Family Language Policies for Indigenous Language Maintenance and Revival A research report prepared for the Office for the Arts, Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet. Petter Næssan, Paul Monaghan and Peter Mühlhäusler Discipline of Linguistics University of Adelaide October 2010 Contents pages Acknowledgments x 1. Plan of this report 1 2. Overview of the family language policies for language maintenance and revival project 2 3. Introduction: Background to the study 3 3. 1. Language endangerment 3 3. 2. Language endangerment and language vitality in Australia 3 4. Family language transmission 5 5. Methodology 7 5. 1. Scope of the study 7 5. 2. Adelaide 8 5. 3. Port Pirie 9 5. 4. Ceduna 10 5. 5. The methodology of random sampling and its rationale 11 ii 5. 6. The development of the questionnaire: pilot study 12 5. 6. 1. Demographic data 13 5. 6. 2. Geographic mobility: rationale 13 5. 6. 3. Exogamy: rationale 13 5. 6. 4. Communicative competence and language use 16 5. 6. 5. Language attitudes: rationale 17 5. 6. 5. 1. Commitment 17 5. 6. 5. 2. Family focus versus school/government focus 18 5. 6. 5. 3. Speakers’ perceptions on children’s attitudes 18 5. 6. 6. Social network (peer group) questions: rationale 19 5. 7. Problems with the questionnaire design 20 5. 7. 1. Unfortunate wording 20 5. 7. 2. Social desirability bias 20 6. Research procedure 22 6. 1. Payment to participants 23 7. Analysis sheets – Adelaide data 24 7. 1. Gender and age 24 7. 2. Place of birth 25 7. 3. Question 3: Do you speak this/ these language(s)? 26 7. 4. Question 4: Do or did any of your parents speak this/these language(s)? 27 iii 7. 5. Question 5: Do or did any of your grandparents speak this/these language(s)? 29 7. 6. Question 6: Do or did your grandparents speak language to you? 29 7. 7. Question 7: Do or did your parents speak language to you? 30 7. 8. Question 11: Do you live in the area associated with your language group(s)? 31 7. 9. Question 12: Do most of your friends belong to the group you identify with? 32 7. 10. Question 13: Does your spouse/partner belong to your group? If ‘NO’, what group does she/he belong to? 34 7. 11. Question 15: If ‘YES’ to any of the above, do you speak language to them? 36 7. 12. Question 16: Do they speak back to you in English? 38 If they speak back to you in English, why do you think they do it? 38 7. 13. Question 17: Are you concerned that the language will disappear? 40 7. 14. Question 19: Whose responsibility is it to keep the language alive, the Government’s, the school’s, families’ or others? Please explain. 41 7. 15. Question 20: Would you be prepared to give money (for learning materials, courses, etc.) or time to strengthen the language? 48 7. 16. Question 21: Do you want (your) children iv to be speakers of the language? 49 7. 17. Question 27: If you have young children or other younger relations would you like them to speak Aboriginal English and would you teach them/encourage them to learn it? 50 8. Analysis sheets – Port Pirie data 52 8. 1. Gender and age 52 8. 2. Place of birth 53 8. 3. Question 3: Do you speak this/ these language(s)? 53 8. 4. Question 4: Do or did any of your parents speak this/these language(s)? 54 8. 5. Question 5: Do or did any of your grandparents speak this/these language(s)? 54 8. 6. Question 6: Do or did your grandparents speak language to you? 55 8. 7. Question 7: Do or did your parents speak language to you? 55 8. 8. Question 11: Do you live in the area associated with your language group(s)? 55 8. 9. Question 12: Do most of your friends belong to the group you identify with? 56 8. 10. Question 13: Does your spouse/partner belong to your group? If ‘NO’, what group does she/he belong to? 58 8. 11. Question 15: If ‘YES’ to any of the above, do you speak language to them? 59 v 8. 12. Question 16: Do they speak back to you in English? 60 If they speak back to you in English, why do you think they do it? 60 8. 13. Question 17: Are you concerned that the language will disappear? 62 8. 14. Question 19: Whose responsibility is it to keep the language alive, the Government’s, the school’s, families’ or others? Please explain. 62 8. 15. Question 20: Would you be prepared to give money (for learning materials, courses, etc.) or time to strengthen the language? 64 8. 16. Question 21: Do you want (your) children to be speakers of the language? 64 8.17. Question 27: If you have young children or other younger relations would you like them to speak Aboriginal English and would you teach them/encourage them to learn it? 65 9. Analysis sheets – Ceduna data 67 9. 1. Gender and age 67 9. 2. Place of birth 68 9. 3. Question 3: Do you speak this/ these language(s)? 68 9. 4. Question 4: Do or did any of your parents speak this/these language(s)? 69 9. 5. Question 5: Do or did any of your grandparents speak this/these language(s)? 69 vi 9. 6. Question 6: Do or did your grandparents speak language to you? 70 9. 7. Question 7: Do or did your parents speak language to you? 71 9. 8. Question 11: Do you live in the area associated with your language group(s)? 72 9. 9. Question 12: Do most of your friends belong to the group you identify with? 73 9. 10. Question 13: Does your spouse/partner belong to your group? If ‘NO’, what group does she/ he belong to? 76 9. 11. Question 15: If ‘YES’ to any of the above, do you speak language to them? 77 9. 12. Question 16: Do they speak back to you in English? 78 If they speak back to you in English, why do you think they do it? 79 9. 13. Question 17: Are you concerned that the language will disappear? 80 9. 14. Question 19: Whose responsibility is it to keep the language alive, the Government’s, the school’s, families’ or others? Please explain. 81 9. 15. Question 20: Would you be prepared to give money (for learning materials, courses, etc.) or time to strengthen the language? 84 9. 16. Question 21: Do you want (your) children to be speakers of the language? 85 9. 17. Question 27: If you have young children or other younger relations would you like vii them to speak Aboriginal English and would you teach them/encourage them to learn it? 85 10. Summary and comparative outline of key findings 87 10. 1. Gender, age and place of birth 87 10. 2. Language competence and exposure 88 10. 2. 1. Respondent’s self-reported language competence 88 10. 2. 2. Reported language competence of respondent’s parents and grandparents and exposure to language by parents and grandparents 88 Table 10.2.2A. Reported language competence of respondent’s (X) parent(s) and grandparent(s) and exposure to language by parents and grandparents, Adelaide 89 Table 10.2.2PP. Reported language competence of respondent’s (X) parent(s) and grandparent(s) and exposure to language by parents and grandparents, Port Pirie 90 Table 10.2.2C. Reported language competence of respondent’s (X) parent(s) and grandparent(s) and exposure to language by parents and grandparents, Ceduna 91 10. 2. 3. Discussion 92 viii 10. 3. Indications of opportunities for exposure to language and for language use 93 10. 3. 1. Extent of residence within own language group’s area 93 10. 3. 2. Peer group/social network/friends 93 10. 4. Extent of speaking language to younger relatives 94 10. 5. Younger relatives responding in English when spoken to in language 95 10. 5. 1. Perceptions on why the younger relatives answer in English 95 10. 6. Extent of exogamy 96 10. 7. Language attitudes 97 10. 7. 1. Concern about language endangerment 97 10. 7. 2. Degree of commitment 98 10. 7. 3. Attitudes towards children’s language acquisition and communicative competence 99 10. 7. 4. Attitudes towards Aboriginal English 99 10. 7. 5. Family focus versus school/government focus as key factors of language planning 100 10. 8. Concluding remarks: patterns of family language transmission 102 11. Family language planning recommendations 103 11. 1. Responses to the draft recommendations 106 ix Bibliography 107 Appendices 113 Appendix 1: Remoteness map 1, South Australia 114 Appendix 2: Remoteness map 2, South Australia 115 Appendix 3: Patterns of language shift map 116 Appendix 4: Consent form 117 Appendix 5: Information sheet 119 Appendix 6: Statement for cash 120 Appendix 7: Questionnaire 121 Appendix 8: Adelaide data 131 Appendix 9: Port Pirie data 252 Appendix 10: Ceduna data 317 Appendix 11: Murray Bridge data 387 Appendix 12: Plain English literature review 419 x Acknowledgments The Family Language Policies for Indigenous Language Maintenance and Revival Project (2009-2010) has been funded by the Australian Government Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts (Maintenance of Indigenous Languages and Records Program). Project manager: Professor Peter Mühlhäusler Finance manager: Dagmar Theil Project officer: Dr Petter Næssan Research consultants: Dr Paul Monaghan, Dr Rob Amery and Dr Mary- Anne Gale Research assistant (Adelaide fieldwork): Sarah Pearce Editorial assistant: Catherine Amis The project would not have been possible without the support of Indigenous/First Nation people in Adelaide, Port Pirie, Ceduna and Murray Bridge and the project team would like to extent its heartfelt thanks and appreciation to all the participants.