for it by oneself. Thinks Kaurna Plains School should be a „leader‟ in language And culture. All students regardless of background should have access to Kaurna culture. Some parents don‟t want anything to do with schools for various reasons. KPS still not well established enough to be a role model. Would be prepared to contribute own time and suggestions to KPS and has suggested Kaurna language and culture committee to
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meet every time, lacking in coherence so far. It is important for Aboriginal people to be in control, not only whitefellas. a044: Government, yes. Should be acknowledged. Kaurna should be taught in schools @ Adelaide Plain. Family needs to keep language alive and pass down to family, children, etc. a046: Governments, schools, families. a064: Governments, schools & families so that the language can be passed on and not become a „dead‟ language. a068: The schools and families. a072: A bit of everyone, schools, and families because it‟s not our fault how we can not talk our own languages. It‟s really not fair.
(12 total)
Government/schools as primary focus a034: Everyone‟s. The Government play a big role in reclaiming language and it should be taught in schools so children learn it and it doesn‟t disappear. a037: Govt. & education institution. Culture History Tourism. Families Culture history heritage. People of region – heritage history. Govt. should ensure local language is used and maintained in local area eg. school name, street names, buildings, etc., etc. Schools to teach local, state, national + [illeg.] history and culture. [SP‟s notes: Government bodies, ie. schools, transport areas, all have responsibility. Important to maintain separation of languages, there is a „Warriparinga‟ in Tasmania. Not enough awareness...] a041: All of the above. The local language for the area needs to be taught in schools, and needs to be more used, maybe on signs or shopping centers, and definitely at school, also performances, with not only the language but dance and song and art. a043: Everyone living on Kaurna country. But the Education department has a big role & responsibility. [SP‟s notes: Maori is compulsory education [in Aotearoa/New Zealand], should be similar for Aboriginal languages. Here, it‟s an elective, should be compulsory]. a045: I believe it‟s all of the above, but most of all I think that language should be taught in schools starting in primary school – as languages from other countries are. a048: Government needs to fund schools to teach the language. A lot does get passed down through families but there needs to be a clear understanding of each individual language so they don‟t get mixed up. This is where schools and Elder family members should get involved.
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a051: Language should be taught in schools. We should also encourage our children to learn language. [SP‟s notes: Aboriginal languages should be taught in schools, rather than French, Japanese, etc.] a052: Government should be supporting us and family to keep language alive. Grandparents who were raised on a mission were told not to teach their children their culture/language so they could mix in mainstream communities. a066: Because of colonisation in this country, I believe the Gov. must acknowledge the importance that the languages of this country must be revived and maintained. There has to be national policy & it be part of the curriculum taught in all schools. I do believe that everyone has responsibility to learn about their language/culture, but having said that, families/communities/individuals come with different experiences of the impact of colonisation/removal & will need to be encouraged, supported to reclaim their language & pass this on to their families. Need to think about how we create greater awareness of what is occurring, the work that has already been achieved…. a067: It is everybody‟s responsibility to keep Indigenous language alive, by supporting the teaching of it in schools. And acknowledging that they are languages in their own right and not dialects. a076: The Governments – they were the ones that destroyed any/all Aboriginal languages. * Aboriginal culture/language needs to be recognised within Australia‟s constitution!
(11 total)
It is not a straightforward task to assign the different answers to categories such as those above and the classification (regarding most of the answers) should not be taken to imply discrete boundaries. 19/69 or 27.5% of the relevant sample gave answers with a main or exclusive emphasis on the agency of families and Indigenous people. One should note that only 11 (a001, a002, a003, a004, a005, a012, a020, a025, a033, a063, a069) have what could be said to be an exclusive focus on Indigenous community agency, not mentioning either schools or Government. This group amounts to 11/69 or 16% of the relevant sample.
The broadest type of answers, „all-inclusive‟, constitute 9/69 – 13% of the relevant sample. 12 answers were placed within the category of „Government/schools and families‟ and 18 within the category of
48
„families/communities and schools as main factors‟. These two may well be combined into a category wherein some combination of Government, school and family based processes are seen as important – this combined category constitutes 30/69 or 43.5% of the relevant sample. Those answers indicative of a primary focus on the Government and schools amount to 11/69 or 16% of the relevant sample.
The largest percentage of the relevant sample (68%, combining all but the first and last category) consists of answers outlining some kind of collective responsibility and/or co-operation. Overall, in the Adelaide data the impression is that there is a high reliance on governmental funding and that the school is seen as a key site of language maintenance.
7. 15. Question 20: Would you be prepared to give money (for learning materials, courses, etc.) or time to strengthen the language?
Out of the 76, a016, a040 and a060 did not answer and a053 answered with „?‟, a single question mark. These have been withdrawn from further consideration here. The remaining 72 are distributed as follows:
Yes (both time and money) a006, a007, a009, a010, a011, a013, a014, a017, a018, a019, a021, a022, a023, a024, a025, a027, a028, a029, a030, a031, a032, a033, a034, a036, a037, a038, a039, a041, a042, a043, a044, a045, a047, a048, a049, a050, a051, a052, a054, a056, a057, a059, a062, a063, a064, a065, a066, a067, a070, a071, a072, a073, a074, a075, a076
(55 total)
Included in the „yes‟ category is a038 („if I had the money‟) and a041, who added „but I believe the Government should pay for that‟.
Yes (time but not money) a008, a055
(2 total)
49
No a004, a005, a012, a015, a020, a026, a035, a046, a058, a061, a069
(11 total)
Three people (a001, a002 and a003), Nyangumarta speakers from WA, answered to the effect that this question did not apply to them. They were all fluent speakers; a001 also explained „the children have people that can speak the language around them at all times‟. No others in the data explicitly indicated that setting aside time and money to strengthening the language(s) in question was inapplicable. Finally, one person (a068) answered a non-committal „maybe‟, which is difficult to place within any category but nevertheless answered the question.
55/72 or 76.4% of the relevant sample answered „yes‟. 2/72 or 2.8% of the relevant sample would give time but not money; 4.2% felt that the question did not apply to their situation, whereas 11/72 or 15.3% of the relevant sample answered „no‟.
7. 16. Question 21: Do you want (your) children to be speakers of the language?
Out of the 76 total, a053 answered „N/A‟ and a060 did not answer. A non-committal answer was given by a068, „I guess so‟. The three have been withdrawn from further consideration here. The remaining 73 are distributed as follows:
69/73 or 94.5% of the relevant sample answered „yes‟. Some modified their answers in terms of including references to grandchildren, whereas a042 adds „but English as well, otherwise they will not get any benefit from mainstream society‟. The importance of individual choice is mentioned by a058 („but she‟s the person that should make that decision‟).
4/73 – only 5.5% of the relevant sample - answered „no‟. These responses are shown in the below table:
50
No a012: No. a055: No. But to have some understanding of where our roots come from. a061: No. a069: No.
7. 17. Question 27: If you have young children or other younger relations would you like them to speak Aboriginal English and would you teach them/encourage them to learn it?
The questionnaire administered to the pilot sample did not include this question, so the people within the pilot sample (a004-a018) are absent. Moreover, out of the remaining 61, three (a040, a060, and a076) did not answer. In sum, then, there are a total of 58 replies considered here.
Yes No a019, a020, a021, a023, a024, a025, a001, a002, a003, a022, a026, a027, a028, a030, a031, a032, a033, a035, a037, a041, a057, a058, a061, a062, a038, a039, a042, a043, a044, a045, a063, a069, a075 a047, a048, a049, a050, a051, a052, a054, a055, a056, a059, a064, a065, a066, a067, a068, a070, a071, a072, a073, a074
(38 total) (15 total)
A third category consists of those expressing doubt or uncertainty (with „not sure‟, „unsure‟, and „maybe‟ as answers):
Unsure a029, a034, a036, a046, a053 (5 total)
All of those within this group are females.
It is clear that the majority (38/58 or 65.5%) supports Aboriginal English. The age bracket with the highest percentage of „yes‟ answers is 1980-1989 – this group has 80% „yes‟. These are 8/10, arrived at by withdrawing seven of those in this age bracket who were part of the pilot group.
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Females answering „no‟ are 5/58 or constituting as little as 8.6% of the respondents, whereas males answering „no‟ are 10/58 or constitute 17.2% of the respondents considered here. Males are certainly the majority among those answering „no‟. On the other hand, if the respondents within the „unsure‟ category could be considered to be more unsupportive of Aboriginal English than being non-committal (i.e. being closer to „no‟ than „yes‟), there would be 10 females („no‟/‟unsure‟) and 10 males („no‟). Lacking any firm grounds on which to group „unsure‟ together with „no‟ – „unsure‟ could just as well fall within the „yes‟ category – what can be said from the available evidence is that there is a significant gender difference in the „no‟ answers.
Going through the percentages of „no‟s from each age bracket, it is clear that 50% (2/4) of those in the 1930-1939 age bracket ticked „no‟. 40% (4/10) of relevant respondents in the 1950-1959 age bracket ticked „no‟ (this has been arrived at by withdrawing a014 from this bracket, since this person was part of the pilot group). The third largest percentage of „no‟ answers within an age group is that of the 1990-1999 group. 33.3% (4/12) of those born 1990-1999 answered „no‟.
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8. Analysis sheets – Port Pirie data
8. 1. Gender and age:
Age bracket Female Male 1950-1959 pp006F, pp007F, pp009F pp018M (4 total; 3 females, 1 male) 1960-1969 pp004F, pp022F, pp024F pp019M (4 total; 3 females, 1 male) 1970-1979 pp005F, pp011F, pp023F, pp002M, pp021M, pp028M (8 total; pp027F, pp029F 5 females, 3 males) 1980-1989 pp003F, pp008F, pp017F, pp010M, pp016M, pp020M (7 total; pp026F 4 females, 3 males) 1990-1999 pp014, pp025F pp001M, pp012M, pp013M, (6 total; pp015M 2 females, 4 males)
In the Port Pirie data (29 respondents) there are 17 females (58.6%) and 12 males (41.3%). Most of the data (21/29 or 72.4%) are from people born in 1970 of after (1970-1999). The largest age group is that of 1970-1979 and the largest grouping resulting from a combination of age and gender is within this age bracket – 5/29 or 17.2% of the data consist of females born 1970-1979. The largest age grouping of males is the 1990-1999 bracket – 4/29 or 13.8% of the entire data sample.
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8. 2. Place of birth
Port Pirie pp005, pp007 (2 total)
Other South Australia pp001, pp003, pp004, pp010, pp012, ppp020, (9 total) pp021, pp025, pp028
Interstate NT: pp002, pp008, pp009, pp011, pp013, 16 NT; 1 VIC. pp014, pp015, pp016, pp017, pp018, pp019, (17 total) pp023, pp024, pp026, pp027, pp029
VIC: pp006
Overseas New Zealand: pp022 (1)
We see from the above that only 6.9% of the sample is born in Port Pirie; 31% is born elsewhere in South Australia and 58.6% is born interstate (a large majority of these, 16/17 are born in the NT). Moreover, only one person is born overseas.
8. 3. Question 3: Do you speak this/these language(s)?
Yes No pp001, pp003, pp004, pp008, pp009, pp015, pp012, pp006 pp011, pp013, pp014, pp016, pp017, pp018, pp019, pp022, pp023, pp026, pp027, pp029
(17 total) (3 total)
The category „some/some words‟ below includes one (pp002) that also ticked „yes‟ and another (pp005) who ticked „no‟ in addition to writing „speak some words‟. One respondent (pp007) specified „some swear words‟
Some/some words pp002, pp005, pp007, pp010, pp020, pp021, pp028, pp024, pp025
(9 total)
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17/29 or 58.6% of the entire sample answered „yes‟. The second largest group consists of those answering „some/some words‟ – 9/29 or 31% of the entire sample said they spoke some words. Finally, 3/29 or 10.3% of the entire sample answered „no‟.
8. 4. Question 4: Do or did any of your parents speak this/these language(s)?
pp001 answered „yes‟ but it seems evident from pp001‟s answer to question 2 and to question 22 that this refers to English and/or German. For the purpose of classifying the extent of parental knowledge/use of an ancestral language in Indigenous terms, pp001 has been placed in the „no‟ category.
Yes No pp002, pp003, pp004, pp005, pp001, pp006, pp007, pp020 pp008, pp009, pp010, pp011, pp012, pp013, pp014, pp015, pp016, pp017, pp018, pp019, pp021, pp022, pp023, pp024, pp025, pp026, pp027, pp028, pp029
(25 total) (4 total)
One respondent (pp005) ticked „yes‟ and added „some words/sentences‟. This addition may be applicable to other respondents, whether they have ticked „yes‟ or „no‟. However, in a more general vein it should be remembered here that a large proportion of the sample consists of Arrernte speakers from Hermannsburg and Alice Springs and they would be more than likely to have (or to have had) fluent parents. In any case, 25/29 or 86.2% of the entire sample answered „yes‟, whereas only 4/29 – 13.8% - have ticked (or, in one case mentioned above, has been placed within) the „no‟ category. Following on from the discussion above concerning Arrernte languages, it is noteworthy that no one in the „no‟ category identify their language to be Arrernte (or any Arandic language).
8. 5. Question 5: Do or did any of your grandparents speak this/these language(s)?
27/29 or 93.1% of the entire sample - answered „yes‟. Only 2/29 or 6.9% of the
55 entire sample answered „no‟. These are pp001 and pp007.
8. 6. Question 6: Do or did your grandparents speak language to you
Two respondents (pp015, pp017) did not answer this question. Out of the 27 remaining, 23 (85.2% of the relevant sample) answered „yes‟. Three (3/27 or 11.1% of the relevant sample) answered „no‟: pp001, pp006 and pp007. One additional answer given was „sometimes‟ (pp020).
8. 7. Question 7: Do or did your parents speak language to you?
24/29 or 82.7% of the entire sample – answered „yes‟. For some, this refers to occasional single words or expressions (pp028), whereas many others have had extensive exposure to the language(s) in question as they grew up. Five respondents (5/29 or 17.2% of the entire sample) answered „no‟: pp001, pp005, pp006, pp007, and pp020.
8. 8. Question 11: Do you live in the area associated with your language group(s)?
For some respondents the issue may be complex, taking into account multiple language identities. One (pp003) answered „yes‟ and specified that this applied to her mother‟s area. One respondent (pp013) answered „yes‟ but has been placed in the „no‟ category because of the language in question (Western Arrernte), and also because pp013 indicates six years away from the area associated with pp013‟s language.
Out of the total of 29, one (pp002) answered both „yes‟ (adding „some time‟) and „no‟. This answer has been withdrawn from further consideration here. The remaining 28 are distributed as follows:
Yes No pp001, pp003, pp007, pp015, pp016, pp004, pp005, pp006, pp008, pp009, pp017, pp021, pp027, pp028 pp010, pp011, pp012, pp013, pp014, pp018, pp019, pp020, pp022, pp023, pp024, pp025, pp026, pp029
(9 total) (19 total)
56
9/28 or 32.1% of the relevant sample answered „yes‟. 19/28 or 67.8% of the relevant sample answered „no‟.
The above result - namely that most respondents in the sample live away from the area associated with their language group(s) - is consistent with other information concerning place of birth and language identified with. In addition, an Arrernte man residing in Port Pirie explained to Petter Naessan in February 2010 that Port Pirie is Nukunu land but that most Aboriginal people living in Port Pirie now are Arrernte people from Hermannsburg or Alice Springs, and that many of these Arrernte people have moved to Port Pirie during the last six years or so.
8. 9. Question 12: Do most of your friends belong to the group you identify with?
Out of the total 29, one (pp015) did not answer. The remaining 28 are grouped as follows:
Yes No pp001, pp002, pp008, pp009, pp011, pp003 Some [added, „yes‟/‟no‟ pp013, pp016, pp017, pp018, pp019, not ticked], pp004, pp005, p006, pp021, pp024, pp026, pp027, pp028, pp007, pp010, pp012, pp014, pp029 pp020, pp022, pp023, pp025
(16 total) (12 total)
Those that answered „yes‟ constitute 16/28 or 57.1% of the relevant sample. Within those that answered „yes‟, there is an exactly equal number of females and males; 8/16 females and 8/16 males or 50% from each gender out of those answering „yes‟. 12/28 or 42.8% of the relevant sample answered „no‟. Within the group answering „no‟, 9/12 (75%) are females and 3/12 (25%) are male.
Taking into account that there are 17 females and 12 males in the Port Pirie data, 9/17 or 52.9% of all the females answered „no‟. There is a significant difference in the male data. As noted above, pp015 (male) did not answer this question and was withdrawn from further consideration, so only 3/11 or 27.3% of the males in the data answered „no‟.
Out of the 12 answering „no‟, both of those from Port Pirie answered „no‟, and as many as 6 from other parts of South Australia. Thus, as many as 8/12 (66.6% of
57 all „no‟s) are from people born in South Australia.
Out of a total of 9 born outside Port Pirie but in South Australia, we find that 6/9 or 66.6% of those born in parts of South Australia other than Port Pirie answered „no‟. The respondent from New Zealand also answered „no‟. The lowest percentage of „no‟s are found within those from interstate – only 3 ticked „no‟. Out of a total of 17 born interstate, 3/17 – 17.6% ticked „no‟.
The general tendency found in the data is that males born interstate are much more likely to have friends from their own group than females born in South Australia. However, considering the methodology of this study, we cannot say to what extent this pattern holds generally for the Indigenous residents of Port Pirie.
‘Yes’ by age group
The chart below shows the distribution of „yes‟ answers – each percentage concerns the amount of people in an age bracket (that is, the percentages do not refer to percentages of the entire sample).
80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1950- 1960- 1970- 1980- 1990- 59 69 79 89 99 % of year group 50 50 75 57.1 40
Two patterns are reasonably clear from the data: from the 1950s to the 1970s, there was an increase in the amount of people who have friends from their own group. Secondly, from the 1970s to the 1990s there was quite an even decrease in the amount of people who have friends from their own group.
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8. 10. Question 13: Does your spouse/partner belong to your group? If ‘NO’, what group does she/he belong to?
Out of the 29 respondents, five (pp007, pp013, pp015, pp017, pp027) did not answer. For several others, the question was not applicable to them since they were single at the time of the survey. These four were pp001, pp005, pp020, pp021. Thus, the nine above were excluded from further consideration here and it was assumed that the remaining 20 had partners at the time of the study.
Out of the remaining 20, 3 answered „yes‟, which means that 15% of those with a partner/spouse had a partner/spouse considered to be part of their own group.
The partner/spouse belongs to the respondent’s own group:
„Yes‟ pp002, pp009, pp026
(3 total)
The partner/spouse does not belong to the respondent’s own group but partner’s/spouse’s group is unspecified:
„No‟ unspecified pp022, pp024, pp028 (partner/spouse not specified)
(3 total)
The partner/spouse does not belong to the respondent’s own group but the partner/spouse is from another Indigenous group:
„No‟, other Indigenous pp008, pp010, pp011, pp012, pp014, pp016, pp018, partner/spouse pp019, pp023, pp025, pp029
(11 total)
The partner/spouse does not belong to the respondent’s own group but the partner/spouse is from a non-Indigenous group:
„No‟, non-Indigenous pp003, pp004, pp006 partner/spouse
(3 total)
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It is clear from the above that 17/20 or 85% of all that had a spouse/partner had a spouse/partner from a different group. The largest specified group consists of those with a partner/spouse from a different Indigenous group – 11/20 or 55% of those with a partner/spouse.
3/20 or 15% of those with a spouse/partner did not specify which group the spouse/partner belonged to, but they nevertheless said that their partner/spouse did not belong to their own group. Another 3/20 or 15% of those with a partner/spouse had a partner/spouse from a non-Indigenous group. Potentially, 6/20 or 30% of all with a spouse/partner - have non-Indigenous partners. However, the fact that the origin, linguistic background or ethnic group of the spouse/partner is not mentioned cannot be taken to be a firm indicator of the spouses/partners in question being non-Indigenous.
8. 11. Question 15: If YES to any of the above, do you speak language to them?
This question comes after questions of whether the interviewees had children or any younger relatives. pp001 did not answer this question and was withdrawn from further consideration here. The remaining 28 were distributed as follows:
Yes pp002, pp003, pp004, pp008, pp009, pp011, pp013, pp014, pp016, pp017, pp019, pp021, pp023, pp024, pp025, pp026, pp027, pp029
(18 total)
Only some/occasional use pp007, pp018, pp022, pp028
(4 total)
No pp005, pp006, pp010, pp012, pp015, pp020
(6 total)
18/28 or 64.3% of the relevant sample answered „yes‟. Combining the two other categories arrived at here, we find that 10/28 (35.7% of the relevant sample) indicate limited amounts of ancestral language items, occasional or no use.
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8. 12. Question 16: Do they speak back to you in English?
Five (pp001, pp006, pp010, pp015 and pp020) speak English to their younger relatives and were consequently withdrawn from further consideration here.
Yes, all the time pp005, pp007, pp008, pp009, pp011, pp017, pp022, pp028
(8 total)
Yes, sometimes pp002, pp003, pp004, pp013, pp014, pp018, pp021, pp023, pp024, pp025, pp026, pp027, pp029
(13 total)
No pp019, pp016, pp012
(3 total)
It is not entirely clear to what extent pp019 could be said to fall within the „yes‟ or „no‟ category: judging from the answer to the next question, the relatives do answer in English. On the other hand, it is possible that pp019 interpreted the question of why the younger relatives answer in English in a hypothetical way. In sum, pp019‟s answer „no‟ has been adhered to.
In one instance, the respondent (pp017) wrote „both‟. This answer has been placed within the „all the time‟ category.
8/24 or 33.3% of the relevant sample answered „all the time‟; 13/24 (54.2% of the relevant sample) answered „sometimes‟, and 3/24 (12.5% of the relevant sample) answered „no‟.
If they speak back to you in English, why do you think they do it? (They don’t know enough language/they don’t want to speak language/both/other.)
Note that pp005, pp006, pp010, pp012, pp015, and pp020 do not speak
61 language to their younger relatives. In addition, pp001 did not answer question 15 above; pp011 ticked „they don‟t know enough language‟ but subsequently crossed it out, pp016 did not answer this question and pp018 answered „sometimes. These ten have been withdrawn from further consideration here.
The 19 remaining are distributed as follows:
They don’t know enough language pp007, pp013, pp025
(3 total)
They don’t know enough language and they don’t want to speak language pp002, pp003, pp004, pp014, pp026, pp027, pp028, pp029, pp023, pp024, pp019
(11 total)
Children’s preferences/choice pp009 They‟ll speak when they want to. pp017 Cause they just want to. pp021 They come down from north and learn English themselves.
(3 total)
Finally, one (pp008) answered „because there is a lot of English around & they pick it up – like at school‟. This is essentially a focus on an aspect of the sociolinguistic context of Indigenous children/young people in Port Pirie. Also noteworthy is pp022‟s answer about „English words unable to be interpreted‟ (i.e. English words that have no clear equivalent in language, thus forcing the speaker to use English).
The largest group in the data consists of those answering „both‟ – 11/19 or 57.9% of the relevant sample. Only 3/19 (15.8% of the relevant sample) ticked „they don‟t know enough language‟ without reference to attitude or preference. Another 3/19 seemed to mainly focus on children‟s preferences or choices. The
62 remaining two drew attention to the prevalence of English and the problem of English terminology without counterpart in the ancestral language.
8. 13. Question 17: Are you concerned that the language will disappear?
Yes No pp003, pp004, pp005, pp007, pp010, pp001, pp002, pp008, pp009, p011, pp012, pp015, pp016, pp017, pp018, pp013, pp014, pp019, pp020, p022, pp028 pp023, pp024, pp025, pp026, pp027, pp029
(11 total) (16 total)
Non-committal answers pp006: Maybe. pp021: It‟s strong in some places.
As many as 16/29 or 55.2% of the entire sample answered „no‟, whereas 11/29 or 38% of the entire sample answered „yes‟.
8. 14. Question 19: Whose responsibility is it to keep the language alive, the Government’s, the school’s, families’ or others? Please explain.
Families/elders/Aboriginal people as first mentioned or only category pp001 If the people keep talking the language it will stay alive but [not] if people stop and talk another language. pp004 Family, schools, Governments. pp005 Families. Schools (maybe). I believe that it needs to be passed down from generations. pp007 Families. pp008 Aboriginal people, schools. pp009 Families. pp010 Elders. pp011 Other people, me, school, Government. pp013 Families. pp014 Families. pp015 The families and schools so the language can be kept strong if someone who knows the language thoroughly. pp016 Families.. pp019 Families and to have language school.
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pp021 Families. pp022 Individuals through to community. Once community controlled, demand to improve in schools. pp027 Mainly families. pp028 Families. pp029 Families.
(18 total)
All-inclusive answers: pp002 Yes. pp003 Everybody is responsible. pp017 I think all above because our languages are dieing [sic] and its good to have your own language as well to carry on from generations to generations and to be proud about the language we‟ve got and for who we are. pp023 All of the above. pp024 All above. pp025 All of above.
(6 total)
Main focus on schools/Government: pp006 Government & schools & families. Governments should never repress or moved people from their areas and language. School should teach other languages eg different Aboriginal languages depending where the schools are situated. Families – so each generation can learn their parents‟ area language. pp012 Government. pp018 Families, schools, Government – main one. pp020 Schools, families, Government. pp026 Back at Community Schools they run language lessons to keep the language very strong. And some elders take the kids out bush for trip. Learning language for bush tucker.
(5 total)
The above grouping „Families/elders/Aboriginal people as first mentioned or only category‟ are seen as indicative of a primary focus on families, or community use and agency. They amount to 18/29 or 62% of the entire sample. A majority
64 within this category – 11 out of 18 - do not mention either school or Government as the main factors. These responses (11/29) account for 37.9% of the entire sample.
The second largest grouping consists of „all-inclusive‟ answers, indicating that the respondent thinks all of the factors mentioned in the question are responsible for keeping the language(s) alive. This group amounts to 6/29 or 20.6% of the entire sample.
The smallest grouping we have arrived at consists of answers indicative of a main focus on either schools or Governments; 5/29 or 17.2% of the entire sample.
8. 15. Question 20: Would you be prepared to give money (for learning materials, courses, etc.) or time to strengthen the language?
Yes No pp001, pp002, pp003, pp005, pp006, pp004, pp013, pp014, pp015, pp007, pp008, pp009, pp010, pp011, pp028, pp029 pp012, pp016, pp017, pp018, pp019, pp020, pp021, pp022, pp023, pp024, pp025, pp026, pp027
(23 total) (6 total)
23/29 or 79.3% of the sample answered „yes‟ and 6/29 or 20.7% of the sample answered „no‟. Interestingly, only one person, a female Western Arrernte speaker (pp029) answered „N/A‟. It is more than likely that for fluent speakers, the question of whether to set aside time or money for strengthening the language would appear moot, or indeed inapplicable.
8. 16. Question 21: Do you want (your) children to be speakers of the language?
One answer (that of pp025) is non-committal, answering „maybe‟. The rest in the sample, no less than 28/29 (or 96.5%) answered „yes‟ to this question. Within this group, pp006 modified the answer by adding „if it‟s their choice‟.
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8. 17. Question 27: If you have young children or other younger relations would you like them to speak Aboriginal English and would you teach them/encourage them to learn it?
Yes No pp001, pp002, pp003, pp005, pp007, pp004, pp012, pp015, pp016, pp009, pp010, pp011, pp013, pp014, pp017, pp018, pp022, pp023, pp019, pp020, pp021, pp025, pp028 pp024, pp026, pp027, pp029
(15 total) (12 total)
A third category consists of those expressing doubt or uncertainty (with „unsure‟, and „maybe‟ as answers):
Unsure/maybe pp006, pp008
(2 total)
Both of these are females.
It is clear that the majority, 15/29 (51.7%) support Aboriginal English. The age bracket with the highest percentage of „yes‟ answers is 1990-1999 – this group has a 66.7% „yes‟ (i.e. 4 „yes‟ answers out of the 6 in the 1990-1999 group). Males are slightly in majority among those answering „yes‟ – 8/15, 53.3% of all „yes‟ answers, whilst females answering „yes‟ constitute 7/15 or 46.7% of all the „yes‟ answers.
The age group with the smallest amount of „yes‟ answers was 1960-1969, wherein only one male answered „yes‟ – 1/4 or 25% of the people in this age group (and the rest in this age group are females).
8/29 females answered „no‟ constituting 27.6% of the entire sample, whereas 4/29 males answered „no‟ constituting 13.8% of the respondents. Females were certainly the majority among those answering „no‟. If the respondents within the „unsure‟ category could be considered to be more unsupportive of Aboriginal English than being non-committal (i.e. being closer to „no‟ than „yes‟), there would be 10 females („no‟/‟unsure‟) and 4 males („no‟). Lacking any firm grounds on which to group „unsure‟ together with „no‟ – „unsure‟ could just as well fall
66 within the „yes‟ category – what can be said from the available evidence is that there is a significant gender difference in the „no‟ answers.
Going through the percentages of „no‟s from each age bracket, it is clear that 75% (3/4) of those in the 1960-1969 age bracket ticked „no‟. 42.8% (3/7) of relevant respondents in the 1980-1989 age bracket ticked „no‟. The third largest percentage of „no‟ answers within an age group is that of the 1970-1979 group, wherein 37.5% (3/8) of those born 1990-1999 answered „no‟.
Two respondents answering „no‟ supplied additional information: pp017 says „No. Because that‟s how our language is dieing out because Aboriginal English is wiping out the normal language it‟s like they are now making their own languages up like Aboriginal English which is a shame cause they can still learn their own language by sitting with the elders and listening‟. Moreover, pp018 says „No. Learn proper language‟ [sic].
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9. Analysis sheets – Ceduna data
9. 1. Gender and age:
Age bracket Female Male 1930-1939 c016 (1 female)
1940-1949 c009, c014, c015 (3 total; 3 females)
1950-1959 c005, c008, c012, c013, c010, c011, c017 (9 total; c018, c030 6 females, 3 males)
1960-1969 c004, c019, c021 c007, c026 (5 total; 3 females, 2 males)
1970-1979 c001, c002, c003, c020, c027 (8 total; c023, c025, c028 7 females, 1 males)
1980-1989 c022, c024, c029 (3 total; 3 females)
1990-1999 c006 (1 females)
In the Ceduna data (n 30), there are 24 females (80%) and 6 males (20%).
The largest group of combined gender and age consists of females born 1970-1979 - 7/30 or 23.3% of the sample, whereas the second largest group consists of females born 1950-1959 – 6/30 or 20% of the sample. Over half of the data (16/30 or 53.3%) are from females born 1950-1979. All of the males in the sample are within this group (1950-1979), thus as many as 22/30 or 73.3% of the entire sample are born between 1950-1979.
68
9. 2. Place of birth
Ceduna region (Ceduna, c001, c003, c004, c005, c006, c008, c009, c012, Fowlers Bay, Koonibba) c013, c014 , c016, c019, c021, c022, c025, c026, c027, c028, c029, c030
(20 total) Other South Australia c002, c007, c010, c011, c015, c017, c018, c020, c023 (9 total)
Interstate WA: Carnarvon: c024 WA (1)
It is clear from the above that 66.7% of the sample consists of people born in the Ceduna area, whereas 30% consists of people born elsewhere in South Australia. Only one person is from interstate (WA).
9. 3. Question 3. Do you speak this/these language(s)?
Yes No c011, c017, c027, c028 c029 No c030 No - all mixed up [added].
(4 total) (2 total)
Some/little bit c001, c002, c003, c004, c005, c006, c007, c008, c009, c010, c012, c013, c014, c015, c016, c018, c019, c020, c021, c022, c023, c024, c025, c026
(24 total)
Only 4/30 or 13.3% of the entire sample answered „yes‟. The remaining 26/30 – 86.7% of the entire sample indicated limited language use or knowledge but only 2 of these answered „no‟. It seems worthwhile to note that 8 out of the „some/little bit‟ answers (c013, c014, c015, c018, c019, c020, c022, and c023) specified or indicated that they spoke a mixed instrumentality known as Nyangga
69
Wanggarn or West Coast Talk. c019 answered „no‟, adding „but speak Nyangga Wanggarn. Which is a combination of Wirangu, Gugadha, Mirning and Pitjantjatjara mixed in together with English‟. It would appear that English-Gugadha (c013), or Pitjantjatjara-Mirning (c018) mixing may fall within the same category for some speakers. c023 indicates that she „wouldn‟t know‟ whether the talk consists of Wirangu, Gugadha or components from other languages.
Finally, one person (c007) specified „Aboriginal English‟. Aboriginal English may well be included as a mixed instrumentality, thus, 9/24 or 37.5% of those indicating some or limited language competence, speak a mixed instrumentality (either primarily or to some extent).
9. 4. Question 4: Do or did any of your parents speak this/these language(s)?
25/30 answered or indicated „yes‟ to this question – 83.3% of the entire sample. This group includes one answering „no‟ (c023) concerning the mother‟s Mirning and expressing some uncertainty concerning the father‟s Wirangu. However, it is clear that both of the parents spoke Pitjantjatjara fluently.
The „yes‟ category includes those with one or both of the parents being multilingual as well as those where only one parent spoke one or more of the ancestral languages in question. c015 said that the father was Scottish and would not speak anything but English and that „he‟d say to mother get the kids to speak English so I can understand them‟. c008 indicated that the parents sometimes spoke language, and that „they‟d use it when telling us off. I learned it when I was a little bit older. Started to teach it to us when we were a bit older. We used English at the mission – at the mission you‟d talk any way‟.
5/30 – 16.7% of the entire sample – answered „no‟. This category includes one interviewee (c012) who said „mother understood it‟.
9. 5. Question 5: Do or did any of your grandparents speak this/these language(s)?
„No‟ answers are entirely absent in the data concerning this question. The „yes‟
70 category is clearly not uniform, covering c012 („she spoke lingo, don‟t know what it was‟); c020 („Grandfather understood Wirangu but couldn‟t rattle it off‟), and c024 („Father‟s father and mother‟s mother could not speak English at all‟). In addition, c009 (mentioning Antikirinya and Spinifex people) and c017 („Father‟s father spoke southern Arrernte‟) are included in the „yes‟ category based on the fact that the languages in question are Indigenous Australian languages (albeit not local to the coastal or surrounding areas). c023 answered „yes‟ to Wirangu spoken on the father‟s side of the family but added „No on the Mirning side, They wouldn‟t let them speak it [i.e. the white in-marrying people]‟.
Yes c001, c002, c004, c006, c007, c008, c009, c010, c011, c012, c020, c018, c015, c016, c017, c022, c023, c024, c025, c026, c027, c028, c029, c030
(24 total)
A separate category has emerged, consisting of those saying they do not know and those that say they never met any of their grandparents.
Uncertain c003: Don‟t know c005: Don‟t know c013: Never met any grandparent but think they‟d have been speakers c014: Didn‟t know them – probably c019: Didn‟t know M‟s parents. Too young to know about F‟s M&F. c021: Never met any of my grandparents.
(6 total)
24/30 or 80% of the entire sample answered „yes‟, and 6/30 or 20% of the entire sample expressed uncertainty about the matter.
9. 6. Question 6: Do or did your grandparents speak language to you?
It was clear from question five above that six people (c003, c005, c013, c014, c019, and c021) expressed either that they did not know whether their grandparents spoke language, or that they never met them. These six were excluded from further consideration here. Furthermore, c001 said that she „didn‟t have much contact with the grandchildren‟ and no other specific information about language use was available so this answer was withdrawn. c009 answered
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„didn‟t know them‟; consequently this answer has also been withdrawn. The remaining 22 are distributed as follows:
Yes No c002, c004, c006, c007, c008, c010, c011, c022, c023, c024, c029 c012, c015, c016, c017, c018, c020, c025, c026, c027, c028, c030
(17 total) (5 total)
One of those who ticked „no‟ has been placed in the „yes‟ category – c020 explained that the grandparents did not speak Wirangu but Nyangga Wanggarn. The inclusion of this answer in the „yes‟ category is based on the same reason employed in question 5 – thus, in this case, although the interviewee made a distinction between Wirangu and Nyangga Wanggarn (which by all accounts is a mixed instrumentality), the last mentioned is both an Indigenous Australian instrumentality and certainly local or regional.
17/22 or 77.3% of the relevant sample answered „yes‟ (or were applicable to the „yes‟ category) and 5/22 or 22.7% of the relevant sample answered „no‟.
9. 7. Question 7: Do or did your parents speak language to you?
Occasional/limited/no Yes language use c002, c003, c005, c008, c009, c015, c001, c004, c006, c007, c010, c011, c016, c017, c018, c021, c022, c023, c012, c013, c014, c019, c020, c024, c026, c027, c028, c030 c025, c029
(16 total) (14 total)
The responses have been evaluated with respect to how they reflect more or less extensive or commonly occurring language input from the parent(s) in question. Concerning the „yes‟ category, c023 answered „not Wirangu‟ but with reference to other data it seems clear that West Coast Talk was spoken, thus c023 has been placed in the „yes‟ category. c023 would appear to be in a similar situation to c022, who answered „yes‟ and then specified „West Coast Talk‟. c003, c005, c027, c028, replied „yes‟ without further modification. Others disambiguate between father‟s and mother‟s language. All of the above have been grouped together in the „yes‟ category since they all indicate less than
72 coincidental or occasional language input.
The „occasional/limited/no language use‟ category used here includes unmodified „no‟ answers (c007, c019, c029) as well as answers to the effect that English was the main language used, and that the language use amounted to „a bit of‟ /‟a few words‟ of language (c012, c013, c014, c020, c024). c010 says that the parents „spoke amongst each other but not to the kids‟, because they „wanted kids to speak English‟. c025 states that the household was „an English household‟ and that language was only used when family members visited.
Some language use restricted to particular situations is evident in some of the answers – c001 and c004 mention that the parent(s) in question would use language only when telling the children off, and c006 explained that the mother would only use it „when she‟s got alcohol in her system, but chucks it in with English‟.
16/30 (53.3% of the entire sample) answered „yes‟ or were applicable to the „yes‟ category. 14/30 – no less than 46.7% of the entire sample – gave answers indicative of no, limited or occasional language input from the parent(s).
9. 8. Question 11: Do you live in the area associated with your language group(s)?
Out of the total 30, c002 answered both „yes‟ and „no‟ and explained that „West Cost Talk is the main thing. If we were at Yalata or Oak Valley we would speak the language‟. The issue of whether people live on or near the home base of their ancestral language is not necessarily straightforward, given that many have multiple language identities. Thus, c024 answers „yes‟ concerning Pitjantjatjara but indicates „no‟ concerning Yindjibarndi. For the purpose of this research, c002 has been withdrawn from further consideration here and the remaining 29 are distributed as follows:
Yes No c001, c003, c004, c005, c007, c010, c006, c008, c009, c011, c016, c017 c012, c013, c014, c015, c018, c019, c020, c021, c022, c023, c024, c025, c026, c027, c028, c029, c030
(23 total) (6 total)
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23/29 or 79.3% of the relevant sample stated that they did live in the area associated with their ancestral language(s). 6/29 or 20.7% of the relevant sample stated that they did not live in the area associated with their language group(s).
9. 9. Question 12: Do most of your friends belong to the group you identify with?
c014 did not reply and has been excluded from further consideration here. c009 answered „traditional side is much bigger – out to WA. Married links to Wirangu/Mirning‟. It is unclear to what extent this answer is indicative of „yes‟ or „no‟, therefore this answer must be withdrawn. The remaining 28 are distributed as follows:
Yes c001 Most people you identify with are relations. You call „em friend but they‟re related. They might be from a different family group but still related. c002 Most people Mirning (gf = Mirning; gm = Gugadha. Lived at Koonibba). c003 Yes – family based c004 Yes [friends & family] c005 Yes [friends & family] c007 Yes c008 Yes [friends & family] c010 Yes c012 Yes c015 Yes, mostly Gugadha c016 Yes c017 Yes c018 Yes. People here at Ceduna are all the same people but come under different umbrella for land stuff. c019 Yes c021 Yes c022 Yes c023 Yes. Either Wirangu/Mirning or Wirangu/Gugadha c025 Yes. I got family that are connected to all the family groups across here. c026 Yes c027 Yes c028 Yes c029 Yes
(22 total)
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No c006 No. Most friends speak English. c011 No. Only speak to 2 people in language – and the people I meet in the street [from outside communities] c013 No. Pit/Gugadha/Wirangu/Mirning mixed. c020 No. Gugadha & Mirning as well. c024 No. c030 No – Wirang/Mirning/Gugadha/anangu mixed.
(6 total)
22/28 – or 78.6% of the relevant sample answered „yes‟, whereas 6/28 (21.4%) answered „no‟. Since there is such an overweight of females in the data, the female/male ratio within and of the „yes‟ and „no‟ answers will not be pursued further here. However, the percentage of each gender answering „yes‟ or „no‟ will be examined.
There are 24 females and 6 males in the Ceduna data. The relevant group of females for this question is 22 (c009 and c014, both females, were not considered here). Thus, 17/22 – 77.3% of all the females in the relevant sample answered „yes‟; 5/6 – or 83.3% of all the males in the sample answered „yes‟. These percentages cannot be said to be representative of any distinctive gender pattern in so far as the „yes‟ answers are concerned.
5/22 (22.7%) females answered „no‟, whereas 1/6 of the males in the sample (16.7%) answered „no‟.
Half (3/6) of the „no‟ answers are from people born within the Ceduna region and 2/6 are born elsewhere in South Australia. There is only one person in the sample from interstate, and this person (c024) is among those answering „no‟. Overall it seems that the „no‟ answers are quite evenly distributed in so far as place of birth is concerned.
‘Yes’ by age group
There is only one interviewee from the 1930-1939 bracket, and this person (c016) answered „yes‟. Similarly, there is only one interviewee from the 1990-1999 bracket, but this person (c006) answered „no‟. One could say these answers represent a pattern from 100% „yes‟ of the 1930-1939 bracket to 0.0% „yes‟ of the 1990-1999 bracket. The imbalance of the data needs to be taken into account; any admissible response within these two brackets will either constitute
75
100% or 0.0% of the relevant bracket, in other words undue weight is accredited to one response. The above bias can only be solved by excluding the two brackets from further consideration.
The chart below shows the distribution of „yes‟ answers – each percentage concerns the amount of people in an age bracket (that is, the percentages do not refer to percentages of the entire sample).
‘Yes’ by age bracket
120
100
80
60
40
20
0 1940 -4 9 1950 -5 9 1960 -6 9 1970 -7 9 1980 -8 9 % of a ge bra cket s 33.3 66.7 100 87.5 66.7
There are two important patterns evident in the data: from the people born in the 1940s to those born in the 1950s and 1960s, there is a clear increase in the number of people who have friends from their own group. The clearest or most extensive shift takes place between those born in the 1940s versus those born in the 1950s, where people born in the 1950s who have friends from their own group are double the percentage found within the 1940s bracket.
Secondly, there is a less pronounced tendency downward from those born in the
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1960s to those born in the 1980s. Thus, from the 1960s onwards, the amount of people who have friends from their own group is decreasing.
9. 10. Question 13: Does your spouse/partner belong to your group? If ‘NO’, what group does she/he belong to?
Out of a total of 30 respondents, one (c014) did not answer. Six others (c004, c005, c021, c022, c025, c026) did not have a spouse/partner at the time of the survey and in some cases further information about ex-partner/ex-spouse was not available. These seven were excluded from further consideration here. The remaining 23 either had a spouse/partner at the time of the study or supplied information about their ex-spouse/ex-partner.
The partner/spouse belongs to the respondent’s own group:
„Yes‟ c003, c006, c007, c016, c027, c028
(6 total)
The partner/spouse does not belong to respondent’s own group but the partner’s/spouse’s group is unspecified:
„No‟ unspecified c029 (partner/spouse not specified)
(1)
The partner/spouse does not belong to the respondent’s own group but the partner/spouse is from another Indigenous group:
„No‟, other Indigenous c008, c009, c010, c011, c012, c013, c017, partner/spouse c018, c020, c023, c024, c030
(12 total)
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The partner/spouse does not belong to the respondent’s own group but the partner/spouse is from a non-Indigenous group:
„No‟, non-Indigenous c001, c002, c015, c019 partner/spouse
(4 total)
26% has or had partner/spouse from their own group; 52.2% has or had spouse/partner from a different Indigenous group, and 17.4% has or had a partner from a non-Indigenous group. Only one person indicated that the spouse/partner was from a different group but without specifying what group the partner belonged to.
9. 11. Question 15: If YES to any of the above, do you speak language to them?
This question comes after questions of whether the interviewees had children or any younger relatives. c026 did not answer and has been withdrawn from further consideration here. The 29 remaining are distributed as follows:
Yes c002, c003, c005, c007, c012 „to grannies‟, c014, c016, c017, c018, c019, c021, c023, c024, c027, c028
(15 total)
Sometimes c004, c006, c008, c009, c010
(5 total)
Those indicating occasional language use include c006, who says that she does not speak language to her younger relatives other than „when I‟m drunk I get wild with them – when I need to tell them off‟. This seems to be an example of language use within limited situations, or restricted to a specific genre. Similarly,
78 c008 answered „yes‟ but also explained that the language was used when she wanted children „to do something – they seem to understand it more‟.
In addition, c009 says that „I didn‟t encourage them when I was a young parent because I thought they needed to concentrate on reading and writing English‟. Thus, this reply signifies a conscious decision in the past to avoid teaching children the language.
Only (some) words/mixed language and English c001, c013, c020, c022, c025, c030.
(6 total)
This category consists of answers indicating that single or a few words may be used (for body parts, animals and other „basic things‟, c022); „half English/half Gugadha‟ (c013), „bits of language and bits of English‟ (c025), and West Coast Talk explained as „mixed this and mixed that‟ (c030). It is notable that c001 indicated that language generally would not be used when there are whitefellas present.
No c011, c015 („Not when they were growing up because we were away‟), c029.
(3 total)
15/29 51.7% of the relevant sample answered „yes‟. 5/29 have been placed in the category of occasional language use, whereas 6/29 use only some words, or a mixture of various language words and English. From the above, 11/29 answers are indicative of limited and/or occasional language use (limited in terms of amount and frequency of ancestral language use), amounting to 38% of the relevant sample. Only 3/29 or 10.34% of the relevant sample answered „no‟.
9. 12. Question 16: Do they speak back to you in English?
c026 did not answer this question. c011 and c029 answered „no‟ to whether they spoke language to their younger relatives. These three were excluded from further consideration here. The remaining 27 are distributed as follows:
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Yes, all the time c004, c006, c007, c009, c010, c012, c015, c019, c025
(9 total)
Yes, sometimes c005, c008, c017, c018, c021, c022, c023, c024, c027, c028
(10 total)
They answer in West Coast Talk/Nyangga English/mixed English/Nyangga Wanggarn c001, c002, c003, c013, c014, c016, c020, c030
(8 total)
c030 answered „yes, all the time‟ but it was clear that West Coast Talk was what they spoke, whereas c013 answered „no, West Coast Talk‟, and c014 answered „West Coast Talk all the time‟. Rather than forcing these answers into the categories initially proposed, all of those who specified that the children‟s language used in answering their elders was West Coast Talk, Aboriginal English (c016), mixed English & Nyangga Wanggarn (c020), or Nyangga English and English (c01 and c03) sometimes or all the time, have been placed in one category. It seems clear that the children in question are using a „mixed‟ instrumentality although the frequency of use varies.
Although the following cannot be ascertained precisely, answers falling within the other two categories („yes, sometimes‟ and „yes, all the time‟) could be taken to imply that the language used by the respective children/younger people when answering older relatives predominantly is SAE (Standard Australian English).
9/27 or 33.3% of the relevant sample – answered „yes‟ all the time‟ and 10/27 or 37% of the relevant sample – answered „yes, sometimes‟. 8/27 or 29.6% of the relevant sample - reported that the younger relatives answered them by means of a mixed instrumentality when spoken to in language.
If they speak back to you in English, why do you think they do it? (They don’t know enough language/they don’t want to speak language/both/other.)
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c011, c015 and c029 do not speak language to younger relatives. c004, c013, c014, c019 and c026 did not answer this question. c024 said that the children were „too young – oldest is 3 and baby is 10 months‟. The 21 remaining are distributed as follows:
They don’t know enough language c001, c002, c003, c006, c007, c009, c010, c016, c017, c018, c020, c021, c022, c023, c025, c030
(16 total)
They don’t want to speak the language/want to speak English c008, c027, c028
(3 total)
Two people (c005 and c012) indicated „both‟.
16/21 or 76.2% of the relevant sample answered that they thought the children did not know enough language. A very different view - that the children either do not want to speak language or that they have some preference for English – is held by 3/21 or 14.3% of the relevant sample. This last mentioned group of answers are similar to „both‟ answers in that they all place some emphasis on the attitudes and/or preferences of children and younger relatives.
9. 13. Question 17: Are you concerned that the language will disappear?
c030 did not answer this question. The remaining 29 are distributed as follows:
Yes No c001, c002, c005, c007, c008, c009, c003, c004, c006, c011, c014, c016, c010, c012, c013, c015, c018, c019, c017, c024, c026, c027, c028 c020, c021, c022, c023, c025, c029
(18 total) (11 total)
Some (c002, c006, c023) see Pitjantjatjara as a strong language which will not
81 disappear. c009 indicates that Gugadha is „getting swallowed up by Pitjantjatjara‟. c015 says that (in contrast to the other languages) West Coast Talk will „stick‟, whereas c019 is concerned that „Nyangga Wanggarn will slowly start getting lost‟, an opinion that seems to be shared by c020 and c022. It is evident that there are different opinions on which languages are under threat. Keeping this in mind, a clear majority (18/29 or 62%) is nevertheless concerned about the survival prospects of one or all of the Wirangu, Gugadha and Mirning languages. c025 is concerned about all three if the language in question if „not spoken in the household or taught‟. 11/29 or 38% are not concerned about this matter.
9. 14. Question 19: Whose responsibility is it to keep the language alive, the Government’s, the school’s, families’ or others? Please explain.
Families/elders/Aboriginal people as first mentioned or only category: c001 Family. They are more connected to it than the Government. It‟s our business. Government can give money for us to do it ourselves. Government are the ones who squashed it in the first place. c002 Family. Because it‟s coming from the ancestors. If you don‟t keep it you‟ll lose it. Mostly from home – you speak language at home but when go out to school you speak English. c003 Family. You do learn at the school about it, but use it more in the house. Went to Koonibba school, did Pit classes c1980s but didn‟t learn anything there. Learnt most language when went out bush with family. Learnt more out bush than in classroom. c004 Families – schools as well c005 Family. That is where it comes from, you gotta learn‟em. You gotta teach the children. I got 16 grandchildren. c006 Old people. Not sure about what happens with endangered languages. c007 Families. It‟s their culture, their language. It‟s part of Aboriginal life to pass things down. c009 Family‟s. When children are younger their minds are like a sponge – so they will learn it. c010 Family‟s and other‟s. If want to keep the language together they got to keep speaking it. University – trained linguists should be documenting it. Stupid that Japanese is taught in Ceduna. At Ceduna should be learning local Aboriginal language: 1. Wirangu; 2. Gugadha; 3. Pit at Yalata. c011 Family‟s. Language and communication is important; communication within families, their cultural background. Interpreting work is important. c012 Family‟s - because it belong to us for our future generation c013 Should be family plus school should teach. c014 Families should teach their children. Some parents know they should teach their kids. Teachers can‟t pronounce the words more properly – should be Nyangga teachers. c015 Family‟s but also language centres are very important. c016 Family – teach them at home to talk.
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c018 Family – because it starts in the home. Government should respect arnangu rules – recognise them. This would help to protect. c019 It‟s really the family‟s (the community) with the aid of the Government with the funding (retrieve it and get it out). The schools to teach it. Families – the old people, the elders to be the guides for the younger people. c022 Family – they can pass it down to the next generation. „keep the language going I suppose‟. c023 Family‟s. Education starts within the home. Your kids aren‟t going to learn nothing if you don‟t teach them. Important for the parents to show interest in what the kids are doing. A lot of parents are illiterate and never went to highschool so [kids have „poorly‟ educated parents at home]. Some of us are middle class – none are upper class. Then there‟s those that don‟t work and are on Centrelink and see school as just a childcare. It‟s sad to talk about it like that. I take my kids out to Scotdesco, camoing at Mexican Hat, pull up and show them Yalata. Trying to re-engage them into culture and family [from memory they have been at Ceduna for only the last 5 years – PM]. c024 Family – the family needs to uphold their culture. Needs to teach the younger ones about their culture. Good thing that it‟s in the schools. c025 Community elders. Starts at family home, then community networks, then goes up into government level, schools and the language centre. Need more resources for teaching it on the ground. There should be more funding so all 3 languages could be made available locally and made available to schools. Then parents can use the computer discs – interactive things. It‟s alright to keep language alive but where do we get the money from? Parents don‟t know where to get resources to do it. c026 Old people. They‟re the ones who taught us. c027 Family‟s. c028 Family‟s. It‟s more important for them. I‟m Pitjantjatjara [so it‟s important for me]. c029 Family, schools. c030 Elders, school, teachers, get people in there to help them. We need help to get book [?] to our language.
(26 total)
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Main focus on schools/Government:
c008 Schools. They can learn all sorts if language in schools. My kids were good at going to school, Granddaughter is learning German at Crossways. When they come up on weekend we talk in language. c017 Education system. Schools – that‟s where all communication starts from – communicating with another person. Some language every now and then so they can pick it up. Mother taught in the school at Pt Augusta. c020 Wirangu – Government should be pushing. The elders of our tribes they should be teaching the younger generation. It should be taught in schools, pre-school, childcare, kindy. Mixed Nyangga Wanggarn should be taught, as well as Wirangu, and it should only be taught to Aboriginal kids. c021 All of the above. Government = funding so we can teach family and around town need to speak the language so they can pass it on to the children.
(4 total)
The largest group consists of those mentioning families/elders first and generally seem to have an emphasis on the family as a key factor (although not necessarily excluding other factors). These answers constitute 26/30 or 86.6% of the entire sample.
Out of the ones mentioning families/elders first, 3 answers include references to outside funding: c001 indicates that outside (governmental) funding is desirable; c019 also mentions funding, but it is unclear to what extent c019 regards this funding as necessary. On the other hand, whereas c025 mentions community elders and family, outside funding appears to be seen as a necessity.
The majority of those within the above category – 14 out of 26 - are answers indicative of a primary focus on the family, with no mentioning of schools or other „whitefella‟ institutions as desirable or otherwise entirely useful factors in language maintenance. These answers amount to no less than 46.6% of the entire sample. It is noteworthy that these answers are among the most unambiguous in the data, taking into account the difficulty of assigning value to composite answers (i.e. a respondent may well mention or write X, Y and Z without intending X to be the main factor).
Only 1 answer could be seen to fall within the „all-inclusive‟ category elsewhere applied. This answer (c021) has been placed in the category of „main focus on
84 schools/Government‟, since c021 further specifies government funding, ostensibly as a necessity. Only 4/30 - or 13.3% of the entire sample – would seem to have an emphasis on schools or Government as key factors responsible for language transmission.
9. 15. Question 20: Would you be prepared to give money (for learning materials, courses, etc.) or time to strengthen the language?
c003 answered „leave it‟, whereas c027 and c028 did not answer. These three have been excluded from further consideration here. The remaining 27 are distributed as follows:
Yes (both time and money) c005, c007, c010, c011, c012, c013, c014, c015, c016, c017, c018, c019, c020, c21, c022, c023, c024, c025, c026, c029, c030
(21 total)
Yes (time but not money) c004, c006, c008, c009
(4 total)
No (Government should provide funding) c001, c002
(2 total)
21/27 or 77.8% of the relevant sample answered that they would be prepared to give money and time to strengthen the language. 4/27 or 14.8% of the relevant sample indicated that they would be willing to give time but not money, whereas only 2/27 – 7.4% of the relevant sample – said „no‟ and further specified that means should be provided (c002 explicitly mentioned the Government in this regard).
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9. 16. Question 21. Do you want (your) children to be speakers of the language?
c029 did not answer. The remaining 29 all answered yes, i.e. 29/29 or 100 % of the relevant sample wanted their or other children to be speakers of one or more of the ancestral languages.
9. 17. Question 27: If you have young children or other younger relations would you like them to speak Aboriginal English and would you teach them/encourage them to learn it?
c026 did not answer this question. c006 answered „no children‟ which is difficult to place within any category concerning attitudes about Aboriginal English. c023‟s answer provides important information but is similar to c006 in that it does not seem to indicate clearly any attitude concerning the Aboriginal English of younger relatives. These three have been withdrawn from further consideration here. The remaining 27 are distributed as follows:
Yes No c002, c003, c005, c008, c012, c014, c009, c010, c013, c015, c025, c027, c016, c017, c019, c020, c021, c022, c028 c024, c030
(14 total) (7 total)
c015 answered „yes‟ but added „better they learn their own fluent‟, which probably indicates a „no‟. c014 answered „yes‟, adding „so that the language can be kept alive. The West Coast speaks one language – all the tribes come together‟. c005 answered „yes‟ and said „broken down English – it‟s not proper. But it‟s a good wangga‟ (wangga – „talk‟, „language‟). c012 said „yes‟ and continued by saying „it‟s a good thing for us. There‟s some things you want to say so Whitefellas don‟t understand what you‟re taking about. But if they go away from here would expect them to know proper English. „You know how to switch it off and on‟.
A third category consists of those expressing a more non-committal or perhaps fatalistic attitude – the Aboriginal English of younger relatives appears to be seen by these respondents as something virtually inevitable. Representative answers include „you can‟t stop them, it‟s just the way it is‟ (c001), „they‟ll just pick it up‟ (c004), „it comes automatically‟ (c018), and „comes natural‟ (c007). One of these
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(c004) answered „no‟, the rest did answer with „yes‟ (except c011 who answered neither „yes‟ nor „no‟) but at least c011 and c029 were quite clearly non-committal.
They’ll just pick it up c001, c004, c011, c007, c018, c029
(6 total)
It is clear that a slight majority, 14/27 (51.8% of the relevant sample) supports Aboriginal English. The age bracket with the highest percentage of „yes‟ answers is 1980-1989 – this group has a 66.7%% „yes‟ (i.e. 2 „yes‟ answers out of the 3 in the 1980-1989 group). 1/1 in the 1930-1939 bracket answered „yes‟ but any answer from the one person in this group (c016) would constitute 100% and could not tell anything about the ratio of „yes‟, „no‟ or other answers (in the absence of minimally two answers within the age group). In short, there are insufficient data within the 1930-1939 group.
There is not much to be said for a comparison of females versus males in respect to the „yes‟ or „no‟ answers, considering the imbalance in the data (80% of the Ceduna data are from females). However, we may outline the percentage of „yes‟ answers within each gender – thus 1/6 males (16.7% of all males in the data) answered „yes‟ and 13/24 females (54.2% of all the females in the data) answered „yes‟.
The age group with the smallest amount of „yes‟ answers is 1940-1949, wherein only one female answered „yes‟ – 1/3 or 33.3% of the people in this age group.
If the respondents within the „they‟ll just pick it up‟ category could be considered to be more unsupportive of Aboriginal English than being non-committal (i.e. being closer to „no‟ than „yes‟), there would be 13 answers indicative of more or less unsupportive attitudes towards Aboriginal English (48.1% of the relevant sample). However, there are no firm grounds on which to group „they‟ll just pick it up‟ together with „no‟.
Interestingly, „no‟ answers are entirely absent in three age groups – those born in the 1960s, 1980s, and the 1990s. Going through the percentages of „no‟s from the remaining age brackets, it is clear that 66.7% (2/3) of those in the 1940-1949 group; 37.5% (3/8) of those in the 1970-1979 group and 22.2% (2/9) in the 1950-1959 group answered „no‟.
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10. Summary and comparative outline of key findings
This section consists of an overview of main patterns found in the data. Please refer to the methodology and the individual analyses for more details about data and data selection.
10. 1. Gender, age and place of birth
The Adelaide data (n 76) consists of 43 females (56.6%) and 33 males (43.4%); the Port Pirie data (n 29) consists of 17 females (58.6%) and 12 males (41.3%), whereas the Ceduna data (n 30) consists of 24 females (80%) and 6 males (20%).
The largest group of combined gender and age variables in the Adelaide data consists of males born in the 1980s (11 in total); the largest group of combined gender and age variables in the Port Pirie data consists of females born in the 1970s (5 in total), and the largest group of combined gender and age variables in the Ceduna data consists of females born in the 1970s (7 in total).
57.7% of the people in the Adelaide sample are from outside Adelaide, whereas 42.2% are born in Adelaide. In Port Pirie, 93% are from outside Port Pirie and only 6.9% are born in the Port Pirie region.
In both Adelaide and Port Pirie, the majority of Indigenous people in the samples are from outside the respective localities.
The Ceduna data are very different, in that 66.7% are born in the Ceduna region and 33.3% from elsewhere. Overall, the majority of those born outside Adelaide and Port Pirie come from interstate (predominantly NT in both cases) – this is again different from Ceduna, in which the majority of those born elsewhere are from other parts of South Australia (only one person is from interstate).
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10. 2. Language competence and exposure
10. 2. 1. Respondent’s self-reported language competence
In this section, findings from answers provided to question 3 („Do you speak this/these language(s)?‟ will be outlined briefly.
In Adelaide, 17.7% of the entire sample answered „yes‟, 65.8% indicated some/limited language knowledge/use. Ceduna (13.3% „yes‟ and 86.7% „some‟) is similar to Adelaide - in both places a majority indicates some or limited knowledge and use of the ancestral language(s) in question. Adelaide and Ceduna are also generally speaking similar in that most Indigenous people in the samples speak a „mixed‟ instrumentality (with elements from one or more ancestral languages and English). In Port Pirie as many as 58.6% of the entire sample answered „yes‟ and 31% „some/some words‟. The Port Pirie pattern is undoubtedly due to a relatively recent growth in the Port Pirie Indigenous population of fluent Arrernte speakers from Hermannsburg and Alice Springs.
10. 2. 2. Reported language competence of respondent’s parents and grandparents and exposure to language by parents and grandparents.
In the tables below (Table 10. 2. 2 A, Table 10. 2. 2 PP and Table 10. 2. 2 C) the findings from answers to the questions 4, 5, 6 and 7 are presented, followed by a brief discussion. Note that G = grandparent(s), P = parent(s) and X = respondent.
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Table 10. 2. 2 A. Reported language competence of respondent’s (X) parent(s) and grandparent(s) and exposure to language by grandparent(s) and parents, Adelaide:
90 82.2 80
70 60.8 60 56.5 48 50
40
30 20
10
0 Adelaide
G speak/spoke L
G speak/spoke L to X P speak/spoke L
P speak/spoke L to X
Clearly, not all (grand)parents who spoke ancestral language(s) spoke the language(s) in question to their (grand)children. The most pronounced discrepancy between competence and use (with the respondent) is found in the data concerning grandparents.
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Table 10. 2. 2 PP. Reported language competence of respondent’s (X) parent(s) and grandparent(s) and exposure to language by grandparent(s) and parents, Port Pirie:
93.1 94 92
90
88 86.2 85.2 86
84 82.7
82 80
78
76
Port Pirie
G speak/spoke L
G speak/spoke L to X P speak/spoke L
P speak/spoke L to X
We see a less pronounced pattern of discrepancy between competence and use in the Port Pirie data (thus, the discrepancy is certainly there, but with less pronounced gaps between (grand)parents‟ competence and the extent to which they spoke the language(s) in question to their grandchildren.
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Table 10. 2. 2 C. Reported language competence of respondent’s (X) parent(s) and grandparent(s) and exposure to language by grandparent(s) and parents, Ceduna:
90 83 .3 80 77 .3 80
70
60 53 .3
50
40 30
20
10
0
Ceduna
G speak/ spoke L
G speak/ spoke L t o X P speak/ spoke L
P speak/ spoke L t o X
In the Ceduna data, the discrepancy between grandparents‟ competence and use is slight. However, the discrepancy between parents‟ competence and use of the language(s) when speaking to the respondent is pronounced.
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10. 2. 3. Discussion
Overall, we see a fairly consistent pattern of discrepancy between (grand)parents competence and the extent to which they use or used the language(s) with their (grand)children. Obviously, not all of those who knew and used language used it with their (grand)children.
It is clear from various responses that both (grand)parental decisions to not speak language to their children and active negative language planning processes (enforced by non-Indigenous people) have been operative and these in combination may be largely responsible for the trends in the data. c015 says „We only spoke language until made ward of the State at age 7. The foster families forbid us to speak it (good Christian people) in Adelaide‟; a056 was five years old when taken away from their parents to live in an orphanage where speaking the language was not allowed, and a024 says: „When my Nation was put onto Mission by the Government, the language was outlawed. So my grandparents [were] the last of my people to learn it as first language. Still have the same stigma attached to handing it on‟.
The grandparents of a053 were forbidden to speak language; a061 said „Grandparents who were raised on a mission were told not to teach their children their culture/language so they could mix in mainstream communities‟; whereas a029 said „My dad wanted us to only learn English. This restricted our access to families and other traditional stuff. We couldn‟t communicate with our grandfathers‟. Similarly, c010 says that their parents spoke language amongst each other but not to the children since they wanted the children to speak English, and a065 said „many of our Elders were scared‟ to speak language to their children and grandchildren „because of the threat to take away the children‟.
Some people have been actively discouraged from using language by non-indigenous people and others have not been (consistently and predominantly) exposed to the language(s) due to decisions made by their (grand)parents.
The above needs to be seen in the historical context of an „ideology of contempt‟ for minority languages generally held by colonizing Europeans (Dorian, 1998:9; see also Mühlhäusler, 2005), and that linguistic minorities frequently are labouring under political and economic „profound subordination‟ (Hill, 1993: 68). In particular, schools have been important mediums for linguistic oppression of minority languages; sites of power wherein teachers have meted out punitive
93 measures against pupils who dared use words from the local vernaculars (concerning Canadian Government and mission schools in the early twentieth century, and many Australian mission schools during the early and mid-twentieth century, see Luke, McHoul & Mey, 1990: 28-29).
10. 3. Indications of opportunities for exposure to language and for language use In this section the main findings from questions 11 („Do you live in area associated with your language group(s)?‟) and 12 („Do most of your friends belong to the group you identify with?‟) are provided.
10. 3. 1. Extent of residence within own language group’s area
In both Adelaide and Port Pirie the majority of the people surveyed did not live in the area associated with their language group(s): 52.9% in Adelaide and 67.8% in Port Pirie. The Ceduna data are very different from the other two areas - only 20.7% of those surveyed in Ceduna live outside the area associated with their language group(s). All other things being equal, when living within the area of one‟s language group one will have more opportunities for language use and to language exposure than when living outside said area(s) but we are not suggesting that place of residence in itself is a robust indicator of these opportunities to use language.
10. 3. 2. Peer group/social network/friends
One broad pattern - a decrease in the amount of friends from one‟s own group - is the same throughout the localities. The Port Pirie and Ceduna data show very clear patterns: for Port Pirie residents the decrease is evident among those born after the 1970s and for Ceduna residents the decrease is evident among those born after the 1970s. A similar clear pattern is not evident from the Adelaide data – while not clear from age bracket to age bracket, the overall tendency is a drop in the percentage of people who mostly have friends from their own group (from 75% in the 1930s age bracket to 42% in the 1990s age bracket).
In all localities, the percentage from the total of females in each sample who mostly have friends belonging to their group is smaller than the corresponding
94 percentage of the male sample.
All other things being equal, people mostly having friends from one‟s own group will have more opportunities for language use and to language exposure than if most of their friends are from other groups. This social network aspect is more reliable than place of residence, although the vagueness of the terms „group you identify with‟ of course should be taken into account. „Group‟ may have been interpreted as „Indigenous‟ or potentially any other group the respondent identifies with, although „language group‟ would be a likely interpretation from the overall context of the questions and no one asked for this aspect of the question to be clarified.
10. 4. Extent of speaking language to younger relatives
Findings from question 15 (whether the respondent speaks language to their younger relatives) are outlined below.
From the Adelaide data, 84% use language with their younger relatives to some extent („extent‟ concerns frequency and amount here); in Port Pirie 79% use language with their younger relatives to some extent, whereas in Ceduna 90% use language with their younger relatives to some extent.
In Adelaide, 40.6% answered „yes‟; a further 43.5% indicated limited and/or occasional language use, and 15.9% answered „no‟ (i.e. answering that they did not use language with their younger relatives).
The Port Pirie data have the largest percentage of „yes‟ and „no‟ answers: 64% „yes‟; 14.3% limited and/or occasional language use, and 21.4% „no‟.
In Ceduna, 51.7% answered „yes‟; 38% indicated limited and/or occasional language use, and 10.3% no.
It appears that Port Pirie has the largest percentage of people using language fluently (or, to use a vernacular expression, speaking it „right through‟), followed by Ceduna and Adelaide. Concerning limited and/or occasional use, one should mention that this group includes „mixed‟ instrumentalities (typically one or more ancestral language terms used with variants of English) and it is noteworthy that the highest percentage in the Adelaide data and the second highest in the Ceduna data fall within this category.
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10. 5. Younger relatives responding in English when spoken to in language
The findings from question 16 („do they speak back to you in English?‟) are outlined below.
The percentage of those answering that the younger relatives answer in English is remarkably similar throughout the localities: in Adelaide, 31% answered „yes, all the time‟; in Port Pirie 33.3% answered „yes, all the time‟, and in Ceduna 33.3% answered „yes, all the time‟.
A majority in the relevant Adelaide sample (63.6%) and a slighter majority in the relevant Port Pirie sample (54.2%) answered „yes, sometimes‟. We need to take into account that „English‟ could be Standard Australian English, Aboriginal English, or both. A „mixed‟ instrumentality (Nyangga Wanggarn) used by younger relatives when answering older relatives was identified by no less than 29.6% in the Ceduna data. It is noteworthy that „no‟ answers are absent in the Ceduna data, whereas 5.2% of the Adelaide sample and 12.5% of the Port Pirie sample indicated that the younger relatives did not answer in English when spoken to in language
There are at least three major phenomena applicable to indicate why reportedly so many of the younger relatives occasionally or mostly answer in a variety of English: lack of confidence related to situational constraints, extent of communicative competence, and language attitudes. The next section deals with the perceptions of elder relatives as to why their younger relatives answer in a (to some extent mixed) variety of English.
10. 5. 1. Perceptions on why the younger relatives answer in English
To the extent that younger relatives answer in a variety of English when spoken to in language, what do their older relatives think is the reason for this? Data concerning this question (following on from the question above, as a sub-question of number 16) will be outlined below.
The answers may be broadly grouped into two categories: one dealing with communicative competence („they don‟t know enough language‟) versus answers inclusive of children‟s choice or preferences („they don‟t want to speak
96 the language‟ combined with „both‟). „Both‟ could obviously be interpreted both ways or as a separate category, but here „both‟ will be grouped with „they don‟t want to speak the language‟ because the two types of answer share attention to children‟s or young people‟s preferences and motivations.
In Adelaide, 78.2% answered „they don‟t know enough language‟; 3.6% answered „they don‟t want to speak the language‟ and 12.7% answered „both‟. Thus, answers including children‟s preference/attitudes constitute 16.4% of the relevant Adelaide sample.
In Port Pirie, 15.8% answered „they don‟t know enough‟; 15.8% either answered „they don‟t want to speak the language‟ or answers concerning children‟s preference/choice, whereas 57.9% answered „both‟. Thus, answers including children‟s preference/attitudes constitute 73.7% of the relevant Port Pirie sample.
In Ceduna, 76.2% answered „they don‟t know enough language‟; 14.3% answered „they don‟t want to speak the language‟ and 9.5% answered „both‟. Thus, answers including children‟s preference/attitudes constitute 23.8% of the relevant Ceduna sample.
Adelaide and Ceduna show quite considerable similarity in that the large majority felt that the (main) reason why younger relatives answered in a variant of English related to lack of communicative competence in the language(s) concerned. The Port Pirie sample exhibits a very different pattern, wherein the largest percentage of answers indicates that both communicative competence and attitudes/preference are seen to be involved.
10. 6. Extent of exogamy
A large majority in all places had partners/spouses from a different group. Again, „group‟ is a quite vague term, nevertheless most of the answers have been more specific and there is little doubt that most if not all the respondents interpreted „group‟ to mean cultural, linguistic and/or ethnic group. Overall, the percentage of exogamy within each relevant sample group is as follows: the Adelaide data exhibits 82.7% exogamy; the Port Pirie data shows 85% exogamy, whereas 74% exogamy is found in the Ceduna data. In Port Pirie and Ceduna most of the partners/spouses are from another Indigenous group (55% of the relevant sample in the Port Pirie data and 52.2% of the relevant sample in the Ceduna
97 data), whereas only 21.1% of the relevant Adelaide sample have specified that their partners/spouses are from another Indigenous group.
There are gaps in the data in that not all respondents specified the group their partner/spouse belongs to. The highest percentage of Indigenous-non-Indigenous exogamy is found in Adelaide (32.7%), followed by Ceduna (17.4%) and Port Pirie (15%).
The exact group notwithstanding, there is extensive exogamy throughout the localities, congruent with the findings from the ABS survey in 2006 (Hard, Khoo & Birrell, 2009). In the sample, then, most of the households are likely to be bi-/multi-cultural and –lingual to some extent. Referring back to the discussion in the methodology section, exogamy has been found to be associated with language shift towards the dominant language in question in Australia (see the discussion in Yamamoto, 2001), the US (Salmons, 1983; Stevens, 1985), in Canada (Castonguay, 1982), and in Japan (Yamamoto, 2001).
10. 7. Language attitudes
Language attitudes, specifically negative language attitudes as a possible motivation for younger relatives responding in a variant of English when spoken to in language, have been discussed above in section 10. 5. 1.
10. 7. 1. Concern about language endangerment
The data from question 17 („Are you concerned that the language will disappear?‟ are outlined below.
The highest percentage of „yes‟ answers is found in the Adelaide data (65.7%), followed by Ceduna (62%). In Port Pirie, 38% answered „yes‟. Port Pirie shows the highest percentage of „no‟ answers (55.2%). The percentages of „no‟ answers are roughly similar in the Adelaide data (32.8%) and the Ceduna data (38%).
Considering the large proportion of fluent Arrernte speakers in the Port Pirie data (on several occasions fluent use of Arrernte by several speakers was observed by Naessan in Port Pirie), one could suggest that there is a correlation between high fluency and relative lack of concern about linguistic viability. However, this is at best an overall tendency of the Port Pirie data and it cannot be ascertained
98 further in a comparative sense - since the self-reported communicative competence appears to be more or less considerably influenced by social desirability bias, the option of checking a correlation between fluency/extensive knowledge and concern about linguistic viability has not been pursued here (in addition, at no stage in the research did the researchers apply any fluency measurements during the interviews or the filling out of questionnaires).
10. 7. 2. Degree of commitment
As stated in the methodology chapter, question 20 („would you be prepared to give money (for learning materials, courses, etc.) or time to strengthen the language?‟)) was initially devised in an attempt to get information about the extent to which the people surveyed were committed to the preservation and strengthening of their language. If people are willing to make sacrifices for their language, it generally has a better chance of survival (Tsunoda, 2005).
However, it has been noted above that the question of setting aside money or time has appeared to be inapplicable and irrelevant to some fluent speakers. Moreover, the extent to which giving money for language learning materials or enrolling in language courses would appeal to Indigenous people is not clear (perhaps especially if said courses are held within „whitefella‟ institutions or otherwise within a „whitefella‟ educational framework). After stressing the importance of having Aboriginal teachers so that families can be comfortable, a054 says that „one can never run classes that everyone will be happy with – classes won‟t appeal to everyone, won‟t fit into everyone‟s lives‟, and a040 says „some parents don‟t want anything to do with schools for various reasons‟.
From the above, and keeping in mind the influence of social desirability bias, it is not clear to what extent this question adequately reflects commitment towards language preservation and learning.
In the Adelaide data, 76.4% answered that they would be willing to give money and time for strengthening the language; 2.8% answered that they would be willing to give time but not money; 15.3% answered no and 4.2% felt that the question was inapplicable.
In Port Pirie, 79.3% answered that they would be willing to give money and time for strengthening the language; 20.7% answered no and one person felt that the question was inapplicable.
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In Ceduna, 77.8% answered that they would be willing to give money and time for strengthening the language; 14.8% answered that they would be willing to give time but not money and 7.4% answered no.
We see that the percentages of people expressing that they would be willing to give money and time for strengthening the language is roughly similar throughout. The highest percentage of „no‟ answers is found in Port Pirie, followed by Adelaide; Ceduna has the lowest percentage of „no‟ answers.
To the extent that the data from question 20 and question 17 above could be said to appropriately measure concerns about language disappearance and commitment towards strengthening the language(s) - but we cannot claim that they do - the data generally speaking have positive implications for language maintenance – if enough people are aware of the threat to their language and enough people are prepared to make sacrifices for the language, there is greater likelihood of language survival and maintenance (Tsunoda, 2005).
10. 7. 3. Attitudes towards children’s language acquisition and communicative competence
Results from question 21 („do you want (your) children to be speakers of the language?‟)) are outlined below.
In Adelaide, 94.5% of the relevant sample answered „yes‟, only 5.5% answered „no‟. Only the Adelaide data contains „no‟ answers. In Port Pirie, 96.5% of the entire sample answered „yes‟, in Ceduna 100% of the answers were „yes‟.
A large majority in all three localities expressed that they want their and other children to be speakers of the ancestral language in question.
10. 7. 4. Attitudes towards Aboriginal English
In the following section, the main findings from question 27 („if you have children or other young relations would you like them to speak Aboriginal English and would you teach them/encourage them to speak it?‟) will be outlined.
The highest percentage of answers supportive of Aboriginal English is in the Adelaide data, where 65.5% answered „yes‟ to the above question. The highest
100 percentage of „yes‟ answers is found within the 1980-1989 age bracket. The percentages of „no‟ answers decrease from the 1930-1939 age bracket to the 1950-1959 age bracket and further down to the 1990-1999 age bracket. Males are in the majority of those answering „no‟.
In both Port Pirie and Ceduna, there is only a slight majority supportive of Aboriginal English in the sample. In Port Pirie 51.7% answered „yes‟ (are supportive). The highest percentage of „yes‟ answers are found within the 1990-1999 age bracket. Moreover, the percentages of „no‟ answers decrease from the 1960-1969 age bracket to the 1980-1989 bracket and further down to the 1970-1979 age bracket. Males constitute a slight majority of the answers supportive of Aboriginal English in the Port Pirie data.
In Ceduna, 51.8% answered „yes‟. The highest percentage of „yes‟ answers are found within the 1980-1989 age bracket. „No‟ answers are entirely absent from the interviewees born in the 1960s, 1980s and the 1990s. Among the females, a majority was supportive (54.2% of all females in the relevant sample), among the males only a small minority (16.7% of all males in the relevant sample) was supportive.
The Adelaide and Ceduna data are similar in that there is relatively less support among males than females for teaching children Aboriginal English and encouraging them to speak it. Five „unsure‟ answers were in the Adelaide data and two „unsure/maybe‟ answers in the Port Pirie data. All of these are females.
Overall, there is a tendency of progressively increasing acceptance of Aboriginal English in the younger age brackets; support for Aboriginal English is increasing among those born after the 1960s.
10. 7. 5. Family focus versus school/Government focus as key factors of language planning
In the following section, the data from question 19 („whose responsibility is it to keep the language alive, the Government‟s, the school‟s, families‟ or others? Please explain‟) are outlined.
There are at least two major ways of interpreting this question. One important aspect has to do with the moral responsibility, and a focus on this has an emphasis on the Government as an institution established during processes of colonisation. Thus, institutions and groups of people seen as morally responsible
101 for the domination of First Nations people are seen as responsible for doing something about the problem ( the Adelaide data contain several arguments of this type). The other aspect deals with the problem in a more functional sense, i.e. what kinds of social groups or institutions are otherwise now responsible to keep the language alive.
In Adelaide, 27.5% of the relevant answers gave answers indicative of a main or exclusive emphasis on the agency of families and community. Thos that do not mention either schools or Government at all amount to 16% of the entire sample. The largest percentage of the relevant sample may be arrived at by combining the „all-inclusive‟ answers, „families /communities and schools as main factors‟, and „Government/schools and families‟ – thus, 68% of the relevant sample outlining some kind of collective responsibility and co-operation. Only 16% of the relevant sample indicates a primary focus on Government and schools.
In Port Pirie 62% of the entire sample has „families, elders or Aboriginal people as the first or only category‟, indicative of a primary focus on families or community. A majority within this category (amounting to 37.9% of the entire sample) does not mention either school or the Government as main factors. Only 17.2% of the entire Port Pirie sample seems to have an emphasis on schools or the Government as key sites or factors in language transmission.
In Ceduna 86.6% of the entire sample mentions families/elders first and generally seems to have an emphasis on the family as a key factor. The majority of these answers (amounting to no less than 46.4% of the entire sample) are indicative of a primary focus on the family, with no mentioning of schools or other „whitefella‟ institutions. Only 13.3% of the entire Ceduna sample seems to have an emphasis on schools or the Government as key sites or factors in language transmission.
We see that the groups with less emphasis on the Government, funding, and schools are those in Port Pirie and Ceduna, but the percentage of those having a primary focus on these institutions and factors is very small across all localities.
Ultimately, the more reliance there is on outside funding and institutions, more of the strategic initiative is left in the hands of non-community members (although language courses run by institutions may and do help some Indigenous people learning and relearning their ancestral language) . Congruent with this, the less reliance there is on outside funding and institutions, all the more weight would seem to be accredited to the informal agency of community members, and we assume that this view probably would be the most conducive in terms of family
102 language planning.
10. 8. Concluding remarks: patterns of family language transmission
The extent to which children or other younger relatives are answering in (Standard Australian) English when spoken to in language may be seen as quite worrying in terms of language maintenance. This (in itself indicative of limited communicative competence) may be seen together with the overall trend towards lower percentages of younger people having community members as their main network (of friends) and thus generally having fewer opportunities for language use and to language exposure. In all localities, the percentage from the total of females in each sample who mostly have friends belonging to their group is smaller than the corresponding percentage of the male sample. Thus, young females (many of whom are young mothers or of childbearing age) appear to constitute the group with less opportunity for language use and exposure compared to other groups in the data. In addition, throughout the regions surveyed there is a fairly consistent trend of a mismatch between grandparents‟ and parents‟ knowledge of language and their use of language to their children and grandchildren (in short, not all grandparents and parents who knows or knew language uses or used it with their children and grandchildren). As noted above the percentage of people speaking an Indigenous language has been shown to be decreasing at an accelerating rate from 1986-1996 (McConvell & Thieberger, 2001: 2) and if several people within this shrinking group of speakers do not use the language with their younger family members (i.e. if the mismatch between language competence and language use remains stable), the implications for language maintenance are worrying.
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11. Family language planning recommendations
Family language planning – some recommendations for communities and families
The recommendations below are suggestions for keeping Indigenous Australian languages strong in the family. They are of course only meant as suggestions; they are not telling people what to do. You may also find that some of the suggestions are less helpful for your family but hopefully some or most of them will be helpful.
1. Make a plan
Keeping the language strong is mostly not something that will just happen; you need to make some sort of a plan, or think things through. It is important to sit down with all the family members and make sure that everyone agrees on what you all want to do. What works in one family may not work that well for others. Perhaps some days or activities could be set aside for speaking language, or you may want to use as much language with the children as often as you can. Sometimes plans don‟t work as well as we want them to but it is important to keep the language going even if you experience a few setbacks. If only one parent speaks language, it‟s important that this parent sticks with it and encourages the child to speak to her/him in language. Generally, try to make sure that the children will have the opportunity to listen to language as often as possible.
2. Start early
Start speaking to the child as early as possible, even before the child is born. Very early, long before they actually speak, children pick up language sounds. If the children hear language spoken from very early on, it will be much easier for them to learn more later and to get the pronunciation right. If you wait, it will get more difficult for the children to learn when they‟re much older.
3. Use what you got
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If you feel that you don‟t know enough language, that you only know bits and pieces, don‟t feel bad about this. You don‟t have to know the language right through to teach children some language. Bits and pieces of language (mixed language and perhaps Aboriginal English) are better than nothing. If you are learning or relearning the language yourself, try to make a place for it as a strong part of your way of life, and share language with others as often as you can.
4. Doing stuff with the children and using language
Whether you take the children out on trips, are doing the dishes or are cooking, try to use what language you know with the children. Try to use language while doing stuff with the children, try as best as you can to make it a part of everyday life.
5. Encourage the children
Even if the children don‟t get it exactly right, don‟t be too worried about this. Making mistakes are a natural part of learning. Try to reward the children when they use language, praise them and encourage them. By doing this, you‟ll help the children to have positive attitudes towards language.
6. Using the language in good ways
In some families, parents may use the language only when telling children off. But try to use the language in other ways than just telling them off – otherwise they may get bad feelings towards language.
7. Stay firm
In some cases, children may answer in standard English or let you know that they don‟t want to speak language. It‟s best if you keep the language going anyway – if you speak to them in language and they answer in English, you can pretend that you don‟t understand it. They will understand that they should speak to you using language. Sometimes small children may not want to brush their teeth or wash their hands but you know it‟s best for them if they do it. It‟s much the same with language. As an adult, you know better than a small child what is best for them and later on in life the children will be grateful for the language you taught
105 them.
8. Don’t leave it up to others
Don‟t leave keeping the language strong up to the Government, the school or other institutions. They can only do so much. Having the language taught in schools is important but it‟s not enough in itself. You really have to use language with the children, and you know how to teach your children better than anyone else. You don‟t need a university degree to teach your language!
9. Books and other resources are not enough
Sometimes people will feel confident that the language is strong once they have a full dictionary of the language, or when there are plenty of recordings of fluent speakers. Such resources can be really important but they won‟t by themselves make the language strong (words kept inside a book instead of being spoken don‟t actually do much). The most important thing about keeping the language strong is yourself, your knowledge and what you do with what you know. The stronger you are, the stronger the language will be.
10. Keeping the children interested
As the children grow, parents sometimes find that children seem to be more interested in stuff like the internet, hip hop, skateboarding and so on rather than traditional culture. You may want to ask them questions in language about their favourite hip hop or rap artists, or you could encourage the children to use language when they chat on the internet, when they send emails or send text messages. One thing doesn‟t rule out another – as long as the children use language, it‟s a good thing. If you want to use language to speak about traditional culture as well as „newer‟ culture, you can do it, and so can your children if you show them how to, and if you keep on encouraging them.
11. Don’t give up
For various reasons it may be difficult to keep the language going in the family but try to put some language in whenever you can. You can do it, you can help your children or grandchildren know some language, and this will be one of the most important and beautiful gifts you can ever give them.
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11. 1. Responses to the draft recommendations
Most of the suggestions above have been developed following discussions in the project team from June 2010 onwards (based on the review of relevant literature and on key results from the present survey), and further based on consultation with community members (throughout August and September 2010).
Consultation conducted in Ceduna and in Port Pirie resulted in good feedback, albeit of a somewhat vague kind.
On August 27th, Naessan consulted with Camille Dobson (Arrernte) of Wilto Yerlo, and she said it seemed that the recommendations and the report puts the responsibility back to Aboriginal people but that the Government has a key role to play. In fact, all have a responsibility. Dobson questioned the extent to which the recommendations would be realistic without a raising of the profile of the languages. Thus, more dual naming and naming products with local Indigenous language names could be parts of increasing everyday normal usage and increase the overall awareness of the languages. Dobson also mentioned that there are so many widely different situations experienced by Indigenous people – for some children, there may be no other language speakers at the school. Whether children have access to fluent speakers (or people who know language) varies considerably from place to place. In addition, although dictionaries and other material may be available, her own experience with Arrernte materials compiled by linguists has led her to see these materials as often being almost inaccessible for community members.
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Appendices
Appendix 1: Remoteness map 1, South Australia Appendix 2: Remoteness map 2, South Australia Appendix 3: Patterns of language shift map Appendix 4: Consent form Appendix 5: Information sheet Appendix 6: Statement for cash Appendix 7: Questionnaire Appendix 8: Adelaide data Appendix 9: Port Pirie data Appendix 10: Ceduna data Appendix 11: Murray Bridge data Appendix 12: Plain English literature review
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APPENDIX 1: REMOTENESS MAP 1
Remoteness Area Map, South Australia (ABS, 2003. ASGC Remoteness Classification: Purpose and Use, p. 33. (Census Paper No. 03/01).
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APPENDIX 2: REMOTENESS MAP 2
Remoteness Area Map, South Australia (ABS, 2003. ASGC Remoteness Classification: Purpose and Use,p. 34. (Census Paper No. 03/01).
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APPENDIX 3: PATTERNS OF LANGUAGE SHIFT
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APPENDIX 4: CONSENT FORM
THE UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE HUMAN RESEARCH ETHICS COMMITTEE
STANDARD CONSENT FORM
FOR PEOPLE WHO ARE PARTICIPANTS IN A RESEARCH PROJECT
1. I, ………………………………………………………………(please print name)
consent to take part in the research project entitled:
Family Language Policies for Language Maintenance and Revival…………………………………………………………………………………………
2. I acknowledge that I have read the attached Information Sheet/that this has been read out and explained to me, entitled: Information sheet for the project FAMILY LANGUAGE POLICIES FOR LANGUAGE MAINTENANCE AND REVIVAL
3. I have had the project, so far as it affects me, fully explained to my satisfaction by the research worker. My consent is given freely.
4. I have been given the opportunity to have a member of my family or a friend present while the project was explained to me.
5. I have been informed that, while information gained during the study may be published, I will not be identified and my personal results will not be divulged.
6. I understand that I am free to withdraw from the project at any time.
7. I am aware that I should retain a copy of this Consent Form, when completed, and the attached Information Sheet.
………………………………………………………………………………………………...
(signature) (date)
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WITNESS
I have described to …………………………………………………….. (name of subject)
the nature of the research to be carried out. In my opinion she/he understood the explanation.
The person can read ( )
The person does not read ( ).
When ticking the ‘does not read’ I state that I have done my best to explain verbally the content of the project and the consent given, and that this has been done in ways appropriate to Indigenous Australian communicative norms. Unless the person has signed the consent form, I declare that verbal consent has been given by...... (name of person)
Status in Project: ……………………………………………………………………….
Name: ……………………………………………………………………………….….
…………………………………………………………………………………………...
(signature) (date)
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APPENDIX 5: INFORMATION SHEET
Information sheet for the project FAMILY LANGUAGE POLICIES FOR LANGUAGE MAINTENANCE AND REVIVAL, 2009-2010
. The purpose of the study is to develop family language policies for endangered Aboriginal languages . The participant will be asked to contribute information about their language, help the researcher in identifying what will weaken/strengthen the traditional language and, if possible, to provide feedback on course material developed . The possible benefits from the study, to the participant and/or the community include a training course in family language planning . The procedures that involve the participant are informal and/or semi-structured interviews and other consultation . No risk is involved. Some travel may be required. . The participant may withdraw from the study at any time. . All information will be dealt with in strict confidentiality. . Petter Naessan (8303 6092), email: [email protected] can be contacted if any problems arise or if there are questions. Naessan is the principal investigator and the address is: Linguistics Research, Napier 912, University of Adelaide, North Terrace, SA 5005.
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APPENDIX 6: STATEMENT FOR CASH
FAMILY LANGUAGE PROJECT: QUESTIONNAIRE
Place......
Date...... /...... /......
I have signed a statement by supplier to the effect that the sum paid is made to me in my capacity as an individual, and that it is made in the course of an activity that is a private recreational pursuit or hobby. I have received the sum of $...... (Australian dollars) for my involvement in the project. This sum has been paid in cash by ...... to me. I certify that the above is correct.
NAME IN BLOCK LETTERS......
SIGNATURE......
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APPENDIX 7: QUESTIONNAIRE
Questionnaire for the Family Language Policies for Language Maintenance and Revival Project
1. Where and when were you born? M / F
2. What language group(s) do you identify with?
3. Do you speak this/these language(s)?
YES
NO
SOME
3. 1. If ‘NO’, do you understand some language when it’s spoken?
YES
NO
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3. 2. If ‘NO’, would you like to learn this/these languages?
YES
NO
4. Do or did any of your parents speak this/these language(s)?
YES
NO
If no, do/did they speak another language, if so, what language(s)?
5. Do or did any of your grandparents speak this/these language(s)?
YES
NO
If no, do/did your grandparents speak another language, if so, what language(s)?
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6. Do/did your grandparents speak language to you?
YES
NO
7. Do/did your parents speak language to you?
YES
NO
If ‘NO’, what language do/did they speak to you?
8. Do /did any other family members speak language to you? Who?
9. How often do you use language?
NEVER
RARELY1
SOMETIMES2
1 Less than once a month
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OFTEN3
MOST OF THE TIME4
10. Who do you use language with? CIRCLE the one(s) most appropriate
GRANDPARENT(S) – PARENTS – AUNTS/UNCLES - SIBLINGS – COUSINS – CHILDREN
NEPHEWS/NIECES - OTHER PEOPLE I KNOW – ANYONE WHO SPEAKS THE
LANGUAGE - NONE
11. Do you live in the area associated with your language group(s)?
YES
NO
If ‘NO’, how long have you lived away from your country?
12. Do most of your friends belong to the group you identify with?
YES
NO
2 One-two times a month 3 One or more times every week 4 Use the language generally, four days a week or more
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13. Does your spouse/partner belong to your group?
YES
NO
If ‘NO’, what group does she/he belong to?
14. Do you have children?
YES
Ages: 0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25
NO
Do you have nephews/nieces or other relatives that are children?
YES
NO
15. If YES to any of the above, do you speak language to them?
YES NO
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When? AS ABOVE
OTHER INFORMATION: ______
16. Do they speak back to you in English?
NO
YES, all the time
YES, sometimes
If they speak back to you in English, why do you think they do it?
They don’t know enough language
They don’t want to speak the language
BOTH
OTHER: ______
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17. Are you concerned that the language will disappear?
NO
NO, I don’t think it will
YES
18. Do you feel that language is less important than English?
YES
NO
OTHER
19. Whose responsibility is it to keep the language alive, the Government’s, the school’s, families’ or others? Please explain.
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20. Would you be prepared to give money (for learning materials, courses, etc.) or time to strengthen the language?
YES
NO
Do you want (your) children to be speakers of the language?
YES
NO
21. If ‘YES’, what help would be needed to keep the language strong in the family?
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22. Do you have any other thoughts or opinions about your language? Please feel free to add anything you want!
23. What about Aboriginal English (Nunga English, ‘Blackfella English’, ‘Cattle Station English’)? Do you...
know it? YES NO
speak it? YES NO
If ‘YES’, who do you speak with in Aboriginal English?
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Did you learn it from your parents/grandparents/siblings/other children as you grew up? (Please CIRCLE the most appropriate one(s)).
24. If you have children or other younger relations, do they speak Aboriginal English?
YES NO
25. If ‘YES’, who do they speak it with?
26. If you have young children or other younger relations would you like them to speak Aboriginal English, and would you teach them/encourage them to learn it?
YES NO
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APPENDIX 8: ADELAIDE DATA (a001-a076)
Questionnaire for the Family Language Policies for Language Maintenance and Revival Project.
ADELAIDE DATA
a001-a003 collected November 2009 in the Adelaide Hills by Petter Naessan; a004-a018 collected October 2009 at Wilto Yerlo, Adelaide by Petter Naessan; a019 collected March 2010 by Rob Amery at the University of Adelaide; a020-a035 collected March 2010 by Petter Naessan at Wilto Yerlo, Adelaide; a036-a057 collected March-April 2010 by Sarah Pearce at various locations in Adelaide; a058-a061 collected April 2010 by Terri Jacobs in Adelaide; a062-a066 collected by Sarah Pearce 14-15th of April 2010 by Sarah Pearce at the Kaurna Warra Pintyandi workshop, University of Adelaide; a067-a073 collected 22nd of April 2010 at Le Fevre High School, Adelaide by Sarah Pearce; a074-a075 collected 28th of April 2010 by Petter Naessan, University of Adelaide. a076 collected in Adelaide by Sarah Pearce 12th of April 2010.
Blank spaces signify that no response was given.
Unless otherwise specified, comments or additions in square [...] brackets are those of Petter Naessan. Brackets – ( ...) – and other signs like @, +, - , & are as per the respective originals. Personal names in the responses have been excluded from the data.
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1. Where and when were you born? M / F
a001: Port Hedlund, WA, 1942, F. a002: South of Warrawagine Station, WA, 1934, M. a003: Marble Bar, Ngampulpa, WA, 08.07.1952, M. a004: Point Pierce, SA, 1943, M a005: Adelaide, SA, 06.07.1987, M. a006: F. a007: Port Augusta, SA, 07.08.1988, M. a008: M. a009: Adelaide, SA, 02.11.1987, M. a010: Adelaide, 09.10.1985, M. a011: Adelaide, January 1987, F. a012: M. a013: Kalgoorlie, WA, M. a014: M [middle-aged, from Torres Strait, NT] a015: Koonibba Mission, SA, 1946, F. a016: Altunga, NT, October 1944, F. a017: Alice Springs, NT, 11.10.1985, F. a018: Hobart, Tasmania, February 1983, F. a019: Adelaide, SA, 1965, F. Coll. by R. AMERY. a020: Bathurst Base Hospital, NSW, July 1991, F. [daughter of a021] a021: Dubbo Base Hospital, NSW, M. [c. 1965? Father of a020] a022: Adelaide, 1990, M. a023: Port Augusta, SA, 1981, M. a024: Echuca, Vic, 1983, M. a025: Queen Elizabeth Hospital, June 1991, M. a026: Yalata at bush, [c. 1987], M. a027: Port Augusta at Old Hospital, [c. 1991], M. a028: Adelaide, SA, February 1975, F.
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a029: Alice Springs, NT, F. a030: Adelaide, 1989, M. a031: Adelaide, M. [early 20s?] a032: Adelaide, SA, February 1991, F. a033: Darwin Royal Hospital, April 1989, F. a034: Ceduna, SA, May 1989, F. a035: Maitland, SA, F. a036: Benalla, VIC, 1953, F. a037: Wallaroo, SA, 1956, M. a038: Wallaroo, SA, 1934, F. a039: Adelaide, SA, 1973, F. a040: Adelaide, 1963, M. a041: Queen Victoria Hospital, Adelaide, SA, 1992, F. a042: Adelaide, SA, 1963, M. a043: Adelaide, SA, 1983, M. a044: Victoria Park, Adelaide, F. a045: Adelaide, SA, 1972, F. a046: Point McLeay, SA, 1950, F. a047: Woodville, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Adelaide, SA 1978, F. a048: Adelaide, 1986, M. a049: M [„F‟ crossed out, no other information given] a050: Mooroopna, VIC, F. a051: Birdsville, QLD, 1953, F. a052: Barmera, SA, 1953, F. a053: Cherbourg Aboriginal Settlement, QLD, F. a054: Waikerie, SA, 1955, F. a055: Darwin, NT, 1979, M. a056: Renmark, SA, 1952, F. a057: Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Adelaide, SA, 1972, M. a058: Woodville, Adelaide, SA, 1955, F.
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a059: Adelaide, SA, 1942, F. a060: Koonibba, West Coast, SA, 1926, F. a061: Mannum, SA, F. a062: Adelaide, SA, June 1960, M. [Son of a063]. a063: Point Pearce, SA, 1930, M. [Father of a062]. a064: Tailem Bend, SA, October 1939. a065: Point Pearce, SA, November 1942, F. a066: Adelaide, SA, 1955, F. a067: Adelaide, SA, M. a068: Darwin, NT, May 1995, F. a069: Liverpool, Sydney, NSW, March 1994, M. a070: Adelaide, SA, June 1995, F. a071: Adelaide, SA, February 1996, F. a072: Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Adelaide, SA, March 1994, F. a073: March 1994, M. a074: Ramingining, NT, 1988, F. a075: Adelaide, SA, December 1979, F. a076: Naracoorte, SA, January 1961, F.
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2. What language group(s) do you identify with?
a001: Nyangumarta, Warnman. a002: Nyangumarta, Warnman. Minjun family. a003: Nyangumarta, Marrngu, Mangala a004: Narrunga a005: Ngarrindjeri. a006: Central Arrernte. a007: Pit and Yunkuntjara. a008: Kaurna, Pitjintj, Narunga, Kokatha, Wiringu a009: Adnyamathanha and Kokatha. a010: Pitjantjatjara/Yankunytjatjara. a011: Kokatha. a012: Ngarrindjeri. a013: Wongatha, Pitj, Wirangu. a014: Kala lagaw ya/Meriam mir/Creole a015: Kokatha, Wirangu. a016: Eastern Arrernte. a017: Eastern Arrernte. a018: Kokatha. a019: Kaurna, Narungga, Ngarrindjeri. a020: Wiradjuri – Yuin – South Coast. a021: Wiradjuri – Yuin – South Coast. a022: Jawoyn, Pitjantjatjara. a023: Athynamathnya. a024: Yorta Yorta Nation.[a024 and siblings have traditional names] a025: Ngarrindjeri. a026: Wirangu.
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a027: Andyamthanha. a028: Kokatha (Western Desert). a029: Arrernte (Eastern). a030: English, Aboriginal (Alawa/MARA). a031: Kaurna. a032: Kaurna, Ngarrindjeri. a033: Larrikian. a034: Kokatha. a035: Narrungga/Kaurna. a036: English (Mandarin Chinese, Indonesian, Kaurna) a037: Kaurna/Ngarrendjerri/Narrunga. a038: Kaurna/Narranga/Ngadjuri.[SP‟s notes: Narungga, Kaurna, Ngadjuri, Ngarrindjeri. Interviewee‟s grandparents never told the children what group they belonged to. Only found out where grandparents were from when attending Tauondi College and going through cultural records] a039: Kaurna. a040: Kaurna Plains. a041: Ngarindjeri. a042: Kaurna + Narrunga. a043: Kaurna. a044: Pitjantjara – Nindinjeri Language Groups. a045: Walpiri (NT). a046: Yaraldi. a047: Wirangu, Kookatha, Bungarrla. a048: Kaurna, Ngarrindjeri, Nurrunga. a049: Kaurna, Nurranga. a050: Yorta Yorta – Bangerang. a051: Wangkanurru (Simpson Desert), Ngarrindjeri, Kaurna. [SP‟s notes: identify with Kaurna and Ngarrindjeri due to living down here now. Grandmother was from the
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Simpson Desert, “full blood”, spoke 5 dialects. [Name of non-Indigenous linguist] recorded interviewee‟s grandmother in the 1960s or 1970s. The family wanted ownership of the tapes but [name] refused. Interviewee wants to know if the information was gained in a culturally appropriate way or whether it was exploitation]. a052: Ngarrindjeri, Kaurna, Narrunga. a053: Nil – language has been lost. [SP‟s notes: refused to answer question and became agitated, because her grandparents were forbidden to speak language]. a054: Kaurna, Ngarrindjeri. [SP‟s notes: speaks Ngarrindjeri more often than Kaurna]. a055: Kanaran? Larrakeyah, Gunwinku. a056: Wongai. a057: Ngarrindjeri, Narrunga, Kaurna. [SP‟s notes: Identifies mainly with Kaurna, followed by Narungga and then Ngarrindjeri. Has not had much contact with the Ngarrindjeri side and wouldn‟t speak for them but speaks for his country, Kaurna]. a058: Kokatha/Wirangu. a059: Wirrangu. a060: Kokatha/Wirangu. a061: Wirangu/Kokatha. a062: Kaurna & Narrunga. a063: Kaurna, Ngadjuri. a064: Kaurna, Ngarrindjeri. a065: Narungga and Kaurna. a066: Narrunga/Kaurna. a067: Ngarrindjeri/Arrente/Kaurna. [SP‟s notes: only found out he was Kaurna at age 27. Speaks more Ngarrindjeri than other language. His son knows Kaurna, so knows a bit through him.] a068: Don‟t know. [„English‟ written then crossed out]. [SP‟s notes: [Family from Port Augusta/Leigh Creek but not sure which group they belong to. Father is Kaurna. Has been studying Kaurna in 2010 at Le Fevre High School. No particular reason, just enrolled in school as Kaurna student, so was put in the class]. a069: I don‟t know. [SP‟s notes: most of the family from Wagga Wagga in NSW, unsure of language background. Learning Kaurna at the Le Fevre High School because it‟s interesting].
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a070: Don‟t know. [SP‟s notes: The family comes from Port Augusta and Port Pirie. Aboriginal descent through mother. Her mother has been trying, unsuccessfully so far, to determine which group. Interviewee has studies Kaurna at Le Fevre High School in 2010, “interesting to learn a bit about the culture plus more of the language”. Also cool to be able to say stuff that no one else understands]. a071: English, Kaurna (learner). [SP‟s notes: Has been studying Kaurna at the Le Fevre High School since end of 2009. Her aunt is Pitjantjatjara and lives up in the Pitjantjatjara Lands. Interviewee has heard her aunt speaking Pitjantjatjara]. a072: Point Pearce/Nurrunga. [SP‟s notes: has been learning Kaurna at Le Fevre High School since 2009, because wanted to learn more language associated with culture. Knows less Kaurna than Narungga]. a073: Ngarrindjeri. [„I don‟t know‟ written and crossed out]. a074: Yolngu – Gupapuyungu. a075: Pitjantjatjara. a076: Kaurna/Narrungga & Ngarrindjeri.
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3. Do you speak this/these language(s)?
YES
NO
SOME
a001: Yes. a002: Yes. a003: Mangala, but mostly speaking Nyangumarta. a004: No a005: Some. a006: Yes. a007: Yes. a008: No [„Yes‟ ticked but crossed out] a009: Yes. a010: Yes, some. a011: Yes, some. a012: Some. a013: Some. a014: Yes. a015: Yes, some. a016: Yes. a017: Yes. a018: Yes. a019: Some.
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a020: Some. a021: Some. a022: Some. a023: Some. a024: No. a025: Some. a026: Some. [„No‟ also marked] a027: Some. a028: Some. a029: Some. a030: Some. a031: Some. a032: Some. a033: Some. a034: Some. a035: Some. a036: Some. a037: Some. a038: Yes. Narrunga more. [Also ticked:] Some. a039: Some. a040: Some. a041: No. a042: Some. [SP‟s notes: More Kaurna than Narrungga due to work at Warriparinga, works on Kaurna Heritage Board] a043: Yes. a044: Some. a045: No. Some. Very little, though. a046: No. Some. Words.
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a047: Some. Also know some others (words). a048: Some. a049: Some. a050: No. a051: Some. a052: Yes. Some. a053: No. a054: Some. [SP‟s notes: many Aboriginal people speak a mixture but none fluently. Ngarrindjeri is more often used than Kaurna]. a055: No. a056: No. [SP‟s notes: 5 years old when taken away from parents to live in an orphanage and not allowed to speak language there. By then, her mother was not speaking language anymore. [a056‟s] father a whitefella, her grandfather an Afghani man who married an Aboriginal woman (a056‟s grandmother) in 1923. Her grandmother was arrested and not allowed to return to WA, became isolated. Two of [a056‟s] brothers were taken away but ran away from the foster families as soon as they were able to. These two consequently married traditional women, lived out bush and spoke fluent language. They taught some to interviewee, who speaks bits and pieces of a few languages, knows many single words. Interviewee reconnecting with aunties, sisters and four brothers in 1986. Interviewee‟s mother sexually assaulted, gave baby away – interviewee reconnected with her sister in 1989]
a057: Some. a058: No. a059: No. a060: No. a061: No. a062: Some. a063: Some. a064: Some. [SP‟s notes: when younger spoke more Ngarrindjeri than Kaurna but now speak more/better Kaurna] a065: Yes.
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a066: Some. a067: Yes. I understand some Arrente & speak some words when needed. Some. [Both „Yes‟ and „some‟ ticked]. I use more Ngarrindjeri language. a068: Some. a069: No. a070: Some. a071: Some. a072: Some. a073: Some. a074: Yes. a075: Some. a076: Some. Not fluently.
3. 1. If ‘NO’, do you understand some language when it’s spoken?
YES
NO
a004: Yes a008: Yes. a010: Yes. a014: Yes. a019: Yes. a020: a021: Yes. a022: a023: Yes.
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a024: No. a025: a026: Yes. a027: Yes. a028: a029: Yes. a030: a031: Yes. a032: a033: Yes. a034: Yes. a035: Yes. a036: Yes. a037: Yes. a038: Yes. Narrindjeri. [SP‟s notes: can understand Ngarrindjeri when spoken due to Narungga and Ngarrindjeri being related but Narungga more than others] a039: Yes. a040: Yes. a041: Yes. a042: a043: Yes. a044: Yes. a045: Yes. Some. a046: Yes. a047: Yes. Only some. a048: a049: Yes. a050: No.
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a051: Yes. a052: a053: Yes. a054: Yes. a055: Yes. a056: Yes. a057: Yes. a058: Yes [„No‟ scribbled out] a059: No. a060: No. a061: Yes. a062: Yes. a063: a064: a065: Yes. a066: a067: Yes. [SP‟s notes:Respondent‟s grandfather was Arrernte, a tracker. Respondent understood what grandfather and uncle were saying but only spoke bits and pieces. Says many Aboriginal people understand bits and pieces of languages from other groups. Often, kids don‟t know what language they are speaking or think the words from other languages belong to their language group]. a068: Yes. a069: No. a070: Yes. a071: Yes. a072: a073: Yes. a074: a075: Yes.
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a076:
3. 2. If ‘NO’, would you like to learn this/these languages?
YES
NO
a008: Yes. a010: Yes. a014: No. a019: Yes. a020: a021: Yes. a022: a023: Yes. a024: Yes. a025: a026: a027: Yes. a028: a029: a030: a031: a032: a033: Yes.
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a034: a035: Yes. Kaurna. a036: Would like to learn more Kaurna. a037: Yes. a038: Yes. a039: Yes. a040: Yes. a041: Yes. a042: [SP‟s notes: would like to learn more Kaurna, probably more so than Narrungga, because on Kaurna land] a043: Yes. a044: Yes. a045: Yes. a046: Yes. More a047: Yes. Most definitely. a048: a049: Yes. a050: Yes. a051: Yes. More, do speak it at home but would like to speak fluently. a052: a053: Yes. If it were possible. a054: Yes. Would like to learn more. a055: a056: Yes. a057: [from SP‟s notes: would not like to learn Kaurna as taught in institutions by linguists] a058: No. [„Yes‟ scribbled out] a059: Yes.
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a060: No. a061: No. a062: a063: a064: a065: Yes. a066: a067: a068: a069: No. a070: a071: Yes. [SP‟s notes: would definitely want to continue learning language. If confirmed that her aunt definitely is Pitjantjatjara, the interviewee would like to learn that also]. a072: a073: Yes. a074: a075: Yes. a076:
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4. Do or did any of your parents speak this/these language(s)?
YES
NO
If no, do/did they speak another language, if so, what language(s)?
a001: Ngulipartu (mother); Warnman (father), Nyangumarda a002: Yes. Warnman. a003: Yes, they spoke Mangala and Nyangumarta. a004: No. a005: Yes. a006: Yes. a007: Yes. a008: Yes but only a little. a009: Yes. a010: Yes. a011: Yes. a012: No. a013: No. Nil.. a014: Yes. a015: Yes. a016: Yes. [Also] Central Arrernte, Alywarre, Anmatyerre. a017: Yes. a018: Yes. a019: Some. a020: Yes.
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a021: Yes. a022: No. Italian. a023: Yes. a024: No. English. a025: Yes. a026: Yes. a027: Yes. [Also] Pitjantjara. a028: Yes. a029: Yes. a030: No, my mum only speaks English. a031: No. English + some language. a032: Yes. a033: No. English. a034: No. a035: Yes. Narrungga. a036: No. Only English. a037: No. Spoke elements of various language. a038: Not sure. a039: Yes. a040: Yes. A few words occasionally. a041: Yes. A couple of words. a042: Yes. a043: Yes. a044: Yes. a045: Yes. Not fluently though. a046: Yes. Grandfather. a047: Yes. Some.
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a048: Yes. a049: No. a050: Yes. Mainly English, with a few words that Koori people used, Koori English. a051: Yes. a052: Yes. a053: No. How would that be possible when colonialism/racism exterminated. a054: Yes. Speak only bits and pieces from two languages. a055: Yes. a056: Yes. a057: Yes. Bits + pieces of what they remembered – names. [Another language:] English. a058: No. [„Yes‟ and „no‟ scribbled out but there is an additional tick in the „no‟ box. „Wirangu/Kokathu‟ written and scribbled out]. English. a059: Yes. a060: Yes. a061: No. English. a062: Yes. a063: Yes. a064: Yes. a065: Yes. a066: Yes. Mother. a067: Yes. a068: Yes. [SP‟s notes: interviewee‟s father is Kaurna and knows some words but not fluent. “Mum is white”.] a069: No. [SP‟s notes: they spoke English] a070: Yes. a071: No. Aunty & cousins. [SP‟s notes: Auntie and cousins may speak Pitjantjatjara plus Kaurna. Interviewee has recognised some Kaurna words]
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a072: No. [SP‟s notes: parents did speak bits and pieces of Narungga but not full, complete sentences]. a073: Yes. a074: Yes. a075: Yes. a076: Yes. But not fluently.
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5. Do or did any of your grandparents speak this/these language(s)?
YES
NO
a001: Same. a002: Yes. a003: The old people spoke Mangala (Clendon: Nyangumarta is a type of lingua franca) a004: No a005: Yes. a006: Yes. a007: Yes. a008: Yes. a009: Yes. a010: Yes. a011: Yes. a012: No. a013: Yes. a014: Yes. a015: Yes. a016: Yes. [Also] Central Arrernte, Alywarre, Anmatyerre. a017: Yes. a018: Yes. a019: Some. a020: Yes.
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a021: Yes. a022: Yes. a023: Yes. a024: Yes. a025: Yes. a026: Yes. a027: Yes. a028: Yes. a029: Yes. a030: Yes. a031: Yes. a032: Yes. a033: No. a034: Yes. a035: Yes. a036: [No]. Only English. a037: No. a038: Yes. Narrungga. [SP‟s notes: Interviewee got told some stuff, about star constellations, when young, but “just didn‟t listen enough. Worked better with slightly older grandkids, perhaps...”] a039: Yes. a040: No. [SP‟s notes: Father‟s mother died when [a040] was 11 and [a040] didn‟t remember hearing any language [spoken by his father‟s mother]. Mother‟s mother was a very strong Christian, never heard her use language. She wasn‟t the kind of woman you‟d ask questions of]. a041: Yes. A couple of words. a042: Yes. [SP‟s notes: spoke both Kaurna and Narrungga. Mum was born on the mission, Point Pearce. Grandparents spoke a bit, often as a private language, probably more Narrungga, because on Narrungga country]. a043: Yes.
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a044: Yes. a045: Yes. Before my grandfather passed away. a046: Yes. a047: Yes. a048: Yes. a049: No. a050: Yes. I think so. a051: Yes. a052: Yes. a053: [see below] a054: Yes. Same as above. a055: Yes. a056: Yes. a057: Yes. Bits + pieces. Mum‟s grandfather passed on lots of things – STORIES. a058: Yes. a059: Yes. a060: Yes. a061: Yes. a062: Yes. a063: Yes. a064: No. a065: Yes. a066: Yes. a067: Yes. a068: Yes. a069: Yes. [SP‟s notes: grandparents spoke language but passed away before respondent was born]. a070: ? [Single question mark].
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a071: Yes. a072: Yes. a073: Yes. I don‟t know. a074: Yes. a075: Yes. a076: Yes. But not fluently.
If no, do or did your grandparents speak another language, if so, what language(s)?
a004: Don‟t remember. a020: a021: a022: a023: a024: a025: a026: a027: Both speak Andyamthanha. a028: a029: a030: a031: a032: a033: Luritja. a034: a035: a036: Only English.
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a037: a038: a039: a040: Not heard speaking any language. a041: a042: a043: a044: a045: a046: a047: a048: a049: a050: a051: a052: a053: Don‟t know name if it. a054: a055: a056: a057: a058: a059: a060: a061: a062: a063:
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a064: Mostly Eng. a065: a066: a067: a068: a069: a070: a071: a072: Point Pearce/Alice Springs and Queensland. a073: a074: a075: a076:
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6. Do or did your grandparents speak language to you?
YES
NO
a001: Yes. a002: Yes. [Parents came to the station country around 1930]. a003: Yes. a004: No. a005: Yes. a006: Yes. a007: Yes. a008: No. a009: Yes. a010: No. a011: Yes. a012: No. a013: No. a014: No. a015: Yes. a016: Yes. a017: Yes. a018: No. a019: Some. a020: Yes.
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a021: Yes. a022: Yes. a023: Yes. a024: Yes. a025: Yes. a026: No. a027: Yes. a028: Yes. a029: Yes. a030: No. a031: No. a032: Yes. a033: No. a034: Yes. [Added:] sometimes. a035: No. a036: No. a037: No. a038: No. a039: No. a040: No. a041: No. a042: Yes. [SP‟s notes: spoke both Kaurna and Narrungga] a043: Yes. a044: Yes. a045: Yes. When I was a child (grandmother passed away when I was a child). a046: Yes. a047: No. Don‟t remember.
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a048: Yes. a049: No. a050: No. a051: Yes. a052: Yes. a053: No. a054: No. a055: Yes. a056: Yes. a057: Yes, Nanna + Papa did a little bit before passed away – sang a lot. a058: No. a059: No. a060: No. a061: No. a062: Yes. a063: Yes. a064: Yes. Only some words. a065: Sometimes [added. „Yes‟ or „no‟ not ticked] a066: No. But to my older siblings. They had passed away before I was born. a067: Sometimes my uncles would speak these languages to me. a068: No. a069: No. a070: Yes. a071: When I saw them. a072: No. [SP‟s notes: grandparents didn‟t speak language at all]. a073: Yes. a074: Yes.
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a075: Yes. a076: Yes. But not fluently.
162
7. Do or did your parents speak language to you?
YES
NO
a001: Yes. a002: Yes. a003: Yes. a004: No. a005: Yes. a006: Yes. a007: Yes. a008: No. a009: Yes. a010: No. a011: Yes. a012: No. a013: No. a014: Yes. a015: Yes. a016: Yes. All of the Arrernte languages. a017: Yes. a018: Yes. a019: Some. a020: Yes.
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a021: Yes. a022: No. a023: No. a024: No. a025: No. a026: No. a027: Yes. a028: Yes. a029: Yes. a030: No. a031: No. a032: No. a033: No. a034: No. a035: Yes. a036: No. a037: Yes. Remnants mixed with English. a038: No. [SP‟s notes: mum did speak a little, but not much]. a039: No. a040: Yes. Few words. a041: No. English. a042: Yes. a043: Yes. a044: Yes. a045: No. Very few words. a046: Sometimes [No space ticked]. a047: No. sometimes.
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a048: Yes. a049: No. a050: Yes. In an Aboriginal English way. [SP‟s notes: interviewee does not really ever recall hearing language spoken, she is of the Stolen Generation and was taken away at four years of age]. a051: Yes. a052: Yes. a053: No. a054: Yes. Bits & pieces. a055: Yes. a056: No. a057: Yes. a058: No. a059: No. a060: No. a061: No. a062: Yes. a063: Yes. a064: No. a065: Sometimes [added. „Yes‟ or „no‟ not ticked]. Because of the threat to take away children, for this many of our Elders were scared to do this! a066: Yes. a067: Yes. But not all the time – it was at times mixed with English as well. a068: Sometimes. a069: No. a070: Yes. a071: No. a072: No. [SP‟s notes: spoke mostly English to interviewee] a073: Yes.
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a074: Yes. a075: Yes. a076: Yes. But not fluently.
If ‘NO’, what language do/did they speak to you?
a004: Don‟t remember. a008: English but I picked up some Aboriginal words. a012: English. a013: English. a020: a021: a022: Italian, English. a023: English. a024: English. a025: English. a026: a027: a028: a029: a030: English. a031: English + some language. a032: Mostly English, with a little language. a033: English. a034: English. a035: A little, some [Narrungga], broken English. a036: English.
166
a037: a038: a039: English. a040: Few words. [SP‟s notes: Mother born 1926. Would introduce
words like the word for porcupine: “see that kid – he walks
like a porcupine”] a041: a042: a043: a044: a045: English. a046: a047: English. a048: a049: a050: English mainly, with some words used by Yorta Yorta people. a051: a052: a053: English. a054: [SP‟s notes: parents and grandparents spoke bits and pieces of both Kaurna and Narungga but more Ngarrindjeri]. a055: a056: a057: English too. a058: English. a059: English. a060: English. a061: English.
167
a062: a063: a064: Mostly Eng. a065: [SP‟s notes: They spoke English when not speaking language]. a066: a067: a068: a069: a070: a071: English. a072: Point Pearce/Nurrunga. a073: a074: a075: a076:
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8. Do or did any other family members speak language to you? Who?
a004: Sisters, brothers, cousins. a005: Brothers, sisters, uncles, aunties, cousins. a006: Yes, everybody. a007: All of my family. a008: Yes, my aunties and uncles. a009: Aunties, uncles and cousins, many extended family. a010: My aunties and uncle. a011: All family members. a012: Yes, my uncle from Adelaide. a013: No.. a014: Mother. a015: Aunts, uncles. a016: Yes all my family. a017: My dads aboriginal so everyone in his family speaks to me in language. So dad, siblings, uncles, aunts, cousins. Mums non-Indigenous & she speaks language to me. a018: Mother, sisters, cousins, brother. a019: Grandparents; parents, other relatives. a020: Siblings. a021: My uncle and aunties. a022: Yes, uncle. a023: Uncles, aunty, cousins. a024: Great uncle, grandmother, brother. a025: Grandfather. a026: No one. a027: Further more relatives.
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a028: Aunties + uncles. a029: Uncles/aunties/cousins/family friends (Arrernte people). a030: No. a031: None. a032: a033: Yes, my sistas and brothers. a034: Cousins now and then. a035: Yes, plain English. a036: Friends/family who speak Kaurna. a037: Some relations speak our lang. or other lang. eg. Pitjantjatjara. a038: My mother. a039: a040: Yes. Sister spoke few words. a041: Aunty and uncles speak a couple of words to me. a042: Uncles, aunties, cousins, etc. and siblings. a043: Uncles, aunties, cousins, nephews, nieces, grandparents. a044: Aunts, uncles, cousins, siblings. a045: My aunty occasionally speaks Pitjantjatjara. a046: a047: Uncles, aunties, cousins. a048: a049: Son [son‟s name added]. a050: All family members spoke a form of Aboriginal English to me. a051: Aunties/cousins/uncles, brothers/sisters. a052: Yes we all speak Ngarrindjeri and English, everyone. a053: No.
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a054: Sister & nephew & nieces. [SP‟s notes: sister, nieces and nephew grew up around missions (Ceduna, Oak Valley and other areas) and spoke a lot more language (Kaurna, Ngarrindjeri, Pitjantjatjara and others)]. a055: Aunts/uncles, family/friends. a056: Brothers/aunties/grandmother. a057: Aunties/uncles – what they knew. Also family friends, etc. People from other language groups too. [SP‟s notes: identifies “body language” as the language he learned most] a058: No. a059: No. a060: a061: No. a062: Uncles & aunties. a063: Uncles & aunties. a064: Yes – cousin (we used to speak a lot to each other – mostly Ngarrindjeri but a little Kaurna too) a065: Family & it extended kin. a066: Uncle. a067: a068: a069: None. a070: Mum. a071: a072: Sometimes my nanna. a073: I don‟t know. a074: Yes, aunties, uncles, cousins, extended family. a075: Yes, all my dad‟s side of the family did. a076:
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9. How often do you use language?
NEVER
RARELY5
SOMETIMES6
OFTEN7
MOST OF THE TIME8
a001: All the time. Warnman when I see my mob. a002: All the time. a003: Most of the time. a004: Never/rarely a005: Often. a006: Most of the time. a007: Most of the time. a008: Sometimes. a009: Sometimes. a010: Often. a011: Often, most of the time. a012: Sometimes. a013: Often. a014: Often.
5 Less than once a month 6 One-two times a month 7 One or more times every week 8 Use the language generally, four days a week or more
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a015: Sometimes. a016: Most of the time, all of the time. a017: Most of the time. a018: Most of the time. a019: Sometimes. a020: Often [„rarely‟ ticked then crossed out] a021: Often. a022: Rarely. a023: Sometimes. a024: Rarely. a025: Rarely. a026: Sometimes. a027: Sometimes. a028: Sometimes. a029: Sometimes. a030: Sometimes. a031: Most of the time. a032: Most of the time [„sometimes‟ ticked then crossed out] a033: Sometimes. a034: Sometimes. a035: Often. a036: Sometimes. But would like to be more disciplined about using more Kaurna daily. a037: Sometimes. a038: Sometimes. a039: Sometimes. a040: Rarely. a041: Rarely.
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a042: Often. a043: Sometimes. a044: Most of the time. a045: Sometimes. Often. [Both ticked, the following is added next to „sometimes‟:] Pitjantjatjara more than Walpiri. a046: Sometimes. a047: Rarely. a048: Most of the time. a049: Often. a050: Often. And it depends which other groups I am speaking it with. Some of my words are not acceptable to some groups of Aboriginal people. a051: Sometimes. a052: Most of the time. a053: Never. a054: Often. a055: Sometimes. a056: Sometimes. a057: Most of the time. Every day with kids. a058: Never [„rarely‟ ticked and crossed out]. a059: Never. a060: Never. a061: Never. a062: Often. [„Sometimes‟ ticked and scribbled out] a063: Sometimes. a064: Sometimes. a065: Most of the time. a066: Sometimes. a067: Often.
174
a068: Sometimes. a069: Sometimes. [SP‟s notes: learned Ngarrindjeri from friends and finds it easier to use than Kaurna. ”A lot of people who aren‟t Nunga at all are using Ngarrindjeri”. Know more Kaurna but speak Ngarrindjeri more often, speak it with friends]. a070: Often. a071: Often. a072: Rarely. a073: Sometimes. a074: Most of the time. a075: Sometimes. a076: Often. When I‟m with my family, immediate + extended.
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10. Who do you use language with? CIRCLE the one(s) most appropriate
GRANDPARENT(S) – PARENTS – AUNTS/UNCLES - SIBLINGS – COUSINS – CHILDREN – NEPHEWS/NIECES - OTHER PEOPLE I KNOW – ANYONE WHO SPEAKS THE LANGUAGE - NONE
a001: My mob. a002: Anyone who speaks the language. a004: Anyone who speaks the language. a005: Grandparents, parents, aunts/uncles, siblings, cousins, nephews/nieces, anyone who speaks the language. a006: Anyone who speaks the language. a007: [All ticked except „NIECES‟ and „NONE‟] a008: Aunts/uncles, siblings, cousins, nephews/nieces, other people I know, anyone who speaks the language. a009: Grandparents, parents, aunts/uncles, cousins. a011: [All ticked except „OTHER PEOPLE I KNOW‟ and „NONE‟] a012: Aunts/uncles. a013: [All ticked except „NONE‟] a014: Anyone who speaks the language. a015: Aunts, cousins, children, other people I know, anyone
who speaks the language. a017: Parents, aunts/uncles, siblings, cousins, nephews/nieces, other people I know, anyone who speaks the language. a018: Parents, aunts/uncles, siblings, cousins. a019: All family + [<- written]. Anyone who speaks the language. a020: [All ticked except „none‟] a021: Grandparents, parents, aunts/uncles. a022: Grandparent, aunts/uncles, other people I know, anyone who speaks the language.
176
a023: Grandparents, aunts/uncles, cousins, nephews/nieces. a024: Parents, aunts/uncles, siblings, cousins, children, nephews/nieces. a025: Grandparents. a026: a027: Grandparents, parents, aunts/uncles, siblings, cousins, children, other people I know. a028: [All circled except „grandparents‟ and „none‟]. a029: Parents, aunts/uncles, siblings, cousins. a030: Anyone who speaks the language. a031: [All circled except „anyone who speaks the language‟ and „none‟]. a032: Parents, aunts/uncles, siblings, cousins, nephews/nieces. a033: Other people I know. a034: Cousins, children, nephews/nieces, other people I know. a035: Children, nephews/nieces, anyone who speaks the language. a036: Other people I know. a037: Aunts/uncles, siblings, cousins, children, nephews/nieces, other people I know. a038: Aunts/uncles, siblings, cousins, children, nephews/nieces, other people I know. a039: Siblings, children. a040: Children, anyone who speaks the language. a041: Grandparents, parents, aunts/uncles, cousins. a042: [All circled, „None‟ crossed out. Also added:] Plus non-Aboriginals eg. when I conduct Kaurna Heritage tours. a043: [All circled except „anyone who speaks the language‟ and „none‟] a044: Grandparents, aunts/uncles, siblings, cousins. a045: Cousins, children, other people I know, anyone who speaks the language. a046: a047: Aunts/uncles, siblings, cousins, nephews/nieces. a048: [All circled except „Grandparents‟ and „none‟].
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a049: Aunts, children. a050: Anyone who speaks the language. a051: Parents, aunts/uncles, siblings, cousins, children, anyone who speaks the language. a052: [All circled except „grandparents‟, anyone who speaks the language‟ and „none]. a053: a054: [All circled except „grandparents‟ and „none‟]. a055: [All circled except „grandparents‟ and „none‟]. a056: Other people I know, anyone who speaks the language. a057: [All circled and „none‟ crossed out]. a058: None. a059: None. a060: a061: None. a062: Parents, aunts/uncles, siblings, cousins, anyone who speaks the language. a063: Children, nephews/nieces. a064: Cousins, other people I know, anyone who speaks the language. a065: Aunts/uncles, siblings, cousins, children, nephews/nieces, other people I know. a066: Aunts/uncles, siblings, cousins, children, nephews/nieces, other people I know. a067: Cousins, children, nephews/nieces, anyone who speaks the language. a068: Parents, aunts/uncles, siblings, cousins, other people I know. a069: Anyone who speaks the language. a070: Other people I know. a071: Aunts/uncles, cousins, other people I know. a072: Grandparents. a073: Anyone who speaks the language. a074: Parents, aunts/uncles, cousins, children, anyone who speaks the language. a075: Siblings, cousins, children, nephews/nieces, anyone who speaks the language.
178
a076: Parents, uncles/aunts, siblings, cousins, children, nephews/nieces, other people I know [inserted comment:] including non-Aboriginal people, ie. my partner.
179
11. Do you live in the area associated with your language group(s)?
YES
NO
If ‘NO’, how long have you lived away from your country?
a001: No. Lived in Port Hedlund all my life a002: No. His parents left the area around 1930. a003: Yes. a004: No. 5 years (?) a005: Yes [„NO‟ was ticked and then scribbled out] a006: No. Around 5 years. a007: No. Four years. a008. Yes. [But] I have family from places I‟ve never been. a009: No. For the most of life in Adelaide. a010: No. [Possibly, not clear mark] 9. a011: No. All my life. a012: Yes. a013: No. 6 years. a014: No. 20 years. a015: No. a016: Yes. (Never). Always use language. a017: Yes. I do on my study breaks. a018: No. All my life.
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a019: Yes. a020: No. A few weeks. a021: Yes. Less than once a month [away from the area] a022: No. 12 years. a023: Yes. a024: No. 8 years. a025: No. Most of my life. a026: Yes. a027: No. 10 years but maintain my connection to country. a028: No. All my life. a029: No. About 17 years. a030: No. 20 years. a031: Yes. a032: Yes. a033: No. 4 years. a034: No. 3 years. a035: Yes. a036: Yes. a037: Yes. a038: Yes. I have lived in Taperoo 45 yrs. [SP‟s notes: has been away from Point Pierce (Narungga) for 44 years but now living in Taperoo]. a039: Yes. a040: Yes. a041: Yes. Very close within 50 ks. 50 ks. a042: Yes. a043: Yes. a044: No. 3 years. a045: No. 23 years.
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a046: No. Long time. a047: No. All my life. a048: Yes. a049: Yes. [„No‟ ticked and scribbled out]. All my life. a050: No. 50 years. a051: No. Thirty years – but go home often. a052: Yes. a053: No. Long time. a054: Yes. a055: No. 6 + years. a056: No. 18 years. a057: Yes. a058: No. N/A. a059: No. Since birth. a060: No. I‟ve always lived here in S.A. a061: No. Only visited. a062: Yes. a063: Yes. a064: Yes. a065: No. Always connected to country! a066: Yes. a067: No. Most of my life but I get back whenever I can & it‟s not far. Family & language keep me connected anyway. a068: No. 6 years. a069: No. Most of my life. a070: No. [SP‟s notes: interviewee has lived away her whole life but visits sometimes]. a071: No. [SP‟s notes: whole life]. a072: Yes. [„no‟ ticked then scribbled out].
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a073: No. 12 years approximately. a074: No. 9 years. a075: No. Since I was 8 years old. a076: Yes.
183
12. Do most of your friends belong to the group you identify with?
YES
NO
a001: Yes. a002: Yes. a003: Yes. a004: Yes. a005: No. a006: No. a007: Yes. a008: No. a009: No. a010: No. a011: Yes. a012: Yes. a013: No. a014: Yes. a015: No. a017: Yes. a018: Yes. a019: [„+family‟ added to „friends‟]. Yes. a020: No. a021: No. a022: No.
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a023: Yes. a024: Yes. a025: Yes. a026: Yes. a027: No. a028: No. a029: No. a030: No. a031: No. a032: No. a033: No. a034: No. a035: Yes. a036: Yes. I don‟t identify as Kaurna but friends & family are Kaurna. Am adopted into Anglo [or „Aboriginal‟? partly illeg.] family but have no official knowledge of Aboriginal heritage. a037: Yes. a038: Yes. a039: Yes. a040: Yes. a041: No. a042: No. a043: No. a044: Yes. a045: No. a046: No. a047: No. Some are. a048: Yes.
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a049: No. a050: Yes. a051: Yes. a052: No. Only family. a053: No. a054: Yes. Some. a055: [No box ticked]. A mixture (many from Darwin – many from interstate also). a056: No. a057: Yes. Family – friends (Nar, Nga, Kaurna) – people from all over the place. a058: No. a059: Yes. a060: a061: No. a062: No. a063: Yes. a064: No. a065: No. Mixture! a066: Yes. a067: No. a068: Yes. a069: No. a070: Yes. a071: Yes. a072: No. a073: Yes. a074: No. a075: No.
186
a076: No. Not at all, obviously with my immediate & extended family.
187
13. Does your spouse/partner belong to your group?
YES
NO
If ‘NO’, what group does she/he belong to?
a001: No. Mangala. Before whitefellas came it was common to marry other language speakers. a002: Yes. a003: No.(a001 is his wife, from Warnman background) a004: No. Kokatha. a005: I don‟t have a spouse. a006: No. a007: Yes. a008: Don‟t have one. a009: No. Non-Indigenous. a010: No. Don‟t have one! ha ha ha. a011: No. Non-Indigenous. a012: No. a013: No. Kokatha/Mirning. a015: No. Narrunga. a018: No. a019: N/A. a020: N/A. a021: Yes. a022: No.
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a023: No. [Question mark below second part of question] a024: No. Single. a025: No. Don‟t have one. a026: No. [single?] a027: No. Kokatha. a028: No. Non-Indigenous. a029: No. Australian (white). a030: No. Aussie. a031: No. West Coast mob. a032: No. a033: No. English. a034: No. [single?] a035: a036: Yes. Kaurna partner. a037: No. Not known (adopted). a038: Don‟t have one. a039: Yes. a040: Yes. a041: No. a042: Yes. a043: No. Non-Aboriginal -> no longer together. a044: No. a045: No. He is non-Aboriginal. a046: No. a047: No. VIC group, Wiradjuri. a048: No. White Australian. a049: No. Western Australia.
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a050: No. No partner. a051: No. Not Aboriginal. a052: No. Non-Aboriginal. a053: No. a054: No. Non-Aboriginal. a055: No. Yamatji, Noongar (WA). a056: No spouse. a057: No. Pitjantjatjara. a058: No. N/A [„Australian‟ written and crossed out] a059: No. a060: a061: No. English. a062: No. She is Non-Aboriginal. a063: Yes. a064: No. Non-Indigenous. a065: No. Narrindjeri. a066: No. Non-Aboriginal. Has a Scottish/Swedish background. a067: No. No current partner. a068: N/A. [no partner] a069: No. N/A. [no partner] a070: No. N/A [no partner] a071: No. N/A. a072: No. N/A. a073: Yes. Ngarrindjeri. a074: No. N/A, no spouse/partner. a075: No. a076: No. Non-Aboriginal (born in Tas).
190
14. Do you have children?
YES
Ages: 0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25
NO
a001: Yes. Daughter, 5-10. Son, 20-25. a002: Yes. Daughter (a001) a003: Yes. Daughter, 5-10. Son, 20-25. a004: Yes. 30+. a005: No. a006: Yes. 0-5; 5-10. a007: No. a008: No. a009: No. a010: No. a011: No. a012: No. a013: Yes. 20-25. a014: No. a015: Yes. 30+. a017: No. a018: No. a019: Yes. 15-20. a020: No. a021: Yes. 0-5 [+ a020]
191
a022: No. a023: Yes. 0-5, 5-10. a024: No. a025: No. a026: No. a027: No. a028: Yes. 5-10, 10-15. a029: No. a030: No. a031: No. a032: No. a033: No. a034: No. a035: Yes. 5-10, 15-20. a036: No. a037: Yes. 27. a038: Yes. 40-50, 50-55. a039: Yes. 5-10, 10-15. a040: Yes. 5-10, 10-15. a041: No. a042: Yes. 5-10, 15-20. a043: Yes. 0-5. a044: Yes. 10-15, 15-20. a045: Yes. 5-10, 20-25. a046: Yes. a047: No. a048: Yes. 0-5.
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a049: Yes. 25-35. a050: Yes. 20-25. a051: Yes. 21 & 34. [SP‟s notes: children are more familiar with Kaurna and Ngarrindjeri, rather than interviewee‟s background language because the children never lived where Wangkangurru was spoken]. a052: Yes. 20-25. a053: No. a054: Yes. 34-37. a055: Yes. 0-5, 5-10. a056: Yes. 35-40. a057: Yes. 5-10. a058: Yes. 27. a059: Yes. a060: a061: No. a062: No. a063: Yes. 40-50. a064: Yes. 25-50, 50-60. a065: Yes. 2 girls, 1 boy/9 grandchildren/4 great-grandchildren. 6 months [additional line underneath the age groups, circle around ‟20-25 and arrow towards ‟50 yrs‟] a066: Yes. 20-25. a067: Yes. 15-20. a068: N/A. a069: No. a070: No. a071: No. a072: No. a073: No. [Circled and crossed out]. a074: Yes. 0-5.
193
a075: No. a076: One (male). 20-25.
If not, do you have nephews/nieces or other relatives that are children?
YES
NO
a005: Yes. a007: Yes. a008: Yes. a009: Yes. a010: Yes. a011: Yes. a012: Yes. a014: Yes. a017: Yes. a018: Yes. a019: Yes. a020: Yes. a021: Yes. a022: Yes. a023: Yes. a024: Yes. a025: Yes. a026: Yes.
194
a027: Yes. a028: Yes. a029: Yes. a030: No. a031: Yes. a032: Yes. a033: Yes. a034: Yes. a035: Yes. a036: Yes. a037: Yes. a038: Yes. a039: a040: No. a041: Yes. a042: Yes. a043: Yes. a044: a045: a046: Yes. a047: Yes. a048: a049: Yes. a050: Yes. a051: a052: a053: No.
195
a054: Yes. a055: Yes. a056: a057: Yes. a058: Yes. a059: Yes. a060: Yes. a061: Yes. a062: Yes. a063: a064: Yes. Grandchildren. a065: Yes. a066: Yes. Great-niece who lives with me since 4 years old. a067: a068: Yes. a069: No. a070: Yes. a071: Yes. a072: Yes. a073: Yes. [„No‟ circled and crossed out]. a074: Yes. a075: Yes. a076:
196
15. If YES to any of the above, do you speak language to them?
YES NO
When? AS ABOVE
OTHER INFORMATION:
a001: Yes. All the time. a002: a003: Yes. All the time. a004: a005: Yes, all the time. a006: Yes. a007: Yes. a008: Yes, [but] not often. a009: Yes. All the time. a010: Yes. As above [often]. a011: Yes. All the time. a012: Sometimes. When I visit them. a013: As above [often] a014: a015: a016: a017: Yes. a018: Yes. All the time. a019: Yes. Whenever possible + appropriate.
197
a020: Yes. As above, when they‟re around. a021: Yes. a022: Yes. As above. Only use Pitjantjatjara to speak to younger cousins occasionally – only 2-3 times per year. a023: Yes. a024: Yes. When slang is appropriate. a025: No. a026: Yes. a027: Yes. In terms of conversations; objects, behaviour. a028: No. [Added:] too young. a029: Yes. When I go home, they live at Santa Teresa. a030: No. a031: Yes. Whenever I see them. a032: Yes. Usually on a daily basis or once every few days. a033: Yes. Often when I‟m home. a034: Yes. [Added:] sometimes. Mainly small words. When telling them to put something on or away. The words used are small easy words for them to learn. a035: Most of the time like in pidgin English, mixed with English words and sentences. a036: Yes. Use some words to reinforce Kaurna language. a037: Yes. Whenever possible + appropriate. a038: Yes. Family gatherings. a039: Yes. Some. When at home. a040: Yes. [SP‟s notes: Use language when out and don‟t want other people to understand what they‟re saying. Also at home, day to day family stuff]. a041: No. a042: Yes. Generally so but not always. a043: Yes. Most of the time with my children. a044: Yes. Most of the time.
198
a045: Yes. To my youngest. We speak a few words here and there, mixed with English. My daughter wants to learn more language. a046: No. a047: Yes. Some words. Sometimes. a048: Yes. All the time, every time we speak. a049: Yes. Only one [of the children]. Daily chat. a050: Yes. Day to day chat (Ab. English). a051: Yes. Sometimes. - Day to day activities. – Body parts, animals, etc. Sometimes I speak with my sister – then explain to kids what is meant in English. a052: a053: Not applicable. a054: Yes. Whenever we see each other. a055: Yes. Sometimes & some words only. a056: No. [SP‟s notes: interviewee and her daughter use language terms for body parts with daughter‟s son] a057: Yes. Day to day – reading books, school project. Have full [illeg.] parties. a058: No. a059: No. a060: No. No one outside of my parents spoke the language. a061: No. a062: Yes. Speak some Kaurna language at family gatherings. a063: Yes. Occasionally. a064: Yes. Try to do a bit. –Day to day contact, naming objects/environmental things & when out driving. a065: Yes. Home situations, outside @ other activities. a066: Yes. Not fluently. Daughters use language with other kids too. – Everyday/family/social gatherings. – Particularly family gatherings, teach young relations Kaurna words. a067: Yes. When my sons & nephews are with me we talk in some language & tell jokes. a068: Yes. [SP‟s notes: speak a few words with them, ie. “go wash your maras” (hands).
199
a069: a070: Yes. Just a few words every now and then. a071: My cousins. Just a few words, I show them what I‟ve learnt and they help me out. a072: No. a073: Yes. [Other information:] No. [SP‟s notes: any situation, day to day situations]. a074: No. a075: Yes. Sometimes. [Other information: ] When I see them or telling them off and don‟t want people to know what I am saying. a076: Yes. [Other information:] As above.
200
16. Do they speak back to you in English?
NO
YES, all the time
YES, sometimes
a001: Yes, sometimes. a002: Yes, sometimes. a003: Yes, sometimes. a005: Yes, sometimes. a006: Yes, all the time. a007: Yes, sometimes. a008: Yes, all the time. a009: Yes, sometimes. a010: No. a011: Yes, sometimes. a012: Yes, all the time. a013: Yes, sometimes. a014: Yes, all the time. a015: Yes, all the time. a017: Yes, sometimes. a018: Yes, sometimes. a019: Yes, all the time. a020: Yes, sometimes. a021: Yes, sometimes. a022: Yes, sometimes.
201
a023: Yes, sometimes. a024: Yes, sometimes. a025: Yes, all the time. a026: Yes, sometimes. a027: No. a028: No. a029: Yes, sometimes. a030: Yes, sometimes. a031: Yes, all the time. a032: Yes, all the time. a033: Yes, sometimes. a034: Yes, all the time. a035: Yes, all the time. a036: Yes, sometimes. a037: Yes, all the time. a038: Yes, sometimes. a039: Yes, sometimes. a040: Yes, sometimes. a041: Yes, all the time. a042: Yes, most of the time [added]. a043: Yes, sometimes. a044: No. a045: Yes, sometimes. a046: Yes, all the time. a047: Yes, sometimes. a048: Yes, sometimes. a049: Yes, sometimes.
202
a050: Yes, sometimes. a051: Yes, all the time. a052: Yes, all the time. a053: Yes, all the time. a054: Yes, all the time. a055: Yes, sometimes. a056: Yes, all the time. a057: Yes, sometimes. a058: No [N/A]. a059: Yes, all the time. a060: Yes, all the time. a061: a062: Yes, sometimes. a063: Yes, all the time. a064: Yes, all the time. a065: Yes, sometimes. a066: Yes, all the time. a067: Yes, sometimes. a068: Yes, sometimes. a069: a070: Yes, sometimes. a071: Yes, sometimes. a072: Yes, all the time. [But a072 does not speak language to them] a073: Yes, all the time. a074: Yes, all the time. a075: Yes, all the time. a076: Yes, all the time. – this is combined with language.
203
If they speak back to you in English, why do you think they do it?
They don‟t know enough language
They don‟t want to speak the language
BOTH
OTHER:
a001: When they meet up with children that speak English. My son speaks Ngaanyatjarra at Wiluna, his language is depending on where he is. a005: They don‟t know enough language. a006: Both. a007: They don‟t know enough language. a008: They don‟t know enough language. a009: They don‟t know enough language. a010: They don‟t know enough language. a011: Both. a012: They don‟t know enough language. a013: Both. a014: They don‟t know enough language. a015: They don‟t know enough language.
204
a017: Other. We speak to them in english so they learn more & can practise English too. So if we speak to them in English they sometimes respond in English. a018: They don‟t know enough language. a019: They don‟t know enough language. Wouldn‟t hesitate to reply in Kaurna if familiar with it. a020: Both. a021: They don‟t know enough language. a022: They don‟t know enough language. a023: Both. a024: Both. Like myself, they have limited exposure to it. a025: They don‟t know enough language. a026: They don‟t want to speak the language. a027: Both. a028: They don‟t know enough language. [Added:] Too young. a029: Other. I am not a full language speaker. They speak so they can make themselves understood to me. a030: They don‟t know enough language. [Other:] often people will speak English with some Aboriginal words thrown in. a031: They don‟t know enough language. a032: They don‟t know enough language. a033: They don‟t know enough language. a034: They don‟t know enough language. a035: They don‟t know enough language. a036: They don‟t know enough language. [„Both‟ ticked then scribbled out]. Also more use increases confidence. a037: They don‟t know enough language. a038: Other: They find it easier in English. a039: They don‟t know enough language. a040: They don‟t know enough language.
205
a041: They don‟t know enough language. a042: They don‟t know enough language. a043: They don‟t know enough language. a044: They don‟t know enough language. a045: They don‟t know enough language. a046: They don‟t know enough language. a047: They don‟t know enough language. a048: They don‟t know enough language. a049: They don‟t know enough language. a050: They don‟t know enough language. a051: They don‟t know enough language. a052: They don‟t know enough language. a053: Both. a054: They don‟t know enough language. a055: They don‟t know enough language. a056: They don‟t know enough language. a057: They don‟t know enough language. [added:] Sees them trying to answer in language, but answer in English. a058: They don‟t know enough language. a059: They don‟t want to speak the language. a060: Both. Other: They were told not to teach us the language. Now when I go to Ceduna & hear these children speaking their own language, it makes me so cross. My brother [name] taught himself. a061: They don‟t know enough language. a062: They don‟t know enough language. a063: They don‟t know enough language. a064: They don‟t know enough language. a065: They don‟t know enough language. a066: They don‟t know enough language.
206
a067: Other: 1) Not all young people know all the Ngarrindjeri words. 2) We tend to use Aboriginal English. a068: They don‟t know enough language. a069: a070: They don‟t know enough language. a071: Both. a072: They don‟t know enough language. a073: They don‟t want to speak the language. Other: No. a074: Both. a075: They don‟t know enough language. a076: They don‟t know enough language [inserted comment:] – like me.
207
17. Are you concerned that the language will disappear?
NO
NO, I don‟t think it will
YES
a001: No. a002: No. a003: No. a004: a005: Yes. a006: Yes. a007: Yes. a008: Yes. a009: Yes. a010: Yes. a011: Yes. a012: No, I don‟t think it will. a013: Yes. a014: Yes [„NO‟ also circled but crossed out] a015: Yes. a017: No. a018: Yes. a019: Yes, greatly concerned. a020: Yes. a021: No, I don‟t think it will.
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a022: No, I don‟t think it will. Pitjantjatjara is strong. Yes, Jawoyn is dying out. a023: Yes. a024: Yes. a025: Yes. a026: No, I don‟t think it will. a027: No, I don‟t think it will. a028: No, I don‟t think it will. a029: Yes. a030: Yes. a031: Yes. a032: Yes. a033: Yes. a034: Yes. a035: Yes. a036: Yes. a037: Yes. a038: No, I don‟t think it will. [SP‟s notes: for a long time interviewee was concerned that it would disappear – now, following work like [name of non-Indigenous linguist]‟s, don‟t think it will.] a039: Yes. a040: No, I don‟t think it will. a041: Yes. a042: Yes. a043: Yes. At least the original form of it. [SP‟s notes: concerned about “watering down” of the language, bastardisation. Concerned about language being altered to suit individuals‟ needs. At times, it is appropriate to coin new words for new techniques, when there‟s already a word, one shouldn‟t change]. a044: Yes. a045: Yes.
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a046: Yes. a047: Yes. Very. a048: No, I don‟t think it will. a049: No, I don‟t think it will. a050: Yes. a051: Yes. a052: Yes. a053: Has already disappeared. a054: Yes. a055: No, I don‟t think it will [added:] ever disappear. a056: Yes. a057: No – more concerned about the way it‟s [illeg.] being reconstructed. a058: Yes. a059: Yes. a060: No. No, I don‟t think it will [both ticked]. Not as long as the parents talk together amongst themselves and children. a061: No. a062: No. a063: Yes. a064: Yes. a065: No, I don‟t think it will. a066: Yes. But through projects & commitment by others it will continue to keep the language alive & the culture. a067: No, I don‟t think it will. We try to use Ngarrindjeri words as much as we can when we are together. a068: No, I don‟t think it will. a069: Yes. a070: Yes. a071: Yes.
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a072: Yes. a073: No. a074: No, I don‟t think it will. a075: No, I don‟t think it will. a076: Yes.
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18. Do you feel that language is less important than English?
YES
NO
OTHER
a001: No. Both are important, but Nyangumarta is the most important. a002: No. Both are important but Nyangumarta is the most important. a003: No. Both are important but Nyangumarta is the most important. a004: No. a005: No. a006: No. a007: No. I think it is important to keep their language strong and be proud of it. a008: No. a009: Other. English is essential for everyday life. Maintaining language is also important. a010: A big no. [respondent circled YES and wrote „a big‟ next to it. Judging from the other responses, it seems that the respondent meant that language is more important than English]. a011: No. a012: No. a013: Other. Both are equally important. a014: No. a015: No. a017: No. But it is also important to know English as well. a018: No.
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a019: No. Kaurna is more important than English to me. I would never speak English if I could speak Kaurna. a020: No. a021: No. a022: Other. I feel it‟s important to maintain Indigenous languages in our society, but English is clearly becoming a universal language. a023: No. a024: Yes. a025: No. a026: Yes. a027: No. a028: No. a029: No. Mum is a strong advocate for „keeping‟ the language alive, we share her views. a030: No. a031: No. a032: No. a033: No. a034: No. a035: No. a036: No. Australians are more important because they‟re getting left behind. Once language goes, cultural identity is diluted. a037: No. a038: No. a039: No. a040: No. a041: Other: To modern people today it is forced to be less important because it was never a worldwide language, but I think it is important to learn it in schools in the area.
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a042: Other: I feel that we need to be bilingual, eg. Kaurna language and English [„Kaurna‟ written then scribbled out]. a043: No. a044: No. a045: No. a046: No. a047: No. a048: No. a049: Not really. a050: No. Lang. is more important foundation of who you are, defines you as a person – but aware that keeping lang. alive is the hardest bit. a051: No. a052: No. We only have a few words left now, which is sad. I don‟t
want to lose what I have left. a053: No. a054: No. a055: Yes. Only because I don‟t live in Remote Community (NT). But still very important to traditional people/culture. a056: No. a057: No. Got to have both, without Eng. can‟t operate in Western society. a058: No. a059: No. a060: No. a061: Other: the groups identified with speak the language. a062: No. a063: No. a064: No. a065: Other: Same – language is Power!!
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a066: No. Not at all. The dominant culture has attempted to erode the language but through the commitment & recording of language it is becoming important and more families are wanting to learn more of their own language. a067: No. a068: No. a069: No. a070: No. a071: I think they‟re equal. a072: Yes. No. [Both circled, „yes‟ partly scribbled out]. a073: Yes. [SP‟s notes: “I don‟t know”]. a074: No. a075: No. a076: Yes. Other: English is the dominant language & is taught in the education system/s. History has proved that Aboriginal culture/language was forbidden.
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19. Whose responsibility is it to keep the language alive, the Government’s, the school’s, families’ or others? Please explain
a001: Families. a002: Families. a003: Families. a004: Families and communities. a005: Aboriginal elders, mother, father, family members. a006: Families mainly but w/ teaching it in school would be great – plus the government funding/programs to support revival of language. a007: I believe that the schools, families should be teaching the young ones to learn their languages, so that they can speak and understand each other. a008: Everyones responsibility, it‟s with us, though. a009: Family mostly, schools should be flexible. Mostly family. a010: Our and the governments job. We need more language in our school system. So the government needs to help with that. a011: All of the above, need to keep it strong. a012: It‟s the Tribal responsibility to keep the language alive. a013: All have a responsibility.. a014: The family should keep alive and teach the younger generation. Also the language should also teach at school an Indigenous education officer. a015: I feel it‟s the government, families and schools but mostly and firstly families to keep it going at school and at home. a016: a017: School, community & most importantly family. I come from a remote community and growing up I always spoke in language. Lucky for me, our school teaches in language, also teaches you to read and write in language. a018: All of the above, to keep the language and culture alive for future generations. a019: It should be a national, moral, cultural obligation but a collaborative effort – all parties.
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a020: It‟s everyone‟s. Everyone that knows some should pass it along to the younger generations or other people so it doesn‟t die down. a021: My family [illeg. „and‟/‟or‟?] I think the Government should have more input in putting it in schools. a022: Governments and schools need to provide education of these languages, because, like myself, without tuition in Pitjantjatjara I would not be able to speak or know any language at all. Also families have a responsibility to pass down language to younger generations. a023: Own culture. [also circled] „the school‟s, families‟, others‟ a024: When my Nation was put onto Mission by the government, the language was outlawed. So my grandparents [were] the last of my people to learn it as first language. Still have the same stigma attached to handing it on. a025: The people who speak it. We should be passing it on from generation to generation in order to keep it alive. a026: a027: Families for the most. The Government needs to identify the use of languages in daily life with elders, because it‟s the elders of the language who use it on a day to day basis. In schools, language is slowly being taught as a subject. When this is taught as a subject besides language outside or nation, it generates interest with our own non-Aboriginal people. a028: Family. Govt – local culture + language should be taught in school. a029: Governments need to make sure Aboriginal languages are taught in schools (especially Aboriginal schools). Parents and community also need to ensure languages are taught to the children. My dad wanted us to only learn English. This restricted our access to families and other traditional stuff. We couldn‟t communicate with our grandfathers. a030: I think that it is an active responsibility of everyone, we need to keep this going. a031: Everybody‟s, because if we don‟t keep speaking it nobody will know what it is and eventually it will fade away. a032: The government and the schools and families because these people have more authority to keep programs going to teach kids language. a033: Families. Because it is our language to remember and keep. a034: Everyone‟s. The Government play a big role in reclaiming language and it should be taught in schools so children learn it and it doesn‟t disappear.
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a035: It‟s important that the community/people continue to keep it alive, as well as in conjunction [?] with teaching it in schools. a036: Govt – needs to encourage more than Anglo culture/attitudes, + other govt institutions. Schools need to have a policy of encouraging Australian languages. Families have an important role to create confidence + pride for language. a037: Govt. & education institution. Culture History Tourism. Families Culture history heritage. People of region – heritage history. Govt. should ensure local language is used and maintained in local area eg. school name, street names, buildings, etc., etc. Schools to teach local, state, national + [illeg.] history and culture. [SP‟s notes: Government bodies, ie. schools, transport areas, all have responsibility. Important to maintain separation of languages, there is a „Warriparinga‟ in Tasmania. Not enough awareness...] a038: Families. Government. [illeg.]. Schools. Teaching. [SP‟s notes: families first, then schools to continue. Government needs to provide funding] a039: Governments. They are the ones who took our language away in the first place – supply more funding. Family – the older generation need to help the younger ones. a040: [SP‟s notes: Government has some responsibility. Authorities responsible for not wanting people to speak language – gov., church. They took it away so responsible for return. Children taken away, resulted in...
Only 2-3 generations ago trace back to traditional people.
Older generations have more knowledge of culture/language. It‟s their responsibility to share because they have the knowledge, but it‟s up to the younger generation to encourage elder generation to share it. Possibly some older people won‟t pass on the language unless younger people are “worthy” of being passed on to. Therefore, young people MUST show an interest. Support for government acknowledgment of past wrongdoings. Schools definitely have some responsibility but not sure in what role. Partnership agreement between government and schools, working with parents and staff. Eventually parents, staff and communities will come together and work together. An agreement should be based on meeting the needs of children in terms of educational outcomes. The outcomes should not just be “whitefella” subjects like literacy and numeracy but also grounding in language and culture. If this takes place in school one doesn‟t need to go searching for it by oneself. Thinks Kaurna Plains School should be a “leader” in language and culture. All students regardless of background should have access to Kaurna culture. Some parents don‟t want anything to do with schools for various reasons. KPS still not well established enough to be a role model. Would be prepared to contribute own time and suggestions to KPS and has suggested Kaurna language and culture committee
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to meet every time, lacking in coherence so far. It is important for Aboriginal people to be in control, not only whitefellas. a041: All of the above. The local language for the area needs to be taught in schools, and needs to be more used, maybe on signs or shopping centres, and definitely at school, also performances, with not only the language but dance and song and art. a042: In order of priority I would say family and the school and university, etc. [SP‟s notes: The field is heritage. There are two separate entities – KWP and the Kaurna Heritage Committee. Thinks it would be nice for stronger relations between various heritage + native title bodies. There is a need for language to be supported by government, needs to provide the financial aspect]. a043: Everyone living on Kaurna country. But the Education department has a big role & responsibility. [SP‟s notes: Maori is compulsory education [in Aotearoa/New Zealand], should be similar for Aboriginal languages. Here, it‟s an elective, should be compulsory]. a044: - Government, yes. Should be acknowledged.
-Kaurna should be taught in schools @ Adelaide Plain.
-Family needs to keep language alive and pass down to family, children, etc. a045: I believe it‟s all of the above, but most of all I think that language should be taught in schools starting in primary school – as languages from other countries are. a046: Governments, schools, families. a047: Everyone‟s. a048: Government needs to fund schools to teach the language. A lot does get passed down through families but there needs to be a clear understanding of each individual language so they don‟t get mixed up. This is where schools and Elder family members should get involved. a049: Family. Background. Need to know their language. Young children need to [learn] the language. Yes, whole three areas. Gov, [illeg.] family. Because the school in Government Department to learn Kaurna language on site. a050: 1) Family (if there‟s anyone left to speak/teach it).
2) Government. a051: Language should be taught in schools. We should also encourage our children to learn language. [SP‟s notes: Aboriginal languages should be taught in schools, rather than French, Japanese, etc.]
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a052: Government should be supporting us and family to keep language alive. a053: All!! a054: Families. [SP‟s notes: mostly families. Too hard to control in schools. Many Aboriginal parents are asking why kids are learning Japanese, etc. The situation is difficult because there are so many different groups, have to have the right language on associated country]. a055: Family – clan groups. Schools – need kids to learn the “lingo” @ school (just like Indonesian!). a056: Governments of the past took our language away – we weren‟t allowed to speak it!! It‟s our Elders, + those who still have language responsibility to pass this on before they leave us. Governments should encourage & support those schools that still use language. a057: People of the country whose language it is. Also gov/schools – to preserve more than tidbits. Need cohesion between groups. a058: The parents/grandparents/family to keep the language and culture alive. The government should introduce cultural language into the schools so as to educate the nungas in their own or other cultural language. a059: a060: a061: The families on the home lands speak the language. Grandparents who were raised on a mission were told not to teach their children their culture/language so they could mix in mainstream communities. a062: I think it is the responsibility of the Kaurna people, the Government, schools, families in partnership. As it should be kept alive as it belongs to the Adelaide plains region, it should be preserved for history so that people can learn the language of the traditional owners of this country. a063: Families. a064: Governments, schools & families so that the language can be passed on and not become a “dead” language. a065: All of us!! a066: Because of colonisation in this country, I believe the gov. must acknowledge the importance that the languages of this country must be revived and maintained. There has to be national policy & it be part of the curriculum taught in all schools. I do believe that everyone has responsibility to learn about their language/culture, but having said that, families/communities/individuals come with different experiences of the impact of colonisation/removal & will need to be
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encouraged, supported to reclaim their language & pass this on to their families. Need to think about how we create greater awareness of what is occurring, the work that has already been achieved…. a067: It is everybody‟s responsibility to keep Indigenous language alive, by supporting the teaching of it in schools. And acknowledging that they are languages in their own right and not dialects. a068: The schools and families. a069: Every Aboriginal person should try to keep their language alive. a070: Families & schools. It‟s important for you to learn from your family. a071: Families and schools. Families because it‟s their culture & schools to encourage it. a072: A bit of everyone, schools, and families because it‟s not our fault how we can not talk our own languages. It‟s really not fair. a073: I don‟t know. a074: Families and maybe schools because it preserves culture. a075: Schools and most importantly families. a076: The Governments – they were the ones that destroyed any/all Aboriginal languages.
* Aboriginal culture/language needs to be recognised within Australia‟s constitution!
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20. Would you be prepared to give money (for learning materials, courses, etc.) or time to strengthen the language?
YES
NO
a001: N/A – the children have people that can speak the language around them at all times. a002: N/A a003: N/A a004: No. a005: No. a006: Yes. a007: Yes. a008: Time [„yes‟ ticked and „money‟ crossed out]. a009: Yes. a010: Yes. a011: Yes. a012: No. a013: Yes. a014: Yes. a015: No. Can‟t afford. a017: Yes. a018: Yes. a019: Yes. a020: No. a021: Yes. a022: Yes.
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a023: Yes. a024: Yes. a025: Yes. a026: No. a027: Yes. a028: Yes. a029: Yes. a030: Yes. a031: Yes. a032: Yes. a033: Yes. a034: Yes. a035: No, not at the moment (student). a036: Yes. a037: Yes. a038: Yes. If I had the money. a039: Yes. a040: a041: Yes. But I believe the government should pay for that. a042: Yes. a043: Yes. a044: Yes. a045: Yes. a046: No. a047: Yes. a048: Yes. a049: Yes.
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a050: Yes. a051: Yes. a052: Yes. a053: ? [Single question mark] a054: Yes. a055: Yes. [„money for learning materials , courses, etc‟ crossed out and „time‟ underlined]. a056: Yes. a057: Yes. People should be paying him to teach people. [Arrow from „Yes‟ to the following:] If I had money – but to give to community, rather than institution. – Did some work. a058: No. Financially, unfortunately wouldn‟t be able to help. And my knowledge of language is on a scale of 1. Time, I‟m sorry, can‟t help. a059: Yes. a060: a061: No. a062: Yes. a063: Yes. a064: Yes. If I had some. a065: Yes. a066: Yes. I would like work place to support Aboriginal workers to participate & contribute towards learning materials/resources, particularly those kids who have been removed from their families/communities. a067: Yes. a068: Maybe. a069: No. a070: Yes. a071: Yes. a072: Yes. a073: Yes.
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a074: Yes. a075: Yes. a076: Yes.
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21. Do you want (your) children to be speakers of the language?
YES
NO
a001: Yes. a002: Yes. a003: Yes. a004: Yes. a005: Yes. a006: Yes. a007: Yes. a008: Yes. a009: Yes. a010: Yes. a011: Yes. a012: No. a013: Yes. a014: Yes. a015: Yes. a017: Yes. a018: Yes. a019: Yes. a020: Yes. a021: Yes. a022: Yes. a023: Yes.
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a024: Yes. a025: Yes. a026: Yes. a027: Yes. a028: Yes. a029: Yes. a030: Yes. a031: Yes. a032: Yes. a033: Yes. a034: Yes. a035: Yes. a036: Yes. Extended family children. a037: Yes. a038: Yes. a039: Yes. a040: Yes. a041: Yes. a042: Yes. But English as well, otherwise they will not get any benefit from mainstream society. a043: Yes. a044: Yes. Definitely. a045: Yes. a046: Yes. a047: Yes. a048: Yes. a049: Yes. a050: Yes. [SP‟s notes: would like her daughter to learn/speak language fully].
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a051: Yes. a052: Yes. a053: N/A. a054: Yes. [SP‟s notes: Always wants kids or younger people to be speakers but now that the grandchildren are teenagers it‟s much harder – better to get them younger. Respondent works at Hallett Cove School, nieces in reception speak a little Kaurna. Hope granddaughter will be able to attend Kaurna classes with her at some stage]. a055: No. But to have some understanding of where our roots come from. a056: Yes. a057: Yes. Already are. a058: Yes. But she‟s the person that should make that decision. a059: Yes. a060: a061: No. a062: Yes. a063: Yes. a064: Yes. a065: Yes. a066: Yes. a067: Yes. a068: [SP‟s notes: in future, if interviewee had kids, “I guess so”]. a069: No. a070: Yes. a071: Yes. a072: Yes. a073: Yes. a074: Yes. a075: Yes.
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a076: Yes. However, he‟s not a child, he is 24 years old, I would dearly love his children to learn/speak language.
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22. If ‘YES’, what help would be needed to keep the language strong in the family?
a001: a005: Knowledge I‟ve learned from my parents, family members, uncles/aunts. a006: Refer to qu. 19. a007: Families should keep their culture strong. a008: A dictionary of our language. a009: Knowledge and appreciation. a010: For we to learn more my self would help people. a011: Keep teaching children as they grow. a013: Resources... (books, songs etc. etc.) a014: Teach them respect the culture because it‟s important of our people and our community. a015: More family, community involvement. a017: School & family working together. a019: Encourage/invitation to speak. Early introduction. Slowly/slowly – simple lang. /names/no‟s, etc. a020: Not much. I‟d just need the time for my children. a021: Government support, or put into class at school. a022: I myself would need to expose them to language, but also to be able to learn native language in school is important just like Italian or French, etc. a023: More communication + education. a024: To strip away the stigma attached. a025: For me to learn it and speak it and teach it to them. a026: a027:There needs to be language shown in the mainstream society as a positive learning tool a028: Cultural trips + events.
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a029: For me to learn more of the language to speak fluent. For my kids to spend time with my mum. a030: First I would need to learn more language. a031:Going through initiation and getting in touch with family members that know what to do. a032: Literature. a033: To stay in touch with them. a034: To find someone who knows a fair bit of the language, learn from them then teach it to other people. a035: Learning more about our language and using it more often. a036: Local neighbourhood language circles, eg. meeting in someone‟s kitchen or lounge room occasionally to get help to reinforce language. a037: Have it available, easily accessible. Possibly all education facilities. – Accessible book, film and resources. a038: Keep speaking it as much as they can all the time. [SP‟s notes: Ceduna/Port Lincoln languages are often brought to young people in the city and spoken by them. They pick it up from their peers. “It‟s not their language”, they should speak Narungga or whichever is their language]. a039: More ongoing courses. Child care for parents to attend courses. [SP notes: Responsibility of governments to give more funding. Families‟ responsibility also – obviously needs based in terms of money/resources. Need for more courses. Thinks family language planning course would be great, fully supports this]. a040: Teach children that our language is valuable. [SP‟s notes: reinforcement within the family is important – reinforce to kids that Kaurna language is “Nanna‟s language, it‟s their connection to her and the family] a041: It would need to be recorded. a042: Community run language courses, eg. Kaurna language courses at Warriparinga. [SP‟s notes: Community course important because it allows “average Joe Blo” to access learning, with evening time slot – avenue for people who don‟t want to go to uni]. a043: It needs to be spoken and learnt in all schools on Kaurna land & not just as an elective. a044: Books – Elders – Yarning Up.
Groups – Sessions.
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Tapes – Talking Circles.
Visiting Aboriginal Communities/lands, etc. a045: For me, specifically with Walpiri language, is to spend more time in country with Walpiri family members who speak language in everyday life. a046: We need to learn it. a047: Oral histories/stories/words/sentences etc. to be recorded. a048: Myself to be able to identify the languages. Courses such as the Kaurna language course is ideal to give me the understanding I need to teach my family and younger generations. Community can get involved, eg. support, funding. a049: Yes. Help me to speak language.
- lang. courses available
- policy to be learned in school. a050: For language to be taught in schools in their area, the language for that region or country. a051: Elders in our families talk to the young ones to pass on the information. a052:[SP‟s notes: Language needs to be taught in schools, history along with language, all people will finally understand. There‟s a big problem of old fellas having passed, need some younger people who are proficient to teach young people. Also keeping older community members updated on what‟s going on in the world]. a053: a054: Having language classes run by Aboriginal teachers so families can be comfortable. [SP‟s notes: families need to be comfortable, it‟s important to have Aboriginal teachers. One can never run something that everyone will be happy with – classes won‟t appeal to everyone, won‟t fit into everyone‟s lives. Finds it hard to learn language (Kaurna class) – often very stressed in class, describes class as “very dash”]. a055: [„If yes‟ crossed out but answer is still given]. Living in community for start. Once language maintained - pan onto future. a056: Enough knowledge of the language to be able to communicate. Would need to keep practising speaking mostly in language & just a little bit in English. a057: Resources need to be provided by gov. Community centres, etc. Schools – after school activities. a058: A tutor.
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a059: a060: a061: a062: More resources with regard to learning & teaching that have the technology to attract and keep young people engaged in learning, ie. games, songs, dictionaries for downloading on mobile phones & computers. a063: Have dictionaries, attend language lessons. a064: Consistent use of language. Labeling of common things within the home and environment. a065: -Learning language circles.
-Resources at all levels to give to all levels for learning.
-Family circles for lang. learning. a066: The Aboriginal Ed. workers be supported at the schools to run language through songs, stories. Get the parents involved to learn and become teachers of language. a067: Family members teaching the younger generation and use of the language as much as possible to help keep it strong. a068: a069: I don‟t know. a070: To talk it to each other, and support. a071: Talk to each other, explain why you learnt it & encourage it throughout the years. a072: a073: I don‟t know. a074: Reading, writing - documentation of language and specific classes for the language available to people who want to learn and taught by people who know language. a075: To speak it 24/7 or to learn the language and teach children. a076: Needs to be taught & communicated on a daily basis.
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23. Do you have any other thoughts or opinions about your language? Please feel free to add anything you want!
a019: My language is music to my ears. When I speak in Kaurna I feel tall, proud + strong. I want my grannies to be speaking + teaching Kaurna to family & other Aboriginal + mainstream Australians. I want my mob + others to be singing our songs; & telling our stories!! [Wants to name her grandchild with a Kaurna name regardless of whether the mother wants it or not. Says this is Kammami‟s („mother‟s mother‟]prerogative. Very keen to get involved in Kaurna language radio shows and other language work]. a020: [smile & two eyes drawn]. It‟s pretty cool. a021: I think language is very important. a022: I think that there needs to be more resources & funding from the Govt. put towards language programs, especially in the major centres (Adel. Melbourne etc.) because a lot of Aboriginal kids move from the country for education, and a lot of the time the lack of immersion causes the language to fade out. a023: a024: For so long we were unable to pass on language through the generations, so there is a large gap that [is] going to be hard to fill. a025: a026: a027: a028: Needs to be preserved. Not mixed with other dialects. a029: Language is one of the most important things in identity and culture. It is important to keep it strong. a030: a031: a032: a033: a034: a035: a036: I‟m not a Kaurna person but have been in this environment/country for about 15 yrs. I think it‟s inspirational what has been achieved with revival of Kaurna language. I‟m
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convinced that a strong culture can only be maintained with strong language. I‟m also convinced that bilingual programs are important. a037: Each region of any area should use the native language of that area so that everyone can appreciate and understand the true culture, heritage and history of the place where they live, so that Aboriginal language can be fully appreciated, understood and preserved through regular use. a038: The language that we use now keeps us together, it makes me feel good that I do know some of our language because it is a part of our heritage and culture. a039: a040: a041: [SP‟s notes: Learns Kaurna because used to attend Kaurna Plains School + [Kaurna] language more “popular”, more obvious in media, etc. Kaurna is more accessible than Ngarrindjeri. If both were in the same situation, would learn both. If wanted to be leader, then Kaurna a better option]. a042: We need to keep it real & not bastardised like English. a043: a044: a045: a046: a047: I would like to have our language saved. It needs to be recorded on tape/CD. But by Aboriginal people. a048: Language needs to be knowledge in culture, Pre school, Primary, Secondary. The language. We standing on Kaurna land. a049: a050: Australia needs to teach everyone that Australia has a very proud black history. [SP‟s notes: “makes me wild when I can‟t speak my own language”. Knows Yorta Yorta is taught in Victoria but can‟t understand it when spoken. People learning Yorta Yorta are often not from Yorta Yorta country. Lots of Top End people send lads to Aboriginal boarding school (Worawa College) and then they learn Yorta Yorta, when not even from Victoria. Hardly anybody speaks it in Victoria. “Shattered” when she heard schoolkids singing in language, cried her eyes out. She always knew where she was from but did not go back to the family until after first daughter was born (21/22 years old). Despite going back to see her father, did not speak any language with them].
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a051: [SP‟s notes: it‟s very sad that so much language has been lost – so many things have been lost. “Once it‟s gone it‟s gone” [but] it is important to record the language. This is why [name of non-Indigenous linguist] did a good thing [recording interviewee‟s grandmother] despite copyright issues]. a052: I feel really sad because we have only got a few words and sentences left now. My grandparents used to always talk in language and I loved it. Now there‟s not much left and all the old people are gone. Who will teach the young people and that‟s sad. a053: Don‟t know. a054: a055: *Although I‟m not from SA, I have gained some language for Kaurna people SA.
*Being born + bred in Darwin – I‟ve learned several different languages – still I know them + use them with the work (current). a056: I would love to be able to speak my language again, as well as learn other languages – particularly Pitjantjatjara as it would be very useful in my work. a057: [SP‟s notes: Interviewee has concerns about the linguistic and scientific approach. This approach does not compute/link with cultural and land applications. Calls for a separation of the “old” language of T&S and the ling. language, which is “new”. This “new” language doesn‟t show connection to language. When sent messages to people who‟ve been learning Kaurna through [name]‟s stuff, they don‟t understand “his” Kaurna. He doesn‟t agree with someone telling him how Kaurna should be spoken. The interviewee thinks language is fragmented, too many different reconstructions, but identifies the way he speaks as more authentic to “old” Kaurna, corresponding more to T & S Kaurna. Feel the language is in a “very difficult situation”, Only certain elders make decisions. One person shouldn‟t have responsibility. Feels language isn‟t “spoken” anymore, long way from “living lang”. Feels that resources produced aren‟t being used so clearly there is a problem. Perhaps people aren‟t happy with resources being produced. Fellas learning Kaurna aren‟t using body lang. in addition – “heart way, not mind way”. Critical towards youngfellas learning/teaching language too fast – tokenism, totally academic, missing culture. Problem with teaching language to fellas without them knowing their own country. People pay for courses, where‟s the offset? Ling. unit [illeg.] in Adelaide haven‟t included the right people. Thinks the teaching of Kaurna to white children is a good thing but “what are the cultural protocols surrounding it?”. Issue with “Welcome to Country” because “terms of occupation” have never been agreed upon]. a058: When I was younger, I could hear my grandparents speak nunga language as we know it. Unfortunately it was never passed on, and so down the track – in future years we would only hear it rarely.
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a059: Dying out. a060: I would like grandchildren to learn. For instance I honestly believe my granddaughter [name] should learn, then she could go out on field trips with my brother as an interpreter. a061: a062: I am proud of the work done in reviving the Kaurna language, especially of the commitment by a lot of people to make it strong and vibrant for teaching to and learning for young people, especially young Kaurna children and adults. I am confident it will get stronger with it becoming a part of the school curriculum and more Aboriginal people becoming teachers of the Kaurna language. a063: It‟s needed by all Kaurna for identity & self esteem. a064: a065: Interpreters in courts, in [illeg.] for information sharing.
- Teacher training in TAFE, unis, etc. a066: Need to go along tot he language classes to learn more. a067: a068: a069: a070: a071: a072: a073: I don‟t know. a074: a075: Just lucky to not have lost the language and that it‟s still strong. a076: While I believe it‟s the Government‟s responsibility to ensure Aboriginal culture, customs & lore (languages) is embedded within Aust‟s history & is acknowledged & celebrated, non-Aboriginal.
237
24. What about Aboriginal English (Nunga English, ‘Blackfella English’, ‘Cattle Station English’)? Do you...
know it? YES NO
speak it? YES NO
If ‘YES’, who do you speak with in Aboriginal English?
a001: Little bit Kriol. a003: In town they use Nyangumarta and mixing with Kriol. a019: Yes (K & S, - knows it and speaks it). [Wrote] Some familiarity, hear + not speak it. These whitefellas got no shame asking us these questions. a020: Yes [K & S]. Just some people that I know speak it, like my cousins or mates, or family & other children too. a021: Yes [K]. For instance, there‟s no k in the Wiradjuri and so the word kangaroo is gangaroo in Aboriginal English. a022: Yes, some [K]. a023: Yes [K]. No [S]. Family members. a024: Yes [K & S]. Family, friends and whoever understands it. a025: Yes [K & S]. To my family, friends who are Aboriginal, elders. a026: Yes [K]. Mum. a027: Yes [K & S]. When with other Aboriginal people engaging in conversation. a028: Yes [K & S]. Family + friends. a029: Yes (K & S]. When talking to other people who speak it. a030: Yes [K & S]. Mates, family. a031: Yes [K]. Everyone I know or meet. a032: Yes [K & S]. Almost everyone I know.
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a033: Yes [K]. No [S]. My family and friends. a034: Yes [K & S]. With other Aboriginal people, speak it sometimes. a035: Yes [K & S]. a036: Yes [K]. No [S]. Hear it around communities. a037: Yes [K & S]. Yes, language levels vary according to listener. a038: Yes [K & S]. Our families. [SP‟s notes: hand signs are more used than Aboriginal English with family/friends/mob – maras]. a039: Yes [K & S]. Family. a040: Yes [K & S]. Family members, some friends. [SP‟s notes: Aboriginal English more spoken with family than with friends. Speaks NT Kriol with friends in Katherine. A committee and technological resources are needed]. a041: Yes [K]. No [S]. [SP‟s notes: Only speaks a little bit but if surrounded by it for a couple of weeks, they will start to pick it up quickly]. a042: Yes [K & S]. a043: Yes [K‟. No [S]. Listen to my uncles and aunties talk it. a044: Yes [K & S]. Within community – our homes, with family & friends. a045: Yes [K & S]. Members of my family, Nunga work colleagues and Nungas that come into the workplace. a046: No [K & S]. a047: Yes [K]. Yes [S, also added: „some‟ next to S]. Lots of other Nunga people. a048: Yes [K & S]. Family, friends, others. a049: Yes [K]. [S:] Sometimes. “When I see blackfellas... or whitefellas”. a050: Yes [K & S]. My family, colleagues, friends. a051: Yes [K & S]. Family/friends. a052: Yes [K]. Some of it. Yes [S]. Some of it. My family, don‟t speak with non Aboriginal people. a053: Yes [K]. [S:] sometimes. Anyone – depends. a054: Yes [K & S]. Most of family. a055: Yes [K & S]. Some [added both places]. Kids, partner, family, friends, patients.
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a056: Yes [K & S]. Little bit [added both places]. Other family members, co-workers, community members, some patients accessing FMC. a057: Yes [K & S]. Most of Ab. community. Urban fellas. a058: No [K & S]. a059: No [K & S]. a060: No [K & S]. a061: No [K & S]. a062: No [K & S]. a063: No [K & S]. a064: Yes [K & S]. Other Aboriginal people and also my children & grandchildren where possible. a065: Yes [K & S]. [„Blackfella English‟ crossed out]. Other Ab‟ ppl. a066: Yes [K & S]. Family. Aboriginal wk colleagues. Aboriginal families. Aboriginal friends & some non-Aboriginal friends. a067: Yes [K & S]. My sons, nephews and other relatives. a068: Yes [K]. [S:] Sometimes. Family + friends. a069: No [K & S]. a070: Yes [K & S]. With all of my friends. a071: Yes [K & S]. Yes, because our friends are Aboriginals. a072: Yes [K & S]. [„No‟ K & S circled then crossed out]. Family and mostly friends. a073: Yes [K & S]. It‟s dad and mum. [SP‟s notes: speak with friends at school but rarely – more so with mum and dad]. a074: Yes [ K & S]. Other Aboriginal people and my non-Aboriginal friends who are willing to take part. a075: Yes [K & S]. Other Aboriginal people, whether here or interstate, I try to learn their lingo to relate to them as my ancestors did. a076: Yes [K & S]. [Inserted question with arrow towards „Cattle Station English‟:] Is this a bit offensive? [Who do you speak with:] My family & extended family & some non-Abor. People who are either married or partner with Abor. Individual &/or have Abor. Children.
240
Did you learn it from your parents/grandparents/siblings/other children as you grew up? (Please CIRCLE the most appropriate one(s))
a019: Parents/grandparents. a020: Parents, siblings, other children. a021: Grandparents. a022: Grandparents, siblings, cousins. a023: Grandparents, other children. a024: Parents, siblings, other children. a025: My family. Parents. a026: Other children. a027: Parents, siblings, other children. a028: Parents, grandparents, siblings, other children. a029: Parents, siblings, other children [added: other kids at school, family]. a030: Parents, grandparents, siblings, other children. a031: Parents, grandparents, siblings, other children. a032: Parents, grandparents. a033: Parents. a034: Other children. a035: [Added:] growing up. Parents, siblings, other children. a036: - other Ab. people. a037: Parents, siblings, other children. a038: [SP‟s notes: interviewee does not know specifically where from, it was “always around”]. a039: Family. Other children. a040: Parents.
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a041: Family. Parents, other children. a042: Family. Parents, grandparents, siblings, other children. a043: [SP‟s notes: grandparents, aunties, uncles]. a044: Parents, grandparents, siblings, other children. a045: Other children. a046: Grandparents. a047: Parents, siblings, other children. a048: Parents, grandparents, siblings, other children. a049: Siblings. a050: Parents. a051: Grandparents, siblings. a052: The old people (my elders). Grandparents. a053: a054: a055: Parents, grandparents, siblings, other children. a056: Have learnt bits & pieces over my adult years once I reconnected with my birth family after 30 years separation. a057: Grew up with it – everyone. a058: a059: Parents [spoke it (?)] a060: a061: a062: a063: a064: Parents, other children. a065: listening, hearing, speaking, etc. a066: Parents, grandparents, siblings, other children.
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a067: Parents, siblings, other children. [SP‟s notes: As a teenager he often spoke Aboriginal English with 2 or 3 different Aboriginal languages. When growing up, he was speaking other people‟s languages but kids now aren‟t so aware]. a068: Parents, siblings, other children. a069: a070: Parents, other children. a071: a072: Parents, siblings, other children. a073: Parents. a074: Parents, grandparents, other children. a075: Other children. a076: Parents, grandparents, siblings, other children.
243
25. If you have children or other younger relations, do they speak Aboriginal English?
YES NO
a019: Yes. a020: Yes. a021: Yes. a022: Yes. a023: Yes. a024: Yes. a025: Yes. a026: Yes. a027: Yes. a028: Yes. a029: Yes. a030: Yes. a031: Yes. a032: Yes. a033: Yes. a034: Yes. a035: Yes. a036: Yes. a037: Yes. a038: Yes. a039: Yes. a040: Yes. a041: Yes.
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a042: Yes. a043: Yes. a044: Yes. a045: Yes. a046: a047: Yes. a048: Yes. a049: Yes. a050: Yes. a051: Yes. a052: Yes. a053: Sometimes. a054: Yes. a055: Yes. a056: No. a057: Yes. Little bit. a058: Yes. a059: No. a060: No. a061: No. a062: No. a063: No. a064: Yes. Sometimes. a065: Sometimes. a066: Yes. a067: Yes. a068: Sometimes.
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a069: No. a070: Yes. a071: Yes. a072: Yes. [„No‟ circled then crossed out]. a073: No. a074: Yes. a075: Yes. a076: Yes. Younger nephews/nieces. [line towards „no‟:] Sorry, should be this, my son is 24 years old.
246
26. If ‘YES’, who do they speak it with?
a019: Inner & extended circle. a020: My siblings, parents, their parents & siblings/friends. a021: a022: Other cousins, Aboriginal friends. a023: Family members. a024: Mostly elders, and other children. a025: Everyone, friends, family. a026: a027: Further more Aboriginal people in or even out[side] their community. a028: Family. a029: Other Aboriginal kids/family, each other. a030: Friends, family. a031: With family. a032: Family and friends. a033: Family & friends. a034: With themselves and their parents. a035: Yes well all do. a036: Friends + family. a037: Family, friends and children. a038: Families. Relations. a039: Family. Friends. a040: Family and friends. a041: Family. a042: Family and friends. a043: Family. a044: Family, friends, with the community we live.
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a045: Me, aunties, grandmothers & Nunga friends & other Nunga family members. a046: a047: Most Aboriginal people. a048: Family, friends and others. a049: Because he enjoy the language to he people. a050: Mostly other family members and other Aboriginal people. a051: Me, family, friends. a052: I will keep teaching my children and my grandchildren. a053: a054: Aboriginal English. a055: Me, their family, friends. a056: a057: Other Nunga kids. -At home. a058: Amongst themselves, eg. young family relations, cousins, brothers, sisters. a059: a060: a061: a062: a063: a064: Mostly family. a065: Peers, family & extensions. a066: With family/cousins. a067: Yes, my sons use it when they are with their cousins. a068: [SP‟s notes: very young cousins so they don‟t speak much, just a little]. a069: a070: Me & friends & parents. a071: Their parents, friends & me.
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a072: Aunties, uncle, brothers and sisters, friend at school. a073: Dad and mum [arrow up to question 24 „parents‟]. a074: My parents, my friends and me. a075: To English speakers if they have broken English. a076: As above, with immediate /extended family & others we have grown up with.
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27. If you have young children or other younger relations would you like them to speak Aboriginal English, and would you teach them/encourage them to learn it?
YES NO
a001: Nyangumarta.
a002: Nyangumarta.
a003: Nyangumarta.
a019: Yes.
a020: Yes.
a021: Yes.
a022: No.
a023: Yes.
a024: Yes.
a025: Yes.
a026: No.
a027: No.
a028: Yes.
a029: Unsure.
a030: Yes.
a031: Yes.
a032: Yes.
a033: Yes.
a034: Not sure.
a035: Yes.
a036: Not sure.
a037: No. [„Yes‟ circled then scribbled out. Added:] Learn to speak both languages independently – prior to attempting Aboriginal English.
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a038: Yes.
a039: Yes.
a040:
a041: No. [SP‟s notes: Would prefer them to learn the full Ngarrindjeri language. [Aboriginal English is] easy to pick up, but only a “half” language, doesn‟t find it very attractive. It isn‟t a proper language. Has a problem naming it as „Nunga‟ or „Aboriginal‟ English, feels that gives it an undeserved status. Better to speak either English or language.]
a042: Yes. [SP‟s notes: Aboriginal English has been necessary to become a part of mainstream society. Speaks Aboriginal English at home].
a043: Yes. [„No‟ circled then scribbled out]
a044: Yes. Definitely.
a045: Yes.
a046: Difficult to answer. My needs may be in conflict with their parents. a047: Yes. Absolutely. a048: Yes. a049: Yes. [At] Salisbury High. a050: Yes. a051: Yes. a052: Yes. a053: Maybe, don‟t know. a054: Yes. a055: Yes. a056: Yes. a057: Ab. Eng. a given. Try to teach them Kaurna instead. a058: No. I don‟t know it. a059: Yes. a060: a061: No.
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a062: No. I rather they speak proper Aboriginal language, not made up part Aboriginal and English. a063: No. I think learning Aboriginal English is a backward step. Our people always explained to me we should be as a bank executive [„excellence‟?, partly illeg.] and therefore you should speak standard English. a064: Yes. a065: Yes. a066: Yes. I‟ll say yes, but would like them to be able to speak fluently as well – that‟s the ideal. a067: Yes. a068: [SP‟s notes: if had children in future, “yes, a little bit”]. a069: No. a070: Yes. a071: Yes. a072: Yes. a073: No. [SP‟s notes: circled „no‟ because no kids or younger relations but later in life would like children to speak it].
a074: Yes.
a075: No. I would teach them my language.
a076:
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APPENDIX 9: PORT PIRIE DATA (pp001-pp029)
Questionnaire for the Family Language Policies for Language Maintenance and Revival Project
PORT PIRIE DATA
pp001-pp029 collected February 2010 by Petter Naessan and Elsa Naessan at the TAFE, the Tarpari Centre, the Community Health Centre, the Aboriginal Community Centre and at one private residence, Port Pirie.
1. Where and when were you born? M / F
pp001 : June 1993, Adelaide, SA, M. pp002 : [c. 1975], Alice Springs, NT, M. pp003 : 1983, Port Augusta, SA, F. [Daughter of pp004]. pp004 : 1962, Leigh Creek, SA, F [mother of pp003]. pp005: Port Pirie, SA, 1979, F. pp006: November 1950, Bordertown, VIC, F. pp007: [c. 1955], Port Pirie, SA, F. pp008 : November 1983, Alice Springs, NT, F. pp009 : 1959, Alice Springs, NT, F. pp010 : 1984, Point Pierce, SA, M. pp011 : [c. 1975], Alice Springs, NT, F. pp012 : May 1991, Adelaide, SA, M. pp013 : December 1993, Alice Springs, NT, M. pp014 : October 1992, Alice Springs, NT, F. pp015: August 1991, Alice Springs, NT, M.
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pp016 : January 1983, Alice Springs, NT, M. pp017 : April 1984, Alice Springs, NT, F. pp018 : 1958, Hermannsburg, NT, M. pp019 : [c. 1965], Aileron Station, NT, M. pp020 : 1988, Adelaide, SA, M [nephew of pp021] pp021 : 1971, Adelaide, SA, M [uncle of pp020] pp022 : 1963, New Zealand, F. pp023 : 1977, Ali Curung, NT, F. pp024 : February 1968, Alice Springs, NT, F. pp025 : April 1992, Adelaide, SA, F. pp026: February 1985, Alice Springs, NT, F. pp027 : May 1977, Alice Springs, NT, F. pp028 : 1979, Adelaide, SA, M. pp029: February 1970, Alice Springs, NT, F.
254
2. What language group(s) do you identify with?
pp001:English, German [one other entered, then crossed out. „ja‟ or „ga‟ last syllable] pp002 : Anmatjerre, Warlpiri and Kaytetye. pp003 : Arrabunna and Adnynmathana. pp004: Adnymathna (Flinders Ranges), also understand Pitjantjatjara, Arabunna. pp005 : Pitjantjara. pp006 : Wergaia/Gunditjmara. Around Swan Hill, Dimboola areas. pp007: Pitjanjatjarra. pp008 : Arrenta pp009 : Luritja/Aranda. pp010: Ngarrindjeri. pp011: Walpiri, Western Arente, English. pp012: Nukunu. pp013: Western Arrenta. pp014: Western Aranda. pp015: Western Aranda and Pitjantjarra. pp016: Pitjantjarra. pp017: Western, Eastern Arrente and Pitjatjatjara and Loritja. pp018 : Western Arrente and Luritja. pp019 : Anmatjere. pp020: Antikarinya, Pitjantjatjara. pp021: Pitjantjatjara, Yankunytjara. pp022 : Maori. pp023 : Warlpiri and Western Aranda. pp024 : Eastern Arrernte. pp025: Ngarrindjeri. pp026 : Luritja, Aranda.
255
pp027: Aranda. [Understands Warlpiri, Luritja/Pintupi, Pitjantjatjara and some Yankunytjatjara. Also understands Anmatjerre] pp028: Gugadha. pp029 : Western Aranda.
256
3. Do you speak this/these language(s)?
YES, NO, SOME
pp001 : Yes pp002 : Yes. Some. pp003 : Yes. pp004: Yes. pp005 : No. Speak some words. pp006: No. pp007: Some swear words. pp008: Yes. pp009 : Yes. pp010 : Some. pp011 : Yes. pp012 : No. pp013: Yes. pp014 :Yes. pp015: No. pp016: Yes. pp017 : Yes. pp018 : Yes. pp019: Yes. pp020 : Some. pp021: Some. pp022: Yes. pp023 : Yes. pp024 : Some.
257
pp025 : Some. pp026 : Yes. pp027 : Yes. pp028 : Some. pp029 : Yes.
3. 1. If ‘NO’, do you understand some language when it’s spoken?
YES, NO
: pp001: Yes pp002: Yes. pp003: pp004 pp005: Yes. pp006 : No. pp007 : Yes. pp008 pp009 pp010 : Yes. pp011 pp012: Yes. pp013 : Yes. pp014 : Yes. pp015: Yes. pp016 pp017
258
pp018 pp019 : Yes. pp020 pp021 : Yes. pp022 pp023 pp024 : Yes. pp025: Yes. pp026 pp027 : Yes. pp028 : Yes. pp029 : Yes.
3. 2. If ‘NO’, would you like to learn this/these languages?
YES, NO
pp001 : [„NO‟ ticked, then crossed out] pp002 pp003 pp004 pp005 : Yes. pp006: Yes. pp007 : Yes. pp008 pp009 pp010 : Yes.
259
pp011 pp012 : Yes. pp013 : Yes. pp014 : Yes. pp015 pp016 pp017 pp018 pp019: Yes. pp020 pp021 : Yes. pp022 pp023 pp024 : No. pp025 : Yes. pp026 pp027 pp028: Yes. pp029
260
4. Do or did any of your parents speak this/these language(s)?
YES, NO
pp001 : Yes. pp002 : Yes. pp003 : Yes. pp004 : Yes. pp005 : Yes. Some words/sentences. pp006 : No. pp007 : No. pp008 : Yes. pp009 : Yes. pp010 : Yes. pp011 : Yes. pp012 : Yes. pp013 : Yes. pp014 : Yes. pp015 : Yes. pp016 : Yes. pp017 : Yes. pp018 : Yes. pp019 : Yes. pp020 : No. pp021 : Yes. pp022 : Yes. pp023 : Yes. pp024 : Yes.
261
pp025 : Yes. pp026 : Yes. pp027 : Yes. pp028 : Yes. pp029 : Yes.
If no, do or did they speak another language, if so, what language(s)?
pp001 pp002 pp003 pp004 pp005 pp006: English. pp007 pp008 pp009 pp010 pp011 pp012 pp013 pp014 pp015 pp016 pp017
262
pp018 pp019 pp020 pp021 pp022 pp023 pp024 pp025 pp026 pp027 pp028: Yes. pp029
263
5. Do or did any of your grandparents speak this/these language(s)?
YES, NO
pp001 : No. pp002 : Yes. pp003 : Yes. pp004 : Yes. pp005 : Yes. pp006 : Yes. pp007 : No. pp008 : Yes. pp009 : Yes. pp010 : Yes. pp011 : Yes. pp012 : Yes. pp013 : Yes. pp014 : Yes. pp015 : Yes. pp016 : Yes. pp017 : Yes. pp018 : Yes. pp019 : Yes. pp020 : Yes. pp021 : Yes. pp022 : Yes. pp023 : Yes. pp024 : Yes.
264
pp025 : Yes. pp026 : Yes. pp027 : Yes. pp028 : Yes. pp029 : Yes.
If no, do or did your grandparents speak another language, if so, what language(s)?
pp001 pp002 pp003 pp004 pp005 pp006 pp007 No. pp008 pp009 pp010 pp011 pp012 pp013 pp014 pp015 pp016
265
pp017 pp018 pp019 pp020 pp021 Pitantjara, Antikiri pp022 pp023 pp024 pp025 pp026 pp027 pp028 Gugadha. pp029
266
6. Do or did your grandparents speak language to you?
YES, NO
pp001 No. pp002 : Yes. pp003 : Yes. pp004 : Yes. pp005 : Yes. pp006 No. pp007 No. pp008 Yes pp009 : Yes. pp010 : Yes. pp011 : Yes. pp012 : Yes. pp013 : Yes. pp014 : Yes. pp015 pp016 : Yes. pp017 pp018 : Yes. pp019 : Yes. pp020 Sometimes. pp021 : Yes. pp022 : Yes. pp023 : Yes. pp024 : Yes.
267
pp025 : Yes. pp026 : Yes. pp027 : Yes. pp028 : Yes. pp029 : Yes.
268
7. Do or did your parents speak language to you?
YES, NO
pp001 No. pp002 : Yes. pp003 : Yes. pp004 : Yes. pp005: No. pp006: No. pp007: No. pp008 : Yes. pp009 : Yes. pp010 : Yes. pp011 : Yes. pp012 : Yes. pp013 : Yes. pp014 : Yes. pp015 : Yes. pp016 : Yes. pp017 : Yes. pp018 : Yes. pp019 : Yes. pp020: No. pp021 : Yes. pp022 : Yes. pp023 : Yes.
269
pp024 : Yes. pp025 : Yes. pp026 : Yes. pp027 : Yes. pp028 : Yes. [Occasional words] pp029 : Yes.
If ‘NO’, what language do or did they speak to you?
pp001: English. pp002 pp003 pp004 pp005 : English. pp006: English. pp007: Just English. pp008 pp009 pp010 pp011 pp012 pp013 pp014 : Western Aranda. pp015: Western Aranda. pp016 pp017 pp018 pp019
270
pp020 pp021: English, Pitjara, Antikari. pp022 pp023 pp024 pp025 pp026 pp027 pp028 : Aboriginal language bulua [palya, other occasional words] pp029 : Western Aranda.
271
8. Do or did any other family members speak language to you? Who?
pp001: Family and friends – all the time. pp002: All family members. pp003: Aunties, uncles, family friends. pp004: Brothers and sisters, cousins. pp005 : Yes. Grandmother on occasions. pp006 : No. pp007: No. pp008: Niece, nephew, sister, cousins, aunty, uncle, brother. pp009 : Yes. Brothers, sisters, aunties, uncles. pp010: All family members. pp011 : Mother, sisters, aunties, uncles, cousins, nieces, nephews. pp012 : Parents and grandparents. pp013: All of my family. pp014: My aunties, cousins, uncles. pp015: Most of the relatives. pp016: Parents and grandparents. pp017: Families. pp018 : Cousins, brother, sisters, uncles, aunties, nephews, nieces - all of them. pp019 : Yes. pp020: Yes, other family. pp021: Cousins, brothers, sisters, father, aunties. pp022 : Yes, all family members. pp023 : Aunties and cousins. pp024 pp025 : No.
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pp026: My cousins. pp027 : Rest of my families. pp028: Brother, sister. pp029 : All my family.
273
9. How often do you use language?
NEVER
RARELY9
SOMETIMES10
OFTEN11
MOST OF THE TIME12
pp001: Never. [„Most of the time‟ ticked and crossed out] pp002: Most of the time, with family. pp003: Often. pp004: Most of the time. pp005 : Rarely. pp006 : Never. Rarely. pp007 : Rarely. pp008: Most of the time. pp009: Most of the time. pp010: Sometimes. pp011: Sometimes. Often. Most of the time.
9 Less than once a month 10 One-two times a month 11 One or more times every week 12 Use the language generally, four days a week or more
274
pp012: Rarely. pp013: Most of the time. pp014: Most of the time. pp015: Rarely. pp016 : Most of the time. pp017: Most of the time. pp018: Most of the time. pp019: Most of the time. pp020 : Rarely. pp021: Sometimes. pp022: Sometimes. pp023: Most of the time. pp024: Sometimes. pp025 : Sometimes. pp026: Most of the time. [but circled „one-two times a month‟] pp027: Most of the time. pp028 : Sometimes. pp029 : Most of the time.
275
10. Who do you use language with? CIRCLE the one(s) most appropriate.
aGRANDPARENT(S) – bPARENTS – cAUNTS/UNCLES - dSIBLINGS – eCOUSINS – fCHILDREN – gNEPHEWS/NIECES - hOTHER PEOPLE I KNOW – iANYONE WHO SPEAKS THE LANGUAGE - jNONE
pp001 : None. (j) pp002 pp003 : a, b, c, d, e, f, g pp004 : b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i pp005: a, b pp006: Mother. pp007: f, h pp008 : c, d, e, f, g, h pp009 : a, b, c, d pp010 : All family members. pp011 : [All circled except „NONE‟] pp012 : a, b, c, d, e pp013 : a, b, c, d, e, f, g pp014 : a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h pp015 : b, c, d, e, g, i pp016 : b, c, d, g, h pp017 : i pp018 : [All circled except „NONE‟] pp019 : All [written on the side] pp020 : a, h, i pp021 : c
276
pp022 : Family. pp023 : c, e, f, nieces, j pp024 pp025 : Anyone who speaks the language. pp026 : b, aunts, e, h pp027 : a, b, c, d, e, f, g, i pp028 : a, b, c, d, e, f pp029 : c, d, e, f, g
277
11. Do you live in the area associated with your language group(s)?
YES, NO
pp001: Yes [„NO‟ ticked and crossed out]. pp002 : Yes some time. No. pp003 : Yes. Mother‟s area (Flinders Ranges). pp004 : No. pp005 : No. pp006 : No. pp007 : Yes. pp008 : No. pp009 : No. pp010: No. pp011 : No. pp012 : No. pp013 : Yes [actually „NO‟, judging from the answer below & from the language/place of birth] pp014 : No [„YES‟ ticked and scribbled out] pp015 : Yes. pp016 : Yes. pp017 : Yes. pp018 : No. pp019 : No. pp020 : No. pp021 : Yes. pp022 : No. pp023 : No.
278
pp024 : No. pp025 : No. pp026 : No. pp027 : Yes. pp028 : Yes. pp029: No.
If ‘NO’, how long have you lived away from your country?
pp001 pp002 : 10 Years. pp003 pp004: 30 years. pp005 : [all her life] pp006 : Never. Visited my mum‟s area about twice/Dad‟s area Dimboola. Several times as a child being back mostly for funerals. pp007 pp008 : 10 Years. pp009 : 14 to 15 years. pp010 : 13 years. pp011 pp012 : 11 years. pp013 : 6 years. pp014: 6 years. pp015 pp016
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pp017 pp018 : 6 years. pp019 : 6 year. pp020 : [I‟ve lived away from my country] most of my life but not all. pp021 pp022 pp023 : 9 years. pp024 pp025: 4-5 years. pp026 pp027 pp028: Day one of birth [ostensibly: „No‟ to q 11 and having lived away from his country since birth] pp029 : Six years.
280
12. Do most of your friends belong to the group you identify with?
YES, NO
pp001 : Yes. pp002 : Yes. pp003 : Some. pp004 : No. pp005 : No. pp006 : No. pp007 : No. pp008 : Yes. pp009 : Yes. pp010 : No. pp011 : Yes. pp012 : No. pp013 : Yes. pp014 : No. pp015 pp016 : Yes. pp017 : Yes. pp018 : Yes. pp019 : Yes. pp020 : No. pp021 : Yes. pp022 : No. pp023 : No. pp024 : Yes.
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pp025 : No. pp026 : Yes. pp027 : Yes. pp028 : Yes. pp029 : Yes.
282
13. Does your spouse/partner belong to your group?
YES, NO
If ‘NO’, what group does she/he belong to?
pp001: No. SINGLE. pp002 : Yes. pp003 : No. Non-Aboriginal. pp004 : No. Non-Aboriginal. [but pp003‟s late father Arabana] pp005 : No partner. pp006 : No. White person. pp007 pp008 : No. Pipt. [Pitjantjatjara?] pp009 : Yes. pp010 : No. Yankunytjatjara. pp011 : No. Yankuntjatjara. pp012 : No. Western Arrenta. pp013 pp014: No. Nukuna. pp015 pp016 : No. Western Arrenta. pp017 pp018 : No. Walpari. pp019 : No. Arrente. pp020 : No.[single] pp021 : No. [single]
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pp022 : No. pp023 : No. Eastern Aranda. pp024 : No. pp025 : No. Pitjantjatjara. pp026 : Yes. pp027 pp028 : No. pp029 : No. Anmatjere.
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14. Do you have children?
YES
Ages: 0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25
NO
pp001 : No. pp002 : Yes. 2 X 5-10, 2 X 10-15 [4 children] pp003: No. pp004 : Yes. 15-20 and 20-25. pp005 : No. pp006 : Yes, 31 and 33 years old. pp007 : Yes. Over 20-25. pp008 : Yes. 0-5 and 5-10. pp009 : Yes. 4 over 25. pp010 : Yes. 3 children, 2-7 years. pp011 : Yes. 4 children. 1-5, 2 X 5-10, 10-15. pp012 : Yes. 0-5. pp013 : No. pp014 : Yes. 0-5. pp015 : No. pp016 : Yes. 0-5 and 5-10. pp017 : No.
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pp018 : Yes. 20-25. pp019 : Yes. 5-10. pp020 : No. pp021 : No. pp022 : Yes. 10-15, 15-20. pp023 : Yes. 5-10. pp024 : Yes. 5-10, 20-25. pp025: No. pp026 : Yes. 5-10. pp027 : Yes. 5-10, 10-15. pp028 : Yes. 5-10, 10-15. pp029 : Yes. 4-17. [3 boys and 3 girls. All of the girls speak language and 1 of the boys speak language. The two other boys understand but do not speak.]
If not, do you have nephews/nieces or other relatives that are children?
YES, NO
pp001: No. pp002 : Yes. pp003 : Yes. pp004 pp005 : Yes. pp006 : Yes. pp007 : Yes. pp008 pp009 pp010 : Yes.
286
pp011 pp012 pp013 : Yes. pp014 : Yes. pp015 : Yes. pp016 pp017 : Yes. pp018 pp019 : Yes. pp020 : Yes. pp021 : Yes. pp022 pp023 pp024 : Yes. pp025 : Yes. pp026 pp027 : Yes. pp028 : No. pp029 : Yes.
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15. If YES to any of the above, do you speak language to them?
YES, NO
When? AS ABOVE
OTHER INFORMATION:
pp001 pp002 : Yes. pp003 : Yes. Home, everyday, outings, school. pp004 : Yes. pp005: No. pp006 : No. pp007 : Yes. Only some. pp008 : Yes. At home. pp009 : Yes. As often as I can. pp010 : No. They don‟t understand. pp011 : Yes. Home, anytime. pp012 : No. pp013 : Yes. pp014 : Yes. pp015 : No I just speak English and they understand. pp016 : Yes. Most of the time. pp017 : Yes. pp018 : Yes. When visiting, when I see him. pp019 : Yes. pp020 : No. pp021 : Yes.
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pp022 : Yes. As above. Cultural [occasions?] pp023 : Yes. All the time. pp024 : Yes. pp025 : Yes. pp026 : Yes. Some other nieces and nephews, cousins speak English to me, some speak in language. pp027 : Yes. All the time. pp028 : [Sometimes?] pp029 : Yes. As above.
289
16. Do they speak back to you in English?
NO
YES, all the time
YES, sometimes
pp001: Yes, all the time. pp002 : Yes, sometimes. pp003 : Yes, sometimes. pp004 : Yes, sometimes. pp005 : Yes, all the time. pp006 : Yes, all the time. pp007 : Yes, all the time. pp008 : Yes, all the time. pp009 : Yes, all the time. pp010 : I speak to them in English all the time and they answer back in English.[see 15 above] pp011 : Yes, all the time. pp012 : No. pp013 : Yes, sometimes. pp014 : Yes, sometimes. pp015 : Yes, sometimes. [similar to pp010] pp016 : No. pp017 : Yes, all the time. Yes, sometimes. [wrote] „both‟. pp018 : Yes, sometimes. pp019 : No [„yes‟, judging from the answer below]
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pp020 : No [inapplicable, since he does not speak L to them] pp021 : Yes, sometimes. pp022 : Yes, all the time. pp023 : Yes, sometimes. pp024 : Yes, sometimes. pp025 : Yes, sometimes. pp026 : Yes, sometimes. pp027 : Yes, sometimes. pp028 : Yes, all the time. pp029 : Yes, sometimes.
If they speak back to you in English, why do you think they do it?
They don‟t know enough language
They don‟t want to speak the language
BOTH
OTHER-
pp001 : [„They don‟t know enough language‟ ticked and crossed out] pp002 : BOTH. pp003 : BOTH.
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pp004 : BOTH. pp005 : They don‟t know enough language. pp006 : They don‟t know enough language. pp007 : They don‟t know enough language. pp008 : Because there is a lot of English around & they pick it up – like at school. pp009 : They‟ll speak when they want to. pp010 : They don‟t know enough language. pp011 : [„They don‟t know enough language‟ ticked and crossed out] pp012 pp013 : They don‟t know enough language. pp014 : BOTH. pp015 : They don‟t want to speak the language. pp016 pp017 : Cause they just want to. pp018 : Sometimes. pp019: BOTH. pp020 pp021 : They come down from north and learn English themselves. pp022 : English words unable to be interpreted. pp023 : BOTH. pp024 : BOTH. pp025 : They don‟t know enough language. pp026 : BOTH. pp027 : BOTH. pp028 : BOTH. pp029 : BOTH.
292
293
17. Are you concerned that the language will disappear?
NO/NO, I don‟t think it will/YES
pp001 : No. pp002: No, I don‟t think it will. pp003 : Yes. pp004 : Yes. pp005 : Yes. pp006 : Maybe. pp007 : Yes. pp008 : No. pp009 : No, I don‟t think it will. [„Yes‟ circled then crossed out] pp010 : Yes. pp011 : No, I don‟t think it will. pp012 : Yes. pp013 : No, I don‟t think it will. pp014 : No, I don‟t think it will. pp015 : Yes. pp016 : Yes. pp017 : Yes. pp018 : Yes. pp019 : No. pp020 : No. pp021 : It‟s strong in some places. pp022 : No. pp023 : No, I don‟t think it will. pp024 : No, I don‟t think it will.
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pp025 : Yes. pp026 : No, I don‟t think it will. pp027 : No, I don‟t think it will. pp028 : Yes. pp029 : No.
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18. Do you feel that language is less important than English?
YES, NO, OTHER
pp001 : No. Because it is part of the culture and identity. pp002 : No. But yes to Aboriginal [illegible, scribbled out] pp003 : No. pp004 : No. pp005 : No. pp006 : No. I think it is just as important as English. pp007 : No. pp008 : No. pp009 : No. I reckon language is important as English. pp010 : No. pp011 : Yes. pp012 : Yes. pp013 : No. pp014 : No. pp015 : No. pp016 : No. pp017 : Yes [„no‟ from the answers given below] pp018 : No. pp019 : Yes. pp020 : Don‟t know. pp021 Language and English, but wangka is most important. pp022: No. My first language [is most important] pp023 : No. pp024 : No.
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pp025 : No. pp026 : No. pp027 : No [„yes‟ circled then scribbled out]. Now days most of us have moved away to the town away from the community. pp028 : No. pp029 : No.
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19. Whose responsibility is it to keep the language alive, the Government’s, the school’s, families’ or others? Please explain
pp001: If the people keep talking the language it will stay alive but if people stop and talk another language. pp002 : Yes. pp003: Everybody is responsible. pp004 : Family, schools, governments. pp005 : Families. Schools (maybe). I believe that it needs to be passed down from generations. pp006 : Government & schools & families. Governments should never repress or moved people from their areas and language. School should teach other languages eg different Aboriginal languages depending where the schools are situated. Families – so each generation can learn their parents‟ area language. pp007 : Families. pp008 : Aboriginal people, schools. pp009 : Families. pp010 : Elders. pp011 : Other people, me, school, government. pp012 : Government. pp013: Families. pp014 : Families. pp015 : The families and schools so the language can be kept strong if someone who knows the language thoroughly. pp016 : Families. pp017 : I think all above because our languages are dieing [sic]and its good to have your own language as well to carry on from generations to generations and to be proud about the language we‟ve got and for who we are. pp018 : Families, schools, government – main one. pp019 : Families and to have language school. pp020 : Schools, families, government.
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pp021 : Families. pp022 : Individuals through to community. Once community controlled, demand to improve in schools. pp023 : All of the above. pp024 : All above. pp025 : All of above. pp026 : Back at Community Schools they run language lessons to keep the language very strong. And some elders take the kids out bush for trip. Learning language for bush tucker. pp027 : Mainly families. pp028 : Families. pp029 : Families.
299
20. Would you be prepared to give money (for learning materials, courses, etc.) or time to strengthen the language?
YES, NO
pp001 : Yes. pp002 : Yes. pp003 : Yes. pp004 : No. Only because I am not financially viable. pp005 : Yes. pp006 : Yes. pp007 : Yes. If I can. pp008 : Yes. pp009 : Yes. pp010 : Yes. pp011 : Yes. pp012 : Yes. pp013 : No. pp014 : No. pp015 : No. pp016 : Yes. pp017 : Yes. pp018 : Yes. pp019 : Yes. pp020 : Yes. pp021 : Yes. pp022 : Yes. pp023 : Yes.
300
pp024 : Yes. pp025 : Yes. pp026 : Yes. pp027 : Yes. pp028 : No. pp029: N/A.
301
21. Do you want (your) children to be speakers of the language?
YES, NO
pp001: Yes [„NO‟ scribbled out] pp002 : Yes. pp003 : Yes. pp004 : Yes. pp005 : Yes. pp006 : Yes. If it‟s their choice. pp007 : Yes. pp008 : Yes. pp009 : Yes. pp010 : Yes. pp011 : Yes. pp012 : Yes. pp013 : Yes. pp014 : Yes. pp015 : Yes. pp016 : Yes. pp017 : Yes. pp018 : Yes. pp019 : Yes. pp020 : Yes. pp021 : Yes. pp022 : Yes. pp023 : Yes. pp024 : Yes.
302
pp025: Maybe. pp026 : Yes. pp027 : Yes. pp028 : Yes. pp029 : Yes.
303
22. If ‘YES’, what help would be needed to keep the language strong in the family?
pp001 : My family don‟t speak the language because we don‟t know much about our culture but I have been doing some research. pp002 : Handed down, traditional. pp003 : Support from grandparents, uncles, aunts, mother and father. pp004 : Don‟t know. pp005 pp006 : For myself to learn the languages and speak it on occasions to my family and children & grannies. pp007 : More materials to help learn the language. pp008 : Other people speaking language & lessons at school. pp009 : Language classes. pp010 : To speak it more. pp011 : Learn at school. Keep it going in family. pp012 : Keep speaking the language. pp013 : Keep speaking to each other. pp014 : Keep on speaking at home. pp015: Keep the children close to the family where they can understand the culture. pp016 : Teach it at school. pp017 : Communication with each other. pp018 : Learn in school. pp019 : Strong family to have strong language. pp020 : Language speakers in schools. pp021 : Get together, use language. pp022 : Kohanga in the home. Teaching in the home. pp023 : Keep teaching them the language at home and getting support in the schools. pp024 : So they can understand the cultural meanings and to be proud of who they are and to teach their children and so on.
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pp025 : More elders. pp026 : Getting Aboriginal assistant teacher to run lessons at school. Language lessons, because it‟s very important to keep the language very strong. Lest they might forget. pp027 : Try to put in schools. One lesson twice a week. pp028 pp029 : Keep on speaking language at home.
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23. Do you have any other thoughts or opinions about your language? Please feel free to add anything you want!
pp001 : No not really. I have been doing research but am slowly finding out more about the culture. pp002 : Cultural and traditional lore. pp003 : I can‟t speak entire sentences – some words I can string together. My niece, her mum comes from APY Lands, so I have learnt to speak Pitjantjatjara. pp004 pp005 pp006 pp007 pp008: Language is good – we want to keep it strong. pp009: No. pp010 pp011 pp012 : It should be something that taught in school. pp013 : My language is very important to me and my family. Wewant to keep it strong. pp014 : My language is so important to me and my family because my grandparents and parents kept it strong. That is why Iwant to still speak Language. pp015 pp016 pp017 : We‟ll in our way its important to have our languages that‟s how we communicate with other (different) tribes and we know who is who by the languages. pp018 pp019 : Language school. pp020 pp021 pp022 : This is my identity. I intend to keep it strong by employing and initiating teaching in the home. Liaising with cultural groups.
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pp023 : Kids should get a language centre at schools to keep them speaking their languages and knowing their languages. pp024 : To be proud for who you are and keep it strong. pp025 No. pp026 : I like to speak my language most of the time because I feel good to talk with my family and friends. pp027 : Well we are losing our language and getting push out of the communities and most people are moving to towns around Australia. pp028 pp029
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24. What about Aboriginal English (Nunga English, ‘Blackfella English’, ‘Cattle Station English’)? Do you...
know it? YES(K) NO(K)
speak it? YES(S) NO(S)
pp001 : No (K & S) pp002 : No (K) pp003 : Yes (K & S) pp004 : Yes (K), No (S) pp005 : Yes, (K & S) pp006 : No (K & S) pp007 : Yes (K, but also S judging from the below) pp008 : Yes (K), No (S) pp009 : Yes (K & S) pp010 : Yes (K), No (S) pp011 : Yes (K & S). Sometimes. pp012 : Yes (K). pp013 : Yes (K). [Also „yes‟ S judging from the answer below]. pp014 : Yes (K). [Also „yes‟ S judging from the answer below] pp015 : Yes (K), no (S). pp016 : No (K & S). pp017 : Heard of it and do understand. [so „yes‟ K but „no‟ S] pp018 : Yes (K) [Also „yes‟ S judging from the answer below] pp019 : Yes (K & S) pp020: Yes (K & S) pp021 : Yes (K & S)
308
pp022 : No (K $ S) pp023 : No (K & S). pp024 : No (K & S) pp025 : No (K & S). pp026 : Yes (K), no (S). pp027 : Yes (K). pp028 : Yes (S). pp029 : Yes (K & S).
If ‘YES’, who do you speak with in Aboriginal English?
pp001 pp002 pp003: Friends who are either white or Aboriginal. Family. Work sometimes. pp004 pp005: Family. pp006 pp007 : Students at school & my own children. pp008 pp009 : My family and friends. pp010 pp011 : When other people speak it. pp012 pp013: To my cousins. pp014 : With my cousins and aunts.
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pp015 pp016 pp017 pp018 : With others who speak it. pp019 : Sometime. pp020 : Adelaide mob. pp021 : Brothers. pp022 pp023 pp024 pp025 pp026 pp027: Heard about it but don‟t speak it. pp028 pp029 : I speak Nunga English to those who speak different language.
Did you learn it from your parents / grandparents / siblings / other children as you grew up? (Please CIRCLE the most appropriate one(s)) pp001 pp002 pp003 : Parents. [Also wrote] self-taught. pp004 pp005 :[Circled] Parents, grandparents, siblings. [wrote] Grandparents. pp006 pp007: Other children as I grew up. pp008 pp009 pp010
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pp011 pp012 pp013 : Parents. pp014 : Parents, grandparents, siblings, other children as I grew up. pp015 : Parents. pp016 pp017 : Siblings. pp018 : From family. pp019 : Other children as I grew up. pp020 pp021 : Parents, grandparents, other children as I grew up. pp022 pp023 pp024 pp025 : Siblings. [so there is some competence?] pp026 pp027 : Friends. Grandparents. pp028 : Nanna. pp029
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25. If you have children or other younger relations, do they speak Aboriginal English?
YES NO
pp001: No. pp002 : Yes. pp003 : Yes. pp004 : No. pp005 : No. pp006 : No. pp007 : Yes. pp008 : No. pp009 : Yes. pp010 : No. pp011 : Yes. pp012 : No. pp013 : Yes. pp014 : Yes. pp015 : Yes. pp016 : No. pp017 : Yes. pp018 : Yes. pp019 : Sometime. pp020 : Don‟t know. pp021 : Yes. pp022 : No. pp023 : No.
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pp024 : Yes. pp025 : No [„yes‟ circled then scribbled out] pp026 : No. pp027 : Yes. Sometimes. pp028 : Yes. pp029 : Yes.
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26. If ‘YES’, who do they speak it with?
pp001 pp002 : All good. pp003 : Me, family and friends. pp004 pp005 pp006 pp007 : Myself and friends. pp008 pp009 : With their parents. pp010 pp011 : Other speakers when together. pp012 pp013 : With other families. pp014 : With family. pp015 : With their parents. pp016 pp017 : My sister‟s kids speaks pitjan English and they speak with their fathers side families. pp018 : Other speakers. pp019 : Sometime. pp020 pp021 : Arabana, English, Pitjara. pp022 pp023 pp024: Why – because where I live there not much Aboriginal people live there it just a country town plus they try do but. pp025
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pp026 pp027 : With friends, few families. pp028 : Dad, mother, nanna. pp029 : With their cousins.
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27. If you have young children or other younger relations would you like them to speak Aboriginal English, and would you teach them/encourage them to learn it?
YES NO
pp001 : Yes but I don‟t know it so I can‟t teach it. pp002 : Yes. pp003 : Yes. pp004 : No. pp005 : Yes. pp006 : Not sure.[non-committal] pp007 : Yes. pp008 : Yes. Maybe. [hedging] pp009 : Yes. pp010 : Yes. pp011 : Yes. pp012 : No. pp013 : Yes. pp014 : Yes. pp015 : No. pp016 : No. pp017 : No. Because that‟s how our language is dieing out because Aboriginal English is wiping out the normal language it‟s like they are now making their own languages up like Aboriginal English which is a shame cause they can still learn their own language by sitting with the elders and listening. pp018 : No. Learn proper language. pp019 : Yes. pp020 : Yes. pp021 : Yes.
316
pp022 : No. pp023 : No. pp024 : No. pp025 : Yes. pp026 : No. pp027 : No. Not really. pp028 : Yes. pp029 : No.
317
APPENDIX 10: CEDUNA DATA (c001-c030)
Family Language Policies for Language Maintenance and Revival Project
CEDUNA DATA
c001-c018 collected February 2010; c019-c030 collected during March 2010, all by Paul Monaghan in Ceduna.
1. Where and when were you born? M / F
c001 Female; 1975; Ceduna c002 Female; 1974; Pt Augusta c003 Female; 1974; Ceduna c004 Female; 1965; Ceduna13 c005 Female; 1958; Koonibba c006 Female; 1994; Ceduna14 c007 Male; 1964; Pt Lincoln c008 Female; 1955; Koonibba c009 Female; 1947; Coorabie (near Fowlers Bay) c010 Male; 1952; Pt Lincoln c011 Male; 1954; Mimili15 c012 Female; 1950; Koonibba
13 Note that there is some interesting metalinguistics here. Doesn’t seem to know the difference between Wirangu and Gugadha and doesn’t recognise a separate Nyangga wanggarn. Uncomfortable with this term. Would learn Wirangu but she has a stutter. 14 Lived at Yalata for a year – business. Lives at Pt Lincoln for a while, Whyalla, Adelaide. Just travelled a lot when young. 15 Learned Pit at Mimili up to age of 5/6. Went to Coober Pedy school for a while ‘all anangu there spoke Yankunytjatjara’. Worked at Fregon for 11 years.
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c013 Female; 1951; Koonibba c014 Female; 1948; Koonibba c015 Female; 1943; Pt Lincoln c016 Female; 1938; Koonibba c017 Male; 1950; Wiraminna Station (between Glendambo & Woomera)16 c018 Female; 1959; Pt Augusta c019 Female; 1961; Ceduna c020 Female; 1976; Adelaide c021 Female; 1968; Ceduna c022 Female; 1980; Ceduna c023 Female; 1977; Pt Lincoln c024 Female; 1988; Carnarvon c025 Female; 1973; Ceduna c026 Male; 1963; Ceduna c027 Male; 1974; Ceduna17 c028 Female; 1972; Ceduna c029 Female; 1980; Ceduna c030 Female; 1957; Ceduna
16 This one interesting because he doesn’t value West Coast Talk – he never learned it as a kid. 17 A Yalata person.
319
2. What language group(s) do you identify with?
c001 Wirangu; Gugada; Mirning c002 Pitjantjatjara; Mirning c003 Nyangga (Gugadha) c004 Wirangu c005 Wirangu c006 Pitjantjatjara c007 Wirangu, Mirning c008 Gugadha mostly c009 Gugadha (Western Desert) c010 Wirangu; Pitjantjatjara c011 Pitjantjatjara c012 Wirangu c013 Gugadha; Mirning c014 Mirning; Gugadha c015 Gugadha; Pitjantjatajra; Mirning c016 Mirning & Gugadha18 c017 Yankuntjatjara c018 Mirning; Pitjantjatjara; Yankunytjatjara (Antikirinya) c019 Gugadha, Wirangu; Mirning c020 Wirangu c021 Wirangu & Gugadha c022 Wirangu & Gugadha c023 Wirangu c024 Yindjibarndi
18 There is no such thing as Wirangu. To me it’s the same as Mirning and Gugadha. Our father took the family to Nullarbor. Sometimes a month schooling at Koonibba then back to Nullarbor.
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c025 Pitjantjatjara, Gugadha & Wirangu c026 Pitjantjatjara c027 Pitjantjatjara c028 Pitjantjatjara c029 Wirangu c030 Wirangu – following grandfather, he was a Wirangu man19
19 Known about Wirangu for the last 15-20 years [it used to be Gugadha). Went to school at Koonibba.
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3. Do you speak this/these language(s)?
c001 Some (Wirangu) c002 Some (Pitjantjatjara) c003 No/some c004 Some (little bit) c005 Some c006 Some (now and then when the family come and visit from Yalata/Oak Valley) c007 Some (Aboriginal English) c008 Some (now and then) c009 Some (depends on where I am. If with brother or Yalata mob I will speak it. Sometimes at Scotdesco with mother-in-law) c010 Some (of both) c011 Yes c012 Some (not a lot. We mainly speak mission way. If people came from bush we‟d call‟em Gugadha) c013 Some (most of time mixed up English & Gugadha. Never learnt Mirning) c014 Some (Gugadha, I understand. Slang words. West Coast talk = slang, lingo, long-time) c015 Some. West Coast Talk; Nyangga Talk (there‟s nyangga words but you would know which languages come from). Understand Pitjantjatjara. c016 Some (Father spoke 5 languages; mother spoke some Gugadha) c017 Yes c018 Some (little Pitjantjatjara, Mirning. All these languages mixed up). c019 No. But speak Nyangga Wanggarn. Which is a combination of Wirangu, Gugadha, Mirning and Pit mixed in together with English. c020 Little bit (Nyangga Wanggarn) c021 Some – a little bit of both c022 some (Nyangga Wanggarn) c023 No. WCT. Wouldn‟t know whether Wirangu, Gugadha or what.
322
c024 Some c025 Some Pit. I can understand it. I work at Centrelink and can understand Yalata/Oak Valley people. Did a course in Pitjantjatjara at Tafe. c026 Little bit, but understand it all c027 Yes c028 Yes c029 No c030 No – all mixed up.
If ‘NO’, do you understand some language when it’s spoken? c001 Yes c02 No (Mirning speakers now passed on. Used to hear it before) c003 Yes c004 - c005 - c006 - c007 - c008 - c009 - c010 - c011 - c012 - c013 - c014 - c015 - c016 - c017 - c018 -
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c019 Only so far as the words are known within Nyangga Wanggarn. c020 - c021 - c022 - c023 - c024 c025 c026 See above c027 c028 c029 c030 [claimed not to know any Wirangu speakers]
If ‘NO’, would you like to learn this/these languages? c001 - c002 - c003 Yes c004 - c005 - c006 - c007 - c008 - c009 - c010 - c011 - c012 - c013 -
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c014 - c015 - c016 - c017 - c018 - c019 Yes. There is a community and government focus on Pit. Wirangu and Gugadha are the local languages and we need to have them both. But don‟t leave Mirning out. There should be individual choice – the students choosing (through the school – perhaps one semester do one and do another for the next semester). c020 Would like to learn. c021 Yes. Like to learn cause want to teach my nieces and nephews. c022 Yes c023 Yes. Waiting for accredited Tafe course. c024 Yes c025 Yes – would like to learn Wirangu c026 Yes. I go out to Yalata and the old people come to stay at Koonibba. c027 - c028 - c029 Yes c030 Yes
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4. Do or did any of your parents speak this/these language(s)?
c001 Yes (they only spoke when a group of them [got] together) c002 Yes (father spoke Pitjantjatjara) c003 Yes (mother – Gugadha; father could understand) c004 Yes. Grandmother, mother, father spoke Wirangu and Gugadha „Wirangu and Gugadha same language just different tribes isn‟t it?‟ c005 Father c006 No. (uncle, lives at Pt Lincoln. Auntie‟s boyfriend speaks Pit and he lives at Denial Bay) c007 No c008 Yes. Sometimes they spoke but I didn‟t always. They‟d use it when telling us off. I learned it when I was a little bit older. Started to teach it to us when we were a bit older. We used English at the mission – at the mission you‟d talk any way. c009 Mother and father (traditional people) c010 Yes. Mother a Pit woman spoke Pit, Wirangu and German. Father was a Wirangu man. c011 Yes. Mother spoke just Yank (b. Todmorden); father spoke Gugadha (b. Gawler Ranges – f‟s m b. Tarcoola) c012 Mother understood it c013 Mother spoke Gugadha when a young woman but went stone deaf after having 4 kids so she didn‟t teach the kids. Father spoke Arrernte and other languages and we didn‟t know what it was. He lived in Central Australia [for a while]. c014 Mother spoke Gugadha. She got Yalata kin came down to Smoky Bay stump picking. Her mother was tribal. Father spoke some WA lingo, Arrernte, West Coast talk. c015 Yes. Mother spoke fluent Gugadha. I and siblings spoke Gugadha and it of Pit. Father = whiteman [a Scotsman] who wouldn‟t speak anything but English. He‟d say to mother get the kids to speak English so I can understand them. c016 Mother is Gugadha. M‟s m b. Ooldea in the 1840s. She was a Gugadha speaker. Bilbara Rock, a rock at Wudinna rocks is Nyangga name of m‟s m. Father spoke 5 languages. c017 Yes. Mother (b. Ernabella) spoke it to us all the time. Father spoke Arrernte and Yank (from the NT). Both were English speakers.
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c018 Father (tribal/initiated) spoke Pit/Yank very full, also English & Gugadha (he represented Gugadha at land meetings). F‟s m from Ooldea. I didn‟t really know her. Knew Gugadha language, Yank. Step father = Mirning person who could speak Gugadha. Mother spoke Nharangga & English. c019 Mother spoke Gugadha. Father spoke West Coast Talk. We left Ceduna when I was young (4 yo). We moved to Adelaide. Mother remembered her language but only really used it when we had visitors and they talked to her in language. They tended not to use it that often with their kids [parent‟s generational level]. I don‟t know why. We‟d have broken English but not the full Gugadha. I started coming back to Ceduna at age 12-13. c020 Mother spoke a bit. Father was a whiteman c021 Mother spoke Gugadha. She would also speak F‟s language – Wirangu. F spoke Wirangu & Gugada. c022 Mother and father both spoke WCT c023 Mother no; Father probably. Mother was Mirning and spoke Pitjantjatjara. Mother‟s mother was Mirning, Mother‟s father was Scottish. Father was Wirangu. Spoke fluent Pitjantjatjara. Probably spoke Wirangu as his father was [personal name]‟s brother. c024 Father spoke some Yindjibarndi but was part of the stolen generation. Speaks English. Mother spoke Yamadji and English. Stepmother speaks Wirangu and Pitjantjatjara20. c025 Mother spoke Pit and Gugadha (mother had the language connection). Father spoke English. c026 Mother spoke English and a bit of Pit. Father was from Yalata so spoke Pit. c027 Yes c028 Yes, Pitjantjatjara and English c029 No c030 Father was an English speaker. Mother‟s father [family name]and uncles all spoke Pitjantjatjara.
If no, do/did they speak another language, if so, what language(s)?
20 Stepmother is C30, who doesn’t claim to speak Wirangu but ‘all mixed up’.
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c001 - c002 - c003 - c004 - c005 - c006 English c007 - c008 - c009 - c010 - c011 - c012 - c013 - c014 - c015 - c016 - c017 - c018 - c019 Father = West Coast Talk c020 Mother = Wirangu & Nyangga Wanggarn. Father = English c021 c022 West Coast Talk c023 c024 c025 Father spoke English to me. c026 c027
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c028 c029 English c030 English
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5. Do or did any of your grandparents speak this/these language(s)? c001 Yes c002 Yes (Pitjantjatjara & Mirning) c003 Don‟t know c004 Yes c005 Don‟t know c006 Yes. Grandmother (m‟s m). Gf passed when she was a little baby. c007 Yes c008 They spoke mixed mission, Gugadha, Wirangu c009 Yes (m‟s f = Antikirinya; m‟s m = Lake Wyola, north of Oak Valley, Spinifex) c010 Yes c011 Passed away when really small but they were fluent Gugadha speakers and probably Wirangu as well. c012 Yes (she spoke lingo, don‟t know what it was. She said she was Gugadha and her mother was Gugadha from Ooldea. Other grandparents were white. c013 Never met any grandparent but think they‟d have been speakers c014 Didn‟t know them - probably c015 Yes. Both spoke Gugadha. Gf‟s m = Pit; m‟s gm spoke Mirning. c016 M‟s m = Gugadha; m‟s f = Gugadha. Father‟s side Mirning side. c017 M‟s f was an Irishman. F‟s f spoke southern Arrernte c018 Yes c019 Didn‟t know M‟s parents. Too young to know about F‟s M&F. c020 Gf understood Wirangu, but couldn‟t rattle it off. Gm – never met her. c021 Never met any of my grandparents c022 F‟s f spoke Wirangu c023 Yes. Wirangu spoke on father‟s side. No on the Mirning side, They wouldn‟t let them speak it [ie. the white in-marrying people] c024 Father‟s father and mother‟s mother could not speak English at all.
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c025 Yes. Mother‟s mother spoke Pit (most likely) or Gugadha. Only knew one grandparent. c026 All spoke Pit c027 Yes c028 Yes c029 Yes - Mother‟s mother c030 Yes - Pitjantjatjara
If no, do or did your grandparents speak another language, if so, what language(s)?
c001 - c002 - c003 - c004 - c005 - c006 - c007 - c008 - c009 - c010 - c011 - c012 - c013 - c014 - c015 - c016 - - c017 -
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c018 - c019 English/Nyangga Wanggarn c020 - c021 - c022 - c023 English c024 - c025 c026 c027 c028 c029 Pitjantjatjara c030
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6. Do or did your grandparents speak language to you? c001 Didn‟t have much contact (but grandparents = mother‟s uncles – really old) c002 Yes (Pitjantjatjara) c003 - c004 Yes. Other grannies/grandfathers (grandmothers cousins) from Piipalyatjara. c005 Didn‟t know them c006 Yes. Only when she‟s drunk. Only when us two are together we‟ll talk it. c007 Yes. Wirangu & Mirning c008 Yes c009 Didn‟t know them c010 F‟s m spoke Wirangu to me. Uncles and aunty [Two personal names] both spoke Pit and Gugadha] c011 No c012 Yes c013 No c014 No (see above) c015 Yes. We only spoke language until made ward of the state at age 7. The foster families forbid us to speak it (good Christian people) in Adelaide. Got back to Ceduna area late 1970s/1980s, taking kids back to Yalata where eldest daughter and husband lived. c016 Yes c017 Yes (she used to look after me) c018 Yes. Stepfather‟s mother spoke to us in Gugadha when I was little. She died at the time the language started to go down (c1983). M‟s m had already passed on – never really knew her. c019 No c020 No. Not Wirangu, Nyangga Wanggarn. c021 Never met them. c022 No c023 No. Only met one grandparent on mother‟s side.
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c024 No, English c025 Yes c026 Yes c027 Yes c028 Yes c029 No c030 Can‟t remember on father‟s side. When I was small I would speak a lot of Pitjantjatjara.
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7. Do/did your parents speak language to you?
c001 No (but growling at us she would) c002 Father does. Mother speaks English to me. c003 Yes c004 Sometimes (when they growl) c005 Yes c006 Yes. Just when she‟s got alcohol in her system, but chucks it in with English. Gabidya – can try to rattle it out. c007 No c008 Yes. When we got a bit older. c009 Yes. It was my first language. I spoke it til I was 5 when I went to the Children‟s home at Koonibba. They came and visited and we went out every holidays to the bush. I look at the home as a boarding school. c010 No. They spoke amongst each other but not to the kids. Because wanted kids to speak English. c011 No. Mother spoke English & Yank; father spoke English only. c012 Yes. But mainly English. Mum was hardly around – Pt Lincoln. Used to be that kids lived with nanna. c013 No. A few words but mainly English (but when she sat with the old people she‟d rattle it off). c014 Yes (mother a bit) c015 Yes - mother; No - father c016 Mother spoke Gugadha and English; Father spoke English. c017 Yes, both spoke Yank c018 Yes (step father, real father, mother) c019 No c020 Mother spoke a bit of Wirangu. c021 They would explain it in English if I didn‟t understand. It was about half language and half English at home [from memory this relates to the mix of the actual language, not % of time] c022 Yes (West Coast Talk)
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c023 Not Wirangu. c024 Yes. Mostly English though. He was a teacher at Carnarvon High School – taught art and English. [Now living at Ceduna and working as an artist – painted a beautiful mural on the outside wall of Ceduna art centre. He was taken away when young to a mission]. c025 Only English. We were an English household. There would be language when family visited. Then English was a second language. c026 Yes. Father spoke Pit. Mother spoke mainly English but sometimes Pit. c027 Yes c028 Yes c029 No c030 Yes – mother spoke Pitjantjatjara deeply; no - father
If ‘NO’, what language do/did they speak to you? c001 English c002 - c003 - c004 - c005 - c006 English c007 Aboriginal English c008 - c009 - c010 English c011 English c012 English c013 Half Gugadha/English (mainly) c014 English
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c015 Father spoke English only c016 - c017 - c018 - c019 West Coast Talk c020 Father spoke English c021 c022 West Coast Talk c023 They spoke English and Pitjantjatjara. The family lived at Yalata. I was there between ages 6-12. Can communicate in Pit but stopped speaking it when I moved to Pt Lincoln [for high school]. My „tribal family‟ addresses me in Pit these days. c024 Mostly English c025 c026 c027 c028 c029 c030 English
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8. Do or did any other family members speak language to you? Who?
c001 Mother‟s brother could speak to all the kids, trying to teach them. That generation would sit and laugh at us because we didn‟t understand. c002 Cousins. Mother‟s sister‟s, daughter (who is married to a „proper tribal man – Pitjantjatjara) c003 Grandmother (years ago) c004 Lots of people. Mob from Yalata. Relations at Yalata don‟t speak English. c005 Old people – uncles/aunties c006 Auntie‟s madyi (boyfriend) c007 Grandparents, great grandparents c008 Grandmother, uncles, aunties. Heard it quite a lot. c009 Yes. Youngest brother, all the extended family, kinship group c010 Aunties and uncles c011 Sister and brother mainly. When I talk to someone at Bookabie who is fluent but you got to be careful when other Bookabie people around cause they‟ll think you are running them down. When sitting down having a beer love to talk language. Also two-way radio. c012 Uncles and aunties spoke English. Only grandmother used to speak. c013 Uncles/aunties (Gugadha mixed with English) c014 West Coast Talk c015 Brother and sisters. When we‟d visit mission for Easter, Christmas, births, deaths, ceremonial stuff. We‟d speak Gugadha back there. Mother was the eldest in the family so has special responsibilities. c016 Mother‟s siblings moved to Pt Augusta. Went away. c017 Aunties, brothers and sisters c018 Brothers and sisters. M‟s f‟s side live at Fregon – P/Y speakers. c019 No. But everyday spoke Nyangga Wanggarn. [I] don‟t know the difference between Wirangu & Gugadha. c020 Mother‟s brother can speak it. He‟d teach us a few words, he‟d speak Wirangu.
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c021 Older brothers & sister (16 siblings) c022 Uncles and aunty spoke Pit – I learned a bit from them. c023 Uncle spoke straight out Pit to me. Cousins that stop you in the street. c024 Father‟s aunty, who I called nanna. c025 Language is always in my house. Relatives speak what I call Pitjantjatjara-Gugadha. Sister, all my family understand it. We speak English as first language unless relatives around. c026 A lot of family at Yalata. I grew up there [until 15 yo] c027 Everybody c028 Everybody c029 No c030 Mother, uncles, brother speaks it now
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9. How often do you use language?
c001 Most of the time (most Nyanggas would use language words in English everyday. Especially if we don‟t want Whitefellas to understand us. c002 Sometimes – when with cousin & father‟s family c003 Often (everyday) c004 Rarely. Not very often but speak Nyangga wanggarn. c005 Often (used to be often – now uses Wirangu words in English) c006 Often c007 Sometimes (Aboriginal English) c008 Sometimes. c009 Often. Depends mainly on people visiting from Yalata. They address me in language. c010 Often c011 Often c012 Rarely c013 Often c014 Most of the time (West Coast Talk – if we don‟t want white people to understand as well) c015 Often. West Coast Talk at home. English in public. c016 Most of the time (West Cost Talk) c017 Often. When you‟re speaking to Yalata/Oak Valley mob talk lingo to them. c018 Often. When I‟m on the lands I‟ll speak it but they don‟t want me to – they want to speak English. When people come into the community from Yalata or I‟ll translate for them. Filling out forms, Centrelink – as an unpaid interpreter. c019 Most of the time (WCT] c020 Often c021 Most of the time (WCT] c022 Most of the time (WCT]
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c023 Often. My kids use it at home. My two big kids are a bit shame. I‟ll use it if don‟t want whitefellas to hear. The older kids will say „kunta wiya‟ to me. c024 Sometimes. Mostly English. We talk Pitjantjatjara [fluent Pit speaker. Learned in schools at Ceduna, Pt Augusta, Coober Pedy she claimed. I think I drew out that she had/has lots of social opportunity to speak outside the classroom – PM] c025 Often. Use it all the time at work but I‟m not a fluent speaker. c026 Often. Every day. c027 Most of the time – only speak English in town. c028 Most of the time. Use English „when we bump into white people‟ c029 Never c030 Sometimes a bit of Pitjantjatjara, speak West Coast Talk.
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10. Who do you use language with? CIRCLE the one(s) most appropriate c001 Ceduna mob c002 Parents; aunts/uncles; cousins; children c003 Parents; aunts/uncles; siblings; cousins; children
c004 - c005 Siblings; cousins; children; nephews/nieces c006 Grandparents; aunts/uncles; other people (sister not into speaking it. She grew up in Pt Lincoln) c007 Anybody c008 Cousins; children; nephews/nieces; grannies c009 everyone in kinship c010 Siblings; cousins; children; nephews/nieces c011 Siblings (also talk with Yalata mob, Tjuntjuntjara mob that come into [the Ceduna] town camp. Sometimes Oak Valley and Yalata mob it‟s broken with English or other Yank/Pit/Gugadha. c012 Cousins; children; nephews/nieces; grandchildren c013 Siblings; cousins; children; nephews/nieces; other people c014 Anyone who speaks the language c015 Other people – Nyangga mob c016 children/grandchildren c017 aunts, uncles, siblings [and the rest] c018 All (except parents & grandparents) c019 Ceduna mob + whitefellas who went to school with us c020 Ceduna nyanggas – when meet them on the street. Not whitefellas – it‟s a nyangga thing. c021 Ceduna mob; Pt Lincoln [need to speak their language at Yalata or they‟ll say „kunta wiya‟]. When I‟m in the company of non-indigenous people I step up into professional language. If I wanted to get a job need standard English [my term – PM]. „Good English‟. We live in two worlds – the Aboriginal world and the white
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man‟s world. LOTE – Ab English – used to be taught in Ceduna (Area School). This was done a while ago – not now. c022 Ceduna mob [not with whitefellas]. The whitefellas wouldn‟t understand or might think we‟re talking about them. c023 Children, family c024 Aunts/uncles; siblings c025 Centrelink clients. Relatives from Yalata who have Pit as a first language [note that the metalinguistic terminology is the respondent‟s - PM] c026 Old people and young fellas - relatives c027 Anyone who speaks the language c028 Anyone who speaks the language c029 c030 Sing it in the morning to the kids – it‟s an old song about Weetbix.
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11. Do you live in the area associated with your language group(s)?
c001 Yes c002 Yes/No. West Cost Talk is the main thing. If we were at Yalata or Oak Valley we would speak the language. c003 Yes c004 Yes c005 Yes c006 No c007 Yes c008 No c009 No. Associated with people brought down from Ooldea (to Yalata) c010 Yes c011 No c012 Yes c013 Yes c014 Yes c015 Yes c016 No c017 No c018 Yes c019 Yes c020 Yes c021 Yes c022 Yes c023 Yes c024 Yes –Pitjantjatjara {but no Yindjibarndi] c025 Yes
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c026 Yes c027 Yes c028 Yes c029 Yes c030 Yes
If ‘NO’, how long have you lived away from your country?
c001 - c002 - c003 - c004 - c005 - c006 - c007 - c008 Mostly lived at Ceduna c009 In and out c010 - c011 Worked at Fregon for 11 years c012 - c013 - c014 - c015 - c016 Moved to Adelaide 8 years ago. c017 - c018 - c019 Lived away between the ages of 4-12/13. But always kept the talk.
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c020 - c021 - c022 - c023 - c024 - c025 - c026 c027 c028 c029 c030
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12. Do most of your friends belong to the group you identify with?
c001 Most people you identify with are relations. You call„em friend but they‟re related. They might be from a different family group but still related. c002 Moat people Mirning (gf = Mirning; gm = Gugadha. Lived at Koonibba). c003 Yes – family based c004 Yes [friends & family] c005 Yes [friends & family] c006 No. Most friends speak English. c007 Yes c008 Yes [friends & family] c009 Traditional side is much bigger – out to WA. Married links in to Wirangu/Mirning c010 Yes c011 No. Only speak to 2 people in language – and the people I meet in the street [from outside communities] c012 Yes c013 No. Pit/Gugadha/Wirangu/Mirning mixed c014 - c015 Yes, mostly Gugadha c016 Yes c017 Yes c018 Yes. People here at Ceduna are all the same people but come under different umbrella for land stuff. c019 Yes c020 No. Gugadha & Mirning as well. c021 Yes c022 Yes c023 Yes. Either Wirangu/Mirning or Wirangu/Gugadha c024 No.
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c025 Yes. I got family that are connected to all the family groups across here. c026 Yes c027 Yes c028 Yes c029 Yes c030 No – Wirang/Mirning/Gugadha/anangu mixed
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13. Does your spouse/partner belong to your group?
c001 No. c002 No c003 Don‟t know – husband just Nyangga, doesn‟t really identify as Gugadha although a [family name]. c004 No spouse. Former from Pt Augusta (maybe Arrernte or Arabana can‟t remember) c005 No (formerly Wirangu) c006 Yes. Speaks Pit – he‟s from Oak Valley c007 Yes c008 No c009 No c010 No c011 No c012 No. Gugadha – but lately Wirangu identifier. c013 No c014 - c015 No. Ex-partner a Welsh man (English speaker) c016 Husband died 30 years ago. His mother was Wirangu (personal name). He was a Gugadha man. All his brothers and sisters now call themselves Wirangu.[Two personal names] – we called them gypsies – they didn‟t have a place to stay. People thought land to the north and west of Koonibba was Gugada. Wirangu came from Western Australia. Met up with Mirning and they came this way. Mirning names them „Wirangu‟ – which means „nothing‟, they are no more to us – wiya. Mirning said „wiya-gu‟. Their slang – they always put „gu‟ at the end. c017 No c018 Single. My bloke (the father of my 2 kids) was from …[not recorded] his father from Pt Pearce, his mother was Ngarrindjeri from Raukkan. c019 No c020 No
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c021 No [no spouse? Can‟t remember-PM]] c022 Not married/no spouse c023 No. c024 No. c025 Single mother c026 single c027 Yes c028 Yes c029 No c030 No
If ‘No’, what group does she/he belong to?
c001 Captain Cook. White Australian. Walybala. c002 Tongan c003 - c004 - c005 - c006 - c007 - c008 Wirangu c009 Wirangu/Mirning c010 Gugadha c011 Gugadha, Far West Mob c012 Speaks Gugadha and Wirangu c013 Yank (fluent). They talk too fast for me to pick up [though] some words are similar to Gugadha. c014 -
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c015 Welsh c016 - c017 Mirning c018 - c019 Tongan c020 Pt Augusta, Adnyamathanha c021 - c022 c023 Adnyamathanha (his father is West Coast Gugadha) c024 Wirangu – but grew up around Yalata. Speaks fluent Pit. c025 c026 c027 c028 c029 c030 Yindjibarndi
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14. Do you have children?
c001 0-5; 10-15; 15-20 c002 10-15; 15-20 c003 0-5; 5-10; 10-15; 15-20 c004 20-25; 20-30 [one of these sons speaks Wirangu]
Grannies range from one month to 10 years old. c005 aged 25+ c006 No c007 No c008 20-25; 25-30; 35-40 c009 30-35; 35-40 c010 30-35; 35-40 [10 grandkids 4-18 yo; 1 great grandkid 6 months old] c011 25-30; 30-35 [live at Coober Pedy] c012 35-40; 40-45 [grannies = 14] c013 30-40 (6 children; 13 grandchildren; 1 great grandson) c014 35-40; 45-50 (5 grandchildren speak Pit – they don‟t learn to speak English but they can speak it; 7 other grandchildren West Coast Talk) c015 35-40; 40-45; 45-50 (5 children) c016 33-50 – 12 children; 2-30 – 50 grandchildren; 1 week-16 years – 33 great grannies c017 30-40 [5 girls, 1 boy] c018 30-35 (2 kids) c019 15-20; 20-25; 25-30 [5 kids] c020 5-10; 10-15 [3 girls] c021 No c022 5-10 [1 kid] c023 10-15 [3 kids]
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c024 0-5 [2 kids] c025 15-20 [1 child] c026 Yes – not in Ceduna – out west (Kalgoorlie). [note I didn‟t ask any further questions about his children as seemed a sensitive topic] c027 10-15; 15-20; 20-25 [3 kids] c028 10-15; 15-20; 20-25 [3 kids] c029 0-5; 5-10; 10-15 [7 kids] c030 5-10; 10-15; 15-20; 25-30; 30-35 [9 kids]
If not, do you have nephews/nieces or other relatives that are children?
c001 - c002 - c003 - c004 - c005 - c006 Yes c007 Yes c008 - c009 - c010 - c011 - c012 - c013 - c014 - c015 - c016 - c017 -
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c018 - c019 - c020 - c021 Yes c022 c023 c024 c025 c026 c027 c028 c029 c030
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15. If YES to any of the above, do you speak language to them? c001 Yes (but only words. There‟s no conversation) c002 Yes c003 Yes c004 Sometimes, but they learn it at school c005 Yes c006 Yes. When I‟m drunk I get wild with them – when I need to tell them off. Otherwise no. c007 Yes c008 Yes c009 Yes. But only now and again. I didn‟t encourage them when I was a young parent because I thought they needed to concentrate on reading and writing English. c010 sometimes c011 No c012 Yes – to grannies c013 Yes – half English/half Gugadha c014 Yes c015 I was dealing with my own identity issues – I had a calling to come back home. Not when they were growing up because we were away. It was only after getting involved with family members back here again. c016 Yes – always talk c017 Yes. They understand it, they went to school at Ernabella c018 Yes c019 Yes c020 Yes. A few words. c021 Yes c022 Yes. I tell him bits and pieces about basic things. Parts of the body, animals [etc] c023 Yes c024 Yes
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c025 Yes. Bits of language and bits of English c026 - c027 Yes c028 Yes c029 No c030 Yes. West Coast Talk „mixed this and mixed that‟
When? c001 All the time; everywhere. For most Nyangga households it will be all the time until a white person walks in. Until that person is gone. With husband‟s mob I don‟t use language (words). Eg when we go back in the car. Kunta, shame job. Switch to standard English. c002 More West Coast language. I try to teach them but they block me out. It‟s hard to teach the kids. c003 Anytime/everyday c004 - c005 When I see them [they] live in all different places c006 See above c007 Out and about in bush and on the beach c008 When asking them to do something – they seem to understand it more. c009 Out of the blue. When I‟m talking. I also speak more now to my grandchildren cause I realise I didn‟t pass it on to my kids. c010 Chucked in with English when we don‟t want the grand kids to know what we are talking about c011 Anytime – mix‟em up with English c012 Anytime. c013 All the time c014 - c015 - c016 -
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c017 - c018 The kids have interactions with the lands. 5 grannies are learning. (0-10 age range) c019 All the time c020 Any time c021 „When they got no bloody ears!‟ [calque on yuRi bamba?]. Everyday. When they come home. c022 All the time c023 Everyday. But not full on sentences, just bits and pieces. They don‟t like it when I say it to them. They say, „can you speak English to me please‟. Shame job. The 11 year old [the younger one? PM] is not ashamed to speak. I taught her sentences. c024 At home, in the streets, everyday c025 All the time. The relatives are here every weekend or we visit them. c026 - c027 All the time c028 c029 c030 Anytime/most of the time
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16. Do they speak back to you in English? c001 Yes sometimes (mainly nyangga English) c002 Yes. West Coast Talk. Would be nice to have Pit, Wirangu, Mirning & Gugadha taught in schools. They‟ll lose their culture if taught German, Chinese. c003 Yes (Nyangga English & English) c004 Yes, all the time c005 Yes, sometimes c006 Yes, all the time c007 Yes, all the time c008 Yes, sometimes c009 Yes, all the time c010 Yes, all the time c011 Yes sometimes (some words daughter speaks back in Pit] c012 Yes, all the time c013 No, West Coast Talk c014 West Coat Talk all the time c015 Yes, all the time c016 Yes sometimes (Aboriginal English) c017 Yes sometimes c018 Yes sometimes (children and grannies) c019 Yes, all the time c020 Yes sometimes. Mixed English & Nyangga Wanggarn. c021 Yes sometimes c022 Yes sometimes c023 Yes sometimes c024 Yes sometimes c025 Yes, all the time c026 -
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c027 Yes, sometimes c028 Yes, sometimes c029 Yes, all the time c030 Yes, all the time [West Coast Talk]
If they speak back to you in English, why do you think they do it?
c001 They don‟t know enough language. c002 They don‟t know enough language. c003 They don‟t know enough language. c004 c005 both c006 They don‟t know enough language. c007 They don‟t know enough language. c008 They don‟t want to speak the language c009 They don‟t know enough language. They want to speak. Son realises importance as he has strong cultural links to Yalata. c010 They don‟t know enough language. c011 They don‟t know enough language. c012 They don‟t know enough language/ They don‟t want to speak the language (because they‟re [spatially] scattered and speak English all the time) c013 c014 c015 c016 They don‟t know enough language. c017 They don‟t know enough language (it might be hard for them to say it) c018 They don‟t know enough language (the grannies still in their learning process. I try to talk to them all the time) c019 c020 They don‟t know enough language.
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c021 They don‟t know enough language c022 They don‟t know enough language c023 They don‟t know enough language. Shame job for saying the wrong words. c024 Too young – oldest is 3 and baby is 10 months. c025 They don‟t know enough language c026 - c027 Other – they want to speak English sometimes. They bin go to schools in Adelaide. They‟re full Pitjantjatjara and full English speakers c028 Neither – she just wants to speak English c029 c030 Wirangu and West Coast Talk „they need it stronger‟
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17. Are you concerned that the language will disappear?
c001 Yes c002 Yes. Pit will always be there but not Wirangu, Gugadha and Mirning. c003 No (not really an issue) c004 No (not really) c005 Yes c006 No. Pit = strong language. c007 Yes c008 Yes c09 Yes. It‟s getting swallowed up by Pit. c010 Yes c011 No. Strong language c012 Yes, but it‟s making a comeback c013 Yes c014 No. Family at Pt Augusta speak Gugadha21 c015 Yes. I‟m concerned about the fluent one – not West Cost Talk cause that‟ll stick. c016 No, I don‟t think it will c017 No, I don‟t think it will c018 Yes. Gugadha is disappearing, Mirning [as well]. P/Y is very strong still „they speak it when they‟re born‟. c019 Yes. Nyangga Wanggarn. With the kids today the language is changing through this „text stuff‟, facebook stuff, IT stuff. The Nyangga Wanggarn will slowly start getting lost. Wirangu, Gugadha and Mirning – Yes. But Wirangu needs to come out a bit more. Expose it more. c020 Yes. Wirangu & Nyangga Wanggarn. I want my kids to learn the language so they know. That‟s our ancestors. It tells us who we are. Nyangga history that should be shared with the younger generation so we can keep it going.
21 Names a couple of Gugada speakers at Whyalla/Pt Augusta
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c021 Yes. Need to keep Wirangu & Gugadha and Nyangga Wangga. Need to know the basics of all 3 languages. c022 Yes – both Wirangu & Gugada and WCT. c023 Yes – for Wirangu. „There‟s only 2 old girls with Wirangu and then you got people who dispute it and say they‟re doing it wrong. Pitjantjatjara is a very strong language – it‟ll never die. It‟s documented and everything‟. c024 No. Strong languages c025 Yes. All 3. If it‟s not spoken in the household or not taught. c026 No. „it won‟t go away‟ c027 No. „still got it‟ c028 No – it‟s alright c029 Yes c030
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18. Do you feel that language is less important than English?
c001 No. Wirangu & Mirning in particular (Gugadha is mixed up) c002 Pit is important in culture. When away from culture/somewhere else, English is important. Want kids to learn both. c003 No. Both important. Important for kids to learn Gugadha so they can pass it on. c004 Yes/no. Need Wirangu tradition/speech to keep going. c005 Yes. If you can keep the language going it is important c006 No. More important than English because you can learn more stuff in Pit than in English. Culture stuff. c007 Order of importance – English, Pit, Wirangu, Aboriginal English. Career-wise this is the most important [order] c008 No. More important, Should be carried on to next generation. Keep it alive „like the old people did‟. c009 No. Just as important. It‟s more important because of the culture and it‟s important to pass it on. c010 No c011 No. Important to keep language strong. Just as important as English. c012 Same. Important Nyangga way. Important that we keep it alive. c013 No. More important – for cultural reasons. Should be taught in school at Ceduna. c014 No. Gugadha is more important – need it to be taught again at school and Language Centre c015 No. More important cause it‟s about who I am‟ my identity as an Aboriginal. c016 Yes c017 No. It‟s just as important as English. Some old people from the bush don‟t understand things if told in English rather than language. c018 Need English to survive but also need language to survive. 2 way thing. c019 No. It‟s a part of the culture here. The stories of here link in together [through the language?]. Language is about culture. Nyangga Wanggarn a central part of the culture here. c020 No. Both the same. Need to know your nyangga lingo and need to know English as well in our society today.
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c021 No. Need to know whiteman English as well as the language. Even though the language is breaking down, losing, they need to learn it. c022 No c023 No. It‟s important to know your language, where you come from. A feeling of belonging to you. I won‟t let my kids speak - if they want to speak it they don‟t add other words. „Nakun ya‟ – this is not our people so we shouldn‟t use it. White kids, if they come from this way, could learn it. A lot of white kids around here know what you‟re talking about. c024 No. Equal. I grew up around that language not knowing that language. My family speaks it everyday. c025 No. It‟s very important to know your mother tongue but English is the thing that‟ll get you somewhere. Jobs. White society. It‟s nothing to be ashamed of – to know another language fluently. c026 Both important. To keep the culture together. c027 No. More important c028 Both important c029 English is important but it‟s important to know your language. c030 Both. WCT is important. Because if they learn both. We never has the opportunity to learn our language here in the schools.
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19. Whose responsibility is it to keep the language alive, the Government’s, the school’s, families’ or others? Please explain
c001 Family. They are more connected to it than the government. It‟s our business. Government can give money for us to do it ourselves. Government are the ones who squashed it in the first place. c002 Family. Because it‟s coming from the ancestors. If you don‟t keep it you‟ll lose it. Mostly from home – you speak language at home but when go out to school you speak English. c003 Family. You do learn at the school about it, but use it more in the house. Went to Koonibba school, did Pit classes c1980s but didn‟t learn anything there. Learnt most language when went out bush with family. Learnt more out bush than in classroom. c004 Families – schools as well c005 Family. That is where it comes from „you gotta learn‟em‟. You gotta teach the children. I got 16 grandchildren. c006 Old people. Not sure about what happens with endangered languages. c007 Families. It‟s their culture, their language. It‟s part of Aboriginal life to pass things down. c008 Schools. They can learn all sorts if language in schools. My kids were good at going to school, Granddaughter is learning German at Crossways. When they come up on weekend we talk in language. c009 Family‟s. When children are younger their minds are like a sponge – so they will learn it. c010 Family‟s and other‟s. If want to keep the language together they got to keep speaking it. University – trained linguists should be documenting it. Stupid that Japanese is taught in Ceduna. At Ceduna should be learning local Aboriginal language: 1. Wirangu; 2. Gugadha; 3. Pit at Yalata. c011 Family‟s. Language and communication is important; communication within families, their cultural background. Interpreting work is important. c012 Family‟s - because it belong to us for our future generation c013 Should be family plus school should teach. c014 Families should teach their children. Some parents know they should teach their kids. Teachers can‟t pronounce the words more properly – should be Nyangga teachers.
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c015 Family‟s but also language centres are very important c016 Family – teach them at home to talk c017 Education system. Schools – that‟s where all communication starts from – communicating with another person. Some language every now and then so they can pick it up. Mother taught in the school at Pt Augusta. c018 Family – because it starts in the home. Government should respect anangu rules – recognise them. This would help to protect. c019 It‟s really the family‟s (the community) with the aid of the government with the funding (retrieve it and get it out). The schools to teach it. Families – the old people, the elders to be the guides for the younger people. c020 Wirangu – government should be pushing. The elders of our tribes they should be teaching the younger generation. It should be taught in schools, pres-school, childcare, kindy. Mixed Nyangga Wanggarn should be taught, as well as Wirangu, and it should only be taught to Aboriginal kids. c021 All of the above. Government = funding so we can teach family and around town need to speak the language so they can pass it on to the children. c022 Family – they can pass it down to the next generation. „keep the language going I suppose‟ c023 Family‟s. Education starts within the home. Your kids aren‟t going to learn nothing if you don‟t teach them. Important for the parents to show interest in what the kids are doing. A lot of parents are illiterate and never went to high school so [kids have „poorly‟ educated parents at home]. Some of us are middle class – none are upper class. Then there‟s those that don‟t work and are on Centrelink and see school as just a childcare. It‟s sad to talk about it like that. I take my kids out to Scotdesco, camoing at Mexican Hat, pull up and show them Yalata. Trying to re-engage them into culture and family [from memory they have been at Ceduna for only the last 5 years – PM] c024 Family – the family needs to uphold their culture. Needs to teach the younger ones about their culture. Good thing that it‟s in the schools. c025 Community elders. Starts at family home, then community networks, then goes up into government level, schools and the language centre. Need more resources for teaching it on the ground. There should be more funding so all 3 languages could be made available locally and made available to schools. Then parents can use the computer discs – interactive things. It‟s alright to keep language alive but where do we get the money from? Parents don‟t know where to get resources to do it. c026 Old people. They‟re the ones who taught us.
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c027 Family‟s. c028 Family‟s. It‟s more important for them. I‟m Pitjantjatjara [so it‟s important for me] c029 Family, schools c030 Elders, school, teachers, get people in there to help them. We need help to get book [?] to our language
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20. Would you be prepared to give money (for learning materials, courses, etc.) or time to strengthen the language?
c001 No. It wouldn‟t happen like that. „I‟ve got a job to live myself‟. They should be provided to the people. c002 No. Government should fund it. Aboriginal organisation somewhere. Looked at Wardugu Wirn – need a CD to translate it. But would buy a Mirning one out of own money. c003 Leave it. c004 Time – stutters so it‟s hard [to get involved] c005 Yes c006 No. Not money. c007 Yes c008 Yes, time. c009 Yes, time. c010 Yes, both time and money c011 Yes (if I have to) c012 Yes c013 Yes, nice to do a course on it c014 Yes c015 Yes c016 Yes c017 Yes c018 Yes c019 Yes. If it‟s the local language c020 Yes c021 Yes. Anytime. I‟d like to learn the language more stronger. It would also be good to learn different languages. Learning makes you proud black Aboriginal. c022 Yes
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c023 Yes - Wirangu c024 Yes c025 Yes. If I knew there was resources available. I have the Wirangu book. If there was more stuff available I would buy it. c026 Yes c027 - c028 - c029 Yes c030 Yes
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21. Do you want (your) children to be speakers of the language?
c001 Yes c002 Yes. Both Pit and Mirning. c003 Yes c004 Yes [grannies as well] c005 Yes (and grannies. Depends on their mother‟s side or father‟s side) c006 Yes. When I have them, both English and Pit. c007 Yes (nieces/nephews) c008 Yes (and grannies) c009 Yes and grannies. I take [the latter] out hunting with me and teach activities and language. c010 Yes (and grannies). Our parents didn‟t really want the children to learn it. English first and then language later (but problems in learning later) c011 Yes (grannies) c012 Yes – I‟d love them to, both children and grannies c013 Yes - grandchildren c014 Yes – Gugadha and Mirning c015 Grandchildren. Has tried to get an elder to teach language to her grannies but the elder „was a bit intimidated by it‟. c016 Yes c017 Yes c018 Yes, grannies as well. „Of course‟. They‟ve got to know the right skin. There‟s other things, anangu laws, to abide by. Need to protect that. c019 Yes. Both Nyangga Wanggarn and the others. Language opens up work opportunities – interpreting, teaching c020 Yes (of both) c021 Yes (nephews & nieces – don‟t have kids) c022 Yes
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c023 Yes c024 Yes and Yindjibarndi c025 Yes. Daughter to speak the languages fully, but it‟s up to her what she wants to do with it. c026 Yes c027 Yes c028 - c029 Yes c030 Yes
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22. If ‘YES’, what help would be needed to keep the language strong in the family?
c001 Courses. Short courses for adults. Parents won‟t learn the language for nothing. „If I tried to get a group of women to come down here for nothing do you think they‟d come? The people who are in jobs already who would be interested. But they are working. Coordinated outside support. Tafe course. c002 Family support – people who know/speak the language [to offer support]. Language Centre support. Person who speaks needs to be paid to pass it on if only one person knows it. For Mirning, need outside support because not known. c003 Going out to homelands/communities and learning culture. c004 Within family get old people to come forward and helping out to keep the language going. c005 Take them bush on cultural trips. c006 Not sure – it‟s still strong in the community. c007 Voice recordings, resource materials. Contact with regular speakers (old people to spend time with learners). Cultural awareness camps – adults & children and involving language. c008 Schools important – learning different languages. Put Gugadha in schools. c009 Teaching aids for both parents and children (eg Wardugu Wirn). Parents need to be given confidence to teach it to the children. Nest/language camp. What is happening with Wirangu is a good example. c010 Linguist‟s help, Far West Languages Centre getting programs up and running c011 Keep speaking it to kids. Kids pick it up at school Coober Pedy/Pit Lands. c012 More recordings. More easier books to learn for younger ones trying to learn c013 Kids learn it at Tafe and then learn the others to speak it. c014 - c015 Need to develop kid‟s songs. Really believe in counselling about what happened in the past – being told it was wrong to speak their language. People drink today because still suppressed. Some of our Nyanggas are actors/comics in their own right. There‟s a lack of recognition. They‟re only recognised as drunks. c016 Speak to them at home, just talking freely to them
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c017 For more people to encourage it in the wider community. Support. Older people these days weren‟t taught and didn‟t learn. Now that it‟s written down the kids can learn and keep it going. c018 Outside needs to learn about the family. Aboriginal people need to learn it to help support it. Better availability of interpreting services. Government systems, rules and regulations change all the time. Anangu can‟t keep up. They‟ve got poor numeracy and literacy. Migrants (multiculturalism) getting more help than blackfellas. c019 Old people to be the guides. Community need to do more stuff in language. Start on a small scale to introduce slowly a couple of posters in language. Then we do something else on the homelands. Move up a level later. Maybe small newsletters. Work slowly but address what you‟re doing in the community. Now it‟s football season – do something about sport. Now is immunisation time – do it in language [ie. posters, flyers]. Get an agreement or understanding from all the community. Consensus [ie. promote Nyangga values at the same time]. c020 Elders to teach. More DVDs, cds, posters with the language. c021 They‟re living in Adelaide at the moment. Scattered everywhere. They‟re travellers. Take the kids to grandfather‟s country to feel the land, feel the spirit within them. When you go out to father‟s and grandfather‟s country you feel the spirit of the ancestors you feel at home, comfortable). c022 Just to really now what the meanings are and to find out more about it. c023 Documentation. We can go and spend a weekend at Bookabie and come home. They‟ll ask me a question and I won‟t be able to answer it. [Is that a shame job? – PM]. That makes you feel inadequate, like crap. They would respond with „shame job – you don‟t know your own thing‟. c024 Speak it more often. More outdoors eating food from the bush, eating bush tucker, getting out into the bush. c025 [see earlier detailed response] c026 Sit down with the old people – they always talk Pit. And family. Teach the young fellas how to talk Pit too. c027 - c028 - c029 Learn it from elders, get teachers in the schools c030 „listening ears‟
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23. Do you have any other thoughts or opinions about your language? Please feel free to add anything you want!
c001 Get it right. Make sure all languages are documented so people know the differences between languages. So you know your identity. c002 - c003 Don‟t know difference between Gugadha-Wirangu-Pit but would like to. c004 - c005 - c006 - c007 Sorry that kids have to learn Japanese rather than an Aboriginal language. Response from young kids is great – criticised by Aboriginal people outside. There is the Wirang/Gugadha issue. We were trying to do it in the 1980s but criticised. c008 - c009 Retrieve the language before it is lost – especially old words as Yalata is getting more words introduced from other places (especially north and west due to ceremonial tracks) [mai/mirga is a recent change at Yalata]. c010 I‟d like to see all the kids learn the Wirangu language cause it‟ll identify from this particular area. If you come in from another tribe you learn the Wirangu language first. [Wirangu first policy] c011 There‟s a lot of stuff out there for Pit – which is good. c012 - c013 Should be taught at school/Tafe c014 Someone to learn us c015 - c016 It‟s good to keep it going. All Aboriginal children should speak. Schools should help too. c017 Main thing is that language should be taught to kids in schools – that language in particular because it is spoken everywhere [Western Desert I think he means] c018 - c019 You‟ve got the self-appointed experts in every community [who try to stuff things up for everyone else]
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c020 I want to learn it, to be able to speak it like I speak English. Because it‟s important for us Aboriginal people – especially me being light-skinned. When I go into another Aboriginal country they think I‟m white [and treat me differently is the implication]. Our genealogies need to be update to put in the young kids coming through now. They‟re important to let people know where they are from, who their family is. c021 Would feel comfortable teaching kids in the school. I would rather take kids out so they can learn on the manda. c022 It‟ll be good for children when they get older and have children of their own. c023 It‟s a shame job we let the language slip that far it‟s almost out of reach. Growing up it never occurred to me that the language was dying. I found out about it when someone came along and asked me what tribe I was and whether I could speak it. c024 It‟s good for people to know different languages. Learn other peoples‟ languages. Because they‟ve been moved around a lot. Taken away. c025 - c026 Pit is a strong language. Nearly everybody on the West Coast speaks Pitjantjatjara. c027 - c028 - c029 c030 Hope that children in Ceduna can learn their language again. All languages in the school.
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24. What about Aboriginal English (Nunga English, ‘Blackfella English’, ‘Cattle Station English’)? Do you...
Know it?
c001 Yes c002 Yes c003 Yes c004 Yes c005 Yes c006 Yes c07 Yes c008 Yes c009 Yes c010 Yes [West Coast Talk] c011 Yes [Re – Cattle Station: White people use it, trying to break English down. But it‟s a put down to Aboriginal people; „they‟re trying to be Aboriginal people but they can‟t speak the language c012 Yes c013 Yes c014 Yes (West Coast Talk) c015 Yes c016 Yes c017 Yes22 c018 Yes c019 Yes c020 Yes c021 Yes
22 Characterises it as ‘Nyangga talk with English thrown in. Yalata mob throw English into their language.
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c022 Yes c023 Yes c024 Yes c025 Yes c026 Yes c027 No c028 No c029 Yes, sort of (West Coast Talk) c030 Yes (WCT)
Speak it?
c001 Yes c002 Yes c003 Yes c004 Yes c005 Yes c006 Yes c007 Yes c008 Yes c009 No c010 Yes (a little) c011 No c012 Yes c013 Yes c014 Yes c015 Yes
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c016 Yes c017 No (never learned West Coast Talk) c018 Yes c019 Yes c020 Yes c021 Yes c022 Yes c023 Yes c024 Yes c025 Yes c026 Yes c027 No c028 No c029 Sometimes c030 Yes
If ‘YES’, who do you speak with in Aboriginal English? c001 Family, Nyanggas. Some white people – those who are real locals. Those that have been here all the time. The people who live here and have grown up with it. School kids learn it. c002 All the Ceduna mob = local people she knows. English straight up at job interview, bank, post office, hospital. Straight up = no jaw breaking words, clear English. c003 Don‟t speak it with Whitefellas. They probably wouldn‟t understand. Shame job because we don‟t feel comfortable talking like that [in and out group stuff]. c004 It‟s just English – there‟s no Nyangga English. c005 Everybody but white people know it (people we grew up with) c006 Everyone. Not with sister cause she doesn‟t want to learn it. c007 Everyone I come into contact with - Ceduna, Pt Lincoln [even some?] government people.
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c008 Everyone c009 I don‟t speak it. But know it. Koonibba Mission talk. They don‟t talk like that at Yalata. c010 Just family members c011 - c012 People who mix it up with English – half English/half Nyangga. Just speak English if I can to White people. c013 Speak to everyone – at parties and at someone‟s house. Always speaking half English/half Gugadha. Can‟t speak like that in a shop or the bank. White people might think you‟re running them down. c014 Ceduna mob c015 - c016 Ceduna/West Coast mob c017 - c018 Speak it everyday c019 Everybody c020 - [not white people] c021 [everyone] c022 Ceduna mob c023 Urban Aboriginals. Ceduna mob. Not Yalata mob – cause they‟ll think you‟re stupid. c024 They just mix all the languages. Ceduna mob – friends, close cousins. Wouldn‟t speak it to other [white] workers at the childcare cause they wouldn‟t understand. c025 Ceduna mob – even the white staff [at Centrelink] know it. It‟s just broken down English. [Q: What do you mean by „broken down‟?]. Broken down in bits to suit a conversation. You just throw it in, you just pick it up. c026 Anybody I bump into – even down the street today I was talking. c027 c028 c029 Family, children c030 All the kids, Ceduna mob, white people
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Did you learn it from your parents/grandparents/siblings/ other children as you grew up? (Please CIRCLE the most appropriate one(s)).
c001 Everybody else. Mother/family. c002 Grandparents c003 - c004 - c005 It‟s all around c006 Parents/grandparents; other children c007 Grandparents; other children c008 Parents; grandparents; other children c009 other children c010 other children c011 - c012 parents; siblings; children c013 parents and others c014 other children (mission language) c015 - c016 - c017 - c018 It‟s what you grew up with c019 Everybody c020 Everybody c021 [everyone] c022 From everybody when growing up c023 Coming into town. Ceduna mob and Pt Lincoln mob. Lincoln is more English [ie. more like standard English – PM]. My parents spoke more of a straight English. Father hated the word „muga‟ [as in wiyana muga‟] – he didn‟t think it was even a word. He either spoke English or Pit. [I wonder whether she has inherited some
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of her father‟s attitudes – see earlier and comments below about language purity –PM] c024 Friends. Grew up at Ceduna from the age of 2. Moved to Coober Pedy, Pt Augusta, Adelaide. Was 12 yo when moved back to Ceduna. c025 Ceduna mob. c026 Grandparents, mother, sister & brother c027 c028 c029 Friends c030 Parents, siblings, other children
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25. If you have children or other younger relations, do they s speak Aboriginal English?
c001 Yes c002 Yes c003 Yes c004 No – it‟s just English c005 Yes c006 Yes, cousin c007 Yes c008 Yes, grannies as well c009 No c010 Yes c011` Yes (West Coast Talk) c012 Yes c013 No c014 Yes c015 - c016 Yes c017 Yes c018 Yes c019 Yes c020 Yes a couple of words but they don‟t really speak it. c021 Yes c022 Yes c023 Yes c024 Yes, the 3 yo c025 Yes
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c026 - c027 No. They keep anangu words out of English, keep it separate c028 No c029 Yes and no. Only the oldest son. The others speak English. c030 Yes
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26. If ‘YES’, who do they speak it with?
c001 See Q.24 c002 Ceduna mob – Nyangga community c003 - [Ceduna mob] c004 - c005 - c006 Cousin c007 everyone c008 Ceduna mob c009 - c010 Family, all Ceduna mob c011 Everybody – Ceduna Mob c012 Ceduna mob; mission mob; even over the phone „it‟s just the way we speak, unless we speak to white people, because they wouldn‟t understand unless they grew up/went to school with Nyangga kids. c013 Everybody c014 Everybody c015 - c016 - c017 Ceduna mob c018 - c019 Everybody c020 friends c021 [Everybody] c022 families – Aboriginal people c023 Ceduna mob c024 -
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c025 Everybody. I think that [when you use it] you don‟t know you are thinking. It‟s a made up thing. It‟s a language that‟s made by generations of local people. I don‟t think it‟s a good thing because it‟s not teaching people the correct language that they can identify themselves with, connect themselves to [cites example of pig English – pig Latin as a language] c026 - c027 - c028 c029 With his friend c030 back to me
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27. If you have young children or other younger relations would you like them to speak Aboriginal English, and would you teach them/encourage them to learn it?
c001 Yes. You can‟t stop them. It‟s just the way it is. They‟ll learn it at home, kindy, school. Broken down English - it‟s like a slang. c002 Yes c003 Yes c004 [No]. They‟ll just pick it up and talk it themselves „cos it‟s all around here. c005 Yes. Broken down English – it‟s not proper. But it‟s a good wangga. c006 No children c007 Yes. It‟s just natural – comes natural. c008 Yes c009 No c010 No. First and foremost English and Wirangu. They‟ll pick up the West Coast talk from other kids. [Ceduna wangga; mission] c011 They‟d learn it anyway c012 Yes. It‟s a good thing for us. There‟s some things you want to say so Whitefellas don‟t understand what you‟re taking about. But if they go away from here would expect them to know proper English. „You know how to switch it off and on‟. c013 No c014 Yes. So that the language can be kept alive. The West Coast speaks one language – all the tribes come together23 c015 Yes. Better they learn their own fluent. c016 Yes c017 Yes „keep it going‟
23 [names a couple of Mirning speakers]
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c018 Yes. It just comes natural. You‟re living in Ceduna, you hear it everyday. It comes automatically. I think it was where the languages were lost. They don‟t even use Ceduna language – they use the Pit words now more. Mixed up – jumbled. c019 Yes. Would be good to be able to combine sign language and Ceduna Talk. c020 Yes c021 Yes. Any young people because it‟d their culture, land, lifestyle c022 Yes c023 It‟s good to hear them speaking words but not to put 4 different words into one sentence. It is important [for us/linguists] to work on word origins. [discussion about the role of the exemption policy in language decline: you couldn‟t go in to the pub unless you had an exemption. You give up your aboriginality. Mother‟s first cousins all married white people [this was a norm]. Their children don‟t identify as Aboriginal. My second cousin was President of the Blues football club. [I took my kids and other relatives and introduce us to him – from memory – PM]. I‟ve got a son „he‟s a throw back, he‟s black. Looks like his father but he‟s black‟. [Q: is „throwback‟ a good thing?]. This is a positive thing – „our colour is dying out. Then you get a throw back [and] then the colour gets back‟. c024 Yes. It‟s a good thing c025 No. I‟d like her to identify with her [heritage] language. Wirangu, Gugadha, Pit. And how these languages get mixed up together and why. How to teach kids correctly about language if you can‟t even identify what you‟re speaking. People will know the slang words. People need to learn word origins [my term – PM]. ‘It’s good to say you’re keeping a language alive, but which language are you keeping alive?’ c026 - c027 No. c028 No. c029 Yes. They‟d learn it anyway. [Q: is it a good thing?] I don‟t know. c030 Yes. 14 grandchildren – Wirangu & WCT
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APPENDIX 11: MURRAY BRIDGE DATA
(MB 001-mb010)
Questionnaire for the Family Language Policies for Language Maintenance and Revival Project
Murray Bridge data
Collected by Dr Mary-Anne Gale in Murray Bridge, May 2010. Additional notes in square brackets […] are those of Petter Næssan. Blanks signify that no answer was given.
1. Where and when were you born? M / F
mb001: 1957, F. mb002: 1947, F. mb003: Raukkan, F. mb004: Raukkan, 1933, M. mb005: Murray Bridge “Pombruk”, 1941, F. But grew up on a fringe camp out of Tailem Bend. mb006: Murray Bridge, 1946, F. mb007: Raukkan/Pt McLeay Mission, 1935, F. mb008: Pt McLeay, F. mb009: Morphett Vale, 1944, M. mb010: Murray Bridge, 1932, M.
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2. What language group(s) do you identify with?
mb001: English, Ngarrindjeri. mb002: Ngarrindjeri. mb003: Ngarrindjeri mb004: Ngarrindjeri mb005: Ngarrindjeri mb006: English, Ngarrindjeri mb007: Ngarrindjeri – one and only. mb008: English + learning Ngarrindjeri mb009: English, Ngarrindjeri mb010: English, Ngarrindjeri
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3. Do you speak this/these language(s)?
YES/NO/SOME
mb001: YES [arrow to „English‟ of question 2]. SOME [added:] Ngarrindjeri. mb002: SOME. mb003: SOME. mb004: SOME. mb005: YES. mb006: YES. mb007: SOME. mb008: NO, SOME [both ticked]. mb009: YES, SOME [both ticked]. mb010: YES, SOME [both ticked].
3. 1. If ‘NO’, do you understand some language when it’s spoken?
YES/NO
mb001: YES mb002: YES mb003: YES mb004: [2 lines drawn across question 3.1 and 3.2] mb005: [2 lines drawn across question 3.1 and 3.2] mb006: [2 lines drawn across question 3.1 and 3.2] mb007: [2 lines drawn across question 3.1 and 3.2] mb008: YES mb009: NO mb010:
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3. 2. If ‘NO’, would you like to learn this/these languages?
YES/NO
mb001: YES mb002: YES mb003: mb004: [2 lines drawn across question 3.1 and 3.2] mb005: [2 lines drawn across question 3.1 and 3.2] mb006: [2 lines drawn across question 3.1 and 3.2] mb007: [2 lines drawn across question 3.1 and 3.2] mb008: YES mb009: YES mb010: YES
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4. Do or did any of your parents speak this/these language(s)?
YES/NO
If no, do/did they speak another language, if so, what language(s)?
mb001: [YES and NO ticked and scribbled out] NO [ticked again].
English. mb002: NO mb003: YES. Sometimes more English with little Ngarrindjeri, just
words. My dad was Narrunga so my parents didn‟t use the
language as much as some other families. mb004: YES. My mother was a quiet sort. I heard my dad talking to
other people and I understood what he was saying. My dad
taught me right through and brought me up but he didn‟t
teach how they do now. But it‟s too late now, he passed away
when I was 17 yrs old. mb005: YES. mb006: YES. I am sure they would have known a lot of the language
before the “ban”. mb007: YES. In bits and pieces. mb008: [Neither ticked, comment added:] Don‟t know I was taken
when baby. mb009: [YES ticked and scratched out] NO [ticked]. No – English only. mb010: [Neither ticked, comment added next to YES:] Father some.
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5. Do or did any of your grandparents speak this/these language(s)?
YES/NO
If no, do or did your grandparents speak another language, if so, what language(s)?
mb001: YES [ticked and scratched out]. NO [ticked]. mb002: YES. mb003: YES. My grandfather did. His name was [personal name]. He
was speaking sentences in the 1960‟s. AIATSIS has his
recordings. mb004: NO. They died when I was 4/5 years old. But my father spoke
a lot of language when he was drunk. But he would sing in
English. He was a muso & played the button accordion. mb005: YES. NB her grandfather was speaking the language in the
early 1960s still in the fringe camp. mb006: YES. They would have spoken the language fluently. mb007: YES. Bits and pieces. mb008: YES. mb009: YES. Ngarrindjeri. [other language:] No, English. mb010: YES. Grandfather.
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6. Do or did your grandparents speak language to you?
YES/NO
mb001: NO [YES ticked and scratched out] mb002: YES. mb003: NO. I can‟t remember, I was too young. My other
grandparents were at Point Pearce. mb004: NO. They passed away just as I was starting to learn. mb005: YES. mb006: NO. They would have spoken a few words to the children &
that is why we have retained a lot of words. mb007: NO. They spoke it amongst themselves, just with a few words. mb008: NO. mb009: NO. mb010: No [YES ticked and scratched out].
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7. Do or did your parents speak language to you?
YES/NO
If ‘NO’, what language do/did they speak to you?
mb001: NO. English. mb002: No. mb003: YES. Yes, very little, only if we asked but mum didn‟t go out of her way to teach us. mb004: NO. English. I had to take it into my own hands to learn when I was 17, I had to look after my siblings when they [parents] passed away. But I learnt from relatives. mb005: YES. Ngarrindjeri and English. mb006: NO. “As above” [sic.] mb007: NO. Only a little, e.g. body parts or nripun ko:pi = “wipe your nose”. Just English, cause that was the language they were taught & were allowed to speak. They weren‟t allowed to speak Ngarrindjeri by the missionaries. mb008: NO. Didn‟t meet my father + meet mother when I was nineteen. mb009: NO. English. mb010: NO. English.
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8. Do or did any other family members speak language to you? Who?
mb001: No. mb002: mb003: Yes. We spoke words to each other, that‟s my brothers and sisters. We were aloud to use Ngarrindjeri in class room & out in the yard. mb004: No, not unless I asked for it. mb005: Children, grandchildren, relatives, friends. mb006: Aunties & uncles, cousins, friends. mb007: Just the grandparents, with the few words they knew. I learnt some from my grandmother (my mother‟s mother). mb008: No. mb009: No. mb010: No.
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9. How often do you use language?
NEVER
24 RARELY
SOMETIMES25
OFTEN26
MOST OF THE TIME27
mb001: RARELY. mb002: OFTEN [SOMETIMES ticked and scratched out]. mb003: SOMETIMES, OFTEN [both ticked]. mb004: RARELY. mb005: OFTEN. NB She gives regular welcome speeches in full language, sings songs in language & is trying to teach it to her grandchildren. mb006: OFTEN. mb007: SOMETIMES. I use it with my kids & grandkids & with my daughter-in-laws, even though they are white girls. All four of my daughters-in-law are white. They often ring up and say “what is the word for such-and-such in Ngarrindjeri”, particularly the one that works at the Nunga Creche in Murray Bridge. I was there the other day and I told the children to be quiet in Ngarrindjeri. mb008: NEVER.
24 Less than once a month 25 One-two times a month 26 One or more times every week 27 Use the language generally, four days a week or more
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mb009: NEVER. mb010: SOMETIMES. He sings in the Ngarrindjeri choir with the women at special events, also goes to language workshops at Goolwa every two months.
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10. Who do you use language with? CIRCLE the one(s) most appropriate.
GRANDPARENT(S) – PARENTS – AUNTS/UNCLES - SIBLINGS – COUSINS – CHILDREN – NEPHEWS/NIECES - OTHER PEOPLE I KNOW – ANYONE WHO SPEAKS THE LANGUAGE - NONE
mb001: OTHER PEOPLE I KNOW mb002: GRANDPARENT(S) –AUNTS/UNCLES - SIBLINGS – COUSINS –
CHILDREN – NEPHEWS/NIECES - OTHER PEOPLE I KNOW –
ANYONE WHO SPEAKS THE LANGUAGE . mb003: AUNTS/UNCLES - SIBLINGS – COUSINS – CHILDREN –
NEPHEWS/NIECES - ANYONE WHO SPEAKS THE LANGUAGE. mb004: CHILDREN. I must try to speak to my daughter at high school. I talk to my children & grandchildren when they are “talking size” & with friends. mb005: AUNTS/UNCLES - SIBLINGS – COUSINS – CHILDREN –
NEPHEWS/NIECES - ANYONE WHO SPEAKS THE LANGUAGE. mb006: ANYONE WHO SPEAKS THE LANGUAGE. mb007: CHILDREN – NEPHEWS/NIECES - OTHER PEOPLE I KNOW. mb008: NONE. mb009: ANYONE WHO SPEAKS THE LANGUAGE. Mainly the language group that I attend. [Arrow down to additional comment:] i.e. monthly Elder‟s group. mb010: OTHER PEOPLE I KNOW.
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11. Do you live in the area associated with your language group(s)?
YES/NO
If ‘NO’, how long have you lived away from your country?
mb001: YES, Victor Harbor. mb002: YES, Tailem Bend. mb003: YES, most of my life lived in Ngarrindjeri country oxox. mb004: YES, Murray Bridge. “I‟ve been everywhere man!” I worked on the railways, so learnt a lot of other languages e.g. German & Italian. But I didn‟t learn other Aboriginal languages as I didn‟t want to get confused. I stuck to Ngarrindjeri. mb005: YES, Victor Harbor. mb006: YES, Victor Harbor. mb007: [Neither ticked]. We are not sure. Murray Bridge is on the border but I was born in Ngarrindjeri country at Raukkan. I left Raukkan at 19 years of age but have been back in Murray Bridge for 20 years. mb008: YES, NO [both ticked]. 30 years then lived on Raukkan 19 years. 2 years Tailem Bend. mb009: YES, Murray Bridge. mb010: YES, Goolwa.
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12. Do most of your friends belong to the group you identify with?
YES/NO.
mb001: YES. [NO ticked and scratched out]. mb002: NO. mb003: YES. mb004: YES. mb005: YES. mb006: YES. mb007: [Neither ticked]. A mixture. My darts team is a mixture & we call ourselves the “mixtures”. I‟m the only Nunga. mb008: mb009: YES. mb010: YES.
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13. Does your spouse/partner belong to your group?
YES/NO
If ‘NO’, what group does she/he belong to?
mb001: NO. Non-Aboriginal. mb002: NO. Irish, Welsh [„he‟ underlined]. mb003: YES. mb004: YES. First wife - Ngarrindjeri. NO. Second wife – English. mb005: YES. mb006: NO. Narrunga. mb007: [Neither ticked]. Both husbands have passed away, but they were both white. mb008: YES. Ngarrindjeri. mb009: NO. English. mb010: NO. English.
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14. Do you have children?
YES
Ages: 0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25
NO
mb001: YES, 20-25. mb002: YES, 30s. mb003: YES, 20-25. 3 boys + 15 grandchildren & and one great-gran. mb004: YES, 10-15, 15-20, 20-25, 30+. mb005: YES, 30 plus. mb006: YES, 35- mb007: YES. 4 boys & lots of grandchildren. Youngest is 40 & oldest son is 48 years old. I have 16 grandchildren & 5 great-grandchildren. mb008: YES. 10-15 [„2‟ added], 15-20 [„2‟ added], 20-25 [„1‟ added]. mb009: YES, all grown children. mb010: YES. NB all grown up now, over 25 years.
If not, do you have nephews/nieces or other relatives that are children?
YES
NO
mb001: mb002: YES.
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mb003: mb004: mb005: YES. mb006: mb007: Have mobs of nieces & nephews. mb008: mb009: YES. mb010: YES.
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15. If YES to any of the above, do you speak language to them?
YES NO
When? AS ABOVE
OTHER INFORMATION: ______
mb001: YES. Have 5 grandchildren. I do try to put in a few bits & pieces when talking to the grandchildren. mb002: YES. Yarning to them, telling certain stories to them. mb003: YES. Every time I see them, every other day, some words and some sentences. mb004: YES. I talk to them now. Yes, when I‟m at home. But work & play comes first. mb005: YES. NB She actively tries to teach the grandchildren & speaks the language to them. When we are together and don‟t want others to know what we are saying, also to teach them enough Ngarrindjeri as it‟s part of their culture & heritage so that they can be proud of their identity. mb006: Sometimes – broken Nunga/English. Whenever we meet. mb007: YES. Odd words, bits & pieces. Yes, lots of times we will say different little things to the grandchildren in Ngarrindjeri. But sometimes when we don‟t want the little ones to hear what we are saying, we say things in Ngarrindjeri. mb008: Don‟t know it. mb009: NO. mb010: NO.
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16. Do they speak back to you in English?
NO
YES, all the time
YES, sometimes
mb001: YES, sometimes. In English, but sometimes with a few words in Ngarrindjeri. mb002: Yes, all the time. mb003: Yes, all the time. Depends on the situation. mb004: Yes, sometimes. I‟m the one they love, so I don‟t get tough with them. You‟ve just got to work at it. Sometimes they don‟t answer me at all. mb005: Yes, sometimes. mb006: Yes, all the time. mb007: Yes, they speak back mainly in English. mb008: Yes, all the time. mb009: Yes, all the time. mb010: Yes, all the time.
If they speak back to you in English, why do you think they do it?
They don’t know enough language
They don’t want to speak the language
BOTH
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OTHER:
mb001: Both. My children don‟t want to yet & my grandchildren don‟t know how. mb002: They don‟t know enough language. mb003: They don‟t know enough language. If they knew enough language, they would speak or answer me in language. mb004: They don‟t know enough language [added:] maybe. They don‟t want to speak the language [also ticked, and with addition:] you get them looking & looking to say something but they don‟t know where to start. Best thing is to talk to the kids, but you‟ve got to talk so they understand. Best thing is to get the language right. mb005: They don‟t know enough language. It should be part of the education curriculum. If we all claim to be Australian, everyone should learn the language of the traditional owners of this land. mb006: Both. mb007: They don‟t know enough language [added:] They are a bit like me, they only know bits & pieces. They don‟t want to speak the language [horizontal line across box, and with addition:] No! I think my grandchildren do want to learn the Ngarrindjeri language. But none of them learn it in school. If they try and say a word in language and say it wrong, I‟ll help them say it right. And they don‟t mind. mb008: They don‟t know enough language. I was brought up in a white family. Only learning my new language. mb009: They don‟t know enough language. mb010: They don‟t know enough language.
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17. Are you concerned that the language will disappear?
NO
NO, I don‟t think it will
YES
mb001: NO, I don‟t think it will. Not now. mb002: NO, I don‟t think it will. mb003: YES. I did a language course through TAFE and from that I wrote a memory story and a skit in Ngarrindjeri and people are still talking about that skit even now. When I read my memory story to my brother in Ngarrindjeri that just made him so proud of me. mb004: YES. That‟s what I think. I‟ve thought about that. mb005: NO, I don‟t think it will. mb006: YES. mb007: YES. mb008: YES. mb009: YES [„NO, I don‟t think it will‟ initially ticked, then scratched out] mb010: YES.
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18. Do you feel that language is less important than English?
YES
NO
OTHER
mb001: NO. mb002: NO. mb003: NO. I think it‟s just as important as English. mb004: NO. mb005: NO. mb006: NO. mb007: OTHER. You can‟t compare languages, as they are both important. We lost our language & now it is starting to surface again & we should carry it on. mb008: OTHER. The Education dept‟s we have choices but in the end it is still hard. It is like at infant school (trying to learn a language). mb009: NO. mb010: NO.
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19. Whose responsibility is it to keep the language alive, the Government’s, the school’s, families’ or others? Please explain.
mb001: All of the above. mb002: Governments, the schools, families. mb003: All of the above, because if we all do our bit it‟ll help our language to stay alive. I worked at the kindy for 20 years and during that time my job was to introduce Aboriginal culture (Ngarrindjeri) through stories, art, songs & dance movement. mb004: 1) government. 2) families – you‟ve just got to work at it. 3) schools – most seem to be doing it, but I don‟t know if this is a good thing. It‟s a big problem if they do it wrong. Once kids get to school, they change and they change their mind. mb005: Families, school, government funding. mb006: The government, because they are the ones who banned our language from being spoken in the beginning of European/English invasion of Australia. mb007: I think it‟s everybody‟s responsibility. In the schools they do have language classes, e.g. at the high school, and I think this is a good thing. They teach Chinese & German and whatever, so why shouldn‟t they teach our language? mb008: I recommend the education, schools. Should learn in primary schools. I know it is hard, especially that I do not know the language. I never learnt my language till now and that is slight. mb009: All above. Governments in the early days forbade my people from speaking out language, therefore they are responsible for us not being able to speak it today. mb010: All above.
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20. Would you be prepared to give money (for learning materials, courses, etc.) or time to strengthen the language?
YES
NO
mb001: YES. NB She bought a set of language materials and didn‟the hesitate to pay full price. And she is now writing songs in the language with a couple of other women. mb002: YES. mb003: YES. I used to meet with a group of women once a week during the evening. And now I‟m in a choir, we meet once a week to learn songs in English and Ngarrindjeri. mb004: NO. It should be paid for by the government as they started the ball rolling (re language loss). mb005: YES. NB She has done much voluntary work to make resources & to run workshops. mb006: YES. mb007: YES. I do lots of voluntary work and help the schools with their language. mb008: YES. NB This lady is trying to write books and write some sentences in language. mb009: YES. mb010: YES.
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21. Do you want (your) children to be speakers of the language?
YES/NO
mb001: YES. mb002: YES. mb003: YES. I would love my grandchildren to become speakers of the language. mb004: Oh, it might be alright. mb005: YES. mb006: YES. mb007: YES. Well, they speak it in bits & pieces now & they are grown up with their own families. My sons are proud of the work I have done one the language (I helped make lots of resources & recorded over 200 words for the CDs in the language books). They have seen the little booklets. My sons say a few words like “nakan” (see you later), “muthun” (drinking). mb008: YES. mb009: YES. mb010: YES.
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22. If ‘YES’, what help would be needed to keep the language strong in the family?
mb001: Learning together in family time. Recording the language. Help from the dictionaries and listening to the elders more often. mb002: Yarning, storytelling, songs, recording, translating, picture books. mb003: 1) more written stuff, storybook, history. 2) storybooks, games, puzzles involving language. 3) funding for schools, kindys to start them off young. I reckon that we need to have MORE Funding for TAFE courses. mb004: Yes, it would be good for them to all get going. mb005: A linguist, tapes, recordings, songs, poetry & stories plus Ngarrindjeri dictionaries, picture ones for young children. mb006: Constant use of our language & to learn more so that we will eventually speak it fluently. Also, TAFE, Uni degree courses should be made available for all endangered languages that will not have the “HEC” fee attached to this study. mb007: We all need to speak it together every now & then. Just words, but we need to speak it as often as we can but in a way it‟s a bit hard, as all my boys married white girls. mb008: The understanding of the pronunciation of certain words. Let alone the students sit for lessons. Semester - the need of books and more. mb009: Learning together as a family. Recording. Dictionary. Listening to the elders. mb010: Learning in a group.
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23. Do you have any other thoughts or opinions about your language? Please feel free to add anything you want!
mb001: Seems to be very hard to voice the words. More language courses should be offered at the TAFE and university levels where we can get a qualification and to become teachers of the language. mb002: Part of Education Curriculum from Early Learning to High school age. mb003: When I am gone (dead) that my grandchildren can carry on the language. mb004: “I‟ve said more than enough!” [Quotations marks in the original] mb005: Our language was strong prior to European invasion. I have been S.A.L. in Batchelor, NT [arrow to the side where the following is written: in the 1980s] 3 times to keep my language alive. We now sing hymns in language and I dowelcome to the country in language. I have to make sure my younger generation can take over when I die. mb006: We should have more TAFE & eventual uni courses on Ngarrindjeri so that we can become teachers & leaders in our language groups. mb007: They should teach the language in schools as they teach other languages like Japanese, so why not the Ngarrindjeri language? mb008: To me this is hard to describe. I have the word in front of me, then the understanding of the word and then pronouncing the word that it is correct, not pronounced wrong. Need to: start learning in primary school, still learning in high schools. mb009: Very hard to learn but with more training I am positive that we will get there. “Fluent in Ngarrindjeri” [Quotation marks in the original]. mb010: More learning in schools and groups (Note: such as the Elders language workshop we have once a month)
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24. What about Aboriginal English (Nunga English, ‘Blackfella English’, ‘Cattle Station English’)? Do you...
know it? YES NO
speak it? YES NO
If ‘YES’, who do you speak with in Aboriginal English?
mb001: NO [K & S]. mb002: YES [K & S]. mb003: YES [K & S]. [„Aboriginal‟ crossed out and replaced with „Nunga‟ in the second question]. To everyone, also to whitefellas. mb004: YES [K & S]. Yes, that‟s what they are doing now. mb005: YES [K & S]. Other clan groups. mb006: YES [K & S]. Anyone who knows about the different language groups. If you are in their country you speak their language. mb007: YES [K & S]. [„Aboriginal‟ crossed out and replaced with „Nunga‟ in the second question]. Yes, that‟s all we speak anyway. None of us know our language fluently. To my kids and to other Nungas. I speak mainly English to my grandchildren, as they don‟t understand Ngarrindjeri. mb008: YES [K]. NO [S]. mb009: NO [K & S]. mb010: NO [K & S].
Did you learn it from your parents / grandparents /siblings /other children as you grew up? (Please CIRCLE the most appropriate one(s)).
mb001: mb002: Parents, grandparents. mb003: Parents, other children (as I grew up).
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mb004: Siblings. mb005: Yes, from other clan groups throughout all of Australia. Other children (as I grew up). mb006: Other children (as I grew up). mb007: Grandparents. Mainly grandparents as my parents had both passed away by the time I was 16 years old. mb008: mb009: mb010: Siblings (some).
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25. If you have children or other younger relations, do they speak Aboriginal English?
YES NO
mb001: NO. mb002: YES. mb003: YES. mb004: YES. [„Aboriginal‟ crossed out and replaced with „Nunga‟] mb005: YES. mb006: YES. mb007: YES, at times. NO [line to the following:] but some of my younger relations don‟t know any. mb008: NO. mb009: NO. mb010: NO.
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26. If ‘YES’, who do they speak it with?
mb001: mb002: Parents, grandparents, other Nunga people. mb003: Other children, parents, grandparents, and whitefellas. mb004: Yes, with other young ones. mb005: Friends, both other language groups and non-Indigenous groups. mb006: My children & their children have grown in an “URBAN” environment & therefore have spoken bits & pieces of many language groups. They don‟t necessarily know their own language because they & their parents only spoke English. mb007: Among themselves. But also, if out with a mob who understand and they don‟t want white people to know what they are talking about. mb008: mb009: mb010:
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27. If you have young children or other younger relations would you like them to speak Aboriginal English, and would you teach them/encourage them to learn it?
YES NO
mb001: YES. mb002: YES. mb003: YES. If they feel confident within themselves they should go for it, speaking whole sentences. mb004: YES. That‟s OK. mb005: YES. mb006: YES. I certainly would encourage them to learn a form of Abn/English language [abbreviation in the original]. Maybe in the future they may want to learn their Aboriginal heritage and language. mb007: YES. I think it would be good, but I‟d also like them to speak whole sentences in Ngarrindjeri. mb008: YES. Now that we have the dictionary and picture dictionary now it is a great help learning this new language of Ngarrindjeri. mb009: YES. mb010: YES.
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APPENDIX 12: Plain English literature review
Learning and teaching language in the family
This is an overview of some of the books and articles people have written about language learning in the family. They are about many different languages and from different parts of the world. We have tried to write something about the family language learning stuff that works. As you read through this, you may come across words that are difficult to understand. Don‟t get bogged down by this, just try to get the gist of what‟s written. After reading through some of this, you may want to ask yourself if this is useful for you and your family. „This worked in Ireland, but would the same thing work for us?‟ It might be useful to think about these things anyway so that you can decide what is best for you and your family.
Maguire, Gabrielle, 1991. Our own language: an Irish initiative. Clevedon/Philadelphia/Adelaide: Multilingual Matters, Ltd.
The parents of a group of eleven families in Belfast, Northern Ireland, decided to raise their children through Irish in the 1960s. The parents had not been taught Irish from childhood on but had learnt Irish as grownups – and then taught it to their children so that the children‟s first language was Irish. For some of the grownups this was really hard but they kept learning Irish and kept teaching it to the children. This happened in a city, not out in the country. English has taken over the Irish language in many areas – Belfast is mainly an English-speaking area. But the group of families established a company, got funding and land, and built houses. They also started a school in 1971 where they used only Irish to teach the courses. The researcher found that the children in this group used Irish among themselves, they were speakers of both Irish and English. From nine students in 1971, 162 children went to the Irish school in 1984-85 and in 1989 sixty-three children were enrolled to start there from nursery school.
What can be learned from this?
If people really put their minds to it and work together, it is possible to make a threatened language come to life again.
“The home is the last bastion of a subordinate language in competition with a dominant official language of wider currency (Dorian, 1981: 105, in Maguire, 1991: 168)
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Tsunoda, Tasaku, 2005. Language endangerment and language revitalization. Trends in Linguistics, studies and monographs 148 Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Tsunoda writes about how languages around the world stop being spoken. Some things need to be in place if people are going to help the language from disappearing. For a small language to keep strong there should be a sense of group solidarity (ibid: 192). “The people concerned have to be determined, committed and dedicated to the cause, and prepared to make a sacrifice, if necessary” (ibid: 192). Maguire (1991) clearly shows that it is possible to keep one‟s language strong but it takes a lot of work and people need to work together. Tsunoda (2005: 193) mentions that various conflicts within a community will hinder the work of getting the language back on track.
What can we learn from this?
People need to work together and should set aside their differences. Language needs to be the main thing, and people must be strong so that they can keep the language going.
Kaplan, Robert B. & Baldauf, Richard B., 1997. Language planning from practice to theory. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
In their book, Kaplan & Baldauf (1997: 274-275) writes about three main things that are needed to keep a language strong:
“(1) Parents must be willing and able to transmit the language to their offspring and must actually do so.
(2) No conditions may exist which will cause a more powerful language (H variety) to be imposed on a less powerful one (L variety), and functional registers must be retained.
(3) The community of speakers must be vibrant, stable, or increasing”.
What this means is that parents must speak the language to their children. In Australia, we can‟t overlook that the „more powerful‟ language taking over other languages is English. This has already happened and will continue to happen if nothing is done. „Functional registers‟ means that different types of speaking the language are kept alive (like speeches, jokes, storytelling, and polite language). The third point has to do with the fact that if the number of speakers goes down, there will be much less of a chance for the language to keep strong.
What can be learned from this?
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Number two of the factors is not here in Australia. English is a very strong language and has taken over many other languages. But the other two factors go together. Only if older people keep speaking the language to children will the community have a group of language speakers that‟s not shrinking in size. Parents may have to learn the language if they mostly know English from before but as seen in Maguire (1991) this can have very good results.
Edwards, V. & Newcombe, L. P., 2005. „Language transmission in the family in Wales. An example of innovative language planning‟. Language Problems & Language Planning, 29: 2, pp. 135-150.
This article is about a project in Wales for strengthening the Welsh language. Welsh has been given equal status with English through the law but most of the Welsh people do not actually speak Welsh. !n families where both parents were Welsh speakers, 81.9% of these children spoke Welsh in 2001. In families where only one of the parents was a Welsh speaker, only 39.8% of these children spoke Welsh. The Twf („Growth‟) project has tried to get Welsh people to use more Welsh in the home, and involves 23 team workers, all of them women. These team members have been working with midwives and other health workers, since they wanted to get Welsh people to think about using the language with their children. The group has also produced a brochure, a newsletter and a CD with songs that parents can sing with their children, so the Welsh language has become more visible and reaching more people than before.
What can be learned from this?
As parents, it‟s useful to start thinking about the language(s) they want their children to learn, and they should think about this sooner rather than later. It‟s also important that fewer children in mixed families seem to know Welsh. This may be because it‟s harder to keep a minority language spoken in a mixed family.
King, K. & Mackey, A., 2007. The bilingual edge. Why, when, and how to teach your child a second language. New York: HarperCollins Publishers.
This is a handbook about how to teach children to become bilingual – how to get them to know and speak two languages. Those that speak more than one language seem to be more creative and flexible than others. The writers also write about some widespread myths that are not based on facts. Some of these are
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“I‟m too late! You have to start very early for second language learning or you‟ll miss the boat”. This is not the case. Many people learn languages after they have grown up or when they are older children.
“Only native speakers and teachers can teach children second languages”. This is not really the case, either. As long as the language is used in meaningful ways between speakers, the language that the parent speak can be less than perfect. Children will pick it anyhow as long as the language is used to do things between people, and any input is better than none.
“Children that are raised in the same family will have the same language skills as one another”. Actually, it‟s rare that all the siblings have the same language skills. Some children speak more than others, and some children use many more different words when they speak than others. First-born children in bilingual families are mostly the ones that speak both of the languages most fluently – this is because parents mostly spend more time and have more one-on-one talks with the first-born child than with the children that follow.
“Learning two languages means that the child will be a late talker”. No, this is not true. Children that grow up learning two or even more languages do not learn the languages later than others. There are many differences between children that are simply individual – in any group of one- and two-year-olds there will be some that chatter away, some that speak a couple of cords at a time, and some who point and grunt. This kind of variation is natural; it‟s there no matter how many languages the child is learning.
“TV and DVDs are great ways to pick up some languages”. Language through TV, computer games and so on can be used to learn some of the language but it‟s not enough. Children learn language mainly through doing things with others, by spending time with others. Basically, one cannot rely on DVDs and similar things, the language needs to be spoken by people to people, back and forth and face to face.
“Two languages are the most a very young child should be exposed to”. This is not the case. Millions of children all over the world grow up speaking three or more languages with no bad results. The writers do not mention First Australian languages but we know that speaking several languages has been very common among First Australian groups.
Some other issues covered in the book:
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Start thinking and talking about language attitudes and language use in the family. Now is the right time – it‟s never too late and it‟s never too early to learn another language.
Children‟s language is simpler than grown-up‟s language and small children often make mistakes. Children don‟t think about their language use the same way grown-ups do but after about eight years of age people tend to be more easily shamed, more critical of themselves. Mistakes are of course a part of any language learning. Younger children often just jump right in and speak even if they don‟t get it quite right, and this can be very useful for their learning. For some older children or grown-ups, their shyness can hinder them from using language with others and in these case people may need some help so that they can boost their confidence. One learns language by speaking it, listening to it, basically learning by doing.
Teaching an additional language (or teaching any language) to children works best when it‟s connected to everyday activities.
With a minority language other than English, it is important to remember that the majority language often will seep into the family, and it is important to be aware of this. If possible, the minority language should be used in the home more often than the majority language. An additional tip is when parents arrange for babysitting – it‟s a good idea to get someone who speaks the language and have a talk to them about using the language with the child.
The writers mention that in “the real world, despite our best efforts to make language learning fun and engaging, children do say things like, “I hate that language” or “No. No! NO! You can‟t make me speak it!””
In many cases, children respond in English. Parents have shared what worked for them in such cases. One pair simply continued in the other language and did not switch to English. After some time, the child started using more of the other language. One father made up a game with his two sons, so that everyone caught speaking English by the „English policeman‟ had to pay a fine of 10 cents. They took turns on being the „policeman‟. At the end of the month they‟d go and get pizza with the money. The father said this game made the whole thing more fun for everyone. In a different family, the mother made out that she didn‟t understand English when the child spoke English to her, so the child had to use the other language in order to get what she wanted. All of these ways worked well but something that works in some families may not work that well in other families.
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Hinton, L. & Hale, K., 2001. „Family-based programs at home‟, „Raising bilingual children‟ and „One parent, one language‟. Hinton & Hale (eds). The green book of language revitalization in practice, pp. 12-13. San Diego: Academic Press.
The writers report research from Australia in the 1990s28. Although not many „mixed‟ families managed to teach the children to speak two languages right through, some families were successful. Those that managed to teach the children properly had three things in common:
1 The minority-language parent spent just as much time (or more) with the child as the majority-language parent. 2 The minority-language parent refused to accept the children‟s answer if they spoke back to the parent in English. The parent would make out that he or she didn‟t understand unless the child spoke the minority language. 3 There were other people outside the home that spoke the language. These could be friends or relatives.
These are all very important. In „mixed‟ families where only one parents speak (an Indigenous) language, the children would be most likely to learn language if all the three points are working. From what we can tell, the parent must speak the language to the children and should not accept it if the child speaks back in English.
28 Döpke, Suzanne, 1992. One parent, one language. An interactional approach. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.