DOCSLIB.ORG

Explaining East Africa's Interstate Wars, 1977-2000

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Explaining East Africa's Interstate Wars, 1977-2000 EXPLAINING EAST AFRICA’S INTERSTATE WARS, 1977-2000 TOWARDS A TYPOLOGICAL THEORY? by Bhaso Ndzendze Supervisor: Professor Gilbert M. Khadiagala Submitted to the Department of International Relations at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. 2020 Declaration I, Bhaso Ndzendze, hereby declare that the following PhD dissertation titled ‘Explaining East Africa’s Interstate Wars, 1977-2000: Towards a Typological Theory?’ is my own unaided and un-plagiarised work which has not been previously submitted to any other institution for a qualification. SIGNATURE: DATE: 9 March 2020 2 “Ertra, Ertra, Ertra, The barbarian enemy humiliatingly defeated And martyrdom has paid for freedom.” - Eritrean National Anthem (Stanza One) “Stop fighting each other Come back with strength and joy and do be friends again It’s time to look forward and take command Defeat your enemies and unite once again. become strong again and again.” - Somali National Anthem, 2000-2012 (Stanza Two) “And with neighbours all At our Country’s call In peace and friendship we’ll live.” - Ugandan National Anthem (Stanza Two) 3 ABSTRACT This dissertation tested the causal relevance of the ‘democratic peace thesis’, ‘economic interdependence’, and the ‘hegemonic stability theory’ to cases of interstate conflict in East Africa: the Ogaden War, 1977-1978; the Uganda-Tanzania War, 1978-1979; and the Eritrea-Ethiopia War, 1998- 2000. Quantitative economic and military data as well as archival materials, journal articles, and contemporaneous sources on political history were utilised along with interviews with former mediators, government officials and experts on the societies and economies of East Africa in the making of these determinations and reaching of the respective conclusions. Findings indicate that the democratic peace thesis has an imperfect causal relevance with the interstate conflicts that took place between 1977 and 1997. Two of the three cases (Somalia and Uganda) appear to be consistent with the literature which indicate a greater probability of power loss for an authoritarian regime upon losing a war. The dissertation therefore closed a gap by indicating and then clarifying issues within the present literature on the democratic peace thesis; before these, it was not cognizant of the role of what we term here as the institutional legitimacy-information asymmetry problem across regimes in leading up to an outbreak of conflict. With regards to the economic interdependence thesis, the dissertation also found causal validity. Overall, the share of Ethiopia in Somalia’s exports was insignificant, at less than 0.018% (the high mark reached in 1975) at any given point. This thus demonstrates a lack of opportunity cost for Somalia in initiating a war with Ethiopia. As this case demonstrates, while Somalia was an exporting nation prior to the war, these exports were declining in the years leading up to the war and they had already had a minimal share within its total GDP. Similarly, we find that trade between Tanzania and Uganda started to increase gradually soon after independence but subsequently declined after the Idi Amin coup of 1971. Tanzanian people also showed a higher preference for Western and Tanzanian-made products first over East African ones, showing that the literature needs to be cognizant of populations as both a political audience (as is done in the democratic peace thesis) as well as consumers whose procurement choices determine the level of interdependence, or lack thereof. Finally, we noted that Eritrea’s new currency, the Nakfa, made trade with Ethiopia virtually impossible; it also made the border, hitherto managed and handled at the level of the local governments, salient as free movement of goods was now made a matter of dispute. The diversion of exports away from Massawa and Assab to Djibouti further made retaliation against Eritrea less costly for Ethiopia. The pre-war years also coincided with diversification of Eritrean export markets, but overall decline in their aggregate values, further eliminating any opportunity cost for disrupting the status quo. A test of the hegemonic stability theory found it to be congruent with the cases as well. Overall, the findings would appear to be consistent with the hypothesis; the comparative lowness of the Kenyan military budget compared with growths in those of belligerent states in the region appear to have been 4 correlated with interstate conflict outbreaks. This also explains Kenya’s lack of capacity to mitigate conflicts even after they had broken out. Because of Kenya’s proactiveness, however, the US did limit its arms supplies to Somalia, as these could hypothetically have been redirected towards Kenya, against whom Somalia had irredentist claims over the Northern Frontier District. Finding all three theories to be causally relevant, the dissertation thereafter proposes a typological theory by sequencing all variables accordingly to account for the region’s interstate wars. KEYWORDS: Africa; Democratic peace thesis; Economic interdependence; Errol A. Henderson; Ethiopia-Eritrea War; Hegemonic stability thesis; Interstate war; Ogaden War; Uganda-Tanzania War 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS Declaration……………………………………………………………………………2 Abstract and Keywords………………………………………………………………..4 List of Acronyms Used………………………………..………………………..……...8 List of Tables and Figures…………………………………………...........................11 Chapter 1: Introduction…………………………………………………………………….14 1.1. Aims of the Dissertation.……….……………………………………………………………..…14 1.2. Rationale for the Study………………………………………………………………………..…16 1.3.Brief Methodological Overview ……………………………………………………………...…19 1.4.Summary of Findings…………………………………………………………………………..…20 1.5.Chapter Outline………………………………………………………….………………………...27 Chapter 2: Interstate War and Africa: Concepts in Context……………………………...29 2.1. Introduction………………………………………………………….…………...………….……29 2.2. Overview of War.…………………………………….………………....……………….............29 2.3. Overview of African Interstate War..….……………………….………………………………34 2.4. War in Colonial Africa: Actors and Institutions…………………………...…………………39 Chapter 3: Theoretical and Methodological Framework…………………………………45 3.1. Introduction.……….………………………………………………………................................45 3.1. Conceptualising the Democratic Peace Thesis ……………………………………………...46 3.2. Economic Interdependence-Peace Thesis Conceptualised ………………………………….52 3.3. Conceptualising Hegemonic Stability..………………………………………………………...58 3.4. Variables and Research Agenda ……….……………………………………………………….64 Chapter 4: Case Study 1: Ogaden War, 1977-1978…………..……………………………69 4.1. Introduction.……….………………………………………………………................................69 4.2. Background and Onset.……….……………………………………...................................71 4.3. Case Study Analysis I: democratic Peace Thesis.……….………….……………………..80 6 4.4. Case Study Analysis II: Economic Interdependence and Peace.……….….................99 4.5. Conclusion.……….……………………………..............................................................118 Chapter 5: Case Study 2: Uganda-Tanzania War, 1978-1979………………………...…122 5.1. Introduction.……….……………………………………………………….........................122 5.2 Background and Onset.……….………………..……………………………….…............123 5.3. Case Study Analysis I: Democratic peace thesis.……….……………………………..…128 5.4. Case Study Analysis II: Economic interdependence and Peace.………………………156 5.5. Conclusion.……….………………………………………………………………………….168 Chapter 6: Case Study 3: Eritrea-Ethiopia War, 1998-2000…………………………….171 6.1 Introduction.……….……………………………………………………………………..….171 6.2 Background and Onset.……….……………………………………….…..…………..……172 6.3. Case Study Analysis I: Democratic Peace Thesis.……….…………………..………….181 6.4. Case Study Analysis II: Economic Interdependence and Peace.……….…..…………193 6.5. Conclusion.……….………………………………………………………………………….202 Chapter 7: Case Study 4: Hegemonic Stability Theory in East Africa?............................209 7.1. Introduction.……….…………………………………………………………………………….208 7.2. Methodology……………………………………………………………………………213 7.3. A Test of Hegemonic Stability Theory in East Africa……………………………………214 Chapter 8: Conclusion: Towards A Typological Theory of East African Interstate War ……………………………………………………………………………………………....229 8.1. Introduction.……….…………………………………………………………………………….229 8.2. A Methodology for Theory-to-Theory Interaction…………………………………………..229 8.3. Typology-Building……………………………………………………………..……….230 8.4. Overall Typology……………………………………………………………..……...…237 8.5. Conclusions……………………………………………………………..……………...241 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………….251 7 Archives…………………………………………………………………………………….285 Interviews…………………………………………………………………………………..287 Appendices…………………………………………………………………………………288 Appendix A: Proof of Growths and Declines in East African Military Budgets .…………..….288 Appendix B: Historical Price of Coffee……………………………………………….……………292 Appendix C: Letter to Participants………………...…………………………….…………………292 Appendix D: Ethical Clearance Certificate Information….……………………………………..293 Appendix E: Insights from Interviews………………………………………………………294 Acknowledgements…………..…………………………………………………………..…296 8 List of Acronyms Used ADP Amhara Democratic Party AMISOM African Union Mission in Somalia ANC African National Congress AU African Union AfDB African Development Bank CCE Constitutional Commission of Eritrea CCM Chama Cha Mapinduzi COW Correlates of War CTT Competitive theory testing CUF Civic United Front DPT Democratic peace thesis EAC East African Community EIC Ethiopia Investment Commission EIPDC Ethiopia
Load more

Recommended publications
  • 519 Ethiopia Report With
    Minority Rights Group International R E P O R Ethiopia: A New Start? T • ETHIOPIA: A NEW START? AN MRG INTERNATIONAL REPORT AN MRG INTERNATIONAL BY KJETIL TRONVOLL ETHIOPIA: A NEW START? Acknowledgements Minority Rights Group International (MRG) gratefully © Minority Rights Group 2000 acknowledges the support of Bilance, Community Aid All rights reserved Abroad, Dan Church Aid, Government of Norway, ICCO Material from this publication may be reproduced for teaching or other non- and all other organizations and individuals who gave commercial purposes. No part of it may be reproduced in any form for com- financial and other assistance for this Report. mercial purposes without the prior express permission of the copyright holders. For further information please contact MRG. This Report has been commissioned and is published by A CIP catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library. MRG as a contribution to public understanding of the ISBN 1 897 693 33 8 issue which forms its subject. The text and views of the ISSN 0305 6252 author do not necessarily represent, in every detail and in Published April 2000 all its aspects, the collective view of MRG. Typset by Texture Printed in the UK on bleach-free paper. MRG is grateful to all the staff and independent expert readers who contributed to this Report, in particular Tadesse Tafesse (Programme Coordinator) and Katrina Payne (Reports Editor). THE AUTHOR KJETIL TRONVOLL is a Research Fellow and Horn of Ethiopian elections for the Constituent Assembly in 1994, Africa Programme Director at the Norwegian Institute of and the Federal and Regional Assemblies in 1995.
    [Show full text]
  • The Ethiopian State: Perennial Challenges in the Struggle for Development
    Macalester College DigitalCommons@Macalester College International Studies Honors Projects International Studies Department 4-26-2016 The thiopiE an State: Perennial Challenges in the Struggle for Development Hawi Tilahune Macalester College, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/intlstudies_honors Part of the International and Area Studies Commons Recommended Citation Tilahune, Hawi, "The thiopE ian State: Perennial Challenges in the Struggle for Development" (2016). International Studies Honors Projects. Paper 21. http://digitalcommons.macalester.edu/intlstudies_honors/21 This Honors Project is brought to you for free and open access by the International Studies Department at DigitalCommons@Macalester College. It has been accepted for inclusion in International Studies Honors Projects by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@Macalester College. For more information, please contact [email protected]. The Ethiopian State: Perennial Challenges in the Struggle for Development Hawi Tilahune Presented to the Department of International Studies, Macalester College. Faculty Advisors: Dr. Ahmed I. Samatar and Professor David Blaney 4/26/2016 Table of Contents ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 3 ABSTRACT 4 CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 6 I. THE CHALLENGE 6 II. RESEARCH QUESTIONS 7 III. MOTIVATION 8 IV. SOURCES AND METHODOLOGY 10 V. PREPARATION 10 VI. ORGANIZATION 12 CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW 15 I. THE STATE 15 II. NATIONHOOD AND NATIONALISM 30 III. WORLD ORDER 37 IV. DEVELOPMENT 43 CHAPTER III: BASIC INFORMATION 50 I. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 50 II. POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY 51 III. SOCIAL GEOGRAPHY 51 IV. ECONOMY 52 CHAPTER IV: EMPEROR MENELIK II (1889-1913) 54 I. INTRODUCTION 54 II. EUROPEAN IMPERIALISM IN THE HORN 55 III. TERRITORIAL AND CULTURAL EXPANSION 58 IV.
    [Show full text]
  • Russia's Role in the Horn of Africa
    Russia Foreign Policy Papers “E O” R’ R H A SAMUEL RAMANI FOREIGN POLICY RESEARCH INSTITUTE • RUSSIA FOREIGN POLICY PAPERS 1 All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Author: Samuel Ramani The views expressed in this report are those of the author alone and do not necessarily reflect the position of the Foreign Policy Research Institute, a non-partisan organization that seeks to publish well-argued, policy- oriented articles on American foreign policy and national security priorities. Eurasia Program Leadership Director: Chris Miller Deputy Director: Maia Otarashvili Editing: Thomas J. Shattuck Design: Natalia Kopytnik © 2020 by the Foreign Policy Research Institute July 2020 OUR MISSION The Foreign Policy Research Institute is dedicated to producing the highest quality scholarship and nonpartisan policy analysis focused on crucial foreign policy and national security challenges facing the United States. We educate those who make and influence policy, as well as the public at large, through the lens of history, geography, and culture. Offering Ideas In an increasingly polarized world, we pride ourselves on our tradition of nonpartisan scholarship. We count among our ranks over 100 affiliated scholars located throughout the nation and the world who appear regularly in national and international media, testify on Capitol Hill, and are consulted by U.S. government agencies. Educating the American Public FPRI was founded on the premise that an informed and educated citizenry is paramount for the U.S.
    [Show full text]
  • Scarica Il Libro in Formato
    Richard Pankhurst Etiopi Dalle prime testimonianze umane alla repubblica federale InDICE 6 Cenni sulla traslitterazione 7 Preistoria e geografia 19 Punt, i faraoni e i Tolomei, il regno aksumita Titolo originale: Ethiopians. A History e l’avvento della Cristianità © 2006 Black wells, Oxford 51 La dinastia Zagué, le chiese di Lalibela © 2012 Beit casa editrice, Trieste e la “Restaurazione” salomonica ISBN: 978-88-95324-32-6 67 Vita nel Medio Evo: contatti con i vicini musulmani Traduzione: Piero Budinich e Camilla Pieretti e con la remota cristianità In copertina: Foto di Pierangelo Gramignola, 89 Ahmad ibn Ibrahim, la migrazione oromo In quarta di copertina: e la conquista islamica di Massaua 109 Lo spostamento della capitale a nordovest e l’intermezzo cattolico 121 Gondar: ascesa e caduta 145 L’inizio del xix secolo e l’avvento di Tewodros ii 173 Iohannes, Menelik e le Potenze europee La scheda bibliografica è riportata nell’ultima pagina del libro. 205 Gli inizi della modernizzazione: Menelik, Iyasu, Per conoscere le ultime novità visitate il sito www.beitcasaeditrice.it Zauditu e Haile Selassie 231 Invasione, occupazione e liberazione 265 Restaurazione e rivoluzione 295 Note ai capitoli 309 Bibliografia 325 Cronologia essenziale 327 Una transizione lunga vent‘anni, non ancora conclusa di Gian Paolo Calchi Novati 353 Indice dei nomi 359 Repertorio dei nomi geografici e degli argomenti CEnnI SULLA TRASLITTERAZIOnE DELLE PAROLE STRAnIERE L’alfabeto dell’amharico L’amharico (āmariññā) è la lingua ufficiale dell’Etiopia. non esiste una traslitterazione comunemente accettata dell’amharico nell’alfabeto latino. L’alfabeto ge‘ez comprende 260 segni sillabici, divisi in sette ordini a seconda della coloritura vocalica.
    [Show full text]
  • Refugee Exodus from Somalia: Revisiting the Causes Hassan A
    Refugee Exodus from Somalia: Revisiting the Causes Hassan A. Mohamed Rhmc? needed to be rescued from themselves Cet article se propose d'exarniner les causes du conflit Somalien qui a (Rakia 1992). provoque l'exode de plus de deux millions de rkfugies. Par une approche It is unfortunate that the discourse historique du developpement de la tra@die, l'auteur offre une perspective on the crisis in Somalia has so far ig- plus complexe et tres differente de celle offerte par les medias qui se nored the complex historical develop- cantonnent dans des discussions simplistes et superficielles des symptbmes ment of the tragedy. Abdi Samatar actuels. Pour Hassan Mohammed, les causes de la crise Somalienne sont liees (1992, 626) aptly described the prob- Bun processus de desintegration de la societe civile et de ses valeurs sociales, lem: culturelleset politiques, une desintegration qui resulte de quatre evhements One of the casualties of the gruesome historiques: le decoupage de la nation et du territoire Somalien en plusieurs nightmare that is gripping Somalia entites; l'impact de la guerre froide; l'imposition de systemes politique, has been the capacity to thinkhistori- culture1 et educatif &rangers B la culture Somalienne; et enfin, la manipula- cally and systematically about the nature of the malady, and to find tion et l'exploitation des divisions claniques par l'elite politique afin de practical ways of controlling the demeurer au pouvoir. present in order to build a more sus- tainable future. Introduction stream explanations. The severity of the crisis in Somalia was largely un- The failure of "Operation Restore The most recent and probably the larg- known to the outside world prior to Hope" is an apt illustration of this est refugee exodus in the history of the the televised images of starving multi- point; the good intentionsof the opera- Horn of Africa started in Somalia in tudes and marauding armed young- tion made many innocent Somalis vic- 1988.
    [Show full text]
  • U.S.-Chinese Cooperation and Conflict in the Angolan Civil Arw
    City University of New York (CUNY) CUNY Academic Works Dissertations and Theses City College of New York 2014 U.S.-Chinese Cooperation and Conflict in the Angolan Civil arW Morgan Hess CUNY City College How does access to this work benefit ou?y Let us know! More information about this work at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cc_etds_theses/268 Discover additional works at: https://academicworks.cuny.edu This work is made publicly available by the City University of New York (CUNY). Contact: [email protected] Abstract This study examines China’s role in the Angolan Civil War through the context of U.S.-Chinese rapprochement and the global Cold War. Based on declassified conversations between U.S. and Chinese officials along with declassified intelligence cables, government documents, and research in the United Nations archives this paper illuminates how China played a crucial role in escalating the Angolan Civil War and encouraged U.S. intervention in the conflict. This study builds on previous scholarship yet takes a new approach that emphasizes China played the primary role in intensifying the Angolan Civil War, not the U.S. or Soviet Union. ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! “Empty Cannons” U.S.-Chinese Cooperation and Conflict in the Angolan Civil War Morgan Hess Dr. Craig Daigle May 3rd, 2012 Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of (Fine) Arts of the City College of the City University of New York Table of Contents 1) Introduction 1 2) Portuguese Colonialism, African Resistance, and Angola’s Independence 5 3) U.S.-Chinese Diplomacy Surrounding Angola 14 4) Motives Behind China’s Angolan Policies 20 5) Foreign Aid, Intervention, and Escalation 26 6) Recognition of Angola and Effects of the War 39 7) Conclusion 42 8) Bibliography 46 ! Introduction Angola, China, and the United States.
    [Show full text]
  • Download Download
    Kebra Nagast and Al-Najāshī: The Meaning and Use of Collective Memory in Christian-Muslim Political Discourse in Ethiopia David Chrisna One of the earliest recorded Christian-Muslim encounters took place in Ethiopia, when the prophet Muhammad sent some of his followers to seek asylum in the land. However, in its development, Christian- Muslim relations in Ethiopia have often experienced tensions due to conflicting political interests, inter- ethnic relations and religious aspirations. In this paper, I analyze the use of Ethiopian Christianity’s Kebra Nagast and Islam’s Al-Najāshī narratives in Christian-Muslim political discourse in Ethiopia during the rule of Yohannes IV, Menilek II, Leg Iyasu and Haile Selassie. By using Maurice Halbwachs’s collective memory theory I hope to cast an image of harmonious Christian-Muslim relation in the future Ethiopia. Keywords: Christian-Muslim relations, interreligious, interfaith, collective memory, Ethiopia, peace Introduction Ethiopia has a unique and vital role in the history of Christian-Muslim encounters. In this country, one of the oldest, harmonious encounters between adherents of these two world religions has taken place back in Islam’s earliest history. In the religious memory of Muslims all over the world, Ethiopia stands as the haven that saved the lives of some first followers of Muhammad, the prophet of Islam. However, it is unfortunate that the Christian-Muslim relations in the following times in this country have not always been harmonious. Like in many parts of the world, Christian-Muslim relations in Ethiopia have experienced ebb and flow, which are sometimes marked by violent conflict. As I will show below, these conflicts are not entirely based on Islam’s and Christianity’s theological differences.
    [Show full text]
  • The Ethiopian Revolution 1974-1984
    THE ETHIOPIAN REVOLUTION (1974 to 198 SUBMITTED BY ANDARGACHEW TIRUNEH FOR THE DEGREE OF PH.D LONDON SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS JUNE 1990 UMI Number: U044491 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U044491 Published by ProQuest LLC 2014. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 fH£S»S F 6 8 0 O X *=3 HI ABSTRACT The thesis is concerned with the Ethiopian revolution between 1974, when an urban popular uprising broke out, and 1984, when the new regime established the Workers Party of Ethiopia. Chapter 1 discusses the background to the revolution and introduces the factors that became important in the causes and outcomes of the revolution. Part one (Chapters 2 and 3) is concerned with the collapse of the old-s£ate in 1974. Chapter 2 deals with the urban popular uprising of early 1974 which followed in the wake of the structural crisis. Chapter 3 deals with the capture of power by a group of junior officers and privates (the Derg) claiming to represent the security forces. 1974 to 1977 discusses under part two (chapters 4 6) can be taken as the formative years of the post­ revolutionary order.
    [Show full text]
  • Leading Factors for the Somalian Invasion of Ogaden: Foreign Intervention, and the Ethiopian Response (1977-1978)
    International Journal of Social Science Studies Vol. 6, No. 6; June 2018 ISSN 2324-8033 E-ISSN 2324-8041 Published by Redfame Publishing URL: http://ijsss.redfame.com Leading Factors for the Somalian Invasion of Ogaden: Foreign Intervention, and the Ethiopian Response (1977-1978) Wondim Tiruneh Zeleke1 1Instructor, Injibara College of Teachers’ Education, Department of Social Science, Ethiopia Correspondence: Wondim Tiruneh Zeleke, Instructor, Injibara College of Teachers’ Education, Department of Social Science, Ethiopia. Received: April 12, 2018 Accepted: April 26, 2018 Available online: May 25, 2018 doi:10.11114/ijsss.v6i6.3301 URL: https://doi.org/10.11114/ijsss.v6i6.3301 Abstract The main objective of this paper is to assess the historical out line on the Dynamics of Conflict and Intervention in North -East Africa: The Case Study on the Second Ethio- Somalian (Ogaden) War of 1977-1978. Hence, the Ogaden war, a brief but costly war fought between Ethiopia and Somalia that ended by the defeat of Somalia and her withdrawal in January, 1978 was seen differently by different sides. Opposing foreign intervention in civil wars has also been a central phenomenon of international politics. The war was aggravated by outsiders for many years and in 1970s, above all by the superpowers, namely, the USA and USSR, and also by their contingents. At the heart of the issues underlying the War in the Horn of Africa lie three legacies of the past: namely; European colonial rule; Somali irredentism; and superpowers intervention/ Afyare Abdi Elmi and Abdullahi Barise; 2006:45/. This conflict can be viewed as a meaningless tragedy for the people of the Horn of Africa in general and Somalia in particular.
    [Show full text]
  • “Buried in the Sands of the Ogaden”: the United States, the Horn of Africa and the Demise of Detente
    “Buried in the Sands of the Ogaden”: The United States, The Horn of Africa and The Demise of Detente. Louise Prentis Woodroofe London School of Economics and Political Science PhD International History UMI Number: U615656 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U615656 Published by ProQuest LLC 2014. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Abstract The decade of the 1970s, despite representing the era of detente, superficially appeared to be one of Soviet successes and American setbacks. From Vietnam to Angola, the USSR seemed to be gaining Marxist friends in the Third World. Because of this, the Soviet Union wanted the United States to recognize it as an equal power in the world. With such acknowledgement, the Kremlin believed that negotiations to limit the arms race would then be mutually beneficial. On the other hand, President Nixon and Secretary of State Kissinger interpreted detente as a series of agreements and compromises to draw Moscow into an international system through which the United States could exercise some control over Soviet foreign relations, particularly with the Third World.
    [Show full text]
  • Fews Country Report Ethiopia
    eN-SM' 96 FEWS COUNTRY REPORT ETHIOPIA Oil ir-i!i flii f ~ ',105 SA-18 ore, D 205232C, Africa Bureau, USAID Famine Early Warning System (FEWS) May, 1986 This is the first of a series of iontlh'reprts issued by the Famine Early Warning Systesr (FD'7S) o Ethiopia,,)It is designed to provide decisionnEJers with curren-information and analysis on existing and ,potentiai nutrition emergency situations. Each situation ide:itified is described in terms of geographical extent and the number of people involved, or at-risk, and the proximate causes insofar as they have been discerned. Use of the tecL1 "at-risk" to identify vulnerable opoulat.ons is problemtical since no cenerally-aqreed definition exists. Yet it is necessary to identify or "target" populations in-need or "at­ risk" in order to determine appropriate forms and levels of intezrvention. Thus for the present, until a better usage can be found, FB7IS reports will enzqduloy the term "at-risk" to mean... ... those persons lacking sufficient food, or resources to acquire sufficient food, to avert a nutritional crisis, i.e., a progressive deterioration in their health or nutrition condition below the status quo and who, as a result, require specific intervention to avoid a life-threatening situation. Perhaps of 2-ost importance to decisionmakers, the process underlying the deter iorating situation is highlighted by the FE,,S effort, hopefully with enough specificity and forewarning to permit alternative intervention strategies to be examined and implemented. Food assistance strategies are key to famine avoida ice. However, other interventions can be of Ii'ajor importance both in the short-term and in the long-rLun, including medical, transport, storage, economic development policy change, etc.
    [Show full text]
  • Bibliography
    BIBLIOGRAPHY GOVERNMENT ARCHIVES Archivio Storico Diplomatico, Rome Archivio Eritrea Ministero Africa Italiana Archives nationales d’outre-mer, Aix-en-Provence FM—Fonds Ministériels FT—Fonds Territoriaux—Côte Française des Somalis Centre des Archives diplomatiques, Nantes Aden Dire Dawa Djibouti Djeddah Istituto Agronomico per l’Oltremare, Florence Il Centro di documentazione inedita Eritrea Ethiopia National Records Office, Khartoum CIVSEC—the archive of the Civil Secretary © The Author(s) 2018 179 S. Serels, The Impoverishment of the African Red Sea Littoral, 1640–1945, Palgrave Series in Indian Ocean World Studies, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-94165-3 180 BIBLIOGRAPHY The National Archive, London ADM—Admiralty Records FO—Foreign Office Records WO—War Office British Library, London IOR—India Office Records NON-GOVERNMENT ARCHIVES Durham University The Wylde Family Papers Sudan Archive, Durham University Arbuthnot, Ernest Douglas Balfour, Francis Cecil Campbell Donald, J. C. N. Porter, W. A. Thomson, C. H. Wingate, Francis Reginald Duke University Wingate, Francis Reginald Africa News Service Archive PUBLISHED GOVERNMENT DOCUMENTS ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN Annual Report of the Director, Commercial intelligence Branch, Central Economic Board, 1914–1934. Memorandum by General Sir Reginald Wingate on the Finances, Administration and Condition of the Sudan, 1914, 1914. Reports on the Finances, Administrations and Conditions in the Sudan, 1902–1913. Sudan Gazette, 1899–1911; continued as Sudan Government Gazette, 1911–1955. BRITAIN Consular Reports, Jeddah, 1883–1897. Consular Reports, Suakin, 1886–1897. BIBLIOGRAPHY 181 Reports by His Majesty’s Agent and Consul-General on the Finances, Administration, and Conditions of Egypt and the Soudan, 1899–1919; continued as Reports by His Majesty’s High Commissioner on the Finances, Administration and Conditions of Egypt and the Sudan, 1920.
    [Show full text]